£fl/+
a :
Encyclopaedia Britjnnicj;
Or, A
DICTIONARY
O F
ARTS, SCIENCES, &c.
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MDCCLXXVIII.
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^ 14^MYo "
%. 1965 ^
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A NEW
Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, See.
ASTRONOMY
IS the knowledge of the nature and properties of the
heavenly bodies; their magnitudes, diftances, and
motions, both real and apparent; together with the na¬
tural caufes by which their revolutions are performed.
Hiftory of JJlronomy.
It is probable that aftronomy has exifted almoft from
the beginning of the world. As there is nothing more
furprifing than the regularity of thofe great luminous
bodies, that feem to turn inceffantly round the earth,
it is eafy to judge, that one of the firft curiofities of
mankind was to confider their courfes, and obferve
their periods. But it was not curiofity only that in¬
duced men to apply themfelvea to aftronomical fpecu-
lations : neceffity itfelf may be faid to have obliged
them to it; for if the feafons are not obferved, which
are diftinguilhed by the motion of the fun, it is im-
poffible to fucceed in agriculture. If the times proper
for making voyages were not previoufly known, com¬
merce could not be carried on. If the duration of the
month and year were not determined, a certain order
could not be eftablifhed in civil affairs, nor the days
allotted to the exercife of religion be fixed. Thus, as
neither agriculture, commerce, polity, nor religion,
could difpenfe with the want of aftronomy, it is evi¬
dent that mankind were obliged to apply themfelves to
that fcience from the beginning of the world.
What Ptolemy relates of the obfervations of the hea¬
vens, by which Hipparchus reformed aftronomy almoft
2000 years ago, proves fufficiently, that, in the moft
ancient times, this fcience was much ftudied.
It is agreed that aftronomy was cultivated in a par¬
ticular manner by the Chaldeans. The height of the
tower of Babel, which the vanity of men ere&ed about
150 yearsafter the flood, the level and extenfive plains
of that country, the nights in which they breathed the
freih air after the troublefome heats of the day, an un¬
broken horizon, a pure and ferene Iky, all confpired
to engage that people to contemplate the vaft extent
of the heavens, and the motions of the ftars. From
Chaldea aftronomy paffed into Egypt, and foon after
was carried into Phoenicia, where they began to apply
its fpeculative obfervations to the ufes of navigation,
by which the Phoenicians foon became mailers of the fea
and of commerce.
What made them bold in undertaking long voyages,
was their cuftom of fteering their Ihips by the obfer-
vation of one of the liars of the little bear, which, be¬
ing near the immoveable point of the heavens called the
pole, is the moft proper to ferve as a guide in naviga¬
tion. Other nations, lefs Ikilful in aftronomy, obfer¬
ved only the great bear in their voyages : but as that
conftellation is too far from the pole to be capable of
ferving as a certain guide in long voyages, they did
not dare to Hand out fo far to fea as to lofe fight of the
coafts ; and if a ftorm happened to drive them into the
ocean, or upon fome unknown Ihore, it was impofiible
for them to know by the heavens into what part of the
world the tempeft had carried them.
Thales, having at length brought the fcience of the
ftars from Phoenicia into Greece, taught the Greeks to
know the conftellation of the little bear, and to make
ufe of it as their guide in navigation. He alfo taught
them the theory of the motion of the fun and moon,
by which he accounted for the length and Ihortnefs of
the days, determined the number of the days of the fo-
lar year, and not only explained the caufe of eclipfes,
but Ihewed the art of predicting them, which he even
reduced to praftice, foretelling an eclipfe which hap¬
pened foon after. The merit of a knowledge fo un¬
common in thofe days, made-him pafs for the oracle of
his times, and occafioned his being reckoned the firft of
the feven fages of Greece.
Anaximander was his difciple, to whom Pliny and
Diogenes Laertius aferibed the invention of the terre-
ftrial globe ; or, according to Strabo, geographical
maps. Anaximander is faid alfo to have ereCted a
gnomon at Sparta, by the means of which he obferved
the equinoxes and folftices, and to have determined the
obliquity of the ecliptic more exaClly than had ever
been done before ; which was neceffary for dividing
the terreftrial globe into five zones, and for diftinguifn-
ing the climates, that were afterwards ufed by geogra¬
phers for Ihewing the fituation of all the places of the
earth. The Greeks, affifted by the inftru&ions they
had received from Thales and Anaximander, ventured
to make confiderable voyages, and'planted feveral colo¬
nies in remote countries.
Commerce having induced the learned rrwn of Greece
to vifit other nations, they greatly increafed their aftro¬
nomical knowledge from converfing with the Egyptian
priefts, who had long made the fcience of the ftars
their profeflion. They alfo learned many things from
the Phythagorean philofophers in Italy, who by fomc
are faid to have made fo confiderable a progrefs in this
fcience, that they had rejected the common opinions.
743
ASTRONOMY. HJftory.
and afferted that the earth and planets moved round the
fun, which was at reft in the centre of the fyftem. But
others affirm that Pythagoras only mentioned this as a
conje&ure, which he did not pretend to eftablifh as a
fyftem.
Melon greatly diftinguiihed himfelf at Atheps by his
profound knowledge in aftronomy. He lived in the
time of the Peloponnefian war ; and was the inventor
of the golden number, ftill placed in the calendar.
The Greeks alfo improved their knowledge from
converfing with the druids, who, according to Julius
Caefar,. inftructed their pupils in the knowledge of the
liars, and of the magnitudes of the heavenly bodies.
This fpecies of learning was more ancient in Gaul
than is generally imagined. Strabo has preferved a
famous obfervation, made by Pytheas at Marfeilles a-
bout 2000 years ago, with regard to the proportion
of the fun’s fhrdow to the height of a gnomon at the
time of the folftice. Were the circumftances of this, ob¬
fervation exactly known, it would be fufficient to re-
folve the important queftion, Whether the obliquity of
the ecliptic be or be not fubjedl to variation ?
Pytheas was not contented with making obfervations
in his own country. His paffion for aftronomy and
geography induced him to travel through Europe, from
the pillars of Hercules to the mouths of the Tanais.
He alfo advanced along the ftiore of the weftem ocean,
towards the north pole, and obferved that the days
grew longer about the fummer folftice, in proportion
as he travelled; fo that, in the ifland of Thule, the
fun rofe almoft as foon as it fet, the tropic continuing
entirely above the horizon. By this means he proved
the fallacy of what fome philofophers had advanced,
namely, that thofe climates were not habitable ; and
at the fame time fhewed the method of diftinguiftiing
the climates by the length of the days and nights.
About the time of Pytheas, feveral of the Greeks
applied themfelves to aftronomy in emulation of each
other. Eudoxus, the difciple of Plato, not being fatif-
fied with what was taught on that fubje£l in the fehools
of Athens, repaired to Egypt, to cultivate aftronomy
at its fource ; and having a letter of recommendation
from Agefilaus king of Sparta, to Nedlanebus king of
Egypt, he remained 16 months with the aftronomers
of that country. At his return, he compofed feveral
books upon aftronomy ; and, among others, a defcrip-
tion of the conftellations, which Aratus, fome timeaT
ter, turned into verfe, by order of Antigonus.
Ariftotle, the difciple of Plato, and the contemporary
of Eudoxus, made ufe of aftronomy for improving
phyfics and geography. He attempted to determine,
by means of aftronomical obfervations, both the figure
and magnitude of the earth. He demonftrated, that
it was of a fpherical form, by the circular appearance of
its fhadow on the difk of the moon in eclipfes ; and from
the inequality of the meridian altitudes of the fun,
which are different in different latitudes.
CalliftheSes, who attended Alexander the Great,
having been fent to Babylon, found there aftronomical
obfervations made by the Babylonians during thefpace
of 1903 years, and fent them to Ariftotle.
The princes who fucceeded Alexander in the king¬
dom of Egypt were very careful to draw the moft fa¬
mous aftronomers to their courts by their liberality ; fo
that'Alexandria foon became the feat of aftronomy.
The famous Conon'made a vaft number of obfervations;
but they have not reached our hands. Ariftyllus and
Timochares obferved the places of the fixed liars, in
order to improve navigation and geography. Eratoft-
henes meafured a degree of the meridian, in order to
determine the magnitude of the earth. Hipparchus,
who alfo refided at Alexandria, laid the foundation for
a methodical fyftem of aftronomy ; for a new liar hap¬
pening to appear, he made a catalogue of the fixed
ftars, confifting of 1022. He alfo defcribed their mo¬
tion round the poles of the ecliptic, and at the fame
time applied himfelf to eftablilh a theory of the folar
and lunar motion.
The Romans, who alpired to the empire of the
world, encouraged aftronomy, and endeavoured to car¬
ry it nearer to perfection ; and in the-reign of Anto¬
ninus it began to affume a new face : for Ptolemy,
who may be called the reftorer of this fcience, impro¬
ving from the lights of his predeceffors, and adding the
obfervations of Hipparchus, Timochares, and thofe of
the Babylonians, to his own, compofed a fyftem of aftro¬
nomy, entitled, “ The Great Syntaxis.” It contain¬
ed the theory and tables of the motion of the fun, moon,
and other planets, and of the fixed ftars.
But as the beginning of great works are never per¬
fect, it is no wonder that Ptolemy’s work was not free
from errors and defeCts. Many ages, however, elap-
fed without any one’s prefuming either to correCt or
complete it. At laft, the Arabian princes, having
conquered the countries where aftronomy had long
flourilhed, procured the work of Ptolemy to be tranf-
lated into their own language, and called it the Alma*
gejl. Nor did they ftop here ; they caufed many ob¬
fervations to be made, by which it appeared, that the
greateft declination of the fun was one-third of a de¬
gree lefs than what Ptolemy had made it; and that
the motion of the fixed ftars was not fo flow as he be¬
lieved it. They alfo ordered a large extent of country
under the fame meridian to be meafured, in order to de¬
termine the length of a degree.
This example of the khalifs excited the princes of
Europe to promote the improvement of aftronomy.
The emperor Frederic the fecond, willing that the
Chriftians Ihould underftand aftronomy as well as the
Barbarians, caufed the Almageft of Ptolemy to be
tranflated from the Arabic into Latin ; and Alphonfo
king of Caftile affembled the moft able aftronomers
from all parts. By his orders they applied themfelves
to reform aftronomy, and compofe new tables, which
from him were called the Alpkonfme Tables.
This work awakened the curiofity of the learned of
Europe : they applied themfelves to invent inftruments
for facilitating the obfervations of the heavenly bodies;
they calculated ephemerides, and compofed tables for
finding the declinations of the planets ; and laboured
fuccefsfully to facilitate the calculation of eclipfes. The
noble Dane Tycho Brahe was a far more accurate ob-
ferver than any that preceded him. He publifhed from
his own obfervations, a catalogue of ^70 fixed ftars;
and Nicholaus Copernicus revived the ancient Pythago¬
rean fyftem.
John Kepler, a moft excellent aftronomer, difcover-
ed, by the help of Tycho’s labours, the true fyftem of
the world, and the laws that regulate the motion of
the celeftial bodies. Galileo, the Florentine philofo-
pher.
749
Sea. I.
ASTRONOMY.
pher, is commonly feid to have firft direfted a telefcope
to the heavens, and by the affiftance of that inftru-
ment difcovered a great many new and furprifing phe¬
nomena, as the fatellites of Jupiter, and their motion,
the various phafes of Saturn, the increafe and decreafe
of the light of Venus, the mountains and uneven furface
of the moon, the fpots of the fun, and the revolution
of that luminary about its own axis. This honour,
however. Dr Prieftley is of opinion, belongs to Zacha-
rias Janfen, who was undoubtedly the firft inventor of
telefcopes. He fays, that, having dire&ed his tele-
fcope toward the celeftial bodies, he plainly difcovered
the-fpots of the moon, and feveral new ftars ; and that
the full moon evidently appeared through this inftru-
ment not to be flat, but fphericalj the middle part be¬
ing prominent. Jupiter appeared, round, and rather
fpherical. Sometimes, he faid, he faw one, fometimes
two, three, artd at the moft four finall ftars a little a-
bove or below him; and which, as far as he could ob-
ferve, performed their revolutions round him; but that,
he faid, he left to the confideration of aftronomers.
Hevelius has given us a catalogue of the fixed ftars,
much larger than that of Tydm, compofed from his
own curious obfervations. Huygens and Caffini firft
faw the fatellites of Saturn, and difcovered his ring.
The indefatigable Mr Flamftead watched the motion
of the ftars for more than 40 years ; and has obliged
the world with fuch accurate obfervations on the mo¬
tions, fac. of the different luminaries, as will tranfmit
his name to the lateft poftcrity : he alfo publiflied
what is called the Britannic catalogue of fixed Jlars,
containing above 3000 ftars, from his own obfervations.
The merit of Sir Ifaac Newton is too well known to
need any encomium, and his difcoveries too numerous
to be particularly mentioned in this place. It is fuffi-
cient to fay, that the fcience is perhaps more indebted to
him than to all the other aftronomers that ever exifted.
The great Dr Halley has obliged the world with
the aftronomy of^ comets, a catalogue of the fouthern
ftars, aftronomical tables, <bc.
Other aftronomical writers are, Albategnius, Sacro
Bofco, Regio Montanus, Purbachius, Lanfbergius,
Longomontanus, Clavius, Boyer, Dr Hook, Riccio-
lus, Horrox, Sir Jonas Moore, Tacquet, Bullialdus,
Seth Ward, count Pagan, Wing, Street, De la Hire,
Dr Gregory, Mercator, Whifton, Dr Keil, the two
Caflini’s, Leadbetter, Hodgfon, Brent, Dr Long, the
Abbe le Cailie, Wright, Fergufon, De la Lande, &c.
Se£L I. Of the apparent Motions^ Magnitudes,
and Changes, in the ceiefiial Bodies, as feen by the
naked eye.
As the true motions of bodies at a great diftance
are. to be gathered only from a careful obfervation of
their apparent ones, it is abfolutely neceffary for thofe
who want to become acquainted with the true motions
of the heavenly bodies, to know perfe&ly the different
changes which take place in the heavens as feen from
this earth, the only place from which any obfervation
can be made. By carefully attending to thefe, a little
knowledge of optics will enable us to underftand with
great certainty not only the true fyftem of nature, but
alfo what appearance the heavens would make to a
fpe&ator placed in any part of the vifible creation.
Vol. I.
The firft and moft obvious phenomenon is the daily 1
rifing of the fun in the eaft, and his fetting in the weft; APParen‘
after which the moon and ftars appear, ftill keeping
the fame wefterly courfe, till we lofe fight of them al-
together. This Cannot be long taken notice of, be¬
fore we muft likewife perceive that neither the fun nor
moon always rife exadtly in the fame point of the hea¬
vens. If we begin to obferve the fun, for inftance, in
the beginning of March, we will find-that he feems to
rife almoft every day fenfibly more to the northward
than he did the day before, to continue longer above
the horizon, and to be more vertical at mid-day. This
continues till towards the end of June, when he is ob-
ferved to move backward in the fame manner; and this
retrograde motion continues to the end of December,
or near it, when he begins again to move forwards, and
fo on. 4
The motion of the moon through the heavens, as of die
well as her appearance at different times, are ftill more n’00B•
remarkable than thofe of the fun. When ftie firft be¬
comes vifible at the time (he is called the neru-moon,
{he appears jin the weftern part of the heavens, and
feems to be at no great diftance from the fun himfelf.
Every night (he not only increafes in fize, but removes
to a greater diftance from the fun, till at laft {he ap¬
pears in the eaftern part of the horizon, juft at the time
the fun difappears in the weftern. After this (he gra¬
dually moves farther and farther eaftward, and there¬
fore rifes every night later and later, till at laft ftie
feems to approach the fun as nearly in the eaft as flic
did in the weft, and rifes only a little before him in
the morning, as in the firft part of her courfe (he fet
in the weft not long after him. All thefe different ap¬
pearances are completed in the fpace of a month, af¬
ter which they begin in the fame order as before. They
are not, however, at all times regular; for at fome fea-
fons of the year, particularly in harveft, the moon ap¬
pears for feveral days to be ftationary in the heavens,
and to recede no farther from the fun, in confequence
of which ftie rifes for that time nearly at the fame
houV every night. 3
In contemplating the ftars, it is obferved that fome of 0f lhe ^ars-
them have the Angular property of neither rifing in the
eaft:, nor fetting in the weft; but fecm to turn round one
immoveable point, near which is placed a fingle ftar
called the pole or pole-far. This point is more or lefs
elevated according to the different parts of the earth from
which we take our view. The inhabitants of Lapland,
for inftance, fee it much more elevated above the ho¬
rizon, or more vertical, than we do; we fee it more
vertical than it appears to the inhabitants of France
and Spain ; and they, again, fee it more elevated than
the inhabitants of Barbary. By continually travelling
fouth, this ftar would at length feem depreffed in
the horizon, and another point would appear in the
fouth part of the horizon, round which the ftars in that
quarter would feem to turn. In this part of the hea¬
vens, however, there is no ftar fo near the pole as there
is in the northern part, neither is the number of ftars
in the fouthern part of the heavens fo great as in the
northern. Suppofing us ftill to travel fouthward, the
north-pole would then entirely difappear, and the whole
hemifphere would appear to turn round a fingle point
in the fouth, as the northern hemifphere appears to
us to turn round the pole-ftar.—The general appear-
5 B ance
750
ASTRONOMY.
Sea. I.
ance of the heavens, therefore, is that of a vaft concave
fphere, turning round two points fixed in the north and
4 fouth parts of it, once in 24 hours.
Fixed ftar?. When we further confider the ftars, we will find the
and planets. greateft part of them to keep their places with re-
fpeft to one another ; that is, if we obferve two ftars
having a certain apparent diftance from each other
this night, we will obferve them to have the fame to¬
morrow, and every other fucceeding night; but we
will by no means obferve them to have the fame places
either with refpeft to the fun or moon, as muft be rea¬
dily underftood from what we have already faid. Nei¬
ther do all the ftars in the heavens appear to be of this
fixed kind. Some of them, on the contrary, change
their places very remarkably with regard to the fixed
ftars, and with regard to one another. Of thefe there
are only five, diftinguifhed by the name of planets,
(from to err or •wander'), and called by the
names of Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Sa¬
turn.
Mercury is a fmall ftar, but emits a very bright
white light: though, by reafon of his always keeping
near the fun, he is feldom to be feen ; and when he
does make his appearance, his motion towards the fun
is fo fwift, that he can only be difcerned for a ftiort time.
He appears a little after funfet, and again a little before
funrife.
Venus, the moft beautiful ftar in the heavens, known
by the names of the morning and evening Jlar, like-
wife keeps near the fun, though fhe recedes from him
almoft double the diftance of Mercury. In confequence
of this property Ihe is never feen in the eaftern quar¬
ter of the heavens when the fun is in the weftern;
but always feems to attend him in the evening, or to
give notice of his approach in the morning.
Mars is of a red fiery colour, and always gives a
much duller light than Venus, though fometimes
he equals her in fize. He is not fijbjeft to the
fame limitation in his motions as Mercury or Ve¬
nus ; but appears fometimes very near the fun, and
fometimes at a great diftance from him; fometimes ri-
fing when the fun fets, or fetting when he rifes. Of
this planet it is remarkable, that when he approaches
any of the fixed ftars, which all the planets frequently
do, thefe ftars change their colour, grow dim, and of¬
ten become totally invifible, though at fame little di-
flance from the body of the planet.
Jupiter and Saturn likewife often appear at great
diftances from the fun. The former fliines with a bright
light fomewhat reddiih, and the latter with a pale faint
one; and the motion of Saturp among the fixed ftars is
fo flow, that, unlefs carefully obferved, he will not be
S thought to move at all.
Apparent Befides the motions which we obferve in all thefe
-Xp,tS planets> t^e*r apparent magnitudes are very different
nets differ- at different times. Every perfon muft have obferved
ent at differ- that Venus, though fhe conftantly appears with great
ent times, fplendour, is not always equally big. But this appa¬
rent difference of magnitude is moft remarkable in the
planet Mars, which fometimes appears no lefs than 25
times larger than at others. This increafe of magni¬
tude is likewife very remarkable in Jupiter, but lefs
.5. fo in Saturn and Mercury.
Jillat^mo-" Though we have thus defcribed the motions of the
fion, planets, with refpeft to their apparent diftances from
the fun, they by no means appear to us to move regu¬
larly in the heavens, but, on the contrary, in the moft
complex and confufed manner that can be imagined,
fometimes going forward, fometimes backward, and
fometimes feeming to beftationary. PlateXLIV. fig. 2.
reprefents the apparent paths of Mercury and Venus,
as traced by Caffini and Mr Fergufon. They all feem
to defcribe looped curves; but it is not known when
any of thefe curves would return into themfelves, ex¬
cept that of Venus, which returns into itfelf every
eighth year. In the figure referred to, that which has
the feweft loops is the apparent path of Venus, the
other that of Mercury. On each fide of the loops
they appear ftationary ; in that part of each loop near
the earth, retrograde; and in every other part of their
path, direft.
Thefe, however, are not the only moving bodies which comers,
are to be obferved in the celeftial regions. The five
above mentioned are indeed the only ones which appear
almoft conftantly, or difappear only at certain intervals,
and then as certainly return. But there are others
which appear at uncertain intervals, and with a very "
different afpefib from the planets. Thefe are called
Comets, from their having a long tail, fomewhat refem-
bling the appearance of hair. This, however, is not
always the cafe; for fome comets have appeared which
were as well defined and as round as planets : but in
general they have a luminous matter diffufed around
them, or proje&ing out from them, which to appear¬
ance very much refembles the Aurora Borealis. When
thefe appear, they come in a diredt line towards the
fun, as if they were going to fall into his body ; and
after having difappeared for fome time in confequence
of their proximity to that luminary, they fly off again
on the other fide as faft as they came, projedting a tail
much greater and brighter in their recefs from him
than when they advanced towards him; but, getting
daily at a farther diftance from us in the heavens, they
continually lofe of their fplendour, and at laft totally
difappear. Their apparent magnitude is very differ¬
ent: fometimes they appear only of the bignefs of the
fixed ftars; at other times they will equal the diameter
of Venus, and fometimes even of the fun or moon them¬
felves. So, in 1652, Hevelius obferved a comet which
feemed not inferior to the moon in fize, though it had
not fo bright a fplendour, but appeared with a pale
and dim light, and had a difmal afpedl. Thefe bodies
will alfo fometimes lofe their fplendour fuddenly, while
their apparent bulk remains unaltered. With refpeft
to their apparent motions, they have all the inequalities
of the planets; fometimes feeming to go forwards, fome¬
times backwards, and fometimes to be ftationary. g
Though the fixed ftars are the only marks by which Fixed ftars
aftronomers are enabled to judge of the courfes of the fcemingly
moveable ones, and though they have never been ob- dc^n,ft*,,le
ferved to change their places, yet they feem not to be ^ ®encr‘1“
endued with the permanency even of the earth and
planets, but to be perifhable or deftrudtible by accident,
and likewife generable by fome natural caufe. Several
ftars obferved by the ancients are now no more to be
feen, but are deftroyed; and new ones have appear¬
ed, which were unknown to the ancients. Some of
them have alfo difappeared for fome time, and again
become vifible. Of thefe, a very remarkable one is
mentioned by Dr Keil, in that part of the heavens
called
Se£t. T.
ASTRONOMY. 75!
called the neck of the whale : which for eiVht or nine cedes the firft liar of Aries t° 40', with 150 57' fouth
months of the year withdrew itfelf from the fight, and
for the other three or four months was conftantly chan¬
ging its luftre and bignefs. Its appearances were at¬
tended with the greateft irregularities; fometimes it ap¬
peared much fmaller than at others; fometimes it dif-
appeared in three months, and fometimes appeared for
four months; nor did the increafe or decreafe of its
magnitude anfwer to the difference of the times of its
appearance.
We are alfo afiured from the obfervations of aftrono-
mers, that fome ftars have been obferved which never
were feen before, and for a certain time they have di-
flinguifhed themfelves by their fuperlative luftre ; but
afterwards decreafing, they vanifhed by degrees, and
were no more to be feen. One of thefe ftars being firft
feen and obferved by Hipparchus, the chief of the an¬
cient aftronomers, fet him upon compofing a catalogue
of the fixed ftars, that by it pofterity might learn
whether any of the ftars perifh, and others are produ¬
ced afrefh.
After feveral ages, another new ftar appeared to Ty¬
cho Brahe and the aftronomers that were cotemporary
with him; which put him on the fame defign with
Hipparchus, namely, the making a catalogue of the
fixed ftars. Of this, and of the other ftars which have
$ appeared fince that time, we have the following hiftory
Dr Halley’s by Dr Halley: “ The firft new ftar in the chair of
new°tfarsf Caffiopeia, was not feen by Cornelius Gemma on the
eighth of November 1572, who fays, he that night con-
fidered that part of the heaven in a very ferene Iky,
and faw it not: but that the next night, November 9,
it appeared with a fplendour furpaffing all the fixed
ftars, and fcarce lefs bright than Venus. This was not
feen by Tycho Brahe before the 1 Ith of the fame month :
but from thence he allures us that it gradually decrea-
fed and died away, fo as in March 1574, after fixteen
months, to be no longer vifible ; and at this day no
figns of it remain. The place thereof in the fphere of
fixed ftars; by the accurate obfervations of the fame
Tycho, was os g° 17' a iraa -#■ fY5'8, with 530 45'
north latitude.
“ Such another ftar was feen and obferved by the
fcholars of Kepler, to begin to appear on Sept. 30. Jl.
vet. anno 1604, which was not to be feen the day be¬
fore: but it broke out at once with a luftre furpaffing
that of Jupiter; and like the former, it died away gra¬
dually, and in much about the fame time difappeared
totally, there remaining no footfteps thereof in Janu¬
ary i6o|-. This was near the ecliptic, following the
right leg of Serpentarlus ; and by the obfervations of
Kepler and others, was in 7s 20° 00' a ima * 'Y’,
with north latitude i° 56’. Thefe two feem to be of
a diftindl fpecies from the reft, and nothing like them
has appeared fince.
“ But between them, viz. in the year 1596, we have
the firft account of the wonderful ftar in Collo Ceti,
feen by David Fabricius on the third of Auguft,y?. vet.
as bright as a ftar of the third magnitude, which has
been fince found to appear and difappear periodically,
its period being precifely enough feven revolutions in fix
years, tho’ it returns not always with the fame Ijuftre.
Nor is it ever totally extinguiflied, but may at all times
be feen with a fix-foot tube. This was Angular in its
kind, till that in Collo Cygni was difcovered. It pre¬
latitude.
“ Another new ftar was firft difcovered by William
Janfonius in the year 1600, in peflore, or rather in
eduttione. Colli Cygni, which exceeded not the third
magnitude. This having continued fome years, became
at length fo fmall, as to be thought by fome to have
difappeared entirely: but in the years 1657, 58, and 59,
it again arofe to the third magnitude; though foon af¬
ter it decayed by degrees to the fifth or fixth magni¬
tude, and at this day is to be feen as fuch in 9s i8° 38'
a imz <V’, with 550 29' north latitude.
“ A fifth new ftar was firft feen by Hevelius in the
year 1670, on July 15. Jl. vet. as a ftar of the third
magnitude, but by the beginning of Odtober was fcarce
to be perceived by the naked eye. In April following
it was again as bright as before, or rather greater than
of the third magnitude, yet wholly difappeared about
the middle of Auguft. The next year, in March 1672,
it was feen again, but not exceeding the fixth magni¬
tude : fince when, it has been no further vifible, though
we have frequently fought for its retur.n ; its place is
9s 30 17' a ima * T» and has lat. north 470 28'.
“ The fixth and laft is that difcovered by MrG. Kirch
in the year 1686, and its period determined to be of
4044 days; and though it rarely exceeds the fifth mag¬
nitude, yet it is very regular in its returns, as we found
in the year 1714. Since then we have watched, as the
abfence of the moon and clearnefs of the weather would
permit, to catch the firft beginning of its appearance
in a fix-foot tube, that, bearing a very great aperture,
difcovers moft minute ftars. And on June 15, laft, it
was firft perceived like one of the very lea ft telefcopi-
cal ftars : but in the reft of that month and July, it
gradually increafed, fo as to become in Auguft vifible
to the naked eye ; and fo continued all the month of
September. After that, it again died away by degrees;
and on the eighth of December, at night, was fcarce
difcernible by the tube; and, as near as could be guef-
fed, equal to what it was at its firft appearance on June
25: fo that this year it has been feen in all near fix
months, which is but little lefs than half its period:
and the middle, and confequently the greateft bright-
nefs, falls about the ioth of September.” io
Concerning the changes which happen among the Mr Monta-
fixed ftars, Mr Montanere, profeffor of mathematics at nere’s ac-
Bononia, gave the following account, in a letter to the c°unt of
Royal Society, dated April 30th, 1670. “ There are nonfThe"
now wanting in the heavens two ftars of the fecond fixed ftars.
magnitude in the ftern of the ftiip Argo, and its yard;
Bayerus marked them with the letters H and y. I, and
others, obferved them in the year 1664, upon the oq-
cafion of the comet that appeared that year: when
they difappeared firft, I know not: only I am fure that
in the year 1668, upon the 10th of April, there was
not the leaft glimpfe of them to be feen ; and yet the
reft about them, even of the third and fourth magni¬
tudes, remained the fame. I have obferved many more
changes among the fixed ftars, even to the number of
an hundred, though none of them are fo great as thofe
I have IhewecF.” it
A very remarkable appearance in the heavens is Galaxy, or
that called the galaxy or milky-way. This is a broad milky-way.
circle, fometimes double, but for the moft part fingle;
furrounding the whole celeftial concave. It is of a
5 B 2 whitilh
752
ASTRONOMY.
Sed. II.
whitifh colour, fomewhat refembling a faint Aurora Bo¬
realis; but Mr Brydone, in his journey to the top of
mount ./Etna, found that phenomenon to make a glo¬
rious appearance, being, as he expreffes it, like a pure
* See the ar-flame that fhot acrofs the heavens *.
tide sEtna. 'pfjg on]y appearances, befides thofe already men-
Edipfes. tioned, which are very obfervable by the unaffiited eye,
are thofe unexpe&ed obfcurations of the fun and moon,
commonly called eclipfes. Thefe are too well known,
and attraft the attention too much, to need any parti¬
cular defcription. We have, however, accounts very
well authenticated, of obfcurations of the fun conti¬
nuing for a much longer time than a common eelipfe
pofiibly can do, and'likewife of the darknefs being
much greater than it ufually is on fuch occafions ; and
that thefe accounts are probably true, we lhall after¬
wards have occafion to obferve.
Sedt. IL Of the Appearances of the Cclejlial
Bodies through Telefcopes.
13
Why the ce- By means of this inftrument we are enabled in fome
b°?ies meafure to afcend into the celellial regions, and view
apoear dim , r , n , ,
through te- t“e “,n> moon> and tears, as they would appear to us
idcopes. if we were brought as many times nearer to them as
the telefcope magnifies, provided the light proceeding
from the luminary we view was diminifhed in the fame
proportion. Thus, fuppofing we view the moon thro’
a telefcope magnifying 1000 times, her face will ap¬
pear 1000 times bigger to us than it does to our naked
eye, and we will perceive vaft numbers of fpots in it
which are imperceptible to our naked eye : but then
fhe will alfo appear 1000 times more dim through the
telefcope than Ihe does to the naked eye; fo that thofe
who look at her through a telefcope for the firfl: time,
will be greatly difappointed, if they are not warned of
this diminution of light. The reafon of this is, that
the telefcope cannot increafe the quantity of light
which falls upon itfelf from the moon, and by which
' only fhe is or- can be vifible to us. This quantity of
light, however, is by the magnifying powers of the
telefcope fpread over a proportionably large furface ;
and therefore the moon or other body appears magni¬
fied indeed, but with a fplendor vaftly inferior to that
with which flie appears to the naked eye.
Hefice we may fee, that the advantages arifing from
telefcope, with regard to the giving us a near view of
the celeftial bodies, are not near fo great as one would
at firft imagine : for though we fltould fuppofe a tele¬
fcope capable of magnifying 240,000 times, by which
we could fee the moon at the dillance of only a fingle
mile, we could only have this view with a light
240,000 times lefs than the moon atprefent affords us;
and how imperfe&ly obje&s at the diftance of a mile
could be feen by fuch a light, anyone may eafily ima¬
gine. We are not, however, to imagine, that the
light here fpoken of would be 240,000 times lefs than
moon-light; it would only be 240,000 times lefs than
that wherewith fhe appears illuminated at prefent. The
moon, we know, is enlightened by the fun, as well as
the earth is ; and could the telefcope increafe the quan¬
tity of light as much as it does the apparent furface,
we would, with a telefcope magnifying 240,000 times,
fee all objefts in the moon as well as we do terreftrial
objefts at a mile’s diftance when the fun fhines bright-
eft : but by reafon of this incapacity of the telefcope
to increafe the quantity of light, we could only fee the
lunar obje&s as well as we would do terreftrial ones a
mile diftant, with a light 240,000 times lefs than the
light of the fun, or with a light little better than moon¬
light ; for the light of the fun is computed to be
300,000 times ftronger than that of the moon.
What we have here faid of the moon is applicable
to all the other celeftial bodies, but not in the fame de-
f;ree. If we look at the fun, for inftance, whofe
uftre is too great for our naked eye to bear, fuppofing
the telefcope-to magnify as many millions of times as
there are miles between us and the fun, we would per¬
ceive objects in him as diftin&ly as could be done at
the diftance of a mile, not with the light of funfhine
upon this earth, but with that intenfe light which is
emitted from the fun at a mile’s diftance from his body.
This is on the fuppofition that the telefcope could
increafe the quantity of the light as well as magnify
the apparent furface; but, being deftitute of this power,
the light with which the fun would be feen through
fuch a telefcope is as many millions of times lefs than
the abovementioned intenfe light, as the number of
times the telefcope magnifies, and which, according to
the lateft calculations, behoved to be upwards of 95
millions. It muft be obferved, however, that no tele¬
fcopes ever have been, or probably ever will be, invented,
whofe magnifying powers are fo great as either of thofe
we have mentioned. The greateft magnifying power
we have yet heard of in any telefcope is in one made by
the late Mr James Short, which magnifies 12,000 times;
and, by having another applied to it, is faid to mag¬
nify 60,000 times.
From thefe confiderations it will be apparent, that
our telefcopic views of the Celeftial objects can be but
imperfedf, and that conjectures drawn from them muft
be very vague and uncertain. It is alfo plain, that,
ceteris paribus, bur views of Venus and Mercury, the
planets neareft the fun, ought to be more ditlinft than
of the more remote ones. Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn ;
becaufe Venus and Mercury are much more ftrongly
illuminated than the others: but this is not found to
hold in fa£t; which is very furprifing, as a ftrong light
ought to be much farther and more ftrongly refledled
from any objedl than a weak one. The general ap¬
pearances of each of the celeftial bodies, when viewed
with the beft telefcopes, the large one by Mr Short
abovementioned excepted, are as follow.
1. The fun, when viewed with but an ordinary inftru¬
ment, and fometimes through a piece of fmoked glafs
without any telefcope, difcovers on his furface numbers
of black, or rather lefs bright, fpots, of various fhapes
and fizes. Sometimes thefe fpots will vanifh in a very
ftiort time from their firft appearance; fometimes they
travel over his whole dilk, or vifible furface, from weft
to eaft, when they difappear; and in 12 or 13 days they
appear again, fo as to be known, by their fize and fhape,
to be the fame that formerly difappeared. Thofe, how¬
ever, which are of. the longeft continuance, never ap¬
pear to have any durability or folidity of confiftence,
but foon vanifli and become bright like the reft of the
furface.
The moft remarkable phenomena of thefe fpots have
been remarked by Scheiner and Hevelius, and are as
follow. 1. Every fpot, which hath a nucleus, or con-
fiderably
14
Spots on the
fun difco-
vered by te¬
lefcopes.
Account of
their pheno¬
mena by
Scheiner 8c
Hevelius*
7S3
Sed. II. ASTRO
fiderably dark part* hath alfo an timbra, or fainter
(hade, furrounding it. 2. The boundary betwixt the
nucleus and umbra is always diftindt and well defined.
3. The inereafe of a fpot is gradual, the breadth of the
nucleus and umbra dilating at the fame time. 4. In
like manner, the decreafe of a fpot is gradual, the
breadth of the nucleus and umbra contradting at the
fame time. 5. The exterior boundary of the umbra
.never confifts of (harp angles ; but is always curvilinear,
how irregular foever the outline of the nucleus may be.
6. The nucleus of a fpot, whilft on the decreafe, often
changes its figure by the umbra encroaching irregular¬
ly upon it, infomuch that in a fmall fpace of time new
encroachments are difcernible, whereby the boundary
betwixt the nucleus and umbra is perpetually varying.
7. It often happens, by thefe encroachments, that the
nucleus of a fpot is divided into two or more nuclei.
8. The nuclei of the fpots vanilh fooner than the um¬
bra. 9. Small umbrae are often feen without nuclei.
10. An umbra of any‘confiderable fize is feldom feen
without a nucleus in the middle of it. 11. When a
fpot which confided of a nucleus and umbra is about
to difappear, if it is not fucceeded by a faculcty or fpot
brighter than the reft of the dilk, the place where it
ifi was is foon after not diftinguiftiable from the reft.
By Dr Wil- In the Philofophical Tranfadtions, Vol. LXIV. Dr
Glaf" Wilfon, profeffor of aftronomy at Glafgow, hath given
2°W' a differtation on the nature of the folar fpots, and men¬
tions the following appearances. 1. When the fpot is
about to difappear on the weftern edge of the fun’s limb,
the eaftern part of the umbra firft contradls, then vanifti-
es, the nucleus and weftern part of the umbra remain¬
ing ; then the nucleus gradually contradls and vanifties,
while the weftern part of the umbra remains. At laft
this difappears alfo; and if the fpot remains long enough
to become again vifible, the eaftern part of the umbra
firft becomes vifible, then the nucleus ; and when the
fpot approaches the middle of the dilk, the nucleus
appears environed by the umbra on all Tides, as already
mentioned. 2. When two fpots lie very near to one
another, the umbra is deficient on that fide which lies
next the other fpot: and this will be the cafe, though
a large fpot ftiould be contiguous to one much fmaller;
the umbra of the large fpot will be totally wanting on
that , fide next the fmall one. If there are little fpots
on each fide of the large one, the umbra does not to¬
tally vanilh; but appears flattened, or prefled in to¬
wards the nucleus on each fide. When the little fpots
difappear, the umbra of the large one extends itfelf as
ufual. This circumftance, he obferves, may fometimes
prevent the difappearance of the umbra in the manner
abovementioned ; fo that the weftern umbra may dif¬
appear before the nucleus, if a fmall fpot happens to
17 break out on that fide.
By Mr Wol- In the fame volume, p. 337. Mr Wollaftcn obferves,
lafton. t}je appearances mentioned by Dr Wilfon are not
conftant. He pofitively affirms, that the faculte or
bright fpots on the fun are often converted into dark
ones. • “ I have many times (fays he) obferved, near
the eaftern limb, a bright facula juft come on, which
has the next day ftiewn itfelf as a fpot, though I* do
not recolleft to have feen fuch a facula near the weftern
one after a fpot’s difappearance. Yet I believe, both
thefe circumftances have been obferved by others ; and
perhaps not only near the limbs. The circumftance
N O M Y.
of the faculae being converted into fpots I think I may
be fure of. That there is generally (perhaps always)
a mottled appearance over the face of the fun, when
carefully attended to, I think I may be as certain. It
is moft vifible towards the limbs, but I have undoubt¬
edly feen it in the centre ; yet I do not recolledt to
have obferved this appearance, or indeed any fpots, to¬
wards his poles. Once I faw, with a 12 inch reflec¬
tor, a fpot burft to pieces while I was looking at it.
I could not expert fuch an event, and therefore cannot
be certain of the exadl particulars : but the appearance
as it ftruck me at the time was like that of a piece of
ice when daftied on a frozen pond, which breaks to
pieces and Aides in various dire&ions.” He alfo ac¬
quaints us, that the nuclei of the fpots are not always
in the middle of the umbrae; and gives the figure of one 3d Plate
feen November 13th 1773, which is a remarkable in- XLII. fig.fi.
ftance to the contrary. Mr Dunn, however, in his new Mr p8nnn>s
Atlas of the mundane fyftem, gives fome particulars account,
very different from the above. “ The face of the fun
(fays he) has frequently many large black fpots, of va¬
rious forms and dimenfions, which move from eaft to
weft, and round the fun, according to fome obferva-
tions in 25 days, according to others in 26, and accord¬
ing to fome in 27 days. The black or central part
of each fpot is in the middle of a great number of
very fmall ones, which permit the light to pafs be¬
tween them. The fmall fpots are fcarce ever in con-
taft with the central ones: but what is moft remark¬
able, when the whole fpot is near the limb of the fun,
the furrounding fmall ones form nearly a ftraight line,
and the central part projedts a little over it, like Sa¬
turn in his ring.”
The fpots are by no means confined to one part of
the fun’s dilk; though we have not heard of any be¬
ing obferved about his polar regions: and though their
diredtion is from eaft to weft, yet the paths they de-
fcribe in their courfe over the dilk are exceedingly
different; fometimes being ftraight lines, fometimts
curves, fometimes defcending from the northern to the
fouthern part of the dilk, fometimes afcending from
the fouthern to the northern, &c. This was obferved
by Mr Derham, (Philof. Tranf. N°. 330.) who hath
given figures of the apparent paths of many different
fpots, wherein the months in which they appeared,
and their particular progrefs each day, are marked. 2d Phfe
Befides thefe fpots, there are others which fpmetimes XLII.fig.r.
appear very round and black, travelling over the dilk of
the fun in a few hours. They are totally unlike the o- *
thers, and will be Ihewn to proceed from an interpofition
of the planets Mercury and Venus between the earth
and the fun. Excepting the two kinds of fpots .above-
mentioned, however, no kind of objedl is difcoverable
on the furface of the fun, but he appears like an im-
menfe ocean of elementary fire or light. | Ig
2. With the moon the cafe is very different. Many Telefcoplc
darkilh fpots appear in her to the naked eye; and,'view of the'
through a telefcope, their number is prodigioully in- n10011-
creafed: Ihe alfo appears very plainly to be more pro¬
tuberant in the middle than at the edges, or to have
the figure of a globe, and not a flat circle. This pro¬
tuberance, or globular figure, may alfo be perceived
in fome degree by the naked eye, when Ihe does not
Ihine very bright. When the moon is horned or gib¬
bous, the one fide appears very ragged and uneven.
'54
ASTRONOMY.
but the other always exaftly defined and circular. The
fpots in the moon always keep their places exactly;
never vanifhing, or going from one fide to the other, as
thofe of the fun do.
The aftronomers Florentius, Langrenus, John Heve-
lius of Dantzic, Grimaldus, and Ricciolus, have drawn
the face of the moon as {he is feen through telefcopes
magnifying between two and 300 times. Particular
care has been taken to note all the fhining parts in her
furface; and, for the better diftinguifhing them, each
has been marked with a proper name. Langrenus and
Ricciolus have divided the lunar regions among the
3<i Plate philofophers, aftronomers, and other eminent men ;
XLII. fig.i. kut Hevelius, fearing left the philofophers ftiould quar¬
rel about the divifion of their lands, has fpoiled them
of their property, and given the names belonging to dif¬
ferent countries, iflands, and feas on earth, to differ¬
ent parts of the .moon’s furface, without regard to fi-
tuation or figure.
We have already obferved, that when the planet
Mars approaches any of the fixed ftars, they lofe their
light, and fometimes totally difappear before he feems
to touch them : but it is not ib with the moon ; for
though (he very often comes in betwixt us and the ftars,
they preferve their luftre till immediately in feeming
contact with her, when they fuddenly difappear, and
as fuddenly re-appear on the oppofite fide. When Sa¬
turn, however, was hid by the moon in June 1762,
Mr Dunn, who watched his appearance at the emerfion,
obferved a kind of faint fliadow to follow him for a
little from the edge of the moon’s difk. This appear-
xo ance is reprefented 6th Plate XLII. fig. 2.
©{Mercury. 3* Mercury, when looked at through telefcopes
magnifying about 200 or 300 times, appears equally
luminous throughout his whole furface, without the
leaft dark fpot. He appears indeed to have the fame
difference of phafes with the moon, being fometimes
horned, fometimes gibbous, and fometimes fhining
with a full round face ; but at all times perfectly well
defined, without any ragged edge, and very bright.
Venus. 4> Venus puts on the fame appearances with the
Moon, or with Mercury; only fhe is not fo bright as
the latter. Spots have fometimes been feen in her,
which appeared of the nature of thofe in the fun ; o-
thers have been obferved more permanent. In 1666,
Odtober 14th, MrCaffini obferved, towards the middle
of the dilk of this planet, a part more luminous than
the reft, and two dark fpots to the weftward of it. He
could make nothing of his obfervations at that time,
nor had he any opportunity of obferving the fpots a-
gain till April 28th 1667. At this time Venus had an
horned appearance, and a quarter of an hour before
fun-rifing the bright fpot was diftant from the fouthern
horn little more than £ of its diameter. Near the eaft-
ern part of the circumference he faw an oblong fpot,
which was nearer to the northern than the fouthern
horn. At the rifing of the fun, he perceived the bright
part diftant from the fouthern horn by 4- of its diame¬
ter ; fo that it was plainly moving from fouth to north.
He was very much furprifed, however, to rind, that
though this fpot appeared to move from fouth to north
while it remained on the fouthern part of the difle, yet,
when he faw it on the northern part, it was plainly
moving from north to fouth. From frequent obferva-
tion, he imagined that this bright fpot finiihed its mo-
Sea. If.
tion, and returned to the fame place of the diik from
whence it fet out, in about 23 hours, though not with¬
out fome irregularity. The fame irregular motion he
obferved in the obfeure fpots. In 1672 and 1686,
with a telefcope 54 feet long, Mr Caflini thought he
faw a moon, or fatellite, belonging to this planet,
and having the fame phafes with Venus herfelf, but not
fo well defined. It was not above f- of the diameter of
Venus diftant from her body. Mr Short alfo made the
like obfervation fome years ago.
5. Mars viewed through a telefcope, fometimes ap- Mars*
pears gibbous, but never horned. He has one very
large fpot in his dilk, which at different times changes
its figure, as well as Ihifts its place. Dr Hook ob¬
ferved this fpot carefully in 1665, and Mr Caffini in
1666 ; and the latter, by diligently continuing his ob¬
fervations, found it to return to the fame place in the
fpace of 24 hours and 40 minutes. Through a 36
foot telefcope, made ufe of by Dr Hook, this planet
appeared almoft as big as the full moon. The phafes
are reprefented 4th Plate XLII. fig. 3.
Befides thefe fpots. Mars fometimes appears to have
darkilh fillets or belts along his dilk, which are called
fafeia, and appear parallel to his equator. The fixed
ftars which he approaches, fuffer the fame diminution
of their light when obferved through a telefcope, as
when feen by the naked eye.
6. Jupiter has the fame general appearance with Jupiter.
Mars; only that the fixed ftars never fuffer any dimi¬
nution of light by his approaching them. In 1666,
Mr Hook obferved the body of Jupiter through a tele- Phil. Tranf.
fcope 60 feet long, and found the apparent diameter n°i4.p.»4j,,
to be about four times as great as that of the full moon.
This planet has more remarkable and more diftindt fa-
feiae than Mars, which are terminated by parallel lines.
They do not, however, appear to be permanent fub-
ftances, being often interrupted and broken, and fome¬
times vanilhing entirely. In fome of thefe belts large
black fpots have appeared, which moved fwiftly over
the dilk from eaft to weft, and returned again to the
fame place ; thofe neareft the planet’s equator in nine
hours 56 minutes; and thofe nearer the poles, accord¬
ing to Dr'Smith, in 9 hours and 50 minutes. In 1665,
Mr Cafiini faw a very large fpot in one of Jupiter’s
belts, which he obferved continually for the fpace of
two years, and determined exadtly the time of its ap¬
pearance and difappearance. In 1672, he obferved it
to return to the fame place from whence it had fet out
in one night, having had an opportunity of viewing
Jupiter during 10 hours that night, and thus thorough¬
ly afeertained himfelf of the exadt time it took. In
1677, this fpot vanilhed, and was not feen again till
1679: afterwards, for the fpace of almoft three years, it
continually Ihewed itfelf, and then gradually vanilhed ;
and fince that time has frequently appeared and difap-
peared. From the year 1665, in which it firft appear¬
ed, to the year 1708, it appeared and vanilhed no fewer
than eight times. The apparent motion of thefe fpots
over the dilk is very unequal when they firft appear:
on the eaftern limb of the dilk, their motion is flow,
aneNkey appear narrow; but, as they advance towards
the middle, they grow broader, and their motion be¬
comes much quicker; and when they approach the
weftern limb, they again change their figure, and move
more flowly. The belts undergo feveral changes with¬
out
755
ASTRONOMY.
Seft. II.
out being broken ; fometimes becoming narrower,
fometimes increafing in breadth, fometimes advancing
54 towards each other, fometimes receding, &c.
His four What is mod remarkable of this planet is, that it
moons. js attended by four fatellites or moons, which evident¬
ly circulate round it; as they fometimes recede a little
from, and then come nearer to, the difk ; fometimes are
hid behind the body of the planet, and then appear
again on the other fide, receding to a little diftance,
then come near and pafs over it: and it is obferved that
when they pafs between us and the difk of Jupiter, they
often refemble black round fpots, like Mercury and
Venus pafiing over the difk of the fun ; their fhadows
in the mean time travelling over the difk like other
fpots, having the fame appearance, and marching either
before or behind the fatellites according to the fit na¬
tion of the earth and Jupiter with refpeft to the fun.
With good telefcopes, black fpots have alfo been ob¬
ferved on the difks of thefe fecondary planets them-
lS felves.
Saturn,with 7. Saturn, the moft remote of all the planets, makes
his ring and a ftill more remarkable appearance ; being encompaffed
fatelliies. with a luminous ring, reprefented 2d Plate XLII. fig. j.
and PlateXLIII. fig.5. This ringappears double when
feen thro’ good telefcopes, as reprefented in'the figures,
and keeps always parallel to itfelf; by which means it
difappears once every fifteen years, according to the fi-
tuation of the earth and Saturn with regard to the Sun.
The reafon of its difappearance is, that it is turned edge-
wife to us, when its thinnefs renders it invifible. When
it begins to turn its edge towards us, it appears fome-
what thicker on one fide than another, and the thickefl:
edge has been obferved on different fides of the planet.
On the body of Saturn, fafcise have likewife been fome¬
times feen, but much more obfcurely than thofe of
Mars or Jupiter ; and no dark fpots have ever been
obferved on his furface. This planet is attended by
five moons, whofe general appearances refemble thofe
of Jupiter ; only they are more obfcure, and require
better telefcopes to difcover them on account of their
2« great diflance.
Of the co- 8. The Comets, viewed through a telefcope, have a
wets. very different appearance from any of the planets.
The nucleus, or ftar, feems much more dim. Sturmius
tells us, that obferving the comet of 1680 with a te¬
lefcope, it appeared like a coal dimly glowing ; or a
rude mafs of matter illuminated with a dufky fumid
light, lefs fenfible at the extremes than in the middle;
and not at all like a ftar, which appelrs with a round
difk and a vivid light.
Hevelius obferved of the comet in 1661, that its
body was of a yellowifh colour, bright and confpicu-
ous, but without any glittering light. In the middle
was a denfe ruddy nucleus, almoft equal to Jupiter,
encompaffed with a much fainter, thinner matter.—
Feb. jth. The nucleus was fomewhat bigger and
brighter, of a gold colour, but its light more dufky
than the reft of the ftars ; it appeared alfo divided in¬
to a number of parts—Feb. 6th. The nuclei ftill ap¬
peared, though lefs than before. One of them on the
left fide of the lower part of the difk appeared to be
much denfer and brighter than the reft; its body
round, and reprefenting a little lucid ftar; the nuclei ftill
encompaffed with another kind of matter.—Feb. iotb.
The nyclei more obfcurc and confufed, but brighter
at top than at bottom.—Feb. 13th. The head dimi-
nifhed much both in brightnefs and in magnitude.—
March 2d. Its roundnefs a little impaired, and the
edges lacerated.—March 28th. Its matter much dif-
perfed; and no diftinft nucleus at all appearing.
Weigelius, who faw through a telefcope the comet
of 1664, ^ moon, and a little cloud illuminated by
the fun, at the fame time; obferved that the moon ap¬
peared of a continued luminous furface, but the comet
very different, being perfeftly like the little cloud en¬
lightened by the fun’s beams.
The comets, too, are to appearance furrounded with Their at-
atmofpheres of a prodigious fize, often rifing ten times mofplieres
higher than the nucleus. They have often likewife and P*iaies<
different phafes, like the moon. Thofe of 1744 and
1769 had both of them this appearance,5th Plate XLII.
fig. 6. The latter alfo, when viewed through a tele¬
fcope, feemed to turn fwiftly round on its axis, and to
emit flafhes or fparks of eleftric light from all parts of
it; which fparks were inftantly impelled with great vio¬
lence towards the tail.
As for the tails of comets, they refemble the ftreams
of ele&ric light more than any thing elfe. That of
1769 feemed perpetually to fhoot out in ftraight lines
of a pale filver hue, lengthening and fhortening at each
inftant, and forming frequently fome of the configu¬
rations affumed by the Aurora Borealis. Dr Halley,
about the year 1716, hath obferved the fame thing.
Speaking of a remarkable Aurora Borealis, he fays,
“ That the great ftreams of light fo much refembled
the tails of comets, that at firft fight they might well
be taken for fuch and afterwards adds, “ This light
feems to have a great affinity with that which ele&ric
bodies emit in the dark.” 53
. 9. The fixed ftars, when viewed through the beft te- ,Numl>er
lefcopes, appear not at all magnified, but rather (^iis€.he
nifhed. in bulk, by reafon that the telefcope takes off fe!irSh’ntCe[CcV
that twinkling appearance they make to the naked eye, fcopes.
and which increafes their apparent magnitude. Their
number, however, appears increafed fo prodigioufly,
that 70 ftars have been counted in the conftellation call¬
ed the Pleiades, and no fewer than 2000 in that of O-
rion. The galaxy, or milky-way, appears in a manner
made up of ftars fo fmall and fo clofe, that they cannot
be difcerned fingly. To thefe ftars it owes a good
part of its light, though not the whole, as fome fmall
fpecks called nebula are difcovered in the heavens, having
much the fame appearance, and which have not always
ftars within them. Of thefe we have the following ac- ||g
count in the Philofophical Tranfaclions, N° 347. “ Some
of thefe bright fpots difcover no fign of a ftar in the Accomn of
middle of them ; and the irregular form of thofe that the nebula;,
have, fhews them not to proceed from the illumination of
a central body. Thefe are fix in number, all which we
will deferibe in the order of time, as they were difco¬
vered ; giving their places in the fphere of fixed ftars,
to enable the curious, who are furnilhed with goodte-
lefcopes, to take the fatisfa&ion of contemplating them.
“ The firft and moft confiderable is that in the middle
of Orion’s fword, marked with 8 by Bayer in his Ura-
nometria, as a fingle ftar of the third magnitude ; and
is fo accounted by Ptolemy, Tycho Brahe, and Heve¬
lius : but it is in reality two very contiguous ftars,envi¬
roned with a very large tranfparent bright fpot, thro’
which they appear with feveral others. Thefe are cu-
rioufiy
756
ASTRONOMY. Sea. III.
rloufly defcribed by Huygenius in his Syjlema Saturni-
num, p. 8. who there calls this brightnefs Portentum
cui certe ftmile aliud ■ nujquam apud reliquas fix as potu.it
anmadvertere : affirming, that he found it by chance
in the year. 1656. The middle of this is at prefent in
n 190. with fouth lat. 28°
“ About the year 1661, another of this fort
was difcovered by Bullialdus, in Cingula Andromedse.
This is neither in Tycho nor Bayer, having been
omitted, as are many others, becaufe of its fmall-
nefs : but it is inferted in the catalogue of Heve-
lius, who has improperly called it Nebulofa inftead of
Nebula ; it has no lign of a liar in it, but appears like
a pale cloud, and feems to emit a radiant beam into the
north-eaft, as that in Orion does into the fouth-eaft. It
precedes in right afcenfion the northern in the girdle,
or v Bayero? about a degree and three quarters, and
has longitude at this time 240, with north lat.
33°t*
“ The third is near the ecliptic, between the head
and bow of Sagittary, not far from the point of the
winter folftice. This, it feems, was found in the year
166; by a German gentleman M. J. Abraham Ihle,
whilil he attended the motion of Saturn then near his
aphelion. This is fmall, but very luminous, and emits
a ray like the former. Its place at this time is vy 4°-j-,
with about half a degree fouth lat.
“ A fourth wfas found by Dr Edm. Halley in the year
1677, when he was making the catalogue of the fouth-
ern ftars. It is in the Centaur, that which Ptolemy
calls ° w t«v<ar» Expuo-t«c, which he names in dorfo
Equino Nebula, and is Bayers «; it is in appearance
between the,fourth and fifth magnitude, and emits but
a fmall light for its breadth, and is without a radiant
beam ; this never rifes in England, but at this time its
plate is ftp 5°^’ 35° f fouth lat.
“ A fifth was difcovered by Mr G. Kirch in the year
1681, preceding the right foot of Antinous : It is of
itfelf but a fmall obfcure fpot, but has a liar that ffiines
through it, which makes it the more luminous. The
longitude of this is at prefent vy, 90 circiter, with
I7°£- north latitude.
“ The fixth and laft was accidentally hit upon by Dr
Edm. Halley in the conftellation of Hercules, in the
year 1714. It is nearly in a right line with £ and „ of
Bayer, fomewhat nearer to { than »: and by comparing
its fituation among the ftars, its place is Efficiently
near in tip 26°with 570 north lat. This is but
a little patch ; but it Ihews itfelf to the naked eye,
when the Iky is ferene and the moon abfent.”
Seft. III. Conclufions from the foregoing Appear¬
ances, and Conjectures concerning them.
Few conclu- From the.abovementioned appearances, either with
fions to be the naked eye, or through telefcopes, the conclufions
drawn with that can be drawn with certainty are very few, and
certainty. may rec]uced to the following : 1. Mercury and
Venus are between the earth and the fun, circulating
round him as the moon does round the earth : Mars,
Jupiter, and Saturn, are at a greater diftance, including
the earth alfo in their orbit. This appears from thefe
two planets putting on the phafes of the moon ; and
from Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, never doing fo : from
which, and from the apparent irregularity of the pla¬
nets motions, the motion of the earth neceflarily fol¬
lows, as lhall be afterwards more fully explained.
2. The planets Jupiter and Mars revolve on their axis,
or turn round, the one in about 9 hours 56 minutes,
the other in 24 hours 40 minutes. With regard to
Venus, the cafe is doubtful. From Mr Caffini’s obfer-
vations, it might be inferred, that, if Ihe revolves at
all, it is in fomewhat more than 23 hours ; but, accor¬
ding to the later obfervations of M. Bianchini, (he re¬
volves only in 24 days 8 hours. As to Mercury and
Saturn, as no fpots have ever been obferved on their
dilk, nothing can be advanced concerning their revolu¬
tions. 3. From the motion of the folar fpots from call
to weft, it hath been concluded that he revolves round
his axis in the fame direction. This, however, we
humbly apprehend, may be juftly difputed, for the fol¬
lowing reafon. If the apparent motion of the folar
fpots depended on his rotation round his axis, then all
their apparent paths behoved to be parallel to one an¬
other ; which they are not, as muft be evident from
the figures we have given. We acknowledge, that an
inclination of the fun’s axis to the ecliptic muft make
them defcribe paths, at fome times of the year, which
muft deviate from parallelifm to thofe defcribed at other
times, in proportion to the quantity of the angle of
inclination : but ftill, at the fame times of the year,
their paths ought to be parallel to one another; and this,
it is manifeft from looking at the figures, they are not.
Among the paths of thofe marked by Mr Derham
the greateft inequalities in this refpeft are to be ob¬
ferved, whether we compare them with one another,
or with that of the fpots in 1769 by Dr Wilfon ; (fee
2d Plate XLII. fig. 1.)—How far this maydeferve at¬
tention, we fubmit to the confideration of the learned.
4. The moon and planets are all opaque bodies, of a
lobular figure, which fhine not by their own light,
ut by the refleftion of that of the fun.
The conjeftures which have been formed concerning
the nature of the celeftial bodies are fo numerous, that
a recital of them would fill a volume ; while at the fame
time many of them are fo ridiculous, that abfurdity it¬
felf would feem almoft to have been exhaufted on this
fubjeft. 3, ]
As a fpecimen of what were the opinions of the an- Opinions of ■
cient philofophers concerning the nature of the fun, it the anci.ems i
may fuffice to mention, that. Anaximander and Anaxi- thefun!!"8
menes held, that there was a circle of fire all along the ’ j
heavens, which they called the circle, of the fun ; be¬
tween the earth and this fiery circle was placed another
circle of fome opaque matter, in which there was a hole
like the mouth of a German flute. Through this hole
the light was tranfmitted, and appeared to the inhabi¬
tants of this earth as a round and diftind body of fire.
The eclipfes of the fun were occafioned by flopping
this hole.
We muft not, however, imagine, that the opinions
of all the ancients were equally abfurd with thofe of
Anaximandei* and Anaximenes. Many of them had '
more juft notions, tho’ very imperfeft and obfcure. A-
naxagoras held the fun to be a fiery globe of fome folid
fubftance, bigger than Peloponnefus; and many of the
moderns have adopted this notion, only increafing the
magnitude of the globe prodigioufly. Sir Ifaac New- 0f sfraifaac
ton has propofed it as a query, Whether the fun and Newton,
fixed ftars are not great Earths made vehemently hot,
whofe
757
Sea. III.
A S T II O N O M Y.
whofe parts arc kept from fuming away by the vaft
weight and denfity of their fuperincumbent atmo-
fpheres, and whofe heat is preferved by the prodigious
33 aftion and reaction of their parts upon one another ?
Conjeftures Agreeable to this idea, Mr Derham and many others
the Solar'^ have formed conjedures concerning the folar fpots, ta-
fpots. king them for the fmoke of new volcanoes breaking
out in that fiery body ; which fmoke, being more deni'e
towards the middle, and more rare towards the edges,
fives the appearance of a nucleus and umbra. Many,
owever, are of opinion that they are only exhalations
raifed by the intenfe heat of the fun, and confequently
a kind of clouds flying in his atmofphere. Some have
taken them for planets nearer the fun than Mercury^;
but this their perifhablenefs will by no means allow us
to believe. Others have imagined, that they were new
and unformed worlds in a chaotic ftate, as our earth
originally was. In the abovementioned diflertation.
Dr Wilfon’s Dr Wilfon is of opinion, that the folar fpots are vait
opinion. cavities in the body of the fun himfelf, and even gives
the following method for meafuring their depth. “ All
the foregoing appearances, when taken together, and
when duly conlidered, feem to prove in the moft con¬
vincing manner, that the nucleus of this fpot (Decem¬
ber 1769) was confiderably beneath the level of the
fun’s fpherical furface.
“ The next thing which I took into confideration,
was to think of fome means whereby I could form an
eftimate of its depth. At the time of the obfervation
I had on Decr 12th, I had remarked that the breadth
of the fide of the umbra next the limb was about 14";
but, for determining the point in queftion, it was alfo
requifite to know the inclination of the Ihelving fide of
the umbra to the fun’s fpherical furface. And here it
occurred, that, in the cafe of a large fpot, this would
in fome meafurebe deduced from obfervation. For, at
the time when the fide of the umbra is juft hid, or be¬
gins firft to come in view, it is evident, that a line join¬
ing the eye and its obferved edge, or uppermoft limit*
coincides with the plane of its declivity. By meafuring
therefore the diftance of the edge from the limb, when
this change takes place, and by reprefenting it by a
proje&ion, the inclination or declivity may in fome
4th Plate meafure be afcertained. For in fig. 2. let ILDK be
XLn- a portion of the fun’s limb, and A BCD a fe&ion
His method °’ tlie ^P0*’ ^ fun’8 femidiameter, LG the ob-
of meafu- ferved diftance from the limb, when the fide of the
ring their umbra changes, then will the plane of the umbra CD
depth. coincide with the line EDG drawn perpendicular to
S L at the point G. Let F H be a tangent to the
limb at the point D, and join SD.
“ Since GL, the verfed fine of the angle LSD, is
given by obfervation, that angle is given, which by
the figure is equal to FDE, or GDH ; which angle
is therefore given, and is the angle of inclination of the
plane of the umbra to the fun s fpherical furface. In
the fmall triangle therefore CMD, which may be con-
fidered as re&angular, the angle MDC is given, and
the fide DC equal to AB is given nearly by obferva¬
tion ; therefore the fide MC is given, which may be
regarded as the depth of the nucleus without any ma¬
terial error.
“ I had not an opportunity, in the courfe of the
foregoing obfervations, to meaiure the diftance GL,
not having feen the fpot at the time when either
Vot. II.
of the fides of the umbra changed. It is, however,
certain, that when the fpot came upon the difk for the
fecond time, this change happened fome time in the
night between the 11th and i2tl1 of December, and I
judge that the diftance of the plane of the umbra, when
in a line with the eye, muft have been about 1' 55" from
the fun’s eaftern limb ; from which we may fafely con*
elude, that the nucleus of the fpot was, at that time,
not lefs than a femidiameter of the earth below the le¬
vel of the fun’s fpherical furface, and made the bottom
of an amazing cavity, from the furface downwards,
whofe other dimenfions were of much greater extent.”
Having thus eftablifhed it, as anabfolute certainty, His conjec-
that the folar fpots are vaft cavities in the fun, the Doc- ture? con-
tor next proceeds to offer fome queries and conjc&ures ^toreof C
concerning the nature of the fun himfelf, and to anfwer fnn<
fome objections to his hypothefis, which it muft be
confeffed is fomewhat uncommon. He begins with
alking. Whether it is not reafonable to think, that the
vaft body of the fun is made up of two kinds of matter
very different in their qualities; that by far the greateft
part is folid and dark; and that this dark globe is en-
compaffed with a thin covering of that refplendent fub-
ftance, from which the fun would feem to derive the
whole of his vivifying heat and energy. —This, if
granted, will afford a fatisfaftory folution of the ap¬
pearance of fpots; becaufe, if any part of this refplen¬
dent furface ffall be by any means difplaced, the dark
globe muft neceffarily appear; the bottom of the ca¬
vity correfponding to the nucleus, and the (helving fides
to the umbra. The (hining fubftance, he thinks, may
be difplaced by the a&ion of fome elaftic vapour gene¬
rated within the fubftance of the dark globe. This va¬
pour, fwelling into fuch a volume as to reach up to the
furface of the luminous matter, would thereby throw
it afide in all dire&ions : and as we cannot expeA any
regularity in the produAion of fuch a vapour, the irre¬
gular appearance and difappearance of the fpots is by
that means accounted for; as the reflux of the lumi¬
nous matter muft always occafion the dark nucleus gra¬
dually to decreafe, till at laft it becomes indiftinguifti-
able from the reft of the furface.
Here an objeAion occurs, viz. That, on this fuppo-
fition, the nucleus of a fpot whilft on the decreafe (hould
always appear nearly circular, by the gradual defeent
of the luminous matter from all fides to cover it. But
to this the DoAor replies, that in all probability the
furface of the dark globe is very uneven and moun¬
tainous, which prevents the regular reflux of the (hi¬
ning matter. This, he thinks, is rendered very proba¬
ble by the enormous mountains and cavities which are
obferved in the moon; and why, fays he, may there
not be the fame on the furface of the fun ? He thinks
his hypothefis alfo confirmed by the dividing of the nu¬
cleus into feveral parts, which might arife from the lu¬
minous matter flowing in different channels in the bot¬
tom of the hollow.—The appearance of the umbra af¬
ter the nucleus is gone, he thinks, may be owing to a
cavity remaining in the luminous matter, tho’ the dark
globe is entirely covered.
As to a motion of the fpots, diftinA from what they
are fuppofed to receive from the rotation of the fun
round his axis, he fays he never could obferve any, ex¬
cept what might be attributed to the enlargement or
diminution of them when in the neighbourhood of one
5 C another*
75^
ASTRO
another. “ But,” fays he, “ what would further con¬
tribute towards forming a judgement of this kind is, the
apparent alteration of the relative place, which muft a-
rife from the motion acrofs the dife on a fpherical fur-
face, a circumftance which I am uncertain if it has been
fufficiently attended to.” This is the circumftance from
which we deduced the objection againft the fun’s mo¬
tion ; and from comparing the figures given by Mr
Derham and others, we cannot help thinking that it
hath never been attended to as it ought.
The abovementioned hypothefis, the Do&or thinks,
is further confirmed by the difapearance of the umbras
on the fides of fpots contiguous to one another ; as
the adfion of the elaftic vapour muft neceflarily drive
the luminous matter away from each, and thus as it
were accumulate it between them, fo that no umbra
can be perceived. As to the luminous matter itfelf,
he conje&ures, that it cannot be any very ponderous
fluid, but that it rather refembles a denfe fog which
broods on the furface of the fun’s dark body. His ge¬
neral conclufion being fomewhat extraordinary, we ftiall
give it in his own words.
“ According'to the view of things given in the fore¬
going queries, there would feem to be fomething very
extraordinary in the dark and unignited ftate of the
great internal globe of the fun. Does not this feem
to indicate that the luminous matter that encompaffes
it derives not its fplendour from any intenfity of heat ?
Tor, if this were the cafe, would not the parts under¬
neath, which would be perpetually in contact with that
glowing matter, be heated to fuch a degree, as to be¬
come luminous and bright ? At the fame time it muft
be confeffed, that although the internal globe was in
reality much ignited, yet when any part of it forming
the nucleus of a fpot is expofed to our view, and is
feen in competition with a fubftance of fuch amazing
fplendour, it is no wonder that an inferior degree of
light ftiould, in thefe cafes, be unperceivable.
Ex eriment ** or(^er to obtain fome knowledge of this point,
propofed in I think an experiment might be tried, if we had an op-
order to con-portunity of a very large fpot, by making a contti-
firm his hy- Vance in the eye-piece of a telefcope, whereby an ob-
pothclis. ferver could look at the nucleus alone with the naked
eye, without being in danger of light coming from any
other part of the fun. In this cafe, if the obferver found
no greater fplendour than what might be expefted frofn
a planet very near the fun, and illumined by as much
of his furf^ce as correfponds to the fpot’s umbra, we
might reafonably conclude, that the folar matter, at the
depth of the nucleus, is in reality not ignited. But
from the nature of the thing, doth there feem any ne-
ceffity for thinking that there prevails fuch a raging and
fervent heat as many have imagined ? It is proper here
to attend to the diftin&ion betwixt this fiiining matter
of the fun, and the rays of light which proceed from it.
It may perhaps be thought, that the reaftion of the
rays upon the matter, at their emiffion, may be pro-
duftive of a violent degree of heat. But whoever would
urge this argument in |avour of the fun being intenfely
heated, as arifing from the nature of the thing, ought
to confider that all polifhed bodies are lefs and lefs dif-
pofed to be heated by the adtion of the rays of light,
in proportion as their furfaces are more polilhed, and
as their powers of refle&ion are brought to a greater
degree of perfe&ion. And is there not a ftrong ana-
N O M Y. Sed. III. i
logy betwixt the rea&ion of light upon matter in cafes
where it is reflefted, and in cafes where.it is emitted r”
With regard to this hypothefis, a decifive argument
againft it is what we have already takemnotice of from
Mr Wollafton, (Phil. Tranf. Vol. LXIV. p. 337),
if his affertion be juft, that the appearance of an j
hollow in the body of the fun, on which the Doc¬
tor founds his arguments, is not conftant. To him-
felf, he fays, they had the appearance of hollows in
the tops of volcanoes. Mr Marfhal of Penfylvania too,
in a letter to Dr Franklin, gives it as his opinion, that
the fpots are near, if not clofely adhering to, the fun’s
furface ; and tells us, that he never obferved the fame
fpot appear again on the eaftern limb, in the fame fi¬
gure and pofition. At any rate, Dr Wilfon’s hypo¬
thefis feems exceptionable for the following reafons.
1. The notion of a ftrelving declivity formed in a ReafonS ;n j
fluid fubftance by an elaftic vapour, is utterly irrecon- oppolftion ^
cileable with the nature of any fluid with which we are to his hypo-
acquainted. If we fuppofe the luminous matter of the
fun to have any kind of fluidity analogous to that of
water, melted metals, &c. we know that a difcharge of
elaftic vapour through them could occalion nothing but
a prodigious bubbling: or if we fuppofe the vapour to
iffue with immenfe force, perhaps a round fpot might be
formed, but without any umbra, as the expanfive power
muft decreafe every moment after getting vent, and the
fluid would contraft the orifice on all fides, till a round
mouth was left juft fufficient to allow the emiflion of the
quantity of vapour generated. If the luminous matter
is fuppofed to be endowed with any degree of vifcofity,
the fame effeift muft happen in a greater degree; and it
is impolfible that any {helving cavity could be produced.
With regard to a fog, as it is not a fluid/w fe, but a mul¬
titude of aqueous particles floating in our atmofphere,
if we compare the luminous matter of the fun to thefe
aqueous particles, we muft alfo fuppofe them fwim-
ing in fome other fluid; and, at any rate, the /helving
fides of a cavity of fog appear inconfiftent, and alfo its
running in channels in the bottom of a hollow, which
laft the Doftor gives as a reafon for the breaking of the
nucleus of a fpot in pieces.
2. The vulgar prejudice in favour of the immenfe
heat at the body of the fun feems to be extremely well
founded, becaufe we know of no fubftance that emits
a bright white light like the fun, but what is alfo ca¬
pable of burning very violently. We fee the effeift of
the rays of the fun himfelf in burning mirrors *, which *Seethear-
exceed any degree of heat we can raife by other means, tide Bum-
No plaufible reafon can therefore be given why the heat
fliould not iucreafe in proportion as we come near the fun.
Sir Ifaac Newton hath clearly been pf this opinion; and
we apprehend it muft be the opinion of every perfon who
is refolved not to rejeft the evidence of fenfe entirely.
At the outer furface of the luminous matter of the fun,
therefore, any folid body muft be heated beyond all
imagination, by the intenfity of the light proceeding
from that matter. Now, we know that light is emitted
from luminous bodies, in all diredtions, down as well
as up, and backward as well as forward. If a moft
violent heat behoved to take place at the outer fur¬
face of the luminous matter, the fame muft take place
at the inner furface alfo, which is contiguous to the
dark globe of the fun according to the Dodtor’s fup-
pofition. It is impoffibie then to imagine, that a
759
Sed. nr.
ASTRONOMY.
globe of any folld matter could have refilled for near
6000 years fuch a violent heat, without being in a ftate
39 of ignition more violent than we can have any idea of.
The fpots On the whole, we cannot help thinking, that, with
not reSard t0 'dlc folar fpots, no reafonahle hypothefis hath
faftorily ac- ^een yet f°rmed■ Thofe who think they are the fmoke
counted for. of volcanoes, or clouds exhaled from the body of the
fun, ought firlt to prove that the fun hath a folid body
like our earth. It is true, we cannot produce fire on
this earth without terreftrial fuel: but this is no rea-
fon why it cannot be done in the celellial fpaces; on
the contrary, we have the moll convincing proofs that
it really can be done. The explofions of electrical
batteries, flalhes of lightening, and fome kinds of me¬
teors, refemble the bright light of the fun much more
than any fire we can make with our fuel. It is true,
thefe are momentary, and it is proper they Ihould be
fo for the fafety of this world and its inhabitants : but
this is no reafon for fuppofing that there is not a na¬
tural caufefufficient for the prefervation of a pure flame
of that kind where it is proper it always Ihould exift ;
and if this Ihould be granted, the body of the fun may
reafonably enough be fuppofed only to Confift of ele-
40 mentary fire or light.
Great ine- Concerning the moon, it is allowed on all hands,
qualities on that there are prodigious inequalities on her furface,
oTthefaCC r^1's’s Proved by looking at her through a telefcope,
moon! at any other time than when ftie is full.: for then there
is no regular line bounding light and darknefs ; but
the confines of thefe parts appear as it were toothed
and cut with innumerable notches and breaks ; and e-
ven in the dark part, near the borders of the lucid furr
face, there are feen fome fmall fpaces enlightened by
the fun’s beams. Upon the fourth day after new moon,
there may be perceived fome fliining points like rocks
or fmall iflands within the dark body, of the moon ;
but not far from the confines of light and darknefs there
are obferved other little fpaces which join to the en¬
lightened furface, but run out into the dark fide, which
by degrees change their figure, till at laft they come
wholly within the illuminated face, and have no dark
parts round them at all. Afterwards many more
fliining fpaces are obferved to arife by degrees, and
to appear within the dark fide of the moon, which be¬
fore they drew near to the confines of light and dark¬
nefs were invifible, being without any light, and to¬
tally immerfed in the (hadow. The contrary is ob¬
ferved in the decreafing phafes, where the lucid fpaces
which joined the illuminated furface by degrees re¬
cede from it, and, after they are quite feparated from
the confines of light and darknefs, remain for fome
time vifible, till at lafi; they alfo difappear. Now' it
is impoffible that this fliould be the cafe, unlefs thefe
fhining points were higher than the reft of the furface,
41 fo that the light of the fun may reach them.
Method of Not content with perceiving the bare exiftence of
the'lunar’ ^‘efe lunar mountains, aftronomers have endeavoured
mountains. t0 meafure their height in the following manner. Let
3d Plate EGD be the hemifphere of the moon illuminated by
XL If. fig. a. the fun, ECD the diameter of the circle bounding light
and darknefs, and A the top of a hill w'ithin the dark
part when it firft begins to be illuminated. Obferve
with a telefcope the proportion of the right line A£,
or the diftance of the point A from the lucid furface
to the diameter of the moon ED; and, becaufe in this
cafe the ray of light ES touches the globe of the moon,
AEG will be a right angle by 16 prop, of Euclid’s
third book; and therefore in the triangle AEG ha¬
ving the two fides AE and EC, we can find out the
third fide AC ; from which fubdufting BC or EC, there
will remain AB the height of the mountain. Ric-
ciolus affirms, that upon the fourth day after new
moon he has obferved the top of the hill called St Ca¬
tharine's to be illuminated, and that it was diftant from
the confines of the lucid furface about a fixteenth part
of the moon’s diameter. Therefore, if CE=:8, AE
will be 1, and AChzeCE’-l-AE* by prop. 47. of Eu¬
clid’s firft book. Now, the fquare of CE being 64,
and the fquare of AE being 1, the fquare of AC will
be 65, whofe fquare root is 8,062, which expreffes the
length of AC. From which deducing BC=8, there
will remain AB=o,o62. So that CB or CE is there¬
fore to AB, as 8 is to 0,062, that is, as 8000 is to
62. If the diameter of the moon therefore was known,
the height of this mountain would alfo be known.
This demonftration is taken from Dr Keil, who fup-
pofes the feraidiameter of the moon to be 1182 miles;
according to wffiich, the mountain muft be fqmewhat
more than nine miles of perpendicular height: but a-
ftronomers having now determined the moon’s femidi-
ameter to be only 1090 miles, the height of the moun¬
tain will be nearly 8^- miles.
Here w'e cannot help remarking, that it is extreme¬
ly improbable fuch enormous mountains ftiould exift
in fo fmall a planet. The abovementioned height is
almoft three times what is allowed to the higheft
mountains on earth ; and it is certainly altogether con¬
trary to the proportions and analogy wifely obferved
throughout nature, to imagine that the moon ftiould
have hills 84- miles high, while the earth, which is
more than 40 times as large, fliould have none exceed¬
ing three miles in height. At any rate, the extreme
difagreement and contradiftion among geometricians
with regard to the height of terreftrial mountains,
muft make all their calculations concerning the heights
of lunar ones appear ftill lefs worthy of credit. ^
Concerning the nature of the moon’s fubftance there Conjeftures
have been many conjedlures formed. Some-have ima- concerning
gined, that, befides the light refle&ed from the fun, ^er finface.
the moon hath alfo fome obfeure light of her own, by
which ftie would be vifible without being illuminated
by the fun-beams. In proof of this it is urged, that
during the time of even total eclipfes the moon is ftill
.vifible, appearing of a dull red colour, as if obfeured
by a great deal of fmoke. In reply to this it hath
been advanced, that this is-not always the cafe ; the
moon fonaetimes difappearing totally in the time of
an eclipfe, fo as not to be difcernible by the bell glaf-
fes, while little liars of the fifth and fixth magnitudes
were diftindlly feen as ufual. This phenomenon was
obferved by Kepler twice, in the year 1580 and xySj ;
and by Hevelius in 1620. Ricciolus and other Je-
fuits at Bologna, and many people throughout Hol¬
land, obferved the fame on April 14th, 1642 ; yet at
Venice and Vienna, Ihe was all the time confpicuous.
In the year 1703, Dec 23, there was another total
obfeuration. At Arles, Ihe appeared of a yellowilh
brown; at Avignon, ruddy and tranfparent, as if the
fun had Ihone through her: at Marfeilles, one part
was reddilh and the other very dulky ; and at length,
5 C 2 though
76o ASTRO
though in a clear Iky, fne totally difappeared. The
general reafon for her appearance at all during the time
of eclipfes fhall be given afterwards : but as for thefe
articular phenomena, they have not yet, as far as we
now, been fatisfadtorily accounted for ; and indeed
aftronomers in general feeminduftrioufly to avoid fpeak-
ing of them.
Different conjeftureshave alfo been formed concern¬
ing the fpots on the moon’s furface. Some philofophers
have been fo taken with the beauty of the brighteft
places obferved in her difk, that they have imagined
them to be rocks of diamonds ; and others have com¬
pared them to pearls and precious Hones. Dr Keil
and the greateft part of aftronomers now are of opinion
that thefe are only the tops of mountains, which by
reafon of their elevation are more capable of reflefting
the fun’s light than others which are lower. The duf-
kifti fpots, he fays, cannot be feas, nor any thing of a
liquid fubftance ; becaufe when examined by the tele-
fcope, they appear to confift of an infinity of caverns
and empty pits, whofe ftiadows fall within them, which
can never be the cafe with feas, or any liquid fubftance:
but, even within thefe fpots, brighter places are alfo to
be obferved; which,accordingtohishypothefis, oughtto
be the points of rocks Handing up within the cavities.
On the other fide, it has been urged, that if all the
dark fpots obferved in the moon’s furface were really
the Ihadows of mountains, or of the fides of deep pits,
they could not poffibly be fo permanent as they are
found to be, but behoved to vary according to the pofi-
tion of the moon with regard to the fun, as we find (ha-
dows on earth are varied according as the earth is turned
towards or from the fun. Accordingly it is pretended,
that variable fpots are a&ually difeovered on the moon’s
dilk, and that the diredlion of thefe is always oppofite
to the fun. Hence they are found among thofe parts
which are fooneft illuminated in the increafing moon,
and in the decreafing moon lofe their light fooner than
the intermediate ones ; running round, and appearing
fometimes longer, and fometimes ftiorter. The perma¬
nent dark fpots, therefore, it is faid, muftbe fome mat¬
ter which is not fitted for refledring the rays of the fun
fo much as the bright parts do ; and this property, we
know by experience, belongs to water rather than land :
whence thefe philofophers conclude, that the moon, as
43 well as our earth, is made up of land and feas.
Whether jt jjeen much difputed whether there is about
has an°at> t^ic moon any atmofphere fimilar to what we
jnufphere. breathe. Againft the exiftence of this it hath been
urged, that the moon conftantly appears with the fame
luftre when there are no clouds in our air ; which could
not beexpefted, were (he furroundedwith an atmofphere
like ours, the different changes of which behoved fome¬
times to diminilh and at other times to increafe her
luftre. The ftrongeft argument, however, is drawn from
the refraftive power of our atmofphere, which is well
known to have a great influence on the rays of light pro¬
ceeding either from celeftial or terreftrial bodies, fo as to
caufe them deviate from a ftraight line, and of confe-
quence behoved to have the fame effedt on thofe which
paffed through the atmofphere of the moon, if any fuch
there was. But no fuch effedf has ever been perceived.
The fmalleft fixed ftars, as hath been already obferved,
preferve their luftre undiminifhed till they are fuddenly
covered by the moon’s limb, and as fuddenly appear on
N O M Y. Sea. nr.
the other fide, without being at all affedied by their
approach to her, as they are by the planet Mars. For
this reafon, too, the fame philofophers maintain, that
there can neither be clouds nor rain in the lunar regi¬
ons, but that fhe enjoys a perpetual and uninterrupted
ferenity.
To thefe arguments it hath been replied, I. That the
appearances on which they are founded are not conftant.
Hevelius writes, that he has feveral times found in Ikies
perfedtly clear, when even ftars of the fixth and feventh
magnitude were vifible, that at the fame altitude of the
moon, and the fame elongation from the earth, and with
one and the fame telefcope, the moon and its maculae
do not appear equally lucid, clear, and confpicuous, at
all times ; but are much brighter and more dittindf at
fome times than at others. From the circumftances of
this obfervation, fay they, it is evident that the reafon
of this phenomenon is not either in our air, in the tube,
in the moon, or in the fpe&ator’s eye ; but muft be look¬
ed for in fomething exifting about the moon. Along
with this, the phenomena already mentioned of the
different appearances of the moon in the total eclipfes
are alfo urged, and are derived from the different con-
ftitutions of the lunar atmofphere at that time. Caffini
frequently obferved Saturn, Jupiter, and the fixed ftars,
to have their circular figure changed into an elliptical
one, when they approached either the illuminated or
dark edge of the moon’s limb, and in other occultations
found no change of figure at all. Mr Dunn particular¬
ly viewed Saturn at his emerfion from behind the moon,
in order to determine this queftion; and the appearance
which he then obferved, inclined him to think there
was an atmofphere about the moon. 2. In the total
eclipfes of the fun, we find the moon encompaffed with
a lucid ring parallel to her periphery. Of this we have
too many obfervations to doubt: In the great eclipfe
of 1713, the ring was very vifible at London and elfe-
where. The fame was obferved by Kepler in 1605,
at Naples and Antwerp. Wolfius relates the fame of
an eclipfe in 1606 at Leipfic, which is deferibed at large
in the A&a Eruditorum, with this notable circumftance,
that the part next the moon was vifibly the moft illu¬
minated, being confiderably brighter than that furtheft
from it; which is alfo confirmed by the obfervations of
the French aftronomers in 1706.
For thefe reafons, it is concluded by many, that there
is about the moon fome fluid, which conforms itfelf
to her figure, and is more denfe near her furface than
at a diftance from it, and that it both refle&s and re-
fra&s the rays of the fun. It is alfo concluded, that
the lunar atmofphere is not always in the fame ftate, as
it fometimes changes the figures of the ftars, and feme-
times not: and in the feveral eclipfes juft mentioned,
there was obferved a trembling of the moon’s limb im¬
mediately before immerfion, with an appearance of thin
fmoke flying over it during immerfion, very vifible in
England. Hence, as thefe phenomena are obferved to
happen in our atmofphere when full of vapours, it is con¬
cluded that the lunar atmofphere has been in a fimilar
ftate at thefe times: andfince at other times thefe ap¬
pearances are not to be obferved, it is thought that then
the lunar air has been clear and tranfparent, by reafon
of rain, dew, or fnow, having fallen.
The ftrongeft argument for a lunar atmofphere is
that drawn from the luminous ring around her in folar
eclipfes j
Sea. III. A S T R <
eclipfes; and this feems fo conclufive, that Dr Halley
himfelf was almoft convinced of the exiftence of fuch
an atmofphere by it. He tells us, however, that feve-
ral very great aftronomers did not think fuch a thing
at all probable. Other aftronomers have imagined that
it proceeded from a folar atmofphere, becaufe it follow,
ed the centre of the fun, and not that of the moon.
Some there are who ridicule both thefe opinions, and
take this appearance to be an undeniable proof of the
moon’s being included within the atmofphere of the
earth. We obferve, fay they, at all times, when the Iky
is clear, the body of the fun to be furrounded with a very
bright and dazzling circle, which extends to a confide-
rable diftance, and whofe centre always coincides with
that of the fun. This circle we never afcribe to the
atmofphere of the fun, but to that of the earth. If
the fun is hid by a mountain, part of this circle con¬
tinues vilible after his body difappears ; and that part
of the luminous circle is brighteft, which is apparently
neareft the mountain : yet we never afcribe this to the
atmofphere of the mountain, but to the common atmo¬
fphere of the earth which lies beyond the mountain. In
the cafe of folar eclipfes, therefore, why fhould we ima¬
gine the luminous circle to proceed from any thing elfe
than that part of the earth’s atmofphere which lies be¬
yond the moon ? In this cafe, it will alfo follow the
centre of the fun ; and the tremulations of that part of
our atmofphere lying between us and the moon being
obferved by means of the fun’s ftrong light, will occa-
fion the apparent tremulation of the moon’s limb al¬
ready taken notice of at the time of immerfion. To
have recourfe in this cafe, fay they, to fuch an ens ra-
tionis as the folar or lunar atmofphere, is truly folving
obfcunm per obfcurius. As for the fmall refradf ions of
the light of the planets and fixed ftars which have fome-
times been obferved when they approach the moon’s
limb, the abovementioned perfons think they may be
reafonably accounted for on the fame principles with
the tides ; namely, by an accumulation of the aqueous
vapours floating in our atmofphere under that part of
the heavens where the moon is; and confequently the
light of the ftars will be more or lefs refracted, accord¬
ing as it pafies through a larger pr leffer quantity of
the accumulated vapour. This laft hypothefis might
give fome encouragement to bifliop Wilkins’s fcheme
of flying to the moon, which the want of a continued
atmofphere between that luminary and the earth would
be an effe&ual baragainft : but tho’ we fliould fuppofe
the art of flying poffible, and likewife that the air all
the way up were fit for fupporting our life, the bifhop’s
journey would be rather too long ; for allowing him to
fly 60 miles an hour, and to proceed day and night
without intermiffion, he muft be five months before he
came to his journey’s end, fuppoiing the moon’s mean
diftance 340,000 miles, as it is commonly thought to
44 be.
Conjcflures With regard to the planets Mercury, Venus, Mars,
the planets JuP'ter’ anc^ Saturn, few conjectures have been formed i
only that the temperature of the two inferior ones,
Mercury and Venus, muft be much hotter, and that of
the fuperior ones, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, confider-
ably colder, than that of the earth. That the latter are
much lefs enlightened than this earth, we are abfolutely
certain: but whether they are not encompaffed with
atmofpheres, which prevent them from differing any
D N O M Y. 76r
violent excefs of cold, we are entirely ignorant; as well
as whether thofe of Mercury and Venus may not dimi-
ni/h the heat which at firft would appear to be fo vio¬
lent at the fmall diftances from the fun at which they
circulate. Mars, we are certain, has an atmofphere a-
bout his body which is capable of refrafting and ab-
forbing the light of other ftars; but what its other pro¬
perties are, we have no means of knowing. The fpots
on Venus, Mr Dunn informs us, are thought to be feas.
The belts obfervable on the fuperior planets have occa-
fioned much fpeculation. Some have thought that they
were inherent on the furfaces of the planets ; and thus
fome philofophers have faid, that greater changes take
place on the body of the planet Jupiter, than what
would happen to this earth were the ocean and dry¬
land to change places. Others, however, have imagin¬
ed that they are fimilar to our clouds: but their con-
ftant appearance feems contradi&ory to fuch a fuppofi-
tion; for tho’ it is true that they are but of a tranfitory
nature, they are vaftly more permanent than any clouds
to be obferved on earth. For this reafou, fome have
imagined that they are only certain parts of the atmo¬
fphere of the planet of a different conftitution, and lefs
capable of tranfmitting the fun’s light than others.
Thefe dark zones, they think, may have arifen from the
fuperior planets enjoying a perpetual equinox, the rea-
fon of which ihall be given when we come to fpeak of
the caufes of the different feafons on earth. The moons
of Jupiter and Saturn, and the ring with which the lat¬
ter is furrounded, are thought to be defigned for re-
fledting the fun’s light upon thefe planets; and their
number is imagined to be fufficient to compenfate in
fome meafure for the great diftance at which they are
placed from the fun. 4?
We cannot conclude this article without taking no- Uncertainty
tice, that aftronomers feem not to be agreed whether the appeaf-
the belts of Jupiter are really darker or brighter than ance of Ju-
the reft of his diflc. In Chambers’s Diftionary, we piter’sbclts.
have the following account of them, under the word
Fafcia-. “ Fafcite, in aftronomy, two rows of bright
fpots, obferved on Jupiter’sbody; appearing like fwaths,
or belts. The fafcise or belts of Jupiter are more lu¬
cid than the reft of his dilk, and are terminated by pa¬
rallel lines. They are fometimes broader, and fome-
times narrower ; nor do they always poffefs the fame
part of the difk. M. Huygens, likewife, obferved a
very large kind of fafeia in Mars; but it was darker
than the reft of the difk, and took up the middle part
thereof.” Moft of the aftronomical writers, at leaft
the more common ones, feem to be pretty filent on the
fubjedf, but generally incline us to think that they are
dark. In Mr Wollafton’s paper already quoted from
Phil. Tranf. Vol. LXIV. he mentions both bright and
dark belts.
With regard to comets, innumerable conjedtures have of Comets,
been formed. The ancients in general were of opinion
that they were meteors formed in our atmofphere,
only of a more permanent fubftance than the common
ones ; and that they were figns of the wrath of God :
which laft opinion hath been preferved among the vul¬
gar to this day. Some, however, thought otherwife;
and afferted them to be a kind of planets that revolved
round the fun, but in more extenfive circles than the
others : but thefe were few in number; and the general
opinion of their being figns of divine wrath, and pre-
762 ASTRO
fages of ttrrible calamities to mankind, prevailed till
47 the revival of learning in the 16th century.
Kepler and It was not, however, till feme time after people be-
Bodin’s opi- gan to throw off the fetters of fuperftition and igno •
them.°f rance l°ng held them, that any rational
hypothefis was formed concerning comets. Kepler, in
other refpedfs a very great genius, indulged the moft
extravagant conje&ures, not only concerning comets,
but the whole fyftem of nature in general. The pla-
nets'he imagined to be huge animals who fwam round
the fun by means of certain fins a&ing upon the ethe¬
real fluid, as thofe of fifhes do on the water : and agree¬
able to this notion, he imagined the comets to be mon-
ftrous and uncommon animals generated in the celefiial
fpaces ; and he explained how the air engendered them
by an animal faculty. A yet more ridiculous opinion,
if poflible, was that of John Bodin, a learned man of
France in the 16th century. He maintained that co¬
mets “ are fpirits, which having lived on the earth in¬
numerable ages, and being at laft arrived on the con¬
fines of death, celebrate their lall triumph, or are re¬
called to the firmament like fhining ftars ! This is fol¬
lowed by famine, plague, &c. becaufe the cities and
people deftroy the governors and chiefs who appeafe
the wr^th of God.” This opinion, ridiculous as it is,
he fays he borrowed from the philofopher Democritus,
who imagined them to be the fouls of famous heroes :
but this opinion being irreconcileable with Bodin’s
Chriflian fentiments, he was obliged to fuppofe them
to be a kind of genii, or fpirits fubjedl to death, like
thofe fo much mentioned in the Mahometan fables.
Others, again, have denied the exiftence of comets, and
maintained that they were only falfe appearances occa-
fioned by the refradiion or refledlion of light; as if the
light could refradt or refledt of itfelf, without any fub-
ftance from whence it was fo refledted or refradted.
48 The firft rational conjedlure we meet with is that of
Beniqulli’s James Bernoulli, an Italian aftronomer, who imagined
©pinion. them to be the fatellites of fome very diftant planet,
which was invifible to us on account of its diftance, as
were alfo the fatellites unlefs when in a certain part of
their courfe. But though we call this a rational con-
jedture, in comparifon of the others, it is neverthelefs
very abfurd ; as it fuppofes a fatellite to leave its pri¬
mary planet in darknefs, in order to enlighten-other
49 orbs with which it has nothing to do.
'Opinions of rate aftronomers of England, as Newton,
Flamfteed, Halley, 6c. have been perfedtly fatisfied
that the comets were a kind of planets which revolved
round the fun in very excentric ellipfes ; and have ac¬
cordingly calculated the returns of fome of them, and
made conje&ures concerning the ufe they may proba¬
bly be of in the general fyitem of nature. Caflini and
fome of the French philolbphers thought this opinion
highly probable; but De La Hire and others oppo-
fed it. The whole event of the difpute, however, it is
. plain, behoved to turn on the obfervation of the return
of comets, and the calculation of their periodical times
like thofe of other planets; which, whenever it was
fully done, behoved to put the matter beyond a doubt :
but until this was done, not at once or twice, but a
great number of times, there behoved ftill to be an un¬
certainty, let the arguments for their return be fuppo-
fed as probable as we pleafe. This Sir Ifaac Newton
and Dr Halley attempted to do. Having obferved the
N O M Y.
Sea. m. |
accounts of comets in hiftory, and found fome of them
to appear at equal intervals of time, it was concluded
that thefe were the fame comets, and would appear
again after an interval of equal length. Thus, Sir Ifaac
Newton having obferved a comet in the year 1680, of
great apparent magnitude ; and found that fuch an one
had appeared before, at an interval of 575 years be¬
tween each appearance ; he concluded that thefe were
different appearances of the fame comet, and that it
would again appear 575 years afterwards. The fame of j
celebrated pmloiopher, aiong with Dr Halley and thecomet in!
others, calculated the period of the comet which ap- 1684. !
peared in 1682, and found that it ought to appear
again in the year 1758, its periodical time being about
754- years. The molt important objedtion that arofe
to the return of this comet, was the inequality of its
periods, which were as follows : “ That from Auguft W/?. of Co-,
25rh 1531, to the 26th of Odtober 1607, was performed mets>f'6l' 1
in 76 years and two months ; that from Odtober 26th
1607, to September 14th 1682, was rather lefsthan 75
years ; and its lalt period, from the 14th of September
1682, to the 13th of March 1759, which was the
longeit of all, was 76 years and fix months, or 27,937
days, amounting to 583 days more than in the pre¬
ceding period.
“ Dr Halley was aware of thefe differences, and at
firft confeffed himfelf to be a little flaggered by them ;
nor would he have had the courage to pronounce its re¬
turn fo pofitively, if hiftory had not informed him, that
comets had appeared in 1456, 1380, and 1305, which
put their identity out of all doubt.
“ The appearances happening alternately in 75 and
76 years, and as the preceding period was only of 75
years, it was natural to fuppofe that the next would
amount to 76. But as the difficulties arifing from
thefe inequalities in the periods were forefeen and ob¬
viated by Dr Hailey, we cannot do better than to in-
fert his own words.
“ Perhaps fome may objedt to the diverfity of their Inequalities
inclinations and periods, which is greater than what of its mo-
is obferved in the revolutions of the fame planet; fee-t!on ac'
ing one period exceeded the other by more than the £ou^ed^°r
fpace of one year, and the inclination of the comet of iX. r ^ *
the year 1682 exceeded that of the year 1607 by 22
entire minutes. But let it be confidered what I men¬
tioned at the end of the tables of Saturn, where it was
proved that one period of that planet is fometimes
longer than another by 13 days ; and that is evidently
occafioned by the force of gravity tending towards the
centre of Jupiter, which force indeed in equal diftances
is only the 1000th part of that force tending to the
fun itfelf, by which the planets are retained in their or¬
bits. But by a more accurate computation, the force
of Jupiter upon Saturn, for example, in the great con¬
junction as they call it, January 26, in the year 1683,
was found to be to the force of the fun upon the fame
Saturn, as 1 to 186; the fum of the forces therefore is to
the force of the fun, as 187 to 186. But at the fame
diftance from the centre, the periodic times of bodies
revolving in a circle are in the fabduplicate ratio of the
forces with which they are urged: wherefore the gra¬
vity being increafed by the 186ch part of itfelf, the peri¬
odictime will be ihortened by about the 3 74th part, that
is by a whole month in Saturn. How much more is a
comet liable to thefe errors, which makes its excurfion
near
7^3
ASTRONOMY.
Sed. III.
near four times higher than Saturn ; and whofe velo¬
city being increafed by lefs than the I io'*1 part of it-
felf, would change its elliptic orbit into a parabolic
traje&ory ?
‘ But it happened in the fummer of 1681, that the
comet feen in the following year, in its defcent towards
the fun, was in conjunction with Jupiter in fuch a man¬
ner, and for feveral months fo near him, that during
all that time it muft have been urged likewife towards
the centre of Jupiter with near the 50th part of that
force by which it tended towards the fun: whence, ac¬
cording to the theory of gravity, the arc of the elliptic
orbit, which it would have defcribed had Jupiter been
abfent, muft be bent inwards towards Jupiter in an hy¬
perbolic form winding, and have affumed a kind of
curyg very compounded, and as hitherto not to be ma¬
naged by the geometers; in which the velocity and di¬
rection of the moving body, in proportion to the caufe,
would be very different from what it otherwife had been
in the ellipfes.
‘ Hence a reafon may be affigned for the change of
its inclination: for as the comet in this part of its path
had Jupiter on the north almoft in a perpendicular di¬
rection to its path, that portion of its orbit muft be
bent towards that quarter ; and therefore its tangent
being inclined to a greater angle towards the plane of
the ecliptic, the angle of the inclination of the plane it-
felf muft be necefiarily increafed. Befides the comet
continuing long in the neighbourhood of Jupiter, after
it had come towards him from parts much more remote
from the fun with a flower motion, and now being ur¬
ged with the joint central forces of both, muft have
acquired more accelerated velocity, than it could lofe
in its recefs from Jupiter by forces aCting a contrary
way, its motion being more fwift, and the time being
lefs.’
“ When the comet of 1682 defcended towards the fun
and became viiible, Europe had fcarce recovered from
the terrible panic into which it had been thrown but
18 months before by the great comet. However, this
was comparatively too inconfiderable to be much re¬
garded ; for it was little imagined then, that the leaft
of the two would become the moft interefting, and that
it would be for ever celebrated by pofterity for having
taught mankind how to know all the reft. . But how¬
ever inferior to the other this comet may have appeared
in vulgar eyes, aftronomers obferved it with the greateft
attention. Hevelius at Dantzick, Kitch at Leipfic,
Flamfteed and Halley in England, Zimmerman at Nu-
renburg, Baert at Toulon, Montanori at Padua, and
Picard, Caflini, and la Hire, at Paris. This lift of
names will fuffice to fttew that there can be no fcarcity
of good obfervations upon this comet during that ap¬
pearance.
“ In 1607 it was obferved by the famous Kepler,
who publifhed his obfervations together with his general
theory. The C6zh of September old ftyle, the Iky be¬
ing very clear, Kepler firft faw this comet upon the
bridge at Prague ; and though it had no tail when he
firft difcovered it, yet afterwards it had one of a confi-
derable length and fplendour. It was likewife obferved
by Longomontanus, September 18. He fays it appear¬
ed as large as Jupiter, though with a very obfcure and
pale light; that the tail was pretty long and more denfe
than the tails of comets ufually are, but as pale in co¬
lour as the comet itfelf.
“ In the preceding revolution of 1531, we find our
comet obferved by theaftronomer Appian at Ingoldftadt,
the fame who firft remarked that the tails of comets
were always in an oppofite direflion to the fun; which
to him was an evident proof that the fun was the caufe
of fuch eruptions.
“ In 1456, there was a very remarkable exhibition
of the fame comet. Comet a inaudit ee magnitudinis tot 9
menfe Jvnii cum pralonga cauda, it a ut duo fere fgna
coeli comprehenderit., (Theatrum Comet.)
“ It is difficult to comprehend how the comet, whofe
tail was fo inconfiderable in its laft appearance, fliould
in this have one of fixty degrees : but M. de la Lande,
in his Theory of Comets, p. 127. accounts for this
difference in the following manner. “ I find, fays this
aftive aftronomer, that if the comet reached its perihe¬
lion in the beginning of June, it ought to have appear¬
ed at night towards the middle of the month with 60
degrees of elongation and a very northern latitude, its
diftance from the earth being lefs than the femidiameter
of the fun : fo that in this pofition, which of all others
is the moft favourable, it muft have appeared in all the
fplendour allowed to it by the old chronicles. Perhaps,
by duofgna they only mean the extent of two conftel-
lations, which is often much lefs than two figns of the
ecliptic.”
“ In 1379 and 1380 we find two comets mentioned,
by Alftedius and Lubienietzki, but without any par¬
ticulars as to the time or form of their appearance.
“ In 1305, our comet again appears, according to
the hiftorians of that time, in all its terrors. Cometa bor-
rendec magnitudinis vifits. eji circa ferias pafckatis, quem
fecuta ejipeflilentia maxima. It is very likely that the
horror occafioned by the plague had augmented the
terrible impreffion left by the comet; however, upon
calculation, it does appear that the comet muft this
year have paffed very near the earth.
“ The hiftory of this comet might be traced much
higher by confulting Eckftormius, Riccioli, Alftedius,.
and Lubienietzki. Among the 415 comets mention¬
ed by this laft writer, we find one for the year 1230,
which appears to be the very comet in queftion; ano¬
ther 1005, three periods before it is found in 930,
and higher up in the year 550, marked by the taking;
of Rome by Totila. All the hiftorians of the empire
fpeak of a great comet in the year 3'99> which may
have been the fame. Cometa fuit prodigiofee magnitu¬
dinis, horribilis afpettu, comam ad ter ram, nfque.demit-
tere vifus.
“ In 323, that is to fay,.76 years before, a comet al«
fo appeared in Virgo and in fhort it would be eafy to
mount, without quitting the fame periods, as high as
130 yearsbefore-Chrift, when, according to Juftin, one
appeared at the birth of Mithridates. But, in thefe
early periods, there would be great danger of meeting
with fome of thofe fabulous comets with which it was
thought neceffary-perhaps to embellilh every famous
reign.”
As this comet engaged the attention of the moft ce¬
lebrated aftfonomers more than any other, and as its
courfe was calculated by Newton, Halley, Maupertuis,
Clairault, De Lifle, Le Monnier, La Caille, Meffier,
La Lande, Pingre, &c. who unanimoufly determined
that it ought to appear in 1758, it is not to be wonr
dered
764
ASTRONOMY. Seft. III.
dcrcd that thofe wlio refpcifted thefe illuftrious names,
fhould expeft its return in that year, with abfolute cer¬
tainty, and even with no fmall degree of fear, as
Dr Halley himfelf had thought that thefe bodies might
poflibly ftrike upon the earth in fome of their revolu¬
tions, and occafion its utter deftrudlion, or come fo
near as at leaft to occafion terrible calamities to thofe
parts which were moft expofed to their malignant
influences. A mortal fear accordingly feized the minds
of great numbers ; and this panic feems to have been
kept up by fome aftronomers of inferior note pro¬
bably with views not entirely difinterefted. Of this
the following fentence in a book entitled The Theory of
Comets illuftratedy &c. by B. Martin, 1757, is a re¬
markable inftance. “ It is well known to aftronomers
how near that dreadful comet of 1680 approached to
the earth’s orbit. Alfo the comets of 1472, 1618,1684,
and the comet which we now expeft, with many others,
pafs fo near the orbit of the earth, that it will not be
without reafon if our fears and apprehenfions are conft-
derably raifed thereat. However, the reader need not be
under any needlefs terror about the return of this comet:
for if it appears before the beginning of next May, it
can do no harm; as he may be ealily convinced by the
view of the comet’s orbit which Ipublifoed fome time
St ago”
©ifappoint- The fatal period at length arrived; but no comet ap-
ftronomers" Peaict^' This Was a prodigious difappointment to a-
in i7j8. ftronomers ; and as they were now in danger of being
turned into ridicule, it became abfolutely neceflary to
find out fome reafons for the retardation of this comet
which had been fo certainly expected. Thefe were
happily found out by Mr Clairault; who accounted for
its nonappearance, from retardations occafioned by the
attra&ion of jhpiter and Saturn, which two planets are
Why the found to have an effetft upon each other’s motions,
comet did and mull have the fame upon any other body that comes
rot then ap- near as pjg]] fui]y explained in the next
peai‘ feftion. He found, “ that the action of Jupiter upon the
comet, during the whole revolution of 1531 to 1607,
had occafioned a diminution of 19 days in its period,
which wmuld not have happened by the mere force of
the fun; and at the fame time had altered its elements
fo as to produce an acceleration of near 31 days in the
following period.
“ Proceeding afterwards to the revolution from 1607
to 1682, the adtion of Jupiter turns out much more
oonfiderable : for it occafions an acceleration of about
420 days, which added to the 31 refulting ffom the
a£tion of the fame planet during the preceding period,
amounts in all to 451 days of diminution in the time of
its period ; which would not have happened merely by
its inclination to the fun.
“ Now^ if we take the difference of thefe two accele¬
rations, in order to know how much ftiorter the fecond
period was than the fir ft, it appears to be 432 days ;
which differs only 37 days from the time refulting from
the obfervations.
“ And this period appears to be (till diminiftied by
the action of Saturn. Indeed this diminution is not
much, becaufe the effe&s of Saturn’s force are almoft
reciprocally deftroyed in the two firft periods.
“ Hence we fee that the theory gives within a month
the difference fo remarkable between the two known re¬
volutions of this comet. Now if we confider the length
of thefe periods, the complication of the two caufes of
their irregularity, and the nature of the problem by
which they are mtafured; this new demonftration of
the Newtonian fyftem will perhaps be found as linking
as any one that has hitherto been given.
“ By comparing, in like manner, the force of the
a&ion of Jupiter, during the fecond period of the co¬
met, with that which will be terminated at its approach¬
ing return ; I find the revolution about which we are
at prefent interefted will be 518 days longer than the
preceding, occafioned by the a&ion of Jupiter upon the
comet, from its laft mean diftance to its perihelion ;
that is, for the laft feven or eight years ; an interval,
during which there can hardly be more than 15 days
alteration.
“ As to Saturn, the refult of its aftion on the comet
is much more confiderabk compared with the two firft
revolutions; for I find the prefent period protradled
more than too days by it, independent likewife of its
adlion lince 1751, and another fmall objeft which I
have not had time to determine. From thefe confide-
rations, then, it appears to me, that the expe&ed comet
ought to arrive at its perihelion about the middle of
the month of April next enfuing.”
This period of M. Clairault was found to be fome- A ^rs jJ
what too long; for on the 21st of January 1759, a January I
comet made its appearance, and was feen at different 17JP.
times, to the third of June the fame year. The fol¬
lowing is Mr Meffier’s defcription of it, as viewed
April Ist. “ When I fawthis comet again on the firft
of April, I could very plainly difcern its tail; but could
not afcertain its length, becaufe of the morning twi¬
light, which was then beginning, and foon encreafed
much: it filled the field of the telefcope; and muft
have extended far beyond : according to what I have
obferved, the tail of the comet muft have fpread to more
than 25 degrees : the nucleus was confiderable, but
not well terminated, and it apparently exceeded the fiz.e
of ftars of the firft magnitude ; it was of a pale whitifh
colour, not unlike that of Venus. The nebulofity
which furrounded the nucleus, and went on leffening,
fhewed reddifh colours; and thefe colours grew more
vivid towards the brighteft part of the tail. The
morning twilight, which increafed apace, foon put an
end to thefe appearances, and afterwards made the
comet itfelf difappear : however, I had been able to
perceive it with the naked eye, when it was fomewhat
difengaged from the vapours of the horizon.” On the
firft of May it appeared to the naked eye larger than
ftars of the firft magnitude, the nucleus being furround¬
ed with a great coma. Its light was but faint, like
that of the planets feen thro’ the thick vapours of the
horizon. It would have appeared brighter but for the
light of the moon. In this laft appearance the comet
was in the fextant, or 6o° from the fun, and was ob¬
ferved by moft of the aftronomers of Europe.
The triumph of the aftronomers feemed now to be
complete; and accordingly Dr Bevis exultingly fays,
Phil. Tranf. Vol. LI. “ I think I may now venture to
pronounce this to be the fame as the comet of 1682 ;
and am about making out its future tra<ft. If I pre¬
fume rightly, it will in a (hort time become in a man¬
ner llationary, but diminifti very fail both in fize and
light, the earth and it receding from one another al¬
moft in a diredl line. It is at this time about four times
nearer
76.?
Sea. nr. a s t r
ss nearer than the fun ^s.,,
Farther evi- Thus we have given the flrength of the evidence for
dence to be return of comets ; and the appearance of that in
on this Tub- 1759 18 common^y urged as an undeniable proof of their
je£t. revolution round the fun, and confequently being a
kind of planets: but, however ftrong this evidence may¬
be reckoned, a regard for truth obliges us to take no¬
tice, that M. Clairault could not be miftaken, whether
he had concluded the comet to have been accelerated
or retarded by the aftion of Jupiter and Saturn ; for
a comet appeared in the year 1757, in the mouths of
September and O&ober. Had he determined the re¬
tardation of the comet to be twice as great as he ac¬
tually did, ftill he would have been right by the event,
for another comet appeared in 1760. It muft be owned
that thefe are perplexing circumftances. It is very lin¬
gular, that out of four years, in which three comets ap¬
peared, the only one in which no comet was to be feen
Ihould be that very year in which the greateft aftrono-
mersthat everexifted had foretold the appearance of one.
How far this confideration renders the real accomplifh-
ment of Dr Halley’s predidtion uncertain, we fubmit
to the judgment of the impartial: but, as it is certain
that fmall comets are very frequently to be feen ; fo, till
fome better marks for diftinguilhing one from another
than any yet known are found out, perhaps this part
of aftronomy may not appear to be fufficiently efta-
blilhed. Another cometis expedled in the year 1789,
when fome further evidence either one way or another
may be hoped for.
Newton’s The revolution of comets round the fun, and their
computa- permanent exiftence as planets, being granted, we are
heat of co* natllra^y ^ t° inquire what kind of fubftances they
mets and are> an(i f°r wbat ufe defigned. Sir Ifaac Newton,
conjectures confidering the near approach of that of 1680 to the
concerning fun, has computed the heat they fometimes undergo to
em' be inconceivably great. That one, in particular, he
thought to be heated to a degree 2000 times greater
than red-hot iron. In confequence of this calculation
he naturally imagined that they were bodies of extreme
folidity, in order to fuftain fuch an intenlity of heat;
arid that, notwithftanding their running out into the
vaft regions of fpace, where they were expofed to the
mod intenfe degrees of cold, they would hardly be
cool on their returning again to the fun. Indeed, ac¬
cording to his calculation, the comet of 1680 muft be
forever in a violent ftate of ignition. He hath compu¬
ted that a globe of red-hot iron of the fame dimenfions
with the earth would fcarce be cool in 50,000 years.
If then the comet be fuppofed to cool 100 times fatter
than red-hot iron, as its heat was 2000 times greater,
it muft require upwards of a million of years to cool
it. In the fhort period of 575 years, therefore, its
heat would be in a manner fcarce diminifhed; and there¬
fore, in its next and every fuccceding revolution it
muft acquire an increafe of heat; fo that, fmce the
creation, having received a proportional addition in
every fucceeding revolution, it muft now be in a ftate
of ignition very little inferior to that of the fun himfelf.
Sir Ifaac hath farther concluded, that this comet muft
be confiderably retarded in every revolution by the at-
mofphere of the fun within which it enters ; and thus
muft continually come nearer and nearer his body, till
at laft it falls into it. This, he thinks, may be one ufe
of the comets : viz. to futnifii fuel for the fun, which
Vot. I.
O N O M Y.
would otherwife be in danger of wafting, from the con¬
tinual emifiion of its light.
As to the tails with which comets are almoft con- His account
ftantly attended, Sir Ifaac Newton fliews, that the at-
mofpheres of comets will furnifti vapour fufficient to tJys
form their tails. This he argues from that wonderful
rarefadiion obferved in our air, at a diftance from the
earth : a cubic inch of common air, at the diftance of
half the earth’s diameter, or 4000 miles, would expand
itfelf fo as to fill a fpace larger than the whole region
of the ftars. Since then the coma or atmofphere of a
cometis ten times higher than the furface of the nucleus,
counting from the centre thereof; the tail, afcending
much higher, muft; needs be immenfely rare: fo that
it is no wonder the ftars Ihould be vifible through it.
Now, the afcent of vapours into the tail of the comet,
he fuppofes to be occafioned by the rarefadlion of the
matter of the atmofphere at the time of the perihelion.
Smoke, it is obferved, afcends a chimney by the im-
pulfe of the air wherein it floats ; and air, rarefied by
heat, afcends by the diminution of its fpecific gravity,
taking up the fmoke along with it : why then ftiould
not the tail of a comet be fuppofed to be raifed after
the fame manner by the fun ? for the fun-beams do not
adl on the mediums they pafs through, any otherwife
than by refledlion and refradlion.
The refledting particles, then, being warmed by the
adlion, will again warm the ether wherewith they are
compounded ; and this, rarefied by the heat, will have
its fpecific gravity, whereby it before tended to de-
fcend, diminiftied by the rarefadtion, fo as to afcend,
and to carry along with it thofe refledling particles
whereof the tail of the comet is compofed.
This afcent of the vapours will be promoted by their
circular motion round the fun ; by means whereof they
will endeavour to recede from the fun, while the fun’s
atmofphere,and the other matters in the celeftial fpaces,
are either at reft, or nearly fo, as having no motion
but what they receive from the fun’s circumrotation.
Thus are the vapours raifed into the tails of comets
in the neighbourhood of the fun, where the orbits are
moft curve; and where the comets, being within the
denfer atmofphere of the fun, have their tails of the
greateft length.
The tails thus produced, by preferving that motion,
and at the fame time gravitating towards the fun, will
move round his body in ellipfes, in like manner as
their heads ; and by this means will ever accompany
and freely adhere to their head. In effedl, the gravi¬
tation of the vapours towards the fun will no more
occafion the tails of comets to forfake their heads, and
fall down towards the fun, than the gravitation of their
heads will occafion them to fall off from their tails ;
but, by their common gravitation, they will either fall
down together to the fun, or be together fufpended
or retarded. This gravitation, therefore, does not at
all hinder, but that the heads and tails of comets may
receive and retain any pofition towards each other,
which either the above-mentioned caufes, or any other,
may occafion.
The tails therefore, thus produced in the perihelion
of comets, will go off along with their head into re¬
mote regions ; and either return thence, together with
the comets, after a long feries of years ; or rather be
there loft, and vanilh by little and little, and the comet
5 D be
766 ASTRO
be left bare ; till, at its return, defcending towards the
fun, fome little fliort tails be gradually and (lowly pro¬
duced from the heads ; which afterwards, in the peri¬
helion, defcending down into the fun’s atmofphere,
will be immenfely increafed.
The vapours thus dilated, rarefied, and diffufed thro’
all the celeftial regions, the fame author obferves, may
probably, by little and little, by means of their own
gravity, be attrafted down to the planets, and become
intermingled with their atmofpheres.
He adds, that for the confervation of the water
and moifture of the planets, comets feem abfolutely
requifite ; from whofe condenfed vapours and exhala¬
tions all that moifture which is fpent in vegetations
and putrefa&ions, and turned into dry earth, &c. may
be refupplied and recruited. For all vegetables grow
and increafe wholly from fluids ; and, again, as to .
their greateft part, turn by putrefa&ion into earth,
an earthy (lime being perpetually precipitated
to the bottom of putrefying liquors. Hence, the
quantity of dry earth mu ft continually increafe, and
the moifture of the globe decreafe, and at laft be quite
evaporated ; if it have not a continual fupply from
fome part or other of the univerfe. And I fufpe&,
adds our great author, that the fpirit, which makes
the fineft, fubtileft, and beft part of our air, and
which is abfolutely requifite for the life and being of
all things, comes principally from the comets.
On this principle, there feemstobe fome foundation
for the popular opinion of prefages from comets : fince
the tail of a comet, thus intermingled with our atmo¬
fphere, may produce changes very fenfible in animal
j8 and vegetable bodies.
Controvert- This account of the formation of the tails of comets,
ed by Dr we find controverted by Dr Hamilton of Dublin, in a
Hamilton, fmall treatife intitled Conjectures on the nature of the
Aurora Borealis, and on the tails of Comets. His hy-
pothefis is, that the comets are of ufe to bring back
the ele&ric fluid to the planets, which is continually
difcharged from the higher regions of their atmo¬
fpheres. Having given at length the abovementioned
opinion of Sir Ifaac, “ We find (fays he) in this ac¬
count, that Sir Ifaac afcribes the afcent of comets tails
to their being rarer and lighter, and moving round the
fun more fwiftly, than the folar atmofphere, with which
he fuppofes them to be furrounded whilft in the neigh¬
bourhood of the fun ; he fays alfo, that whatever po-
fition (in refpeft to each other) the head and tail of
a comet then receive, they will keep the fame after¬
wards moft freely; and in another place he obferves,
‘ That the celeftial fpaces muft be entirely void of any
power of refitting, fince not only the folid bodies of
the planets and comets, but even the exceeding thin
vapours of which comets tails are formed, move thro’
thofe fpaces with immenfe velocity, and yet with the
greateft freedom.’ I cannot help thinking that this
account is liable to many difficulties and objections,
and that it feems not very confiftent with itfelf or with
the phenomena.
“ I do not know that we have any proof of the ex-
iftence of a folar atmofphere of any confiderable ex¬
tent, nor are we any where taught how to guefs at the
limits of it. It is evident that the exiftence of fuch an
atmofphere cannot be proved merely by the afcent of
comets tails from the fun, as that phenomenon may
N O M Y. Sect. III.
poffibly arife from fome other caufe. However, let us
fuppofe, for the prefent, that the afcent of comets
tails is owing to an atmofphere furrounding the fun,
and fee how the effe&s arifing from thence will agree
with the phenomena. When a comet comes into the
folar atmofphere, and is then defcending almott direft-
ly to the fun, if the vapours which compofe the tail are
raifed up from it by the fuperior denfity and weight of
that atmofphere, they muft rife into thofe parts that the
comet has left, and therefore at that time they may ap¬
pear in a dire&ion oppofite to the fun. But as foon as
the comet comes near the fun, and moves in a direction
nearly at right angles with the direction of its tail, the
vapours which then arife, partaking of the great velo¬
city of the comet, and being fpecifically lighter than
the medium in which they move, and being' vaftly ex¬
panded through it, muft neceflarily fuffer a refiftance
immenfely greater than what the fmall and denfe body
of the comet meets with, and confequently cannot pof¬
fibly keep up with it, but muft be left behind, or, as
it were, driven backwards by the refiftance of that me¬
dium into a line diredted towards the parts which the
comet has left, and therefore can no longer appear in a
direClion oppofite to the fun. And, in like manner,
when a comet pafles its perihelion, and begins to afcend
from the fun, it certainly ought to appear ever after
with its tail behind it, or in a direction pointed to¬
wards the fun; for if the tail of the comet be fpecifi¬
cally lighter than the medium in which it moves with
fo great velocity, it muft be juft as impoffible it ftiould
move foremoft, as it is that a torch moved fwiftly thro’
the air Ihould projeCt its flame and fmoke before it.
Since therefore we find that the tail of a comet, even
when it is afcending from the fun, moves foremoft, and
appears in a direction nearly oppofite to the fun, I
think we muft conclude that the comet and its tail do
not move in a medium heavier and denferthan the mat¬
ter of which the tail confifts, and confequently that
the conftant afcent of the tail from the fun muft be ow¬
ing to fome other caufe. For that the folar atmofphere
ftiould have denfity and weight fufficient to raife up the
vapours of a comet from the fun, and yet not be able
to give any fenfible refiftance to thefe vapours in their
rapid progrefs through it, are two things inconfiftent
with each other. And therefore, fince the tail of a co¬
met is found to move as freely as the body does, wc
ought rather to conclude that the celeftial fpaces are
voidof all refilling matter, than that they are filled with
a folar atmofphere, be it ever fo rare.
“ But there is, I think, a further confideration
which will Ihew, that the received opinion, as to the
afcent of comets tails, is not agreeable to the pheno¬
mena, ancl may at the fame time lead us to fome know¬
ledge of the matter of which thefe tails confift; which
I fufpeCl is of a very different nature from what it has
been hitherto fuppofed to be. Sir Ifaac fays, the va-
ours, of which the tail of a comet confifts, grow hot
y refle&ing the rays of the fun, and thereby warm
and rarefy the medium which furrounds them; which
muft therefore afcend from the fun, and carry with it
the refle&ing particles of which the tail is formed; for
he always fpeaks of the tail as Alining by refle&ed
light. But one.would rather imagine, from the phe¬
nomena, that the matter which forms a comet’s tail has
pot the leaft fenfible power of reflefting the rays of
■67
Sea. III. A S T R
light. For it appears from Sir Ifaac’s obfervation,
which I have quoted already, that the light of the
fmalleft ftars, coming to us through the immenfe thick-
nefs of a comet’s tail, does not fuffer the leaft diminu¬
tion. And yet, if the tail can refledl the light of the fun
fo copioufly, as it muft do if its great fplendour be ow¬
ing to fuch refledfion, it muft undoubtedly have the
fame effedt on the light of the ftars; that is, it muft
refledf back the light which comes from the. ftars be¬
hind it, and by fo doing muft intercept them from our
fight, confidering its vaft thicknefs, and how exceed¬
ingly flender a ray is that cofties from a fmall ftar ; or
if it did not intercept their whole light, it muft at leaft
increafe their twinkling. But we do not find that it
has even this fmall effect, for thofe ftars that appear
through the tail are not obferved to twinkle more than
others in their neighbourhood. Since therefore this
fadt is fupported by obfervations, what can be a plainer
proof that the matter of a comet’s tail has no power of
refledting the rays of light ? and confequently that it
muft be a felf-lhining fubftance. But the fame thing
will further appear, from confidering that bodies refledt
and refradt light by one and the fame power; and
therefore if comets tails want the power of refradting
the rays of light, they muft alfo want the power of re¬
fledting them. Now, that they want this refradting
power appears from hence : If that great column of
tranfparent matter which forms a comet’s tail, and
moves either in a vacuum, or in fome medium of a dif¬
ferent denfity from its own, had any power of refrac¬
ting a ray of light coming through it from a ftar to
us, that ray muft be turned far out of its way in paf-
fiog over the great diftance between the comet and the
earth ; and, therefore, we fhould very fenfibly perceive
the fmalleft refraction that the light of the ftars might
fuffer in palling through a comet’s tail. The confe-
quence of fuch a refradtion muft be very remarkable:
the ftars that lie near the tail would, in fome cafes, ap¬
pear double; for they would appear in their proper pla¬
ces by their diredt rays, and we Ihould fee their images
behind the tail, by means of their rays which it might
refradt to our eyes; and thofe ftars that were really be¬
hind the tail would difappear in fome fituations, their
rays being turned afide from us by refradfion. In
Ihort, it is eafy to imagine what ftrange alterations
would be made in the apparent places of the fixed ftars
by the tails of comets, if they had a power of refrac¬
ting their light, which could not fail to be taken no¬
tice of, if any fuch ever happened. But fince aftrono-
mers have not mentioned any fuch apparent changes of
place among the ftars, I take it for granted that the
ftars feen through all parts of a comet’s tail appear in
their proper places, and with their ufual colours, and
confequently I infer that the rays of light fuffer no re¬
fraction in palling through a comet’s tail. And thence
I conclude (as before) that the matter of a comet’s tail
has not the power of refradting or refledting the rays of
light, and muft therefore be a lucid or felf-lhining
fubftance.”
59 But, whatever probability the Dodtor’s conjedture
account0Je concein*nS t^e materials whereof the tails are formed
feuded. C" may ^ave **> his criticifm on Sir Ifaac Newton’s ac¬
count of them feems not to be juft : for that great phi-
lofopher fuppofes the comets to have an atmofphere pe¬
culiar to themfelves; and confequently, in their neareft
O N O M Y.
approaches to the fun, both comet and atmofphere are
immerfed in the atmofphere of that luminary. In this
cafe, the atmofphere of the comet being prodigioully
heated on the fide next to the fun, and confequently
the equilibrium in it broken, the denfer parts will con¬
tinually pour in from the regions fartheft from the fun;
for the famereafon, the more rarefied part which is be¬
fore, will continually fly off oppofite to the fun, being
difplaced by that which comes from behind ; for tho’
we muft fuppofe the comet and its atmofphere to be
heated on all fides to an extreme degree, yet ftill that
part which is fartheft from the fun will be lefs hot, and
confequently more denfe, than what is neareft to his bo¬
dy. The confequence of this is, that there muft be a
conftant ftream of denfe atmofphere defcending to¬
wards the fun, and another ftream of rarefied vapours
and atmofphere afcending on the contrary fide; juft as,
in a common fire, there is a conftant ftream of denfe
air defcending, which pulhes up another of rarefied
air, flame, and fmoke. The refiftance of the folar
atmofphere may indeed be very well fuppofed to occa-
fion the curvature obfervable in the tails of comets,
and their being better defined in the fore part than be¬
hind ; and this appearance we think Dr Hamilton’s Dr Hamil-
hypothefis is incapable of folving. We grant, that ton’s hypo-
there is the utmoft probability that the tails of comets infuf’
are ftreams of eledtric matter; but they who advance
a theory of any kind ought to folve every phenome¬
non, otherwife their theory is infufficient. It was in¬
cumbent on Dr Hamilton, therefore, to have explained
how this ftream of eledtric matter comes to be bent
into a curve, and alfo why it is better defined and
brighter on the outer fide of the arch than on the in¬
ner. This indeed he attempts, in the following man¬
ner : “ But that this curvature was not owing to any
refilling matter appears from hence, that the tail muft
be bent into a curve though it met with no refiftance;
for it could not be a right line, unlefs all its particles
were projedled in parallel diredlions, and with the fame
velocity, and unlefs the comet moved uniformly in a
right line. But the comet moves in a curve, and each
part of the tail is projedled in a-diredlion oppofite to
the fun, and at the fame time partakes of the njotion
of the comet; fo that the different parts of the tail
muft move on in lines which diverge from each other;
and a line drawn from the head of a comet to the ex¬
tremity of the tail will be parallel to a line drawn from
the fun to the place where the comet w'as when that
part of the tail began to afcend, as Sir Ifaac obferves;
and fo all the chords, or lines drawn from the head of
the comet to the intermediate parts of the tail, will
be refpedlively parallel to lines drawn from the fun to
the places where the comet was when thefe parts of
the tail began to afcend. And therefore, fince thefe
chords of the tail will be of different lengths, and
parallel to different lines, they muft make different
a'ngles, with a great circle palling through the fun and
comet, and confequently a line palling through their
extremities will be a curve.
“ It is obferved, that the convex fide of the tail which,
is turned from the fun is better defined, and Ihines a
little brighter, than the concave fide. Sirlfaac accounts
for this, hy faying, that the vapour on the convex fide
is frelher (that is, has afcended later) than that on the
concave fide; and yet I cannot fee how the particles on
5 D 2 the
768
ASTRO
the convex fide can he thought to have afcended later
than thofe on the concave fide which may be nearer to
the head of the comet. I think it rather looks as if
the tail, in its rapid motion, met with fome flight re¬
finance juft fufficient to caufe a fmall condenfation in
that fide of it which moves foremoft, and which would
occafion it to appear a little brighter and better defined
than the other fide ; which flight refiftance may arife
from that fubtfle ether which is fuppofed to be dif-
perfed through the celeftial regions, or from this very
ele£tric matter difperfed in the fame manner, if it be
different from the ether.”
On the la ft part of this obfervation we muft remark,
that though a flight refiftance in the etherial medium
would have ferved Sir Ifaac Newton’s turn, it will by
no means ferve Dr Hamilton’s; for though a ftream of
water or air may be eafily deftroyed or broken by re¬
fiftance, yet a ftream of ele&ric matter feems to fet
every obftacle at defiance. If a (harp needle is placed on
the conduftor of an ele&ric machine, and the machine
fet in motion, we will perceive a fmall ftream of ele&ric
matter iffuing from the point; but though we blow a-
gainft this ftream of fire with the utmoft violence, it
is impoffible either to move it, or to brighten it on the
fide againft which we blow. If the celeftial fpaces
then are full of a fubtile ether capable of thus affefting
a ftream of ele&ric matter, we may be fure that it al-
fo will refift very violently ; and we are then as much
difficulted to account for the proje&ile motion conti¬
nuing amidft fuch violent refiftance; for if the ether
refifts the tail of the comet, it is impoffible to prove
«i that it doth not refift the head alfo.
Electric This obje&ion may appear to fome to be but weak-
matter not jy. founded as we perceive the eledlric fluid to be en-
five^5 Pa " ^owe<i with fuch extreme fubtilty, and to yield to the
impreffion of folid bodies with fuch facility, that we
eafily imagine it to be of a very paffive nature in all
cafes. But we are inclined to think, that this fluid
only ftiews itfelf paffive where it paffes from one body
into another, which it feems very much inclined to do
of itfelf. We are alfo much miftaken, if it will not
be found, on proper examination of all the phenomena,
that the only way we can manage the eleftric fluid at
all is by allowing it to direct its own motions. In all
cafes where we ourfelves attempt to aflume the go •
vernment of it, it ftiews itfelf the moft untra&able and
ftubborn being in nature. But thefe things come
more properly under the article Electricity, where
^hey are fully confidered. Here, it is fufficient to ob-
ferve, that a ftream of ele&ric matter refifts air, and
from the phenomena of eleftric repulfion we are fure
that one ftream of eleftric matter refifts another ; from
which we may be alfo certain, that if a ftream of
de&ric matter moves in an aerial fluid, fuch fluid
will refift it, and we can only judge of the degree
of refiftance it meets with in the heavens from what
we obferve on earth. Here we fee the moft violent
blaft of air has no effeA upon a ftream of ele&ric fluid;
in the celeftial regions, either air, or fome other fluid,
has an effeft upon it according to Dr Hamilton. The
refiftance of that fluid, therefore, muft be greater than
that of the moft violent blaft of air we can imagine.
As to the Do&or’s method of accounting for the cur¬
vature of the comet’s tail, it might do very well on Sir
Ifaac Newton’s principles, but cannot do fo on his.
N O M Y. Sed. HI.
There is no comparifon between the celerity with which
rarefied vapour afcends in our atmotfphere, and that
whereby the ele&ric fluid is difcharged. The velocity
of the latterfeems to equal that of light; of confequence,
fuppofing the velocity of the comet to be equal to that
of the earth in its annual courfe, and its tail equal in
length to the diftance of the fun from the earth, the
curvature of the tail could only be to a itraight line,
as the velocity of the comet in its orbit is to the velo¬
city of light, which, according to the calculations of
Dr Bradley, is as 10,201 to 1.—The apparent curva¬
ture of fuch a comet’s tail, therefore, would at this rate
only be -rgisr part of its vifible length, and thus be¬
hoved always to be imperceptible. The velocity of
comets is indeed fometimes inconceivably great. Mr Prodigious
Brydone obferved one at Palermo, in July 1770, which ve|°city of
in 24 hours defcribed an arch in the heavens upwards
of 50 degrees in length ; according to which he fup- Mr^ry-*
pofes, that, if it was as far diftant as the fun, it muft done. ’
have moved at the rate of upwards of 60 millions of
miles in a day. But this comet was attended with no
tail, fo that we cannot be certain whether the curva¬
ture of the tails of thefe bodies correfponds with their
velocity or not.
On this occafion Mr Brydone obferves, that the co- His eonjee-
mets without tails feem to be of a very different fpe- turcs con-
cies from thofe which have tails : to the latter, he fays, cerning co-
they appear to bear a much lefs refemblance than they ^taT^'
do even to planets. He tells us that comets with tails U 31 s'
have feldom been vifible but on their recefs from the
fun; that they are kindled up, and receive their alarm-
ing appearance, in their near approach to this glorious
luminary; but that thofe without tails are feldom or
never feen but on their way to the fun, and he does
not recolledi any whofe return has been tolerably well
afcertained. “ I remember indeed (fays he), a fewyears
ago, a fmall one, that was faid to have been difcover-
ed by a telefcope after it had paffed the fun, but ne¬
ver more became vifible to the naked eye. This af-
fertion is eafily made, and nobody can contradiA it;
but it does not at all appear probable that it Ihould
have been fo much lefs luminous after it had paffed the
fun, than before it approached him : and I will own
to you, when I have heard that the return of thefc
comets had efcaped the eyes of the moft acute aftrono-
mers, I have been tempted to think that they did not
return at all, but were abforbed in the body of the
fun, which their violent motion towards him feemed
to indicate.” He then attempts to account for the
continual emiffion of the fun’s light without wafte, by
fuppofing that there are numberlefs bodies throughout
the univerfe that are attrafted into the body of
the fun, which ferve to fupply the wafte of light, and
which for fome time remain obfcure, and occafion fpots
on his furface, till at laft they are perfe&ly diffolved
and become bright like the reft. This hypothefis
will account for the dark fpots becoming as bright,
or even brighter than the reft of the dilk, but will by
no means account for the brighter fpots becoming dark.
Of this comet too, Mr Brydone remarks, that it was
evidently furrounded by an atmofphere which refrafted
the light of the fixed ftars, and even feemed to caufe
them change their places as the comet came near
them. g4
A very ftrange opinion we find fet forth in a book Mr Cole’s
entitled hypothefis.
Sea. III. ASTRONOMY. 769
entitled “ Obfervations arid Conjeftures on the na¬
ture and properties of light, and on the theory of
comets, by William Cole.” This gentleman fuppo-
fes that the comets belong to no particular fyftem;
but were originally proje&ed in fuch direftions as would
fucceflively expofe them to the attraftion of different
centres, and thus they would defcribe various curves
of the parabolic and the hyperbolic kind. This trea-
tife is written in anfwer to fome objections thrown out
in Mr Brydone’s tour, againft the motions of the co¬
mets by means of the two forces of gravitation and
projection, which were thought fufficient for that pur-
pofe by Sir Ifaac Newton ; of which we fhall treat as
6s fully as our limits will allow, in the next feCtion.
Fixed ftars With regard to the fixed ftars, they are generally
be funt0 ^uPP°^e^ t0 t^e ^ame nature our fun, each
1 ' pf them attended by planets as he is; andthefe planets,
as well as thofe which attend our fun, are fuppofed
like this earth to be inhabited by rational creatures.—
The ftrongeft argument for the fixed ftars being funs
is taken from the impoffibility of magnifying their dia¬
meters by the beft telefcopes, which is thought to a-
rife from the vaft diftance at which they are placed
from the earth. As it is impoffible that they can be
feen by any reflection of light from the fun at fuch
immenfe diftances, we muft therefore neceffarily fup-
pofe them endowed with a power of emitting light from
their own bodies;, and by comparing the apparent di¬
ameters of objeCts at different diftances, it is conjeCtured
that our fun would appear but like a liar, was he to
be removed to the diftance at which they are placed.
Of confequence, the fixed ftars are fuppofed to be e-
6S qual if not fuperior in magnitude to that which is the
Arguments centre of our fyftem; and as it would be abfurd to fup-
for the plu- pofe the wife Author of nature to have made fo many
rarity of funs without any thing to Paine upon, it is thence con-
Wor 6‘ eluded that they are attended by planets, which receive
the fame benefit from them that the earth does from
our fun. In like manner, it would be abfurd to fup-
pofe fo many habitable worlds enlightened by funs
without having any inhabitants ; and therefore it is
concluded, that all the planets of every fyftem are inha¬
bited : to corroborate which hypothefis the infinite be¬
nevolence of the Deity is urged, who would not, it is
thought, fuffer any part of the vifible creation to want
living creatures that might be fpe&ators of his good-
nefs. It is alfo afferted, that even the planets belong¬
ing to our own fyftem are but of a very trilling ufe to
this earth, their whole combined light being much lefs
than that of the moon alone. Much lefs can we fup-
pofe the fixed ftars to be made for the ufe of this earth :
for many of them are utterly invifible without the af-
fiftance of telefcopes; and when they are thus feen,
only appear as fo many Ihining points; and it would
be abfurd to the higheft degree to think that they were
created merely to be feen by aftronomers.
The fixed ftars are not fuppofed to be at equal dif¬
tances from us, but to be more remote in proportion
to their apparent fmallnefs. This fuppofition is ne-
ceffary to prevent any interference of their planets; and
thus there may be as great a diftance between a liar
of the firft magnitude and one of the fecond apparent¬
ly clofe to it, as between the earth and the fixed ftars
firft mentioned.
Thofe who take the contrary fide of the qudlion,
affirm that the difappearance of fome of the fixed ftars c?
is a demonftration that they cannot be funs, as it would 9PPoft^’
be to the higheft degree abfurd to think that God riTbTe1!)'- *"
would create a fun which might difappear of a fudden ture of the
and leave its planets and their inhabitants in endlefs ftars.
night. Yet this opinion, we find adopted by Dr Keil, ,68
who tells us, “ It is no ways improbable that thefe conc^aio^
ftars loft their brightnefs by a prodigious number of new ftars,
fpots which entirely covered and overwhelmed them. &c.
In what difmal condition muft their planets remain,
who have nothing but the dim and twinkling light of
the fixed ftars to enlighten them ?” Others, however,
have made fuppofitions more favourable to the benevo¬
lent chara&er of the Deity. Sir Ifaac Newton thinks
that the fudden blaze of fome ftars may have been oc-
cafioned by the falling of a comet into them, by which
means they would be enabled to emit a prodigious
light for a little time, after which they would gradu¬
ally return to their former ftate. Others have thought
that the variable ones, which difappear for a time, were
planets, which were only vifiblc during fome part of
their courfe: but this their apparent immobility, not-
withftanding their decreafe of luftre, will not allow us
to think. Some have imagined, that one fide of them
might be naturally much darker than the other, and
when by the revolution of the ftar upon its axis the
dark fide was turned towards us, the ftar became in¬
vifible, and, for the fame reafon, after fome interval, re-
fumed its former luftre. Laftly, Mr Dunn, (Phil. Mr Dunn’s
Tranf. Vol. LII.) in a differtation concerning the ap- hy pothefis.
parent increafe of magnitude in the heavenly bodies
when they approach the horizon, conjectures that the
interpofition of fome grofs atmofphere may folve the
phenomena both of nebulous and new ftars. “ The
phenomena of nebulous and new ftars (fays he)
have engaged the attention of curious aftronomers ;
but none that I know of have given any reafon for the
appearance of nebulous ftars. Poffibly what has been
before advanced may alfo be applicable for inveftigating
reafons for thofe ftrange appearances in the remote.parts
of the univerfe.
“ From manyinftances which might be produced con¬
cerning the nature and properties of lights and illumi¬
nations on the earth’s furface, concerning the nature
and properties of the earth’s atmofphere, and concern¬
ing the atmofpheres and illuminations of comets, we
may fafely conclude, that the atmofpheres of comets
and of our earth are more grofs in their nature than
the ethereal medium which is generally diffufed through
the folar fyftem. Poffibly a more aqueous vapour in
the one than the other makes the difference. Now, as
the atmofpheres of comets and of planets in our folar
fyftem are more grofs than the ether which is generally
diffufed through our folar fyftem, why may not the
ethereal medium diffufed throughout thofe other folar
fyftems (whofe centres are their refpeftive fixed ftars)
be moregrofsthan the etherial medium diffufed through¬
out our folar fyftem ? This indeed is an hypothefis, but
fuch an one as agrees exaftly with nature. For thefe
nebulous ftars appear fo much like comets, both to the
naked eye and through telefcopes, that the one cannot
always, by any difference of their extraneous light, be
known from the other.
“ Such'orbs of grofs ether reflecting light more co-
pioufly, or like the atmofpheres of comets, may help
us
770
ASTRO
Fixed ftars
fuppofed to
by fome to
be polifhed
us to judge of the magnitudes of the orbs illuminated
by thofe remote funs, when all other means feem to
fail.
“ The appearance of new ftars, and difappearance of
others, poffibly may be occafioned by the interpofition
of fuch an ethereal medium, within their refpective orbs,
as either admits light to pafs freely, or wholly abforbs
it at certain times, whilft light is conftantly purfuing
its journey through the vaft regions of fpace.”
The other arguments for the plurality of worlds, the
oppofers of this do&rine attempt to evade, by telling
us that the not being able to magnify the fixed ftars
with telefcopes is not a fufficient proof of their immenfe
diftance. ,We know, fay they, that light may be re¬
flected fo as that no telefcope whatever could magnify
the obje& from which it is reflected; and this without
fuppofing it at any great diftance. Thus, the light of the
fun reflected from a polifhed globe of metal, or of glafs
quick-filvered, fhews an image of him like a fmall ftar,
and which would be vifible at a great diftance, without
a pofiibility of being magnified. If we then fuppofe
the fixed ftars to be polifhed globes reflecting the fun’s
light, we may account for the impoflibility of magnify¬
ing them without afcribing to them fuch an extravagant
diftance. An hypothefis fomething fimilar to this was
publifhed a few years ago at London. A formidable
objection againft it feems to be the apparent immobi¬
lity of the ftars with regard to one another, notwith-
ftanding the continual motion of the earth, which one
would naturally imagine behoved to caufe a confidera-
ble variation of the apparent places of the fixed ftars at
different times of the year.
SeCt. IV. Of the different Syjiems by which the
Celejiial Phenomena have been accounted for.
In treating of the various fyftems which have been
invented in different ages, we do not mean to give an
account of all, or even the greateft part, of the abfurdi-
ties that have been broached by individuals on this fub-
jed;; but fhall confine ourfelves to thofe fyftems which
have been of confiderable note, and been generally fol¬
lowed for a number of years. Concerning the opinions
of the very firft aftronomers about the fyftem of nature,
we are neceffarily as ignorant as we are of thofe aftro¬
nomers themfelves. Whatever opinions are handed
down to us, muft be of a vaftly later date fhan the in¬
troduction of aftronomy among mankind. If we may
hink
Pythago¬
rean fyftem
Supprefied
by the Pto¬
lemaic.
N O M Y.
and aftronomer Claudius Ptolemteus. This fyftem,
which commonly, goes by the name of the Ptolemaic*
he feems not to have originally invented, but adopted
as the prevailing one of that age ; and perhaps made
it fomewhat more confiftent than it was before. He
fuppofed the earth at reft in the centre of the univerfe.
Round the earth, and the neareft to it of all the hea¬
venly bodies, the moon performed its monthly revolu¬
tions. Next to the moon, was placed the planet Mer¬
cury; then Venus; and above that the Sun, Mars, Ju¬
piter, and Saturn, in their proper orbits; then the
fphere of the fixed ftars ; above thefe, two fpherea
of what he called cbryjlalline heavens; above thefe was
the primum mobile, which by turning round once in
24 hours, by fome unaccountable means or other, car¬
ried all the reft along with it. This primum mobile was
encompaffed by the empyrean heaven, which was of
a cubic form, and the feat of angels and bleffed fpirits^
Befides the motions of all the heavens round the earth
once in 24 hours, each planet was fuppofed to have a
particular motion of its own; the moon, for inftance,
once in a month, performed an additional revolution,
the fun in a year, &c.
Sea. IV.
fufed motions of the planets already defcribed, could
never be accounted for. Had they circulated uniformly U CieC ’
round the earth, their apparent motion ought always
to have been equal and uniform, without appearing ei¬
ther ftationary, or retrogade, in any part of their
courfes. In confequence of this objection, Ptolemy
was obliged to invent a great number of circles inter¬
fering with each other, which he called epicycles and
eccentrics. Thefe proved a ready and effectual falvo
for all the defeds of his fyftem; as whenever a planet
was deviating from the courfe it ought, on his plan, to
have followed, it was then only moving in an epicycle
or an excentric; and would in due time fall into its
proper path. As to the natural caufes by which the
planets were directed to move in thefe epicycles and
excentrics, it is no wonder that he found himfelf much
at a lofs, and was obliged tp have recourfe to divine
power for an explanation, or, in other words, to own
that his fyftem was unintelligible.
This fyftem continued to be in vogue till the begin- Pythago-
ning of the 16th ceutury, when Nicolaus Copernicus, real1
a native of Thorn (a city of regal Pruffia), and a man co'ernicus i I
of great abilities, began to try whether a more fatis- P 1 X
hazard a conjecture, however, we are inclined to thii
that the firft opinions on this fubjeft were much more
juft than thofe that were held afterwards for many ages.
We are told that Pythagoras maintained the motion of
the earth, which is now univerfally believed, but at
that time appears to have been the opinion of only a
few detached individuals of Greece. As the Greeks
borrowed many things from the Egyptians, and Py¬
thagoras had travelled into Egypt and Phenice, it is
probable he might receive an account of this hypothe¬
fis from thence: but whether he did fo or not, we have
now no means of knowing, neither is is it of any im¬
portance whether he did or not. Certain it is, how¬
ever, that this opinion did not prevail in his days, nor
for many ages after. In the 2d century after Chrift,
the very name of the Pythagorean hypothefis was fup-
preffed by a fyftem ereCted by the famous geographer
of great abilities, began to try whether a more fatis-
faCtory manner of accounting for the apparent motions
of the-heavenly bodies could not be obtained than was
afforded by the Ptolemaic hypothefis. He had recourfe
to every author upon the fubjeCt, to fee whether any had
been more confiftent in explaining the irregular mo¬
tions of the ftars, than the mathematical fchools; but
received no fatisfaCtion, till he found, firft from Cicero,
that Nicetas the Syracufan had maintained the motion
of the earth; and next, from Plutarch, that others of
the ancients had been of the fame opinion. From the
fmall hints he could obtain from the ancients, Coperni¬
cus then deduced a moft complete fyftem capable of fol-
ving every phenomenon in a fatisfaClory manner. From
him this fyftem hath ever afterwards been called the
Copernican, and reprefented Plate XL III. fig. 1. Here
the fun is fuppofed to be in the centre; next him re¬
volves the planet Mercury; then Venus; next, the Earth,
with the Moon; beyond thefe, Mars, Jupiter, and Sa-
Tychonic
1'yftem.
Sefl. IV. ASTRO
turn ; and far beyond the orbit of Saturn, he fuppofed
the fixed ftars to be placed, which formed the bounda-
he ries of the vifible creation.
Though this hypothefis afforded the only natural
and fatisfa&ory folution of the phenomena which fo
much perplexed Ptolemy’s fyftem, it met with great
oppofition at firft; which is not to be wondered at, con-
fidering the age in which he lived. Even the famous
aftronomer Tycho Brahe could never alfent to the
earth’s motion, which was the foundation of Coperni¬
cus’s fcheme. He therefore invented another fyilem,
whereby he avoided the aferibing of motion to the
earth, and at the fame time got clear of the difficulties
with which Ptolemy was embarraffed. In' this fyftem,
the earth was fuppofed the centre of the orbits of the
fun and moon; but the fun was fuppofed to be the
centre of the orbits of the five planets; fo that the fun
with all the planets were by Tycho Brahe fuppofed to
N O M Y. 77I
than thofe which are neareft. Befides this general vor¬
tex of the fun, each of the planets had a particular vor¬
tex of their own by which their fecondary planets were
carried round, and any other body that happened to
come within reach of it would like wife be carried a-
way. 7S
It is eafy to fee, from this fhort account of Des Gives way
Cartes’s fyftem, that the whole of it was a mere petitio t0 ^ New-
principii: for had he been required to prove the exift- tonian-
ence of his materia fubtilis, he muft undoubtedly have
failed in the attempt; and hence, though his hypothe¬
fis was for fomeiime followed for want of a better, yet
it gave way to the Newtonian almoft as foon as the lat¬
ter was propofed.
When Sir Ifaac Newton undertook the reformation Fouadation
of philofophy, he proceeded upon a very different plan °fSirIfaac’s
from all thofe who had gone before him, as he pro- ^ em‘
pofed to aflume nothing as an hypothefis which was
turn round the earth, in order to fave the motion of not deduced from what is obvious to our eyes; and
the earth round its axis once in 24 hours. This fyftem
was never much followed, the fuperiority of the Co-
pernican fcheme being evident at firft fight.
Inquiries The fyftem of Copernicus coming foon into univer-
concerning fal credit, philofophers began to inquire into the caufes
thecaufesof 0f the planetary motions; and here, without entering
the plane- ^ w^at ^ keen a(jvance(j detached individuals,
tary mo- 1 „ „ . . ri _ __   
thus, by arguing from thofe things which are within our
reach, he thought we might come to know with cer¬
tainty, what muft happen in the celeftial regions, to
which accefs is denied us. The manner in which he
was firft led to form his fyftem of gravitation, which
hath fince been fo univerfally received, is faid to have ^
been as follows. Pie was fitting alone in a garden, jj;s ^ifeo-
fhall content ourfelves with giving an account of when fome apples, falling from a tree, led his thoughts very of the
Cartefian
fyftem.
the three famous fyftems, the Cartefian, the Newtonian,
and what is fometimes called the Mechanical fyftem.
Des Cartes, the founder of that fyftem which fince
his time has been called the Cartefian, flourifhed about
the beginning of the 17th century. His fyftem feems
to have been borrowed from the philofophers Demo¬
critus and Epicurus; who held, that every thing was
formed by a particular motion of very minute bodies
called atoms, which could not be rtivided into fmaller
parts. But tho’ the philofophy of Des Cartes refembled
that of the Corpufcularians, in accounting for all the
phenomena of nature merely from matter and motion ;
upon the fubjedt of gravity ; and refledting on the law °f Em¬
power of that principle, he began to confider, that, as v'ty’
this power is not found to be fenfibly diminiihed at the
remoteft diftance from the centre of the earth to which
we can rife, neither at the tops of the loftieft buildings,
nor on the fummits of the higheft mountains, it ap¬
peared to him reafonable to conclude that this power
muft extend much further than was ufually thought.
“ Why not as far as the moon ? (faid he to himfelf) ;
and if fo, her motion muft be influenced by it; per¬
haps fhe is retained in her orbit thereby : however,
though the power of gravity is not fenfibly weakened
he differed from them in fuppofing the original parts of in the little change of diftance at which we can plac
matter capable of being broken. To this property his
Materia Subtilis owes its origin. To each of his atoms,
or rather fmall maffes of matter, Des Cartes attribu¬
ted a motion on its axis, and likewife maintained that
there was a general motion of the whole matter of the
univerfe round like a vortex or whirlpool. From this
complicated motion, thofe particles, which were of an
angular form, would have their angles broke off; and
the fragments which were broke off being fmaller than
the particles from which they were abraded, behoved
to form a matter of a more fubtile kind than that made
of large particles; and as there was no end of the a-
brafion, different kinds of matter of all degrees of fine-
nefs would be produced. The fineft forts, he thought,
would naturally feparate themfelves from the reft, and
be accumulated in particular places. The fineft of all
would therefore be collected in the fun, which was the
centre of the univerfe, whofe vortex was the whole ethe¬
real matter in the creation. As all the planets were
immerfed in this vortex, they behoved to be carried
round by it, in different times, proportioned to their
diftances; thofe which were neareft the fun, circulating
the moft quickly ; and thofe fartheft off, more flowly;
as thofe parts of a vortex which are fartheft removed
from the centre are obferved to circulate more flowly
ourfelves from the centre of the earth, yet it is very pof-
fible, that, as high as the moon, this power may differ
much in ftrength from what it is here.” To make an
eftimate what might be the degree of this diminution,
he confidered with himfelf, that if the moon be retain¬
ed in her orbit by the force of gravity, no doubt the
primary planets are detained in their orbits by a fimilar
gravitation towards the fun ; and by comparing the
periods of the feveral planets with their diftances from
the fun, he found, that if any power like gravity held
them in their Courfes, its ftrength muft decreafe in the
duplicate proportion of the increafe of diftance. This
was concluded from a fuppofition that thefe bodies
moved in perfect circles round the fun ; which though
they are not found to do exaftly, yet the error was but
of little confequence. The fa& itfelf will be under-
ftood from the following cohfiderations. Let B Y U
(Plate XLIV. fig. 3.) be the orbit of a planet rou nd the
fun S. It is manifeft from infpe&ion, that during the
time in which the planet moves from B to Y, it devi¬
ates in a perpendicular dire&ion from the tangent line
A B X, by the fpace X Y, equal to B y which is the
verfed fine of the arch B Y. Were the planet therefore
retained in its orbit by a gravitating power towards
the fun, it would require for this purpdfe a power of
772
ASTRONOMY. Se&. IV.
gravitation fufficient to make it fall towards the fun,
or, at leaft, to deviate from a tangent, by the whole
length of the verfed fine of the arch which it defcribes
in the fame time. Thus, fuppofe the planet is obfer-
ved to move from B to Y in the fpace of a minute ;
we thence know, that, had it been left to the force of
gravity alone, it would have fallen from B to j in the
fame time. In proportion as the radius is lengthened,
the length of the arch B Y will become a proportion-
ably fmaller part of the circle, and thus approach more
nearly to the right line A B X ; fo that, if we fuppofe
one planet both to take longer time to deferibe the
fame fpace in its orbit, and likewife to deviate lefs from
a ftraight line in deferibing that fpace than another
does, it is plain that the forpe of gravity muft be much
greater in the latter than in the former. By compa¬
ring in this manner the diftances of the feveral planets
from the fun, and of the fecondary planets from their
primaries, Sir Ifaac Newton obferved the gravitating
power towards each body to decreafe in a duplicate
proportion to the increafe of diftanee from the fun, or
8r from the primary planet, as already mentioned.
Gravity not In the courfe of thefe obfervatiens a very Angular
proportion- circumftance occurred, namely, that the force of gra-
bulks onhe vity was not at proportioned to the apparent bulk
celeftial bo- tlle planets, or even of the fun himfelf. In this re¬
dies. fpe£l the earth feems to have the advantage over all
the other bodies in the fyftem. This is difeovered by
comparing the bulk of the fun with that of the feveral
planets, and the bulk of the earth with that of the
moon, and her diftance from the earth. From this
companion it appears, that our moon is vaftly larger
in proportion than any of thofe belonging to Jupiter
or Saturn, and confequently more difficult to be re¬
tained in her orbit: her diftanee is alfo much greater
than that of the moft remote fatellites of thefe planets,
8i as is obvious from their figures.
An objec- This feemed to be a difficulty in Sir Ifaac’s hypothefis
tion drawn of gravity : for if fuch a property exifted in all bodies,
thence anC^ WaS ProPort’one^ to tllc'r quantities of matter, it
was naturally afked why it was not in proportion to the
bulk of the fun or planets. To obviate this obje&ion,
Sir Ifaac, obferving the effeft of fire on our earth to
rarefy bodies and make them occupy more fpace than
they did before, naturally enough concluded that the
fun was of a more rare fubftance, or contained lefs
matter in proportion to his bulk than the earth did;
and having confidered the matter mathematically, he
concluded the fun to be four times rarer than the
earth.
But though the difficulty was removed with regard
to the fun, it ftill remained as to Jupiter and Saturn ;
both of thefe planets being found by obfervations of the
diftances and periodical times of their fatellites, to be
rarer than the earth ; whereas, in the opinion of Des
Cartes and other philofophers, they were more denfe,
as being placed at a greater diftance from the fun, and
in a colder region. Indeed, according to the above-
mentioned caufe of the fun’s rarefa&ion, thefe planets
ought to have been accounted more denfe bodies
than this earth ; but whatever was the reafon, Sir
Ifaac and all philofophers who followed him have con¬
fidered them as much rarer. For this fuppofition, they
have not affigned any natural caufe ; but chofen to re¬
fer it to the will of the Deity, and think his wifdom is
manifefted in placing the denfeft planets next the fun,
that they may be able to refill his heat, and the rarell
at a diftance from him, that they may not be too much
confolidated by the cold. Sj t
As for Des Cartes’s method of accounting for the Cart«’s
planetary motions, Sir Ifaac Newton entirely over- ^
turned it, by (hewing, that, if they were carried about no exjft. if
in a vortex of fluid matter, their periodical times be- ence. I
hoved to be dire&ly as the fquares of their diftances
from the fun*; whereas from obfervation it is found,
that the fquares of the periodical times of the planets
are as the cubes of their diftances. He alfo (hewed,
that no motion could be continued in a fluid medium,
becaufe whatever body moved in fuch a medium beho¬
ved to communicate its motion to the fluid. In pro-
portionas motion was communicated to the fluid, it be¬
hoved to be loft to the body ; which, befides, would be
refilled by the fluid itfelf, and this relillance would be
in the proportion of the fquare of the velocity where¬
with the body moved : and for thefe reafons he con¬
cluded that the celeftial regions were entirely void of
matter, excepting perhaps fome exceedingly rare ex¬
halations from the planets and comets, and the rays of
light, which were confidered by him as fubftances of
fuch extreme tenuity as to give no fenfible refiftance
to any body whatever.
To account for the perpetual motions of the planets Planetary j
and comets in their orbs, Newton had recourfe to the revolutipns J
force of gravity already mentioned, and a projeilile ^ounte(I 1
force compounded with it. Thefe two forces had in¬
deed been propofed by Mr Horrox fome time before
with the fame view, and the power of gravity as exift-
ing in the celeftial regions had been hinted at by fe¬
veral philofophers ; but before Sir Ifaac, little notice
had been taken of this fcheme; owing, no doubt, to the
inferiority of thofe geniufes who had propofed it, to
that of our celebrated philofopher. As Sir Ifaac was
ignorant of any natural power by which the planets
could be impelled in the dire&ion of a tangent line to
any part of their orbits, he was obliged to have re¬
courfe for one of his forces to the immediate adlion of
the Deity himfelf. According to him, God having
created this world, and imprefled the univerfal law of
attra&ion or gravitation upon matter, impelled each of
the planets in the dire£lion of a right line touching their
orbits. Being immediately ailed upon by the attrailion
of the fun, their courfes were bent from a ftraight
line into a circle ; and the fame caufes ftill continuing
to ail, the original reclilinear direction was changed
into one nearly circular, which has continued ever fince.
The fame reafon was given for the continued motion of
the fecondary planets round their primaries ; but as
for the motion of the earth, fun, and planets, round
their axis, we have not heard that the Newtonian phi-
lofophers affign any natural caufe.
Upon this plan Sir Ifaac Newton accounted for the
motion both of planets and comets ; the latter of which
had been, and ftill is, an unfuperable objeilion to the
fyftem of Des Cartes: for, if fuch a vail whirlpool of
fluid matter, as that philofopher fuppofed, had exifted,
it is abfolutely impoffible, without a continued miracle,
but it muft have carried alcng with it the comets as
well as the planets. The manner in which Sir Ifaac
Newton demonftrates the operation of the projeflile
and gravitating forces upon the planets fo as to dire&
them
773
Sea. IV. ASTRONOMY.
them in circles round the fun, is by fuppofing the or- &c. all in equal times. Having its motion thus acce-
bit they defcribe divided into a vaft number of infinite- lerated, it thereby gains fo much centrifugal force, or
ly fmall parts, each of which will not differ from a tendency to fly off at K in the line K k, as overcomes
right line, and confequently the whole curve may be the fun’s attra&ion : and the centrifugal force being
confidered as confiding of the diagonals of parallello- too great to allow the planet to be brought nearer the
grams infinitely fmall, one of whofe fides is reprefent- fun, or even to move round him in the circle K / w «,
ed by the fpace the planet would have moved through &c. it goes off, and afcends in the curve K L M N,
by the proje&ile force alone, and the other by that &c. its motion decreafing as gradually from K to B,
which it would have moved through by the force of as it increafed from B to K, becaufe the fun’s attrac-
gtavity alone in the fame time. Thofe who want to tion now afts againd the planet’s projedtile motion jud
enter deeply into this fpeculation will find themfelves as much as it adled with it before. When the planet
amply fatisfied by looking into Newton’s Principia ; has got round to B, its projectile force is as much di-
but for the fake of thofe who may be lefs learned, and minidied from its mean date about G or N, as it was
yet want to have a general knowledge of thefe things, augmented at K ; and fo the fun’s attraction being
8{ we fubjoin the following explanation by Mr Fergufon. metre than fufficient to keep the planet from going off
KxpUna- « From the uniform projectile motion of bodies in at B, it deferibes the fame orbit over again, by virtue
Fergufon * Hnes> and the univerfal power of attraction of the fame forces or powers.
which draws them off from thefe lines, the curvilineal “ A double projetile force will always balance a
PlateXLlV. motions of all the planets arife. If the body A be quadruple power of gravity. Xjet the planet at B have
% 3* projeted along the right line A B X, in open fpace, twice as great an impulfe from thence towards X, as it
where it meets with no refidauce, and is not drawn a- had before ; that is, in the fame length of time that it
fide by any other power, it will for ever go on with was projected from B to b, as in the lad example, Jet
the fame velocity, and in the fame direction. For the it now be projected from B to c; and it will require
force which moves it from A to B in any given time, four times as much gravity to retain it in its orbit:
will carry it from B to X in as much more time, and that is, it mud fall as far as from B to 4 in the time
fo on, there being nothing to obflruCt or alter its mo- that the projeCtile force would carry it from B to c;
tion. But if, when this projeftile force has carried it, otherwife it could not defcribe the curve BD, as is evi-
fuppofe to B, the body S begins to attraft it, with dent by the figure. But, in as much time as the pla-
a power duly adjuded, and perpendicular to its motion net moves from B to C in the higher part of its orbit,
at B, it will then be drawn from the draight line it moves from I to K, or from K to L, in the lower
A B X, and forced to revolve about S in the circle part thereof; becaufe, from the joint aCtion of thefe
B Y T U. When the body A comes to U, or any two forces, it mud always defcribe equal areas in equal
other part of its orbit, if the fmall body «, within the times throughout its annual courfe. Thefe areas are
fphere of U’s attraction, be projected as in the right reprefented by the triangles BSC, CSD, DSE, ESF,
line Z, with a force perpendicular to the attraction of &c. whofe contents are equal to one another, quite
U, then u will go round U in the orbit W, and ac- round the figure.
company it in its whole courfe round the body S. Here, “ As the planets approach nearer the fun, and recede
S may reprefent the fun, U the earth, and u the moon, farther from him, in every revolution } there may be
“ If a planet at B gravitates, or is attraCled, toward fome difficulty in conceiving the reafon why the power
the fun, fo as to fall from B toy, in the time that the of gravity, when it once gets the better of the pro-
projeCIile force would have carried it from B to X, it jeftile force, does not bring the planets nearer and
will defcribe the curve B Y by the combined a&ion of nearer the fun in every revolution, till they fall upon
thefe two forces, in the fame time that the projeftile and unite with him; or why the projeftile force, when
force fmgly would have carried it from B to X, or the it once gets the better of gravity, does not carry
gravitating power fmgly have caufedit to defeend from the planets farther and farther from the fun, till it re-
B toy; and thefe two forces being duly proportion- move them quite out of the fphere of his attraction,
ed, and perpendicular to each other, the planet obey- and caufe them to go on in ftraight lines for ever af-
ing them both will move in the circle B Y U. To terward. But by confidering the efteCts of thefe powers
make the projeCtile force balance the gravitating power as deferibed in the two lall articles, this difficulty will
fo exaCtly, as that the body may move in a circle, the be removed. Suppofe a planet at B to be carried by
projeCtile velocity of the body muff be fuch as it would the projeCtile force as far as from B to b, in the time
have acquired by gravity alone in falling through half that gravity would have brought it down from B to 1:
the radius of the circle. by thefe two forces it wfill defcribe the curve B C.
“ But if, whilft the projeCtile force would carry the When the planet comes down to K, it will be but half
planet from B to b, the fun’s attraction (which confti- as far from the fun S as it was at B; and therefore, by
tutes the planet’s gravitation) fhould bring it down gravitating four times as ftrongly towards him, it would
from B to 1, the gravitating power would then be too fall from K to V in the fame length of time that it
ftrong for the projeCtile force, and would caufe the would have fallen from B to 1 in the higher part of its
planet to defcribe the curve B C. When the planet orbit, that is, through four times as much fpace; but
comes to C, the gravitating power (which always in- its projeCtile force is then fo much increafed at K, as
creafes as the fquare of the diitance from the fun S di- would carry it from K to C in the fame time ; being
minifhes) will be yet ftronger for the projeCtile force; double of what it was at B; and is therefore too ftrong
and, by confpiring in fome degree therewith, will acce- for the gravitating power, either to draw the planet to
Jerate the planet’s motion all the way from C to K; the fun, or caufe it go round him in the circle K/w»,
caufing it to defcribe the arcs B C, C D, D E, E F, &c. which would require its falling from K to u, thro’
Vol. I. 5 E a
774
ASTRONOMY.
Sed. IV.
i
a greater fpace than gravity can draw it, whilft the pro-
jedlile force is fuch as would carry it from K to /h and
therefore the planet afcends in its orbit KLMN, de-
creafing in its velocity for the caufes already afligned.
“ By the above-mentioned law, bodies will move in
all kinds of ellipfes, whether long or fhort, if the
fpaces they move in be void of refiftance. Only,
thofe which move in the longer ellipfes, have fo much
the lefs proje&ile force impreffed upon them in the
higher parts of their orbits ; and their velocities, in
coming down towards the fun, are fo prodigioufly in-
creafed by his attraftion, that their centrifugal forces
in the lower parts of their orbits are fo great as to
overcome the fun’s attra&ion there, and caufe them to
afcend again towards the higher parts of their orbits;
during which time, the fun’s attradlion afting fo con¬
trary to the motions of thofe bodies, caufes them to
move flower and flower, until their projectile forces
are diminilhed almoft to nothing ; and then they are
85 brought back again by the fun’s attraClion, as before.
Gravity and “ The fun and planets mutually attraft each other :
projectile pOWer by which they do fo we call gravity. But
counted "for whether this power be mechanical or not, is very much
' difputed. Obfervation proves, that the planets difturb
one another’s motions by it; and that it decreafes ac¬
cording to the fquares of the diftances of the fun and
planets; as light, which is known to be material, like-
wife does. Hence gravity fhould feem to arife from the
agency of fome fubtle matter preffing towards the fun
and planets, and a&ing, like all mechanical caufes, by
contaft. But, on the other hand, when we coniider
that the degree or force of gravity is exa&ly in pro¬
portion to the quantities of matter in thofe bodies,
without any regard to their bulks or quantities of fur-
face, afting as freely on their internal as external parts ^
it feems to furpafs the power of mechanifm ; and to
be either the immediate agency of the Deity, or ef-
fe&ed by a law originally eftablifhedand imprefhdon all
matter by him. But fome affirm that matter, being
altogether inert, cannot be impreffed with any law even
by almighty power ; and that the Deity, or fome fub-
ordinate intelligence, muft therefore be conftantly im¬
pelling the planets toward the fun, and moving them
with the fame irregularities and difturbances which gra¬
vity would caufe, if it could be fuppofed to exift. But,
if a man may venture to publifh his own thoughts, it
feems to me no more an abfurdity, to fuppofe the Dei¬
ty capable of infufing a law, or what laws he pleafes,
into matter, than to fuppofe him capable of giving it
exiflence at firft. The manner of both is equally in¬
conceivable to us; but neither of them imply a contra-
di&ion in our ideas, and what implies no contradiftion
is within the power of Omnipotence.
“ That the projeftile force was at firft given by the
Deity, is evident. For, fince matter can never put
itfelf in motion, and all bodies may be moved in any
dire&ion whatfoever; and yet the planets, Ijoth pri¬
mary and fecondary, move from weft to caft, in planes
nearly coincident; whilft the comets move in all di¬
rections, and in planes very different from one another ;
thefe motions can be owing to no mechanical caufe or
neceffity, but to the free will and power of an intelli¬
gent Being. Mg
“ Whatever gravity be, it is plain that it aCls every
moment of time: for if its aCtion fhould ceafe, the
projeftile force would inftantly carry off the planets in
ftraight lines from thofe parts of their orbits where
gravity left them. But, the planets being once put
into motion, there is no occafion for any new projeClile
force, unlefs they meet with fome refiftance in their
orbits ; nor for any amending hand, unlefs they difturb
one another too much by their mutual attractions.
“ It is found that there are difturbances among the p}gner7s jj.
planets in their motions, ariling from their mutual at- (hirh one
traCtions when they are in the fame quarter of the hea- anothers
vens ; and the beft modern obfervers find that our moti°ns*
years are not always precifely of the fame length (a).
Befides, there is reafon to believe that the moon is fome-
what nearer the earth now than fhe was formerly; her
periodical month being fhorter than it was in former
ages. For our aftronomical tables, which in the pre-
fent age fhew the times of folar and lunar eclipfes to
great precifion, do not anfwer fo well for very ancient
eclipfes. Hence it appears, that the moon does not
move in a medium void of all refiftance; and there¬
fore her projeClile force being a little weakened, whilft
there is nothing to diminifh her gravity, fhe muft be
gradually approaching nearer the earth, deferibing
fmaller and fmaller circles round it in every revolution,
and finifhing her period fooner, although her abfolute
motion with regard to fpace be not fo quick now as it
was formerly: and, therefore, fhe muft come to the
earth at laft ; unlefs that Being which gave her a fuffi-
cient projeCtile force at the beginning, adds a little gg
more to it in due time. And, as all the planets move Muft necef-
in fpaces full of ether and light, which are material farify ap-
fubftances, they too muft meet with fome refiftance. Proach tlie
And therefore, if their gravities are not diminifhed,<Un'
nor their projeClile forces increafed, they muft necef-
farily approach nearer and nearer the fun, and at length
fall upon and unite with him. g5
“ Here we have a ftrong philofophical argument a- World not
gainft the eternity of the world. For, had it exifted eternal. 1
from eternity, and been left by the Deity to be govern¬
ed by the combined aClions of the above forces or
powers, generally called Laws, it had been at an end
long ago. And if it be left to them, it muft come to
an end. But we may be certain that it will laft as long
as was intended by its Author, who ought no more to
be found fault with for framing fo perifhable a work,
than for making man mortal (b).”
Though this fyftem hath now obtained in a manner
univerfal
(a) If the planets did not mutually attradtone another, the areas deferibed by them would be exactly proportion¬
ate to the times of defeription. But obfervations prove, that thefe areas are not in fuch exaCt proportion, and
are molt varied when the greateft number of planets are in any particular quarter of the heavens. When any two
planets are in conjuCtion, their mutual attractions, which tend to bring them nearer to one another, draws the infe¬
rior one a little farther from the fun, and the fuperior one a little nearer to him ; by which means, the figure of their
orbits is fomewhat altered ; but this alteration is too fmall to bedifeovered in feveral ages.
(b) A difficulty of this kind we find obviated in a pamphlet intitled Thoughts on General Gravitation, isc. <Lc. drc.
The author of this performance, after conlkiering how neceffary a projeClile force is to counteract the power of gravity
aCting
775
Se&.IV. ASTRONOMY.
9°
Arguments
againft the
Newtonian
hypothefis.
Pi
By Leib-
niu, Sic.
univerfal credit. It was not without oppofition at firft;
nor are there wanting at this day fome who not only
obje£t to it, but charge the hypothefis of univerfal gra¬
vity or attraction itfelf with being an abfurdity. As
we reckon ourfelves bound to ftriCt impartiality in e-
very difpute, and confequehtly to give the opinions
and arguments of one party as well as another, that
every reader may be enabled to judge for himfelf, we
hope it will give no juft caufe of offence if we mention
the principal arguments that have been made ufe of
againft our. celebrated philofopher.
At the firft appearance of the Newtonian fyftem,
Leibnitz, and other learned men abroad, objeCted to
his principle of attraction, as being an unknown power
of which Sir Ifaac himfelf did not pretend to know
the caufe ; and confequently that it was of the fame
nature with the occult qualities formerly made ufe of,
and which were only another way of exprefiing igno¬
rance. To avoid the force of this objection, it was
anfwered on Sir Ifaac’s part, that by the word attrac¬
tion was meant no more than the bare effeCt or aCtion
of fome caufe not yet difcovered, and that philofophers
ought to fearch for the caufe. On the other hand, it
was replied, that if attraction was the effeCt of any
natural caufe, fuch caufe behoved to be material, and
of confequence the matter of which that caufe was
formed behoved to be deftitute of attraction. If this
was the cafe, fay they, Sir Ifaac Newton was in the
wrong to make gravity or attraction an u'niverfal law
of matter, when it is only partial: He ought to have
contented himfelf with obferving the phenomena of
the celeftial motions, without pretending to aflign any
caufe for them at all.
This may fuffice to give a fhort view of the difpute
concerning attraction as an effeCt. With regard to it
as a caufe, (for to tell the truth, molt Newtonian philo¬
fophers, and even Sir Ifaac Newton himfelf, have fpoken
of it both as caufe and effeCt (c): “ If (fay they) we
affirm with Dr Cotes, that it is the moft Ample of caufes,
beyond which we cannot penetrate, it is undoubtedly
right to call it an invifble, hidden, ox occult caufe, property,
or quality: and therefore explaining phenomena by at¬
traction, is only explaining them by occult qualities;,
or, in otherwords, owning our ignorance. If we believe
what Sir John Pringle hath faid in his difcourfe con-'
cerning the attraction of mountains, namely, that gra¬
vity hath been long acknowledged by the Royal So¬
ciety to be “ a quality impreffed by the Creator on all
matter, whether of the earth or of the heavens, whe¬
ther at reft or in motionthen there is no doubt that
the Royal Society acknowledges it alfo to be an in-
vifible quality, a hidden quality, or an occult quality,
according as we pleafe to exprefs ourfelves. If, with
Mr Fergufon, we call it a law impreffed by the Creator
on all matter, there is no diffei-ence, except merely in
the word, between an occult law and an occult quality.
If, as Mr Baxter and others fuppofe, attraction is the
immediate operation of God himfelf, then the occulta-
tion is not only infinitely increafed, but we have this ad¬
ditional inconvenience, that the Deity is chargeable
with doing whatever is done by means of attraction,
whether good or evil.”
Thefe are the general objections that are made to
the doCtrine of attraction itfelf. In particular, it is
faid to be demonftrably infufficient to produce even the
common phenomena of falling bodies; but thefe ob-
5 E 2 jeCtions
afting on the planets, applies the fame rule to the fun, and to the ftars which arefuppofed to be other funs. As weeannot
fettle the boundaries of gravitation, he thinks it reafonable to fuppofe that all the funs in the univerfe have a projeCtilc
force as well as the planets, and gravitate towards a common centre, round which they deferibe orbits, carrying with
them their fyftems of planets, as the primary planets carry their fecondaries along with them in their revolutions round
the fun. That fomething is neceffary to countered the gravitation of the fun towards the planets, is certain; for tho*
the projectile power hinders the planets from coming to the fun, yet what hinders the fun from coming to the planets,
as Sir Ifaac Newton {hews that he is continually moved from his place by their attraction ? Difficulties of this kind
probably occurred to Sir Ifaac himfelf, when he propofed it as a query, “ What hinders the fixed ftars from falling
upon one another ?” This query, which is taken for the motto of the abovementioned pamphlet, is there anfwered in
the manner-juft now related ; and to {hew the credibility of the hypothefis, it is urged, that the ftars “ Sirius, Ca-
ftor, Procyon, Regulus, alpha Aquilae, Pollux, ArCturus, and many others, are found to be all moving through
abfolute fpace with incredible velocity, and the whole ftars in the firmament are fufpeCted to do fo by the firft aftro-
r.omers of this age.” This afiertion is fupported by the teftimonies of Dr Halley, Le Monier, Malkelyne, and Mayer,
who haveobferved changes in the places of the fixed ftars; but till thefe changes are fully afeertained and determined,
little can be faid upon this fubjeCt.
(c) This will appear by the following quotations from the writings of Sir Ifaac himfelf, and feveral of the moft
eminent of his followers.
Sir Ifaac Newton. “ Gravity exifts and aft si' Princip. p. ult.
T)r Friend. “ In explaining gravity, Newton has demonftrated it to a rife from an attractive force." Phil.Tranf.
N° 331.
M- Maupertuis. “ It ftiould be remembered in juftice to Sir Ifaac Newton, he has never confidered attraction as
an explanation of gravity. He confiders it not as a caufe, but as an effeCt.” Aftron. Phyf par. M. de Gamliches.
P- 348.
Dr Cotes. “ Gravity is the moft fimple of caufes.” Princip. pref. p. 9.
Dr Clarke. It has often been diftinftly declared, that “ by the term attraction we do not mean to exprefs the
“ caufe of bodies tending toward each other, but barely the ejjett, the efftCi itfelf, the. phenomenon, or matter of
“/rfC?.” p. 335.
Dr Defaguhers. “ Attraction feems to be fettled by the great Creator as the firft of fecond caufes.” Phil.
Tranf. N5 454-
Mr Pawning. “ When we ufe the term attraction, we do not determine the phyfical caufe of it, but ufe it to
“ fignifyan ejjeCi.” Vol. 1. p. 17.
Sir Ifaac Newton. “ There are agents in nature able to make the particles of bodies ftick together by very
“ ftrong attractions, and it is the bufinefs of experimental philofophy to fired them out.”
Dr Defaguliers. “ We are not felicitous about the caufe of attraction.” Phil. Tranf. N° 454.
Dr Friend. “ I believe attraction will always be occult.” Phil. Tranf. N0 331.
776
92
Gravitalioi
and projec
tile force
objefted tc
(fth Plate
XL!I. fig. i
ASTRONOMY. Sed. IV.
jedions come more properly to be noticed under the
article Gravity. As to the particular phenomenon
in queftion, namely, the revolutions of the celeftial bo¬
dies in orbits nearly circular, the following objeftions
are raifed again ft the Newtonian fcheme.
1. “ It is highly abfurd, not to fay impious, to
think of compounding a motion by a mixture of Di¬
vine and created power. If the Deity projects the
planets in a right line, how can a created quality make
them deviate from that line? If we are to fuppofe the
Deity to projedt them at all, why do we not fuppofe
him to project them in a circular or elliptical direc¬
tion ? Or can God only projedt bodies in a right line as
men can do ?
2. “ The Newtonian method of explaining the ce¬
leftial motions by the diagonals of parallellograms infi¬
nitely fmall, involves us in a contradidtion no lefs than
that of fuppofing the radii of a circle to be parallel to
one another. This is evident from an infpedtion of
fig. 3. Plate XLIV. When the planet fets out from B,
it is drawn by the force of gravity towards S in the di-
redtion S B. When it arrives at Y, gravity no longer
draws it in the diredtion SB, or XY, but in that of a
radius drawn from S to Y. U'nlefs therefore we fup¬
pofe thefe two radii to be parallel to one another,
which is evidently abfurd, we cannot fay that the pla¬
net moves from B to Y by a force compounded of thofe
reprefented by B X and B y ; as the latter is every mo¬
ment varying in its diredlion. By fuppofing the arches
to be infinitely fmall indeed, we may think to get over
the difficulty ; but it is a mere deception. Perhaps it
may be thought no abfurdity to fay, that one radius of
a circle is parallel to another drawn at an infinitely
fmall diftance from it : but to a Being whofe eyes are
infinitely good, the abfurdity will appear as great as it
does to us to fay that the lines S D and SB are parallel
to one another; and whatever appears an abfurdity to
him, will alfo appear an abfurdity to us when multi¬
plied fo as to become vifible.
3. “ Granting that there is no abfurdity in the a-
bovementioned fuppofition, it is abfolutely impoffible
that the power of gravity, adting in the manner which
it is found to do on earth, can be the means of retain¬
ing any body in a circular or any other kind of orbit,
but tnuft at laft; overcome the ftrongeft projedtile force
we can imagine. Neither will any law, by which we
can fuppofe this power to be regulated, anfwer our pur-
pofe better. If we fupppfe gravity to be a power ail¬
ing uniformly, the planet will run off in a curve ap¬
proaching every moment nearer to a ftraight line. If
it is accelerated in any proportion whatever, the pro-
jedtile force, however ftrong, muft at laft be overcome;
andtheplanetforfome time behoved to defcribe a ftrange
kind of curve, very different either from a circle, pa¬
rabola, or ellipfis, and would at laft come to the centre.
“ To illuftrate this, let S reprefent the fun, diffu-
fing the attraftive rays SB, Sa, Si, &c. Let us next
fuppofe a planet projected from B, in the direition B/,
in fuch a manner that it would move through the fpaces
Ba, Bi, Be, &c. by the force of projection alone, in
the fame times that it would defcribe the fpaces Bi,
B2, B3, &c. by the force of gravity alone. Accord¬
ing to the laws of compound forces, therefore, it muft
defcribe the diagonal of the parallellogram Bx, in
the fame time that it would have defcribed the fide
B<7 by the projedtile force alone. The diagonal of a
right-angled parallellogram is always longer than its
fide: the planet therefore has, in the fame time in
which it would have defcribed the fpace B<z, deferibed
that of By, which is larger ; and confequently has re¬
ceived an addition of velocity. Let us now fuppofe
the force of gravity to be annihilated, or to ceafe its
adlion. It is plain that the planet, by reafon of the
acceleration it has already received, would move from
x toy in the fame time that it would have moved from
a to i by the projedile force originally impreffed upon
it. The diagonal of the former parallellogram muft
therefore become the fide of the next one, and if we
fuppofe gravity again to begin its adion, the planet
will evidently acquire an additional acceleration during
the next moment, and thus defcribe the line y z. For
the fame reafon, it is plain, that the fide of every fuc-
ceeding parallellogram muft be the diagonal of the for¬
mer; and thus the planet will defcribe the curve B
z m, &c. which, if traced out, would become a kind of
increafing fpiral, that would carry it, after the firft half
revolution, farther and farther off from the centre S.
“ Let us now fuppofe the gravitating power to ac¬
celerate bodies in the celeftial regions in the fame pro¬
portion that it is found to do on earth, and the cafe will
be ftill worfe. We muft always confider, that the
power of gravity tends to bring bodies to a centre, and
not merely away from the tangent line B i. In pro¬
portion, therefore, as the force of gravity is increafed,
the planet muft every moment come nearer the centre
than it would have been had it moved uniformly on in
the ftraight line Bi. By the time, therefore, it would
have arrived at a by the original force of proje&ion, it
muft be nearer the centre S by the fpace B1, and con¬
fequently be at x. By the time it would have arrived
at i, it muft be nearer the centre by the fpace B4, and
confequently be at s. For the fame reafons it muft
come continually nearer and nearer the centre, defcri-
bing a kind of curve Bx sm, &c. till at laft it falls in¬
to it altogether.
“ This matter is equally capable of being illu-
ftrated from the figure by which Mr Fergufon illu-
ftrates the Newtonian hypothefis. For, fuppofing the
planet to have moved from B to Y, by the united forces
of projedtion and gravitation, in the fame time that it
would have moved from B to X by the force of pro-
jedlion, it is plain, that fuppofing the power of gravity
to ceafe when the planet has arrived at Y, it would then
fly off,in a line touching the point Y, with a velocity
increafed in the proportion of the length of the arch
BY to the line BX. Thus the projectile velocity be¬
hoved to be for ever increafed, if we fuppofe the gra¬
vitating power to aft uniformly; and to be entirely de-
ftroyed, if it is fuppofed to increafe in the proportion
1,3,5, 7> &c* as it *s found to do on earth.
“ To ftate this in a different manner : Whatever
power, motion, or velocity, receives a continual addition,
muft ultimately become infinite, or greater than any af-
iignable quantity. If the power of gravity, therefore,
afts on a planet uniformly, it muft continually increafe
its projeftile force, becaufe it obliges it to move in the
diagonal of a parallellogram, of which the projeftile ve¬
locity is one fide, and the gravitating power another.
The projeftile force, therefore, receiving a conti¬
nual addition, will be ultimately increafed beyond all
777
Sea. IV. ASTRONOMY.
calculation, and conf«quently the planet will perpetu¬
ally remove farther and farther from the centre. If the
power of gravity increafes every moment after it firft
begins to a&, as it is found to do on earth, it is equally
plain that it mull ultimately become infinite, and can¬
not be overcome by any proje&ile force whatever.”
We have already obferved, that by the two forces of
gravitation and projection, Sir Ifaac Newton account¬
ed for the motion of the comets as well as planets. The
former he fuppofed to revolve in very excentric ellipfes;
on account of their having got only a fmall degree of
projection at firft, by which means they are brought
very near the fun by the force of gravity, from which
they again acquire a prodigious degree of projeCtile
force that carries them off on the other fide, till, being
gradually weakened by the attractive power, they re¬
turn; and fo on. To this doCtrine in the particular in-
itance of comets, Mr Brydone hath made fome objec¬
tions, on the occafion of the comet obferved at Paler¬
mo, which we lhall here lay before our readers in his
own words.
93 «< The aftronomy of comets, from what I can re-
ilone’s^ob- tnember appears to be clogged with very great
jeQions. difficulties, and even fome feeming abfurdities. It is
difficult to conceive, that thefe immenfe bodies, after
being drawn to the fun with the velocity of a million of
miles in an hour; when they have at laft come almoft
to touch him, fhould then fly off from his body with
the fame velocity they approach it; and that too, by
the power of this very motion that his attraction has
occafioned. The demonftration of this I remember is
very curious andi ingenious ; but I wifti it may be en¬
tirely free from fophiftry. No doubt, in bodies mo¬
ving in curves round a fixed centre, as the centripetal
motion increafes, the Centrifugal one increafes llke-
wife : but how this motion, which is only gene¬
rated by the former, fhould at lafl get the better of the
power that produces it; and that too, at the very time
this powder has acquired its utmofl force and energy;
feems fomewhat difficult to conceive. It is the only
inftance I know, wherein, the effeCt increafing regularly
with the caufe, at laft, whilft the caufe is ftill aCting
with full vigour, the eff'eCl entirely gets the better of
the caufe, and leaves it in the lurch. For the body
attra&ed is at lafl; carried away with infinite velo¬
city from the attrafting body: — by what power is
it carried away ?—Why, fay our philofophers, by
the very power of this attraction, which has now pro¬
duced a new power fuperior to itfelf, to wit, the cen¬
trifugal force. However, perhaps all this may be re¬
concilable to reafbn ; far be it from me to prefume
attacking fo glorious a fyftem as that of attraction.
The law that the heavenly bodies are faid to obferve,
in defcribing equal areas in equal times, is fuppofed to
be demonftrated; and by this it would appear, that
the centripetal and centrifugal forces alternately get
the maftery of one another.
“ However, I cannot help thinking it fomewhat
hard to conceive, that gravity fhould always get the
better of the centrifugal force, at the very time that
its aftion is the fmalleft, when the comet is at its
greateft diftance from the fun; and that the centrifu¬
gal force fhould get the better of gravity, at the very
time that its aCtion is the greateft, when the comet is
at its neareft point to the urn.
“ To a common obferver, it would rather appear,
that the fun, like an eleCtric body, after it had once
charged the objeCIs that it attraded with its own efflu¬
via or atmofphere, by degrees lofes its attraftion, and
at laft even repels them; and that the attracting power,
like what we likewife obferve in eleCtricity, does not re¬
turn again till the effluvia imbibed from the attracting
body is difpelled or diflipated ; when it is again at¬
tracted, and fo on alternately. For it appears (at leafl
to an unphilofophical obferver) fomewhat repugnant
to reafon to fay that a body flying off from another
body fome thoufands of miles in a minute, fhould all
the time be violently attracted by that body, and that
it is even by virtue of this very attraction that it is fly¬
ing off from it.—He would probably afk. What more
could it do, pray, were it really to be repelled ?
“ Had the fyftem of eleCtricity, and of repulfion as
well as attraction, been known and eftablifhed in the
laft age, I have little doubt that the profound genius
of Newton would have called it to his aid; and per¬
haps accounted in a more fatisfaCtory manner for many
of the great phenomena of the heavens. To the beft
of my remembrance, we know of no body that pof-
feffes, in anjr confiderable degree, the power of attrac¬
tion, that in certain circumftances does not likewife
poffefsthe power of repulfion ; the magnet, the tour¬
malin, amber, glafs, and every eleCIrical fubftance.
Now, from analogy, as we find the fun fo powerfully
endowed with attraction, why may we not likewife
fuppofe him to be poffeffed of repulfion i Indeed, this
very power feems to be eonfeffed by the Newtonians to
refide in the fun in a moft wonderful degree; for they
affure us he repels the rays of light with fuch amazing
force, that they fly upwards of 80 millions of miles in
feven minutes. Now why fhould we confine this repul¬
fion to the rays of light only ? as they are material, may
not other matter brought near his body be affccled in
the fame manner ? Indeed one would imagine, that
their motion alone would create the moft violent repul¬
fion ; and that the force with which they are perpe¬
tually flowing from the fun, would moft effeCfuaily
prevent every other body from approaching him ; for
this we find is the conftant effeCt of a rapid ftream of
any other matter. But let us examine a little more his
effeCts on comets. The tails of thefe bodies are pro¬
bably their atmofpheres rendered highly eleCtrical, ei¬
ther from the violence of their motion, or from their
proximity to the fun. Of all the bodies we know,
there is none in fo conilant and fo violent an eleCtrical
ftate as the higher regions of our own atmofphere.
Of this I have been long convinced; for, fend up a kite
with a fmall wire about its firing, only to the height
of 12 or 1300 feet, and at all times it will produce fire,
as I have found by frequent experience; fometimes
when the air was perfectly clear, without a cloud in
the hemifphere ; at other times, when it was thick and
hazy, and totally unfit for eleCtrical operations below.
Now, as this is the cafe at fo fmall a height, and as we
find the effeCt ftill grows ftronger in proportion as the
kite advances, (for I have fometimes obferved, that a
little blaft of wind, fuddenly raifing the kite about
too feet, has more than doubled the effeCt) what mull
it be in very great elevations ? Indeed we may often
judge of it from the violence with which the clouds are
agitated, from the meteors formed above the regions of
778
ASTRO
the clouds, ami particularly from the Aurora Borealis,
which has been obferved to have much the fame colour
and appearance as the matter that forms the tails of
comets.
“ Now what muft be the effe& of fo vaft a body as
our atmofphere, made ftrongly ele&rical, when it
happens to approach any other body? It muft always
be either violently attra&ed or repelled, according to
the pofitive or negative quality (in the language of
electricians) of the body that it approaches.
“ It has ever been obferved, that the tails of comets
(juft as we Ihould expeft from a very light fluid body
attached.to a folid heavy one) are drawn after the co¬
mets as long as they are at a diftance from the fun ;
but as foon as the comet gets near his body, the tail
veers about to that fide of the comet that is in the op-
pofite direftion from the fun, and no longer follows
the comet, but continues its motion fideways, oppo-
fing its whole length to the medium through which it
paffes, rather than allow it in any degree to approach
the fun. Indeed, its tendency to follow the body of
the comet is ftill obfervable, were it not prevented by
fome force fuperior to that tendency ; for the tail is
always obferved to bend a little to that fide from
whence the comet is flying. This perhaps is fome
.proof too, that it does not move in an abfolute vacuum.
“ When the comet reaches its perihelion, thC tail-is
generally very much lengthened; perhaps by the rare-
faftion from the heat; perhaps by the inOreafe of the
fun’s repulfion, or that of his atmofphere. It ftilP
continues projected, exaCtly in the oppofite direction
from the fun ; and when the comet moves off again to
the regions of fpace, the tail, inftead of following it,'
as it did on its approach, is projected a vaft way before
it, and ftill keeps the body of the comet exaCtly oppo-
fed betwixt it and the fun ; till by degrees, as the di¬
ftance increafes, the length of the tail is diminilhed;
the repulfion probably becoming weaker and weaker.
“ It has likewife been obferved, that the length of
thefe tails are commonly in proportion to the proxi¬
mity of the comet to the fun. That of 1680 threw
out a train that would almoft have reached from the
fun to the earth. If this had been attraded by the fun,
would it not have fallen upon his body, when the co¬
met at that time was not one fourth of his diameter di-
ftant from him ? but, inftead of this, it was darted away
to the oppofite fide of the heavens, even with a greater
velocity than that of the comet itfelf. Now what can
this be owing to, if not to a repullive power in the fun,
or his atmofphere ?
“ And indeed it would at firft appear but little lefs
abfurd, to fay that the tail of the comet is all this time
violently attracted by the fun, although it be driven
away in an oppofite direction from him, as to fay the
fame of the comet itfelf. It is true, this repulfion
feems to begin much fooner to affeCt the tail than
the body of the comet; which is fuppofed always to
pafs the fun before it begins to fly away from him,
. which is by no means the cafe with the tail. The re-
pulfive forefe, therefore, (if there is any fuch), is in a
much lefs proportion than the attradive one; and pro-
ably juft only enough to counterbalance the latter, when
thefe bodies are in their perihelions, and to turn them
fo much afide as to prevent their falling into the body
of the fun. The projedile force they have acquired will
N O M Y. Sea. IV. I
then carry them out to the heaven?, and repulfion pro¬
bably diminifhing as they recede from the fun’s atmo¬
fphere, his attradion will again take place and retard
their motion regularly, till they arrive at their aphelia,
when they once more begin to return to him.” 94 j|'
The only fyftem which appears at prefent in oppofi- Hiitchinfo-|o
tion to the Newtonian is that which we formerly called n>an> ormal
Mechanical, and was firft publiftied by John Hutchinfon ^^ica
Efq; with a pretence of its being extraded from the fa-
cred writings. He was cotemporary with Sir Ifaac, and
expreffed no fmall inveteracy againft him, but without
fuccefs; his unintelligible manner of writing rendering
him in a great meafure innacceffible even to his friends, |
and his malevolence difgufting every body elfe. The
fyftem, however, ftill continues, with fome confiderable
alterations and improvements. The moft confiftent ac¬
count we have been able to procure of it as it Hands
at prefent, is what follows.
“ The motions of the celeftial bodies are all of them |
entirely dependent on the adion of the fun, and this
adion confifts in the emiffion of his light. As we fee
that no fire can be preferred on earth without the in¬
flux of air, fo it is reafonable to think that the fun
himfelf cannot be fupported without the influx of a
ftream of air from every fide, proportioned to his im-
menfe magnitude. This air, by which the fun’s heat
and light are preferred, is of a purer nature than what we
breathe, as being perfedly deftitute of aqueous and other
vapours with which our air is always loaded. The mat¬
ter of which the fire, the light, and the air, are compofed,
is ultimately the fame: the only difference we perceive
,is, that when the ethereal matter appears to us as fire
or light, it ads with violence from a centre to a cir¬
cumference ; when as air, it ads more mildly, as from a
circumference to a centre. The reafon of this apparent
mildnefs of the adion of air, in comparifon with that
of fire or light, is owing only to the groffnefs of the
particles of the former which make its adion lefs fen-
iible ; as a pufh with the head of a pin is much lefs
fenfible than one with the point of it, though the one
be given with no more force than the other.
“ The manner in which thegrofs air is formed, appears Formation it
from the following confideration. The light being e- of air. i
mittedfrom the fun, in particles inconceivably minute,
muft very foon ftrike againft other particles of the fame
nature with itfelf, of which the univerfe is fuppofed to
be perfedly full, which either are not moving at all, or
with a floVver motion, or in a contrary diredion. When
a particle has thus loft its motion in a dired line from
the fun, it will move along with the particle by which
it was flopped, as one body. The reafon of this is the
preffure of the circumambient fluid ; for till the violent
adion of the light from the fun overcomes the preffure
behind and on each fide, the two particles cannot fepa-
rate, having no motion but what is given them by the
reft of the fluid. The confequence of this is, that fuch
particles muft every moment come nearer the fun : for,
the univerfe beingiuppofed an abfolute plenum, if any j|
particle of matter goes out from the centre, another muft
return to it, otherwife there could be no motion. The
light, therefore, con filling of all thofe particles which
have a tendency outw'ards, cannot poffibly be emitted
without difplacing thofe which have no fuch tendency,
and confequently bringing them nearer to the centre :
and thus they muft always continue to approach, till at
779
Sea. IV. A S T R
laft they Fall into it altogether, where, the aftion being
extremely violent, and the preiTure outwards equivalent
to that inwards, the cohefion of every particle of air muft
be difiblved, and the matter reduced to its original fine-
' nefs and fluidity, when it is again fent forth; and fo on.
“ Thus it appears that the light confiftsof the very
fined particles, each ofiwhich moves by itfelf, and un¬
connected with any other. When two or more par¬
ticles of light lofe their motion while contiguous to one
another, they cannot be feparated till they come to the
fun himfelf, or at lead to fome place where the aCtion
from the centre is nearly equal to that from the cir¬
cumference. This, it is evident, can only take place
perfectly in the fun himfelf; and hence, though our
common fires do reduce the air to a greater degree of
finenefs than when it enters them, they are far from be¬
ing fufficient to reduce it to the utmod degree of fine¬
nefs pqffible ; therefore their light is always weak and
obfcure, compared with that of the fun ; and for the
fame reafon, the fun-beams excite a flronger heat than
can be raifed by any furnace. Hence it is eafy to fee,
that between the light of the fun, and the grofled air,
there may, and neceffarily will, be fluids of all degrees
of groflhefs or denfity, in which fenfe only the word
denfity can be ufed on this plan. Each of thefe fluids
will conditute a natural power, or fecondary caufe,
which will ad according to its degree of denfity in
particular circumdances, and thus be fubfervient to the
produdion of different natural phenomena, according
to the original appointment of the Creator. A fluid
of this intermediate degree of denfity we evidently fee
in eledricity, which appears- vadly more fubtle than
9(; air, though not quite fo much as light.
Of the at- “ Thus we have confidered the univerfe as confiding
xnofpheres only of the ethereal matter which appears to us in the
of planets, different modifications of fire, light, air, eledric fluid,
fixed air, &c. Let us now fuppofe a planet, or any
other porous body, our earth for indance, introduced
into it, or created out of nothing by Divine power.
Immediately upon its immerfion into this mixture of
fluids, it is evident that the finer parts would be im¬
pelled by the preffure of the red into the fmalled pores
of the body, while, by the preffure of the groffer fluids,
its particles would be brought as clofe as thofe of the
fined etherial fluid which had already infinuated them-
felves would permit. The confequence of this behoved
to be the formation of an atmojphere denfer than that
of the common ethereal fluid with which the whole u-
niverfe is filled; for the finer parts being as it were
drained out from among that part of the common fluid,
and infinuating themfelves into the pores of the earth
or other planet, the more grofs fluids mud neceffarily
be driven towards the furface, where they will remain,
without a poffibility of their being feparated/ unlefs
the planet fhould fall into the fun ; becaufe, in any o-
ther part of the creation, the preffure from without
mud be greater than that from within, and confequent-
ly let us fuppofe the atmofphere to be ever fo much
rarefied, it never could be deflroyed, or leave the body
to which it originally belonged.
“ Having now feen how, on the foregoing prin¬
ciples, every planet mud be furrounded with a parti¬
cular atmofphere of its own, didinft from that of the
common ethereal fluid, which we fhall henceforth call
the atmofphere of the fun, we mud now confider the
O N O M Y.
confequences. In the fird place, it is obvious, that by
means of this atmofphere the violent adlion of the fun’s
light will be moderated, as well as of the particles of
air that are continually returning towards him ; fo that,
let their impulfe be ever fo drong, they cannot aft on
the planet or its inhabitants but through the medium
of the atmofphere; and thus the earth becomes a com¬
fortable habitation, when it would otherwife be utterly
unfit for the refidence of living creatures. The atmo¬
fphere of the fun is, as we have already feen, in a per-
petual motion, the one part going out, and the other
returning. The earth, with its atmofphere, or any o- Circular or-
ther planet, therefore, cannot be fuppofed in any partf,itsafcount*
of the creation where this aftion fubfids, but that its c<* ^or'
fore part, or that which is turned towards the fun,
mud be fubjeft to the impulfe of thofe particles of light
which are iffuing out from him, as the back-part is to
the impulfe of the particles of air returning towards
him. By the one it is pulhed out from, and by the other
impelled towards, the fun ; but as thefe two impulfes
are neceffarily equal to one another, the planet mud
dill continue at the fame didance, without being able
to approach or recede in the lead. Neverthelefs, as
both impulfes are inconceivably violent, the planet mud
make an effort to get away, proportionable to the
drength of both of them. It mud therefore fly off at
the fide, becaufe the refidance there is lead (it being
eafier to crofs a dream at right angles, than to go di-
reftly againd it); and having once begun to do fo,
it mud continue its motion, as long as the caufe
fubfids by which it was originally produced ; and as
the impetus of the light afcending, and the air de-
fcending, are in all places equal, it is plain the planet
can neither approach nearer to, nor recede farther from,
the fun/but mud continually circulate round him. N 9g
“ In this way it is eafy to fee how the earth or any Elliptical
other planet might continue to move round the fun in ort’'ts.
a perfeft circle; but to explain the planetary motions
in elliptic orbits, requires a farther confideration. We
have hitherto fuppofed the planet to be perfeftly im¬
penetrable even by the fined part of the folar atmo¬
fphere : but it can fcarce be fuppofed that any body
in nature is perfeftly fo ; and a little confideration will
ealily Ihew us, that, unlefs the body is perfeftly impe¬
netrable, it mud defcribe an ellipfis, more or lefs ex-
centric, according to its degree of penetrability. The
reafon of this is, that, in proportion to the tranfmiffion
of the finer parts, the impulfe of the groffer ones from
behind becomes dronger, and confequently the planet
mud approach the fun, till, the impulfe of the light be¬
coming fo violent that by its plentiful- tranfiniffion the
air behind is fomewhat repelled, and of confequence
the preffure from that quarter leffened, the planet gra¬
dually recedes to its former didance.
“ That this is really the cafe, is evident to our fenfes Motions
in the comets. Being formed in a different manner and tails of
from the planets, they tranfmit great part of the light, t,le comets
and finer parts of the folar atmofphere : of confequence ^counted
their lateral motion is but fmall, and they move almod
direftly towards the fun. The nearer they approach
him; the greater mud their velocity be; for it is de-
mondrable, that the quantity of light emitted from any
luminous body, and of confequeuce the impulfe of it,
increafes. in a duplicate proportion to the decreafe of
didance from that body. If the impulfe of light from
7So
A S T R O N O
the fun increafes in this manner, fo muft the impulfe round hi:
of the air towards him; for as the quantity of light
emitted is always equal to that of the air which flows
in, the impetus of the one mull always be equal to
that of the other. As the comet gets nearer the fun,
the finer parts of the folar atmofphere are tranfmitted
in great quantity, and form its tail, which is nothing
elfe than a ftream of eleftric fluid with which the ce-
leftial regions every where abound, and which is dri¬
ven with violence through the body of the comet by
the impulfe of the light before it. It is not to be
fuppofed that fuch an immenfe ftream of this matter
can be difcharged- without affe£ting the air behind the
comet. We fee that this is the cafe by the bending
of the tail, which indicates a very violent reffiftance ;
and this refiftance, together with the impulfe of the light
before, regulates the motion of the comet, and pre¬
vents it from flying with the velocity of light itfelf.
When the comet draws near the fun, the tail increafes
prodigioufly; and the body, being now heated, begins
to repel the air on all fides; in confequence of which,
a lateral motion is at firft begun, as if it was to de-
fcribe a circle round the fun at a very fmall diftance
from his body; but the heat ftill increafing, it is at
laft hurried off by the impulfe of the light, while the
ele&ric ftream goes before, as it were to clear its way,
and keep off the too great preffure of the air which
would retard its progrefs. As the comet gets farther
from the fun into the more denfe regions of his at¬
mofphere, the heat begins to abate, and the grofs air
M Y.
Sea. IV. i
is alfo a little llowet than that of the
earth. But here we muft confider the fize of the pla¬
net, which is greatly inferior to that of the earth ; fo
that though he moves in a denfer medium than the
earth does, yet the fmallnefs of his body, and flownefs
of motion in his orbit, leffen the lateral refiftance in
fuch a manner, that his diurnal revolution cannot be
completed in fuch a ftiort time as it could be were his
body equal to the earth in fize. The magnitude of
Jupiter’s body alfo, as wxll as the denfity of the me¬
dium he moves in, probably contribute to his quick di¬
urnal revolution, which is vaftly more fwift than that of
either the earth or Mars. As for Saturn and Mercury,
no fpots having ever been obferved on them whereby
their diurnal revolution could be afeertained, nothing
can be determined with regard to them in this parti-
CU,ar' . lot a
“ It remains now only to account for the motions Motions 4
of the fecondary planets round their primaries; and 'he fecon-l
here there are fome appearances which make it pro- <*ary P^nd
bable that the fecondary planets are retained in their 7countectS
orbits by the pow'er of electricity. It is obferved, that
our moon keeps always the fame fide towards the earth;
and this any fmall eleftrified body is conftantly obfer¬
ved to do towards the body which ele&rifies it. It
hath been obferved, that the moons of Jupiter, when
paffing over his dilk, appear to us like black fpots;
whence it is probable that only one fide of the fecon¬
dary planets is capable of reflecting the light, and
therefore that all of them keep conftantly the fame fide
to aft with its full force ; and then, moft of the finer towards their primaries. That the combined powers of
parts of his atmofphere being again tranfmitted
perceptibly, it begins to circulate for a little way,
100 and foon defeends again towards the fun.
Motions of “ With this hypothefis, which confifts merely in rea-
the planets foning analogically from what we obferve on earth to
en their axes w|,at i3 obferved in the celeftial motions, all the phe-
accounted nomena 0f nature are in perfeft conformity. By it
the revolutions of the planets round their axes is ea-
fily accounted for, and for which the Newtonian phi-
lofophers have never affigned any reafon. Such a re¬
volution muft be the neceffary confequence of the re-
101 1
light and eleftricity are capable of producing a motion
round a centre, may be proved by experiment, which
in all cafes is worth a thoufand fpeculations.
“ Let a light hollow ball of cork covered oyer with EledtriciW!
brafs or gold leaf be fufpended by a pretty long filk experimenb
thread, fo as juft to touch the knob of an ele&rified vial [he'hv^olfi
placed on a table. It will inftantly be driven off to fome thefis. f
diftance, and, after a few vibrations, will remain at reft.
If a lighted candle is now placed at fome diftance be¬
hind it, fo that the flame of the candle may be nearly
as high as the knob of the vial, the cork will inftantly
fill a nee made to the planet’s motion, while it flies off be agitated, and, after fome irregular motions, will de-
from between the afeending ftream of light, and the
defeending one of air. According to this hypothefis
too, the velocities of the planets neareft the fun ought
to be greateft in their orbits, and their revolutions on
their axes the floweft. This is confirmed by experi¬
ence; Mercury moves fwifter than Venus, and Venus
fwifter than the earth. If Mr Bianchini’s obfervations
alfo are to be credited, Venus moves on her axis 23
times flower than the earth. This flownefs in the di¬
urnal revolutions neceffarily follows from the greater
fluidity of the folar atmofphere near the body of the
fun than at a diftance ; and confequently its being lefs
able to make a lateral refiftance. For the fame reafon.
feribe a curve round the knob of the vial, feemingly of
the elliptic kind; and this it will continue to do, fome-
times moving in one direction, fometimes in another,
till the force of electricity in the vial is almoft exhauft-
ed. It muft be owned, that the circulation here is far
from being regular; for fometimes the ellipfis is very
excentric, fometimes it hath very little excentricity;
very often the cork ball will ftrike upon the knob of
the vial, &c. but thefe irregularities can only be attri¬
buted to want of Ikill in the operator to adjuft the forces
to one another in a proper manner. But if we, by a
few fparks from an ele&ric condu&or, can make a cork
perform fome hundreds of revolutions in an irregular
the fuperior planets. Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, ought manner round the knob of a vial* what cannot the Deity
to revolve more flowly in their orbits, and more quick¬
ly round their axis. This is remarkably the cafe with
Jupiter, who revolves round his axis with great rapidi¬
ty, though his motion in his orbit is much flower than
that of the earth. Mars feems to be an exception; for
though he moves more flowly in his orbit, his motion
do, who hath the whole powers of light and eleCtricity
at his command, who knows their nature perfe&ly,
and whofe mechanical Ikill hath no limits befides the na¬
ture of the materials he employs (d).
“ The eleCtric power is by moft philofophers allow¬
ed to have a principal ftiare in all the natural opera¬
tions
(d) This experiment we have repeated with faccefs; but whether the confequences deduced from it by the author
this account can be juftly drawn, we muft fubmit to better judges.
Sea. IV. A S T R
tions on this earth. Experience (hews, that, fo far from
diminifhing, it grows much ftronger the higher we a-
fcend. As we can, therefore, fet no bounds to this in-
creafe of power, it feems molt reafonable to fuppofe that
the moon receives it from the earth, as the cork ball in
the experiment receives it from the knob of the vial; and
that, being continually drawn off by the fun, it occa-
fions the circulation of the moon in a fimilar, though
much more regular, manner.”
Having now given an account of the principal fyf-
tems that have appeared, and recounted a great num¬
ber of arguments pro and con, on alrnoft every particu¬
lar, fome general conclufion will naturally be expefled
from us ; as otherwife many readers may think our in¬
tention has been to confound them, by advancing a mul¬
tiplicity of opinions, and leading them into a chaos
I0? from which no real knowledge can be extra&ed.
Difpute Here we mud obferve, that all the arguments that
concerning ever have been brought againft Sir Ifaac Newton, only
of Htfle'c'’ ten^ to 'nva^^atc what is called his Phyfical fyflem, or
fequence.011* t^lat Part ,t whieh accounts for the phenomerTi of
nature. As for that part of aftronomy which confifts
in the knowledge of the phenomena themfelves, what
Sir Ifaac hath advanced on that head may be looked
upon as absolutely certain, and is controverted by no¬
body. With regard to the difpute concerning attrac¬
tion, it is of little confequence whether it is caufe or
effe£l:. The word attrattiun, or fome other perhaps
equally improper, muft be made ufe of, though we
even were already acquainted with the caufe of gravi¬
ty. But it muft be remembered, that if attra&ion is
ever difcovered to be the effeft of a material caufe, the
caufe itfelf muft be deftitute of all attraftion, or ten¬
dency of one part to another, and confequently have
104 very different properties from other matter.
Ohjeftions to t^ie tw0 Powers of gravitation and projection
to the gra- which Sir Ifaac Newton affumed as the caufes of the
vitatin| and planetary revolutions, it is of the utmoft importance
forces* h;- t0 a P^Jiccil aftronomerto be afcertained whether thefe
thcrto’uii- forces are capable of producing the effects afcribed to
anfuered. them or not. Objections fimilar to thofe above infert-
ed have been publi(hed long ago, and we are furprifed
that no plain and direct anfwer hath yet been given to
them. In 1762, a book entitled “ The Principles of
Natural Philofophy, &c. by William Jones,” made its
appearance, in which, among other things, the author
undertook to prove, that by a combination of gravita¬
tion and proje&ile force no lading motion could be
produced. As far as we know, no anfwer has ever
been publifhed to this treatife ; and upon looking into
the Monthly Review, Vol, xxvii. p. 122. we were fur¬
prifed to find the author cenfured, rather uncandidly,
for controverting Sir Ifaac’s opinion, while not a fingie
word is offered in anfwer to his objection, or a hint gi¬
ven where fuch a thing could be found. In other re-
fpefts, the Reviewers own that Sir Ifaac Newton him-
felf has reafoned very weakly and inconclufively in
phyfical matters. Such concefiions as thefe will necef-
farily create doubts in the mind of every perfon that
reads them ; and therefore particular care ought to be
taken in diftinguifhing where his reafoning is folid and
invincible, and where it is not to be regarded. In 1764,
another treatife of the fame nature, entitled “ Short
Obfervations on the Principles and Moving Powers
affumed by the prefent Syfiem of Philofophy,” was
Vql. I.
O N O M Y. 781
publilhed. In this the whole phyfical part of Sir I-
faac’s fyftem was attacked and even ridiculed. The
author afferted the infufficiency of the two forces of
gravitation and projection to keep a planet in its orbit;
and, if no other powers than thefe acted upon it, that
it behoved to be hurried off in an excentric curve. Be¬
ing unacquainted with any anfwer to this treatife, we
were again obliged to have recourfe to the Reviewers ;
when, in the Review for May 1764, we found the
following anfwer, viz. that the “ argument is falla¬
cious, becaufe he doth not take into confideration the
-time in which gravity a£ls on moving bodies.” Cer¬
tainly an objection of fuch a capital nature as this me¬
rited a more particular anfwer, or a diredlion to fome
other treatife where fuch an anfwer might be found. It
is in a manner incredible, that fuch an excellent mathe¬
matician as Sir Ifaac Newton (hould have affumed two
powers as firft principles, which were utterly infufficient
to produce the effecft he afcribed to them; and, on the
other hand, if they are fufficient, we are entirely at
a lofs to account for the want of replies to fuch ob¬
jections, in the common aftronomical treatifes, when
others, of at leaft as little confequence, are fully ob-
viated. _ 10,
But further, we are afraid, that moft philofophers, Newtonian
even the moft zealous advocates for Sir Ifaac Newton, fyftem over-
are inclined to admit the exiftence of a poweri,,
celeftial regions, which muft either be the caufe of the theaaion of
planfitary revolutions, or will utterly deftroy their mo- eleariciiyin
tions. The power we mean is that of electricity. We the heavens,
have already quoted Dr Hamilton conjecturing the
tails of comets to be dreams of eledlric matter; and in¬
deed their refemblance to the Aurora Borealis is fo
great, that it is almoft impoffible to afcribe the one to
electricity, and the other to any different caufe. But
let us attend to the confequences of this fuppofition.
The tails of comets arb immenfely large. Sir Ifaac
Newton computed that of the comet in 1680 to be
eighty millions of miles in length. What inconceivable
power muft not fuch a ftream of electric matter be
attended with ? We are fure that by its means the co¬
met would attract at the diftance of 80,000,000 miles,
and how much farther we cannot tell. If we fuppofe
the fun to be the fountain of electricity as well as of
heat and light, then undoubtedly he muft attract and
repel by means of his electric as well as his gravitating
power; fo that the law of gravity muft either be an
effect of the electrical power, or behoved to be per¬
petually interrupted by it. If, with Mr Henly, Ca-
vallo, and others, we fuppofe the electric fluid to be
a modification of the element of fire, there is an end
of Sir Ifaac Newton’s phyfical fyftem, to all intents
andpurpofes, and downright Hutchinfonianifm comes in
place of it; for Hutchinfon’s very firft and fundamen¬
tal principle is, that elementary fire is fent forth as
fuch from the fun, into the planetary regions and be¬
yond them, where it is converted into a different fub-
ftance, no matter whether air, or eleftric fluid. Io5
Thefe things we take notice of, in order to (hew how Conjeftiires
cautious philofophers ought to be in indulging conjee- ought to be
tures; as, by fo doing, it may often happen, that they ‘nJu'getl
will pull down with one hand what they build up with cau'
the other. For our own part, we cannot pretend to
decide; but as the Newtonian fyftem is fo general¬
ly made ufe of for the folution of the celeftial phe-
5 F nomena,
782
PI. XLIII.
x.
107
Difeftion of
the planeta¬
ry motions.
PlateXLIV.
%•
108
Apparent
motions of
Mercury
and Venus
explained.
ASTRO
nomena, we fnall Hill fuppofe it to be the only true
one, and proceed to give a particular explanation of
thefe phenomena according to it.
Seft. V. The Copcrmcan Syjlem particularly con-
fidered and explained^ on the Newtonian Prin¬
ciples.
The fun, with the planets and comets which move
round him as their centre, conftitute the folar fyftem.
Thofe planets which are near the fun, not only finifli
their circuits fooner, but likevvife move fafter in their
refpeftive orbits, than thofe which are more remote
from him. Their motions are all performed from weft
to eaft, in orbits nearly circular.
The fun an immenfe globe of fire, is placed near
the common centre, or rather in the lower focus, of the
orbits of all the planets and comets (e) ; and turns
round his axis in 25 days 6 hours. His diameter is
computed to be 890,000 miles; and, by the various
attra&ions of the circumvolving planets, he is agitated
by a fmall motion round the centre of gravity of the
fyftem. All the planets, as feen from him, move the
fame way, and according to the order of ligns in the
graduated circle CV’ '8' H .25 &c. which reprefents the
great ecliptic, or circle annually defcribed by the earth
round the fun ; but, as feen from any one planet, the
reft appear fometimes to go backward, fometimes for¬
ward, and fometimes to ftand ftill ; not in circles nor
ellipfes, but in looped curves which never return into
themfelves; as already obferved n°6. Round thepathsof
Venus and Mercury is marked the graduated circle re-
prefenting the ecliptic. The dotted lines from the earth
to the ecliptic are added for fhewing Mercury’s apparent or
geocentric motion therein for one year; in which time
his path makes three loops, and goes on a little farther;
which fhews that he has three inferior, and as many
fuperior, conjundfions with the fun in that time; and alfo
that he is fix times ftationary, and thrice retrograde.
Let us now trace his motion for one year in the figure.
Suppofe Mercury to be fetting out from towards
B (between the earth and left-hand corner of the plate),
and as feen from the earth, his motion will then be direft,
oraccording to the orderof the figns. But when he comes
to B, he appears to ftand ftill in the 23d degree of tTt
at F, as (hewn by the line BF. Whilft he goes from B
to C, the line BF, fuppofed to move with him, goes
backward from F to E, or contrary to the order of
figns ; and when he is at C, he appears ftationary at
E, having gone back ni degrees. Now, fuppofe
him ftationary on the firft of January at C, on the 10th
thereof he will appear in the heavens as at 20, near/1;
on the 20th he will be feen as at G ; on the 31st, at
on the 10th of February, at/,- on the 20th, at K ; and
on the 28th, atZ,- as the dotted lines (hew, which are
drawn through every tenth day’s motion in his looped
path, and continued to the ecliptic. On the 10th of
March he appears at M; on the 20th, at N; and on
N O M Y. Sed. V.
the 31st, at 0. On the 10th of April he appears fta:
tionary at P ; on the 20th he feems to have gone back
again to 0; and on the 30th he appears ftationary at
§>_, having gone back 1 i-J degrees. Thus Mercury
feems to go forward 4 figns 11 degrees, or 131 de¬
grees; and to go back only 11 or 12 degrees, at a
mean rate. From the 30th of April to the 10th of
May he feems to move from ^to R ; and on the 20th
he is feen at S, going forward in the fame manner a-
gain, according to the order of letters ; and backward
when they go back ; which it is needlefs to explain any
farther, as the reader can trace him out fo eafily thro’
the reft of the year. The fame appearances happen in
Venus’s motion ; but as Ihe moves flower than Mer¬
cury, there are longer intervals of time between them.
The comets come from all parts of the heavens, and
move in all forts of dire&ions. ,09 I
The axis of a planet is a line conceived to be drawn Axes of th||
through its centre, about which it revolves as if on a planets. It'
real axis. The extremities of this line, terminating in
oppofite points of the planet’s furface, are called its poles.
That which points towards the northern part of the
heavens, is called the north pole ; and the other, point¬
ing towards the fouthern part, is called the fouth pole.
A bowl whirled from one’s hand into the open air turns
round fuch a line within itfelf, whilft it moves forward;
and fuch are the lines we mean when, we fpeak of the
axes of the heavenly bodies. no l'
Let us fuppofe the earth’s orbit to be a thin, even, Ecliptic, ll
folid plane; cutting the fun through the centre, and
extended out as far as the ftarry heavens, where it will
mark the great circle called the ecliptic. This circle
we fuppofe to be divided into 12 equal parts, called
ftgns; each fign into 30 equal parts, called degrees;
each degree into 60 equal parts, called minutes ; and
every minute into 60 equal parts, called feconds : fo
that a fecond is the 60th part of a minute ; a minute
the 60th part of a degree ; and a degree the 360th part
of a circle, or 30th part of a fign. The planes of the
orbits of all the other planets likewife cut the fun in
halves; but, extended to the heavens, form circles dif¬
ferent from one another, and from the ecliptic ; one
half of each being on the north fide, and the other on
the fouth fide of it. Confequently the orbit of each
planet croffes the ecliptic in two oppofite points, which ,,, 1
are called the planet’s nodes. Thefe nodes are all in Nodes of i:'
different parts of the ecliptic; and therefore, if the the planetsjp
planetary trafts remained vifible in the heavens, they
would in fome meafure refemble the different ruts of
waggon-wheels croffing one another in different parts,
but never going far afunder. That node, or inter-
fe&ion of the orbit of any planet with the earth’s orbit,
from which the planet afcends northward above the ec¬
liptic, is called the afcending node of the planet ; and
the other, which is dire&ly oppofite thereto, is called
its defcending node. Saturn’s afcending node is in
21 deg. 13 min. of Cancer, 25 5 Jupiter’s in 7 deg.
29 min. of the fame fign; Mars’s in 17 deg. 17 min. of
Taurus,
(e) Aftronomers are not far from the truth, when they reckon the fun’s centre to be in the lower focus of all the
planetary orbits. Though, ftri&ly fpeaking, if we confider the focus of Mercury’s orbit to be in the fun’s centre, the
focus of Venus’s orbit will be in the common centre of gravity of the fun and Mercury; the focus of the earth’s orbit
in the common centre of gravity of the fun. Mercury, and Venus; the focus of the orbit of Mars in the common cen¬
tre of gravity of the fun, Mercury, Venus, and the earth; and fo of the reft. Yet, the focufes of the orbits of all the
planets, except Saturn, will not be fenfibly removed from the centre of the fun; nor will the focus of Saturn’s orbit re¬
cede fenlibly from the common centre of gravity of the fun and Jupiter.,
Sea. V.
ASTRONOMY.
Taurus, Venus’s in'x3 deg. 59 min. of Gemini, n }
and Mercury’s in 14 deg. 43 min. of Taurus. Here
we confider^he earth’s orbit as the ftandard, and the
orbits of all the other planets as oblique to it.
When we fpeak of the planets orbits, all that is meant
is their paths through the open and unrefifting fpace
in which they move ; and are kept in, by the attrac¬
tive power of the fun, and the projedlile force imprefled
upon them at firft ; between which power and force
there is fo exa& an adjuftment, that they continue in
the fame trafts without any folid orbits to confine them.
Mercury, the neareft planet to the fun, goes round
him (as in the circle marked $) in 87 days 23 hours
7S3
Diftance of
Mercury
fun^iisdia- ^ our t‘me nearty ’ which is the length of his year, round the fun the fame way, though not fo quick as
meter, &c. ®ut being feldom feen, and no fpots appearing on his Venus : and therefore her relative motion to the earth
if it were not, flte might be feen as often in oppofition
to the fun, as fhe is in conjundion with him ; but (he
was never feen 90 degrees, or a fourth part of a circle,
from the fun. uS
When Venus appears weft of the fun, ftie rifes be- W1,y ft'
fore him in the morning, and is called the morning Jlar; aPPears fo
when file appears eaft of the fun, fhe fhines in the even-
ing after he fets, and is then called the evening Jlar} fun.
being each in it’s turn for 290 days. It may perhaps
be furprifing at firft, that Venus fhould keep longer
on the eaft or weft of the fun, than the whole time
of her period round him. But the difficulty vanifhes
when we confider that the earth is all the while going
furface or difk, the time of his rotation on his axis,
or the length of his days and nights, is as yet unknown.
His diftance from the fun is computed to be
36,841,448 miles, and his diameter 3000. In his
courfe round the fun, he moves at the rate of 109,699
miles every hour. His light and heat from the fun
are almoft feven times as great as ours, and the fun
appears to him almoft feven times as large as to us.
The great heat on this planet is no argument againft
its being inhabited ; fince the Almighty could as ea-
fily-fuit the bodies and conftitutions of its inhabitants
to the heat of their dwelling, as he has done to the
temperature of our earth. And it is very probable
that the people there have fuch an opinion of us, as
we have of the inhabitants of Jupiter and Saturn, name-
on the fun.
muft in every period be as much flower than her abfo-
lute motion in her orbit, as the earth during that time
advances forward in the ecliptic ; which is 220 degrees.
The axis of Venus is inclined 75 degrees to the axis
of her orbit, which is 514- degrees more than our
earth’s axis is inclined to the axis of the ecliptic ; and
therefore her feafons vary much more than ours do.
The north pole of her axis inclines toward the 20th de¬
gree of Aquarius, our earth’s to the beginning of Can¬
cer : confequently the northern parts of Venus have
fummer in the figns where thofe of our earth have win¬
ter, and vice verfa.
The artificial day at each pole of Venus is as long
as 112-i- natural days on our earth., tlg
The fun’s greateft declination on each fide of her Great dccli-
ly, that we muft be intolerably cold, and have very equator amounts to 75 degrees; therefore her tropics
little light, at fo great a diftance from the fun. are only 15 degrees from her poles, and her polar cir- ^
The orbit of Mercury is inclined feven degrees to eles as far from her equator. Confequently, the tro- Venus. °
the ecliptic ; and that node from which he afcends pics of Venus are between her polar circles and her
northward above the ecliptic, is in the 14th degree of poles ; contrary to what thofe of our earth are.
Taurus; the oppofite, in the 14th degree of Scorpio. As her annual revolution contains only 94- of her
The earth is in thefe points on the 6th of November, and days, the fun will always appear to go through a whole
4th of May, new ftyle ; and when Mercury comes to f>gn, or twelfth part of her orbit, in little more than
either of his nodes at his inferior conjundtion (f) about three quarters of her natural day, or nearly in iSJ; of
thefe times, he will appear to pafs over the dilk or face our days and nights.
" Becaufe her day is fo great a part of her year, the
fun changes his declination in one day fo much, that if
he pafles vertically, or dire&ly over head of any given
place on the tropic, the next day he will be 26 degrees
from it; and whatever place he pafles vertically over
when in the equator, one day’s revolution will remove
him 36^ degrees from it. So that the fun changes his
declination every day in Venus about 14 degrees more,
at a mean rate, than he does in a quarter of a year on
our earth. This appears to be providentially ordered,
for preventing the too great effe&s of the fun’s heat
(which is twice as great on Venus as on the earth), fo
that he cannot ffiine perpendicularly on the fame places
that account, the heat-
of the fun, like a dark round fpot. But in all other
parts of his orbit his conjundtions are invifible, becaufe
1I3 he either goes above or below the fun.
When to be Mr Whifton has given us an account of feveral pe-
; a fpot Hods at which Mercury may be feen on the fun’s dilk,
‘1 the year 1782, Nov. i2tb. at 3 h. 44. ni.
in the afternoon; 1786, May 4th, at 6 h. 57 m. in
in the forenoon ; 1789 Dec. 6th, at 3 h. 55 m. in the
afternoon; and 1799, May 7th, at 2 hours 34 m. in
the afternoon. There will be feveral intermediate tran-
fits, but none of them vifible at London.
Venus, the next planet in order, is computed to be
68,891,486 miles from the fun; and by moving at
the rate of 80,295 miles every hour in her orbit (as for two days together; and
in the circle marked <j>), ffie goes round the fun in ed places have time to cool.
224 days 17 hours of our time nearly; in which, though
it be the full length of her year, ffie has only 94 days
according to Bianchini’s-obfervations : fo that, to her,
every day and night together is as long as 244- days
and nights with us. This odd quarter of a day in e-
very year makes every fourth year a leap-year to Ve¬
nus ; as the like does to our earth. Her diameter is
9330 miles. Her orbit is included by the earth’s: for
If the inhabitants about the north pole of Venus fix Remarkable
their fouth, or meridian line, through that part of the appearances
heavens where the fun comes to his greateft height, or her inl)a'
north declination, and call thofe the eaft and weft points l)ltants*
of their horizon, which are 90 degrees on each fide from
that point where the horizon is cut by the meridian
line, thefe inhabitants will have the following remark¬
able appearances
5 F 2
(f) When he is between the earth and the fun in the nearer part of his orbit.
The
7H
ASTRO NOMY. Sed. V.
The fun will rife degrees north of the eaft; and
going on 112^ degrees, as meafured on the plane of
the horizon, he will crofs the meridian at an altitude
of I2-|- degrees: then, making an entire revolution
without fetting, he will crofs it again at an altitude
of 484- degrees: at the next revolution he will crofs the
meridian, as he comes to his greateft height and de¬
clination, at the altitude of 75 degrees; being then
only 15 degrees from the zenith, or that point of the
heavens which is dire&ly over head: and thence he
will defcendin the like fpiral.manner; croffing the me¬
ridian firft at the altitude of 484- degrees, next at the
altitude of 124- degrees; and going on thence 1124-de¬
grees, he will fet 224 degrees north of the weft ; fo
that, after having been 4|- revolutions above the ho¬
rizon, he defcends below it to exhibit the like appear¬
ances at the fouth pole.
At each pole, the fun continues half a year without
fetting in fummer, and as long without riling in win¬
ter ; confequently the polar inhabitants of Venus have
118 only one day and one night in the year ; as it is at
Great dif- the poles of our earth. But the difference between the
tween th^e" ^eat ^urnmer anc^ co^ °f winter, or of mid-day and
heat of fum- mid-night, on Venus, is much greater than on the earth:
mer and becaufe on Venus, as the fun is for half a year together
cold of win- above the horizon of each pole in its turn, fo he is for
ter' a confiderable part of that time near the zenith ; and
during the other half of the year always below the ho¬
rizon, and for a great part of that time at leaft 70 de¬
grees from it. Whereas, at the poles of our earth, al¬
though the fun is for half a year together above the
horizon ; yet he never afcends above, nor defcends
below it, more than 234- degrees. When the fun is in
the equinodtial, or in that circle which divides the
northern half of the heavens from the fouthern, he is
feen with one half of his difk above the horizon of the
north-pole, and the other half above the horizon of
the fouth-pole; fo that his centre is in the horizon of
both poles: and then, defcending below the horizon of
one, he afcends gradually above that of the other.
Hence, in a year, each pole has one fpring, one harveft,
a fummer as long as them both, and a winter equal in
length to the other three feafons.
At the polar circles of Venus, the feafons are much
the fame as at the equator, becaufe there are only 15
degrees between them; only the winters are not quite
10 long, nor the fummers fo ftiort; but the four feafons
come twice round every year.
At Venus’s tropics, the fun continues for about 15
of our weeks together without fetting in fummer, and
as long without rifing in winter. Whilft he is more
than 15 degrees from the equator, he neither rifes to
the inhabitants of the one tropic, nor fets to thofe of the
other; whereas, at our terreftrial tropics, he rifes and
fets every day of the year.
At Venus’s tropics, the feafons are much the fame as
at her poles; only the fummers are a little longer, and
the winters a little fhorter.
At her equator, the days and nights are always of the
fame length ; and yet the diurnal and no&urnal arches
are very different, efpecially when the fun’s declination
is about the greateft : for then, his meridian altitude
may fometimes be twice as great as his midnight de-
preffion, and at other times the reverfe. When the
fun is at his greateft declination, cither north or fouth,
his rays are as oblique at Venus’s equator, as they are
at London on the fliorteft day of winter. Therefore,
at her equator, there are two winters, two fummers, two
fprings, and two autumns, every year. But becaufe the
fun ftays for fome time near the tropics, and paffes io
quickly over the equator, every winter there will be al-
moft twice as long as fummer; the four feafons return¬
ing twice in that time, which conlifts only of 94 days.
Thofe parts of Venus which lie between the poles and
tropics, and between the tropics and polar circles, and
alfo between the polar circles and equator, partake
more or lefs of the phenomena of thefe circles, as they
are more or lefs diftant from them.
From the quick change of the fun’s declination it
happens, that if he rifes due eaft on any day, he will not
fet due weft on that day, as with us ; for if the place
where he rifes due eaft be on the equator, he will fet on
that day almoft weft north-weft, or about 184- degrees
north of the weft. But if the place be in 45 degrees
north latitude, then on the day that the fun rifes due
eaft he will fet north-well by weft, or 33 degrees north
of the weft. And in 62 degrees north latitude, when
he rifes in the eaft, he fets not in that revolution, but
juft touches the horizon 10 degrees to the weft of the
north point ; and afcends again, continuing for 34 re¬
volutions above the horizon without fetting. There¬
fore no place has the forenoon and afternoon of the
fame day equally long, unlefs it be on the equator, or
at the poles. JI9
The fun’s altitude at noon, or any other time of the Longitude
day, and his amplitude at rifing and fetting, being very of prices ’.n
different at places on the fame parallel of latitude, ac-
cording to the different longitudes of thofe places, the
longitude will be almoft as eafily found on Venus, as
the latitude is found on the earth : which is an advan¬
tage we can never have, becaufe the daily change of
the fun’s declination is much too fmall for that impor¬
tant purpofe.
On this planet, where the fun crofles the equator in
any year, he will have 9 degrees of declination from
that place on the fame day and hour next year ; and
will crofs the equator 90 degrees farther to the weft ;
which makes the time of the equinox a quarter of a
day (or about fix of our days) later every year. Hence
although the fpiral in which the fun’s motion is perfor¬
med be of the fame fort every year, yet it will not be
the very fame, becaufe the fun will not pafs vertically
over the fame places till four annual revolutions are fi-
nifhed. Ij0
We may fuppofe that the inhabitants of Venus Every
will be careful to add a day to fome particular part of fo;,rth year
every fourth year ; which will keep the fame feafons to a ir-*ytar-
the fame days. For, as the great annual change of
the equinoxes and folftices Ihifts the feafons a quarter
of a day every year, they would be fhifted through all
the days of the year in 36 years. But by means of
this intercalary day, every fourth year will be a leap-
year: which will bring her time to an even reckoning,
and keep her calendar always right. 121
At the tranfits of Venus over the fun in 1761 and Has no fa-
1769, aftronomers were very careful to obferve whe-
ther any fatellite belonging to this planet could be dif-
covered; but as none was to be feen, it is now general¬
ly concluded that Ihe has none, but that Caffini and
Mr Short were miftaken.
The
Se&.V.
ASTRONOMY. 785
1 The earth is the next planet above Venus in the as the pebble .would be with the nsill-ftone. I24
&k*ofC<t’he fyftem. It is 95,173,000 miles from the fun, and By confidering the law of gravitation, which takes From the
earth. goes round him (as in the circle ©) in 365 days 5 place throughout the folar fyilem, in another light, it proportion
hours 49 minutes, from any equinox or folftice to the will be evident that the earth moves round the fun in a
fame again ; but from any fixed ftar to the fame again year, and not the fun round the earth. It has been ob- &c.
as feen from the fun, in 365 days 6 hours 9 minutes ; ferved, that the power of gravity decreafes as the fquare
the former being the length of the tropical year, and of the dillance increafes ; and from this it follows with
the latter the length of the fidereal. It travels at the mathematical certainty, that when two or more bodies
rate of 68,000 miles every hour; which motion, tho’ move round another as their centre of motion, the
upwards of 140 times fwifter than that of a cannon ball, fquares of their periodic times will be to one another
is little more than half as fwift as Mercury’s motion in in the fame proportion, as the cubes of their diftances
his orbit. The earth’s diameter is 7970 miles; and by from the central body. This holds precifely with re¬
turning round its axis every 24 hours from weft to eaft, gard to the planets round the fun, and the fatellites
it caufes an apparent diurnal motion of all the heaven- round the planets ; the relative diftances of all which
ly bodies from eaft to weft. By this rapid motion of are well known. But, if we fuppofe the fun to move
the earth on its axis, the inhabitants about the equator round the earth, and compare its period with the
are carried 1042 miles every hour, whilft thofe on the moon’s by the above rule, it will be found that the
parallel of London are carried only about 580, befides fun would take no lefs than 173,510 days to move
the 68,000 miles by the annual motion above-mention- round the earth; in which cafe our year would be 475
ed, which is common to all places whatever. times as long as it now is. To this we may add, that
The earth’s axis makes an angle of 23 I- degrees the afpe&s of increafe and decreafe of the planets, the
with the axis of its orbit, and keeps always the fame times of their feeming to Hand ftill, and to move diredl
oblique direction, inclining nearly to the fame fixed and retrogade, anfwerprecifely to the earth’s motion;
ftars (g) throughout its annual courfe, which caufes but not at all to the fun’s, without introducing the
■^113 t^ie returns of Ip ring, fumrtier, autumn, and winter, moft abfurd and monftrous fuppofitions, which would
Demonftra- That the fun, and not the earth, is the centre of our deftroy ail harmony, order, and fimplicity, in the fyf-
tion of the folar fyftem, may be demonftrated beyond a pofiibility tern. Moreover, if the earth be fuppofed to ftand ftill,
earth’s mo- 0f doubt, from confidering the forces of gravitation and the ftars to revolve in free fpaces about the earth
H/ and projection, by which all the celeftial bodies are re- in 24 hours, it is certain that the forces by which the
tamed in their orbits. For, if the fun moves about ftars revolve in their orbits are not dire&ed to the
the earth, the earth’s attra&ive power muft draw the earth, but to the centres of the feveral orbits ; that is,
fun towards it from the line of proje&ion fo, as to of the feveral parallel circles which the ftars on differ-
bend its motion into a curve. But the fun being ent fides of the equator defcribe every day : and the
at lead 227,000 times as heavy as the earth, by like inferences may be drawn from the fuppofed diur-
being fo much weightier as its quantity of matter is nal motion of the planets, fince they are never in the
greater, it muft move 227,000 times as flowly to- equinoftial but twice, in their courfes with regard to
ward the earth, as the earth does toward the fun ; and the ftarry heavens. But that forces fhould be d:re6t-
| confequently the earth would fall to the fun in a ftiort ed to no central body, on which they phyfically de¬
time, if it had not a very ftrong proje&ile motion to pend, but to innumerable imaginary points in the axis
carry it off. The earth therefore, as well as every o- of the earth produced to the poles of the heavens, is an
ther planet in the fyftem, muft have a rectilineal im- hypothefis too abfurd to be allowed of by any rational
pulfe, to prevent its falling into the fun. To fay, creature. And it is ftill more abfurd to imagine that
that gravitation retains all the other planets in their thefe forces ihould increafe exaftly in proportion to-
orbits without affe&ing the earth, which is placed be- the diftances from this axis ; for this is an indication
tween the orbits of Mars and Venus, is as abfurd as to of an increafe to infinity; whereas the force of at-
fuppofe that fix cannon-bullets might be projefted up- traftion is found to decreafe in receding from the foun-
wards to different heights in the air, and that five of tain from whence it flows. But the farther any liar
them fhould fall down to the ground ; but the fixth, is from the quiefcent pole, the greater muft be the or-
which is neither the higheft nor the loweft, fhould re- bit which it defcribes; and yet it appears to go round
main fufpended in the air without falling, and the earth in the fame time as the neareft ftar to the pole does,
move round about it. And if we take into confideration the twofold motion
There is no fuch thing in nature as a heavy body obferved in the ftars, one diurnal round the axis of the
moving round a light one as its centre of motion. A earth in 24 hours, and the other round the axis of the
pebble faftened to a mill-ftone by a ftring, may by an ecliptic in 25,920 years, it would require an explication
cafy impulfe be made to circulate round the mill-ftone: of fuch a perplexed compofition of forces, as could by
but no impulfe can make a mill-ftone circulate round a no means be reconciled with any phytical theory. tis
loofe pebble; for the mill-ftone would go off, and car- The ftrongeft objeftion that can be made againft
ry the pebble along with it. the earth’s motion round the fun, is, that in oppo- cfrth-s mo.
The fun is fo immenfely bigger and heavier than the fite points of the earth’s orbit, its axis, which al ways tion anfwer-
earth, that, if he was moved out of his place, not only keeps a parallel dire&ion, would point to different fixed ed.
the earth, but all the other planets, if they were uni- ftars; which is not found to be fact. But this ob-
ted into one mafs, would be carried along with the fun, je&ion is eafily removed, by confidering the immenfe
diftance
(g) This is not ftriflly true, as will appear when we come to treat of the recefiion of the equinoflial points in the
heavens, which recefiion is equal to the deviation of the earth’s axis from its parallelifm : but this is rather too fmail t©
be fenlible in an age, except to thofe who make very nice obfervations.
7*6 ASTRO
diftance of the ftars in refpeft of the diameter of the
earth’s orbit; the latter being no more than a point
when compared to the former. If we lay a ruler on
the fide of a table, and along the edge of the ruler view
the top of a fpire at ten miles diftance; then lay the
ruler on the oppofite of the table in a parallel fituation
to what it had before, and the fpire will ftill appear along
the edge of the ruler; becaufe our eyes, even when af-
fifted by the beft inftruments, are incapable of diftin-
ti6 guilhing fo fmall a change at fo great a diftance.
Earth’s mo- Dr Bradley, our late aftronomer royal, found by
ftratedTrom a l°ng. ^er'es t'le m°d accurate obfervations, • that
the aberra- the1-6 is a fmall apparent motion of the fixed ftars, oc-
tion of light, cafioned by the aberration of their light; and fo exaftly
anfwering to an annual motion of the earth, as evinces
the fame, even to a mathematical demonftration. He
confidered this matter in the following manner: he
5th Plate imagined C A, fig. 5. to be a ray of light falling
XLII. perpendicularly upon the line BD ; that, if the eye is
at reft at A, the objeft muft appear in the diredtion
AC, whether light be propagated in time or in an in-
ftant. But if the eye is moving from B towards A,
and light is propagated in time, with a velocity that is
to the velocity of the eye, as CA to BA ; then light
moving from C to A, whilft the eye moves from B to
A, that particle of it by which the objed. will be dif-
cerned when the eye comes to A, is at C when the eye
is at B. Joining the points BC, he foppofed the line
CB to be a tube, inclined to the line BD in the angle
DBC, of fuch diameter as to admit but one particle of
light. Then it was eafy to conceive, that the particle
of light at C, by which the objed muft be feen, when
the eye, as it moves along, arrives at A, would pafs
through the tube BC, if it is inclined to BD in the
angle DBC, and accompanies the eye in its motion
from B to A ; and that it could not come to the eye
placed behind fuch a tube, if it had any other inclina¬
tion to the line BD. If, inftead of fuppofing CB fo
fmall a tube, we imagine it to be the axis of a larger;
then, for the fame reafon, the particle of light at C
would not pafs through the axis, unlefs it is inclined to
BD in the angle CBD. In like marfTier, if the eye
moved the contrary way, from D towards A, with the
fame velocity, then the tube muft be inclined in the
angle BDC. Although, therefore, the true or real
place of an objed is perpendicular-to the line in which
the eye is moving, yet,the vilible place will not be fo;
fince that, no doubt, muft be in the diredion of the
tube; but the difference between the true and apparent
place will be, cteterisparibus^ greater or lefs, according
to the different proportion between the velocity of light
and that of the eye. So that, if we could fuppofe that
light was propagated in an inftant, then there would
be no difference between the real and vifible place of an
objed, although the eye was in motion ; for in that
cafe, AC being infinite with refped to AB, the angle
ACB, the difference between the true and vifible place,
vanilhes. But if light be propagated in time, it is evi-
N O M Y. Sc€t. Vjr
dent, from the foregoing confiderations, that there will I'
be always a difference between the real and vifible place I
of an objed, unlefs the eye is moving either diredly
towards or from the objed. And in all cafes the fine J;
of the difference between the real and vifible place of
the objed will be to the fine of the vifible inclination i
of the objed to the line in which the eye is moving, as |
the velocity of the eye is to the velocity of light.
He then (hews, that if the earth revolve round the j
fun annually, and the velocity of light be to the velo¬
city of the earth’s motion in its orbit, as 1000 to 1,
that a ftar really placed in the very pole of the ecliptic
would, to an eye carried along with the earth, feem to I
change its place continually; and, negleding the fmall
difference on the account of the earth’s diurnal revolution I
on its axis, would feem to deferibe a circle round that I
pole every way diftant from it 3-*-'; fo that its longitude J
would be varied thro’ all the points of the ecliptic every ||
year, but its latitude would always remain the fame.
Its right afeenfion would alfo change, and its declina¬
tion, according to the different fituation of the fun with
refped to the equinodial points, and its apparent di- ff
ftance from the north pole of the equator, would be 7'
lefs at the autumnal than at the vernal equinox. ,x7 j
By calculating exadly the quantity of aberration of Velocity j|:
the fixed ftars from their place, he found that light came j
from the fun to us in 8'-13"; fo that its velocity is to
the velocity of the earth in its orbit, as 10,201 to 1. lxg r
Itmuftherebe taken notice of, however, thatMrNevil Errors itui
Mafkelyne, in attempting to find the parallax of Sirius the obferv®
with a ten-foot fedor, obferved, that by the fridion 0f ti°n of fiq |
the plummet line on the pin which fufpended it, an error ansles‘ !
of 10", 20 ', and fometimes 30'', was committed. The f \
pin was ^ of an inch diameter; and though he re¬
duced it to -7— of an inch, the error ftill amounted
to 3". All obfervations, therefore, that have hitherto
been made in order to difeover the parallax of the fixed
ftars, are to be difregarded ; and even the quantity of
aberration affigned by Dr Bradley to the fixed ftars is
to be doubted. 12{> ’
It is alfo objeded, that the fun feems to change his Another j|
place daily, fo as to make a tour round the ftarry hea- obieaion j I
vens in a year. But, whether the fun or earth moves, gai",J thcjl!
this appearance will be the fame ; for, when the earth tbnanfwi I
is in any part of the heavens, the fun will appear in ed.
the oppofite. And therefore, this appearance can be
no objedion againft the motion of the earth.
It is well known to every perfon who has failed on
fmooth water, or been carried by a ftream in a calm,
that, however faft the veffel goes, he does not feel its
progreffive motion. The motion of the earth is incom¬
parably more fmooth and uniform than that of a fhip,
or any machine made and moved by human art; and
therefore it is not to be imagined that we can feel its
motion.
We find that the fun, and thofe planets on which
there are vifible fpots, turn round their axes : for the
fpots move regularly over their difks (g). From hence
we
, .5.G) This, however, muft be underftood with fome degree of limitation, as will evidently appear from what has been
faid concerning the fpots of.the fun Nay, even in the planet Jupiter, whofe rotation on his axis feems better afeer-
tamed than that of any other, the difference of time between the revolution of the fpots about his equator, and thofe
near bis poles, is a phenomenon that hath puzzled the beft aftronomers. Mr M’Laurin (Phyf. and Literary Effavs
Vol. I. p. 206.) fays, that it is a phenomenon of that kind of which it is perhaps beft not to attempt any^xplana-
tisfedor^exjffanation ^ exPenments’ Since hi‘ been confirmed, but we have not heard of any ft
Sea. V.
ASTRONOM Y.
787
we may reafonably conclude, that the other planets on we fhould ftill find that the ftars would appear of the
which we fee no fpots, and the earth, which is likewife fame magnitudes, and at the fame diftances from each Earth’s mo-
planet, have fuch rotations. But being incapable of other, as they do to us here ; becaufe the ^idth of the £°'^P{£ved
ig it at a diftance, and its remoteft planet’s orbit bears no fenfible proportion to leftial'ap-05
for the
earth’s mo¬
tion from it
fpheroidal
figure.
leaving the earth, and viewing
rotation being fmooth and uniform, we can neither fee
it move on its axis as we do the planets, nor feel our-
Argument felves affedled by its motion. Yet there is' one effedl of
fuch a motion, which will enable us to judge with cer-
. tainty whether the earth revolves on its axis or not.
All globes which do not turn round their axes will be
perfect fpheres, on account of the equality of the weight
of bodies on their furfaces; efpecially of the fluid parts.
But all globes which turn on their axes will be oblate
fpheroids; that is, their furfaces will be higher, or far¬
ther from the centre, in the equatorial than in the po¬
lar regions: for, as the equatorial parts move quickeft,
they will recede fartheft from the axis of motion, and
enlarge the equatorial diameter. That our earth is
really of this figure, is demonftrable from the unequal
vibrations of a pendulum, and the unequal lengths of
degrees in different latitudes. Since then the earth is
higher at the equator than at the poles, the fea, which
naturally runs downward, or towards the places which
are neareft the centre, would run towards the polar re¬
gions, and leave the equatorial parts dry, if the cen-
the diftance of the ftars. But then, the heavens would pearances
feem to revolve about very different axes ; and confe- from
quently, thofe quiefcent points, which are our poles in ent P^nets'
the heavens, would feem to revolve about other points,
which, though apparently in motion as feen from the
earth, would be at reft as feen from any other planet.
Thus the axis of Venus, which lies at right angles to
the axis of the earth, would have its motionlefs poles
in two oppofite points of the heavens lying almoft in
our equinoctial, where the motion appears quickeft,
becaufe it is feemingly performed in the greateft circle:
and the very poles, which are at reft to us, have
the quickeft motion of all as feen from Venus. To
Mars and Jupiter the heavens appear to turn round with
very different velocities on the fame axis, whofe poles
are about 23-J degrees from ours. Were we on Jupi¬
ter, we fhould be at firft amazed at the rapid motion of
the heavens ; the fun and ftars going round in 9 hours
56 minutes. Could we go from thence to Venus, we
fhould be as much furprifed at the flownefs of the hea¬
venly motions; the fun going but once round in 584.
trifugal force of thefe parts, by which the waters were hours, and the ftars in 540. And could we go from
i3«
Weight of
bodies in-
creates to¬
wards the
poles.
carried thither, did not keep them from returning.
The earth’s equatorial diameter is 3(5 miles longer than
its axis.
Bodies near the poles are heavier than thofe towards
the equator, becaufe they are nearer the earth’s centre,
where the whole force of the earth’s attraClion is accu¬
mulated. They are alfo heavier, becaufe their centri¬
fugal force is lei's, on account of their diurnal motion
being flower. For both thefe reafons, bodies carried
from the poles toward the equator gradually lofe
their weight. Experiments prove, that a pendu¬
lum, which vibrates feconds near the poles vibrates
flower near the equator, which fhews that it is lighter
or lefs attra&ed there. To make it ofcillate in the
fame time, it is found neceffary to diminifh its length.
By comparing the different lengths of pendulums fwing-
ing feconds at the equator and at London, it is found
that a pendulum muft be 2T\f69d lines fhorter at the
equator than at the poles,
an inch.
Venus to the moon, we ftiould fee the heavens 1
round with a yet flower motion ; the fun in 708 hours,
the ftars in 655. As it is impoflible thefe various cir¬
cumvolutions in fuch different times, and on fuch dif¬
ferent axes, can be real, fo it is unreafonable to fuppdfe
the heavens to revolve about our earth more than it
does about any other planet. When we refleft on the
vaft diftance of the fixed ftars, to-which 190,000,000
of miles, the diameter of the earth’s orbit, is but a
point, we are filled with amazement at the immenfity
of their diftance. But if we try to frame an idea of
the extreme rapidity with which the ftars muft move,
if they move round the earth in 24 hours, the thought
becomes fo much too big for our imagination, that we
can no more conceive it than we do infinity or eternity.
If the fun was to go round the earth in 24 hours, he
muft travel upwards of 300,000 miles in a minute : but
nute: 1
the ftars being at lead 400,000 times as far from the
A line is a twelfth part of fun, as the fun is from us, thofe about the equator muft
move 400,000 times as quick. And all this to ferve
If the earth turned round its axis in 84 minutes 43 no other purpofe than what can be as fully and much
feconds, the centrifugal force would be equal to the
power of gravity at the equator; and all bodies there
would entirely lofe their weight. If the earth revol¬
ved quicker, they would all fly off, and leave it.
A perfon on the earth can no more be fenfible
of its undifturbed motion on its axis, than one in
the cabbin of a (hip on fmooth water can be fen¬
fible of the fliip’s motion when it turns gently and
uniformly round. It is therefore no argument a-
gainft the earth’s diurnal motion, that we do not feel
more Amply obtained by the earth’s turning roundeaft-
ward, as on an axis, every 24 hours, caufing thereby
an apparent diurnal motion of the fun weftward, and
bringing about the alternate returns of day and night.
As to the common obje&ions againft the earth’s Another
motion on its axis, they are all eafily anfwered and fet °bjettion
afide. That it may turn without being feen or felt an^were^‘
by us to do fo, has been already ftiewn. But Ibme
are apt to imagine, that if the earth turns eaftward (as
it certainly does if it turns at all), a ball fired perpen-
it: nor is the apparent revolutions of the celeftial bodies dicularly upward in the air muft fall confiderably weft.
every day a proof of the reality of thefe motions; for ward of the place it was projected from. The objec-
whether we or they revolve, the appearance is the very
fame. A perfon, looking through the cabbin-windows
of a (hip, as ftrongly fancies the obje&s on land to go
round when the fhip turns, as if they were actually in
motion.
If we could tranflate ourfelves from planet to planet,
tion, which at firft feems to have fome weight, will be
found to have none at all, when we confider that the
gun and ball partake of the earth’s motion; and there¬
fore the ball being carried forward with the air as
quick as the earth and air turn, muft fall down on the
fame place. A ftone let fall from the top of a main-
maft.
788
ASTRONOMY.
Sed.
>34
Diurnal
motion of
the earth,
anddifferenl
changes of
the feafons
iliuflratcd
by experi-
Plate'xLV.
6g- 3-
maft, if it meets with ho obftacle, falls on the deck as
near the foot of the maft when the ftiip fails as when
it does n^jt. If an inverted bottle, full of liquor, be
hung up the ceiling of the cabbin, and a fmall hole
be made in the cork to let the liquor drop through on
the floor, the drops will fall juft as far forward on the
floor when the Ihip fails as when it is at reft. And
gnats or flies can as eafily dance among one another
in a moving cabbin as in a fixed chamber. As for
thofe fcripture expreflions which feem to contradict the
earth’s motion, this general anfwer may be made to
them all, viz. It is plain from many inftances, that the
Scriptures were never intended to inftrudl us in philo-
fophy or aftronomy ; and therefore on thofe fubje£ts
expreflions are not always to be taken in the literal
fenfe, but for the moft part as accommodated to the
common apprehenfions of mankind. Men of fenfe in
all ages, when not treating of the fciences purpofely,
have followed this method : and it would be in vain
to follow any other in addrefling ourfelves to the vul¬
gar, or bulk of any community.
The following experiment will give a plain idea of
the diurnal and annual motions of the earth, together
with the different lengths of days and nights, and all
the beautiful variety of feafons, depending on thofe
motions.
Take about feven feet of ftrong wire, and bend it
into a circular form, as abed, which being viewed ob¬
liquely, appears elliptical, as in the figure. Place a
lighted candle on a table; and having fixed one end of
a filk thread K, to the north pole of a fmall terreftrial
globe H, about three inches diameter, caufe another
perfon to hold the wire circle, fo that it may be paral¬
lel to the table, and as high as the flame of the candle
I, which ftiould be in or near the centre. Then ha¬
ving twifted the thread as towards the left hand, that
by untwifting it may turn the globe round eaftward,
or contrary to the way that the hands of a watch move,
hang the globe by the thread within this circle, al-
moft contiguous to it; and as the thread untwifts, the
globe (which is enlightened half round by the candle
as the earth is by the fun) will turn round its axis, and
the different places upon it will be carried through the
light .and dark hemifpheres, and have the appearance
of a regular fucceffion of days and nights, as our earth
has in reality by fuch a motion. As the globe turns,
move your hand flowly, fo as to carry the globe round
the candle according to the order of the letters abed,
keeping its centre even with the wire circle ; and you
will perceive, that the candle, being ftill perpendicular
to the equator, will enlighten the globe from pole to
pole in its whole motion round the circle; and that
every place on the globe goes equally through the
light and the dark, as it turns round by the untwift¬
ing pf the thread, and therefore has a perpetual equi¬
nox. The globe thus turning round reprefents the
earth turning round its axis; and the motion of the
globe round the candle reprefents the earth’s annual
motion round the fun ; and Ihews, that if the earth’s
orbit had no inclination to its axis, all the days and
nights of the year would be equally long, and there
would be no different feafons. Hence alfo ip appears
why the planets Mars and Jupiter have a perpetual e-
quinox, namely, becaufe their axis is perpendicular to
the plane of their orbit, as the thread round which the
globe turns in this experiment is perpendicular to the
plane of the area inclofed by the wire.—But now de-
fire the perfon who holds the wire to hold it obliquely
in the pofition ABCD, raifing the fide 05 juft as much
as he depreffes the fide v-y, that the flame may be ftill
in the plane of the circle ; and twilling the thread as
before, that the globe may turn round its axis the fame
way as you carry it round the candle ; that is, from
weft toeaft; let the globe down into the lowermoft
part of the wire circle at vj •' and if the circle be pro¬
perly inclined, the candle will Ihine perpendicularly
on the tropic of Cancer; and the frigid zone, lying
within the ar&ic or north polar circle, will be all in
the light, as in the figure ; and will keep in the light
let the globe turn round its axis ever fo often. From
the equator to the north polar circle, all the places have
longer days and ftiorter nights; but from the equator
to the fouth polar circle, juft the reverfe. The fun
does not fet to any part of the north frigid zone, as
fhewn by the candle’s fhining on it, fothat the motion
of the globe can carry no place of that zone into the
dark ; and at the fame time the fouth frigid zone is
involved in darknefs, and the turning of the globe
brings none of its places into the light. If the earth
were to continue in the like part of its orbit, the fun
would never fet to the inhabitants of the north frigid
zone, nor rife to thofe of the fouth. At the equator,
it would be always equal day and night; and as places
are gradually more and more diftant from the equator
towards the ardtic circle, they would have longer days
and ftiorter nights ; whilft thofe on the fouth fide of
the equator would have their nights longer than their
days. In this cafe, there would be continual fummer
on the north fide of the equator, and continual winter
on the fouth fide of it.
But as the globe turns round its axis, move your
hand flowly forward, fo as to carry the globe from H
towards E, and the boundary of light and darknefs
will approach towards the north pole, and recede to¬
wards the fouth pole; the northern places will go
through lefs and lefs of the light, and the fouthern
places through more and more of it; fliewing how the
northern days decreafe in length, and the fouthern days
increafe, whilft the globe proceeds from H to E.
When the globe is at E, it is at a mean ftate between
the loweft and higheft parts of its orbit; the candle is
diredlly over the equator, the boundary of light and
darknefs juft reaches to both the poles, and all places
on the globe go equally through the light and dark
hemifpheres, (hewing that the days and nights are then
equal at all places of the earth, the poles only ex¬
cepted ; for the fun is then fetting to the north pole,
and rifing to the fouth pole.
Continue moving the globe forward, and as it goes
through the quarter A, the north pole recedes ftill far¬
ther into the dark hemifphere, and the fouth pole ad¬
vances more into the light, as the globe comes nearer
to 05 : and when it comes there at F, the candle is
diredlly over the tropic of Capricorn; the days are at
the (horteft, and nights at the longed, in the northern
hemifphere, all the way from the equator to the ardlie
circle ; and the reverfe in the fouthern hemifphere from
the equator to the antar&ic circle; within which cir¬
cles it is dark to the north frigid zone, and light to the
fouth.
Continue
Sea. V.
ASTRONOMY.
Continue both motions ; and as the globe moves
through the quarter B, the north pole advances to¬
wards the light, and the fouth pole recedes towards the
dark ; the days lengthen in the northern hemifphere,
and fhorten in the fouthern; and when the globe comes
to G, the candle will be again over the equator (as when
the globe was at E), and the days and'nights will a-
gain be equal as formerly : and the north pole will
be juft coming into the light, the fouth pole going
out of it.
Thus we fee the reafon why the days lengthen and
fhorten from the equator to the polar circles every
year; why there is fometimes no day or night for
many turnings of the earth, within the polar circles ;
why there is but one day and one night in the whole
year at the poles ; and why the days and nights are
equally long all the year round at the equator, which
is always equally cut by the circle bounding light and
darkneis.
The inclination of an axis or orbit is merely relative,
becaufe we compare it with fome other axis or orbit
which we confider as not inclined at all. Thus, our
horizon being level to us, whatever place of the earth
we are upon, we confider it as having no inclination ;
and yet, if we travel 90 degrees from that place, we
fhall then have an horizon perpendicular to the former;
,3j but it will ftill be level to us.
Different Let us now take a view of the earth in its annual
feafons par- courfe round the fun, confidering its orbit as having no
plaiiieV eX" *nc^nat‘on » ar,d its axis as inclining 23-^ degrees from
a line perpendicular to the plane of its orbit, and keep¬
ing the fame oblique direttion in all parts of its annual
courfe ; or, as commonly termed, keeping always pa¬
rallel to itfelf.
Plate XLV. Let a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h be the earth in eight different parts
4- of its orbit, equidiftant from one another ; N .r its axis,
N its north pole, s its fouth pole, and S the fun nearly
in the centre of the earth’s orbit. As the earth goes
round the fun according to the order of the letters abed,
&c. its axis N/ keeps the fame obliquity, and is ftill
parallel to the line MKr. When the earth is at a, its
north pole inclines towards the fun S, and brings all
the northern places more into the light than at any o-
ther time of the year. But when the earth is at e in
the oppofite time of the year, the north pole declines
from the fun, which occafions the northern places to be
more in the dark than in the light, and the reverfe at
the fouthern places ; as is evident by the figure, which
is taken from Dr Long’s aftronomy. When the
earth is either at c or g, its axis inclines not either to
or from the fun, but lies fidewife to him, and then
the poles are in the boundary of light and darknefs ;
and the fun, being directly over the equator, makes e-
qual day and night at all places. When the earth is at
b, it is half-way between the fummer folftice and har-
veft equinox; when it is at d, it is half-way from the
harveft equinox to the winter folftice ; at f, half-way
from the winter folftice to the fpring equinox ; and at
h, half-way from the fpring equinox to the fummer
folftice.
From this oblique view of the earth’s orbit, let us
fuppofe ourfelves to be raifed far above it, and placed
juft over its centre S, looking down upon it from its
north pole ; and as the earth’s orbit differs but very
little from a circle, we {hall have its figure in fuch a
Vol. I.
789
view reprefented by the.circle ABCDEFGH. Let PI. XLVI.
us fuppofe this circle to be divided into 12 equal parts, Cg- *•
called figns, having their names affixed to them ; and
each fign into 30 equal parts, called degrees, number¬
ed 10, 20, 30, as in the outermoft circle of the figure,
which reprefents the great ecliptic in the heavens. The
earth is {hewn in eight different pofitions in this circle;
and in each pofition iE is the equator, T the tropic of
Cancer, the dotted circle the parallel of London, Uthe
ar&ic or north polar circle, and P the north pole,
where all the meridians or hour-circles meet. As the
earth goes round the fun, the north pole keeps con-
ftantly towards one part of the heavens, as it keeps in
the figure towards the right-hand fide of the plate.
When the earth is at the beginning of Libra, name¬
ly on the 20th of March, in this figure the fun S as
feen from the earth appears at the beginning of A-
ries in the oppofite part of the heavens, the north
pole is juft coming into the light, and the- fun is
vertical to the equator ; which together with the tro¬
pic of Cancer, parallel of London, and arftic circle,
are all equally cut by the circle bounding light and
darknefs, coinciding with the fix-o’clock hour-circle,
and therefore the days and nights are equally long at
all places: for every part of the meridian iETLrt comes
into the light at fix in the morning, and, revolving with
the earth according to the order of the hour-letters,
goes into the dark at fix in the evening. There are
24 meridians or hour-circles drawn on the earth in this
figure, to fhew the time of fun-rifing and fetting at dif¬
ferent feafons of the year.
As the earth moves in the ecliptic according to the
order of the letters ABCD, &c. through the figns
Libra, Scorpio, and Sagittarius, the north pole P
comes more and more into the light; the days increafe
as the nights decreafe in length, at all places north of
the equator iE ; which is plain by viewing the earth
at b on the 5th of May, when it is in the 15th degree
of Scorpio, and the fun as feen from the earth appears
in the 15th degree of Taurus. For then the tropic of
Cancer T is in the light from a little after five in the
morning till almoft feven in the evening ; the parallel of
London, from half an hour pa ft four till half an hour
paft feven ; the polar circle U, from three till nine;
and a large track round the north pole P has day all
the 24 hours, for many rotations of the earth on its
axis.
When the earth comes to c (PI. XLV. fig. 4.) at the
beginning of Capricorn, and the fun as feen from the
earth appears at the beginning of Cancer, on the 21st of
June, as in this figure, it is in the pofition C in fig. 1.; PI. XLVI.
and its north pole inclines towards the fun, fo as to bring
all the north frigid zone into the light, and the northern
parallels of latitude more into the light than the dark
From the equator to the polar circle; and the more fo as
they are farther from the equator. The tropic of Can¬
cer is in the light from five in the morning till feven at
night, the parallel of London from a quarter before
four till a quarter after eight ; and the polar circle juft
touches the dark, fo that the fun has only the lower
half of his di{k hid from the inhabitants on that circle
for a few minutes about midnight, fuppofing no inequa¬
lities in the horizon, and no refra&ions.
A bare view of the figure is enough to {hew, that as
the earth advances from Capricorn towards Aries, and
5 G the
A STRONOMY.
the fun appears to move from Cancer towards Li¬
bra, the north pole recedes from the light, which caufes
the days to decreafe, and the nights to increafe in
length, till the earth comes to the beginning of Aries,
and then they are equal as before; for the boundary of
light and darknefs cuts the equator and all its parallels
equally, or in halves. The north pole then goes into the
dark, and continues therein until the earth goes half¬
way round its orbit; or, from the 23d of September
till the 20th of March. In the middle between thefe
times, viz. on the 22d of December, the north pole is
as far as it can be in the dark, which is 234- degrees,
equal to the inclination of the earth’s axis from a per¬
pendicular to its orbit: and then the northern paral¬
lels are as much in the dark as they were in the light on
the 21st of June ; the winter nights being as long as
the fummer days, and the winter days as Ihort as the
fummer nights. Here it muft be noted, that of all
that has been faid of the northern hemifphere, the con¬
trary muft be underftood of the fouthern; for on dif¬
ferent fides of the equator the feafons are contrary, be-
caufe, when the northern hemifphere inclines towards
j jS the fun, the fouthern declines from him.
Why the The earth’s orbit being elliptical, and the fun con-
fiin appears ftantly keeping in its lower focus, which is 1,617,941
winter Than m^es from the middle point of the longer axis, the earth
in fummer. comes twice fo much, or 3,235,882 miles, nearer the fun
at one time of the year than at another ; for the fun
appearing under a larger angle in our winter than fum¬
mer, proves that the earth is nearer the fun in winter (1).
But here this natural queftion will arife, Why have we
not the hotteft weather when the earth is neareft the
fun ? In anfwer it muft be obferved, that the excentri-
city of the earth’s orbit, or 1,617,941 miles, bears
no greater proportion to the earth’s mean diftance from
the fun than 17 does to 1000; and therefore, this
fmall difference of diftance cannot occafton any great
difference of heat or cold. But the principal caufe of
this difference is, that in winter the fun’s rays fall fo
obliquely upon us, that any given number of them is
fpread over a much greater portion of the earth’s fur-
face where we live ; and therefore each point muft then
have fewer rays than in fummer. Moreover, there
comes a greater degree of cold in the long winter-
nights, than there can return of heat in fo fhort days;
and on both thefe accounts the cold muft increafe. But
in fummer the fun’s rays fall more perpendicularly upon
us; and therefore come with greater force, and in
greater numbers, on the fame place ; and by their long
continuance, a much greater degree of heat is impart¬
ed by day than can fly off by night. Befides, thofe
parts which are once heated, retain the heat for fome
time; which, with the additional heat daily imparted,
makes it continue to increafe, though the fun declines
towards the fouth : and this is the reafon why July is
hotter than June, although the fun has withdrawn
from the fummer tropic; as we find it is generally
hotter at three in the afternoon, when the fun has gone
towards the weft, than at noon when he is on the me¬
ridian. Likewife thofe places which are well cooled
require time to be heated again; for the fun's rays do
not heat even the furface of any body till they have
Sea. V.
been fome time upon it. And therefore we find Janu¬
ary for the moft part colder than December, altho’ the
fun has withdrawn from the winter tropic, and begins
to dart his beams more perpendicularly upon us. An
iron .bar is not heated immediately upon being in the
fire, nor grows cold till fome time after it has been ta¬
ken out.
It has been already obferved, that by the earth’s mo¬
tion on it’s axis, there is more matter accumulated all
around the equatorial parts than any where elfe on the
earth.
The fun and moon, by attracting this redundancy
of matter, bring the equator fooner under them in e-
very return towards it, than if there was no fuch accu¬
mulation. Therefore, if the fun fets out, as from any
ftar, or other fixed point in the heavens, the moment
when he is departing from the equinoctial or from ei¬
ther tropic, he will come to the fame equinox or tropic
again 20 mrn. 17-I- fee. of time, or 50 feconds of a de¬
gree, before he completes his courfe, fo as to arrive
at the fame fixed ftar or point from whence .he fet out.
For the equino&ial points recede 50 feconds of a de¬
gree weftward every year, contrary to the fun’s annual
progrefiive motion.
When the fun arrives at the fame equinoctial or fol-
ftitial point, he finilhes what we call the Tropical Tear;
which, by obfervation, is found to contain 365 days
5 hours 48 minutes 57 feconds: and when he arrives at
the fame fixed ftar again, as feen from the earth, he
completes the fidereal year, which contains 365 days
6 hours 9 minutes 144- feconds. The fidereal year
is therefore 20 minutes 174- feconds longer than the
folaror tropical year, and 9 minutes 14^ leconds long¬
er than the Julian or the civil year, which we ftate at
365 days 6 hours, fo that the civil year is almoft a mearr
between the fidereal and tropical.
As the fun deferibes the whole ecliptic, or 360 de¬
grees, in a tropical year, he moves 59' 8" of a degree
every day at a mean rate ; and confequently 50" of a
degree in 20 minutes 174 feconds of time : therefore
he will arrive at the fame equinox or folftice when he
is 50'' of a degree fliort of the fame ftar or fixed point
in the heavens from which he fet out the year before.
So that, with refpeft to the fixed ftars, the fun and e-
quino&ial points fall back (as it were) 30 degrees in
2160 years, which will make the ftars appear to have
gone 30 deg. forward with refpedt to the figns of the
ecliptic in that time: for the fame figns always keep
in the fame points of the ecliptic, without regard to the
conftellations. 137
To explain this by a figure, let the fun be in con- Precefllon.
junftion with a fixed ftar at S, fuppofe in the 3°th nox^ ex^'
degree of 'g', at any given time. Then, making plained.
2160 revolutions through the ecliptic VWX, at the PI. XLVir»
end of fo many fidereal years, he will be found again % I*
at S : but at the end of fo many Julian years, he
will be found at M, ftiort of S : and at the end of fo
many tropical years he will be found ftiort of M, in the
30th deg. of Taurus at T, which has receded back
from S to T in that time, by the preceffion of the e-
quino&ial points CY’ Aries and Libra. The arc
ST will be equal to the amount of the preceffion of
(1) It is denied by fome that the fun appears bigger m winter on account of his greater proximity to the earth than
in fummer; the reafon they give is the increafe of refraction by reafon of the more oblique petition .of the fun, and
greater quantity of vapours in the air, at that time.
Sea.
PI. XLVII.
V. ASTRO
the equinox In 2160 years, at the rate of 50" of a de¬
gree, or 20 minutes 174- feconds of time annually:
this, in fo many years, makes 30 days lo^hours, which
is the difference between 2)60 fidereal and tropical
years; and the arc MT will be equal to the fpace mo¬
ved through by the fun in 2160 times 11 min. 8 fee. or
16 days 13 hours 48 minutes, which is the difference
between 2160 Julian and tropical years.
The anticipation of the equinoxes, and confequent-
ly of the feafons, is by no means owing to the precef-
fion of the equino&ial and folftitial points in the hea¬
vens (which can onlyaffedf the apparent motions,places,
and declinations, of the fixed liars), but to the difference
between the civil and folar year, which is n minutes
3 feconds; the civil year containing 365 days 6 hours,
and the folar year 365 days 5 hours 48 minutes 57 fe¬
conds.
The above 11 minutes 3 feconds, by which the ci¬
vil or Julian year exceeds the folar, amounts to 1 r days
in 1433 years; and fo much our feafons have fallen
back with refpedl to the days of the months, fince the
time of the Nicene council in A. D. 325 ; and there¬
fore, in order to bring back all the faffs and feftivals to
the days then fettled, it was requifite to fupprefs 11 no¬
minal days: and, that the fame feafons might be kept
to the fame times of the year for the future, to leave
out the biffextile-day in February at the end of every
century of years not divifible by 4; reckoning them
only common years, as the 17th, 18th, and 19th cen¬
turies, viz. the years 1700, 1800, 1900, &c. becaufe
a day intercalated every fourth year was too much;
and retaining the biffextile-day at the end of thofe cen¬
turies of years which are divifible by 4, as the 16th,
20th, and 24th, centuries, viz. the years 1600, 2000,
2400, &c. Otherwife, in length of time, the feafons
would be quite reverfed with regard to the months of
the year ; though it would have required near 23,783
years to have brought about fuch a total change. If
the earth had made exa&ly 365^ diurnal rotations on
its axis, whilft it revolved from any equinoftial or fol¬
ftitial point to the fame again, the civil and folar years
would always have kept pace together, and the ftyle
would never have needed any alteration.
Having thus mentioned the caufe of thepreceffion of
the equinoctial points in the heavens, which occafions
a flow deviation of the earth’s axis from its paralle-
lifm, and thereby a change of the declination of the
ftars from the equator, together with a flow apparent
motion of the ftars forward with refpeCt to the figns of
the ecliptic, we ftiall now explain the phenomena by a
diagram.
Let NZSVL be the earth, SONA it’s axis produ¬
ced to the ftarry heavens, and terminating in A, the
prefent north pole of the heavens, which is vertical to
N the north pole of the earth. Let EOQbe the e-
quator, T&5Z the tropic of Cancer, and VT py the
tropic of Capricorn ; VOZ the ecliptic, and BO its
axis, both which are immoveable among the ftars. But
as theequinoftial points recede in the ecliptic, the earth’s
axis SON is in motion upon the earth’s centre O, in
fuch a manner, as to deferibe the double cone NO« and
SO/, round the axis of the ecliptic BO, in the time
that the equinoCtial points move quite round the ec¬
liptic, which is 25,920 years ; and in that length of
time, the north pole of the earth’s axis produced, de-
N O M Y. 791
feribes the circle ABCDA in the ftarry heavens, round
the pole of the ecliptic, which keeps immoveable in the
centre of that circle. The earth’s axis being 234- de¬
grees inclined to the axis of the ecliptic, the circle
ABCDA deferibed by the north pole of the earth’s
axis produced to A, is 47 degrees in diameter, or dou¬
ble the inclination of the earth’s axis. In confequence
of this, the point A, which at prefent is the north pole
of the heavens, and near to a ftar ofthefecond magni¬
tude in the tail of the conftellation called the little beart
muff be deferted by the earth’s axis ; which moving
backwards a degree every 72 years, will be dire£led to¬
wards the ftar or point B in 6480 years hence; and in
double of that time, or in 12,960 years, it will be di-
redledtowards the ftar or point C, which will then be the
north pole of the heavens, although it is at prefent 84-
degrees fouth of the zenith of London L. The pre¬
fent pofition of the equator EOQ, will then be changed
into eOq, the tropic of Cancer T^cZ into V/05, and
the tropic of Capricorn VT Vf into t vj>Z ; as is evident
by the figure. And the fun, in the fame part of the
heavens where he is now over the earthly tropic of Ca¬
pricorn, and makes the ftiorteft days and longeft nights
in the northern hemifphere, will then be over the earth¬
ly tropic of Canqer, and make the days longeft and
nights ftiorteft. So that it will require 12,960 years
yet more, or 25,920 from the then prefent time, to
bring the north pole N quite round, fo as to be diredt-
ed toward that point of the heavens which is vertical
to it at prefent. And then, and not till then, the fame
ftars which at prefent deferibe the equator, tropics,
and polar circles, &c. by the earth’s diurnal motion,
will deferibe them over again.
From the ftiifting of the eqninodlial points, and with
them all the figns of the ecliptic, it follows that thofe
ftars which in the infancy of aftronomy were in Aries
are now got into Taurus ; thofe of Taurus into Gemi¬
ni, &c. Hence likewife it is that the ftars which rofe
or fet at any particular feafon of the year, in the times
of Hefiod, Eudoxus, Virgil, Pliny, &c. by no means
anfwer at this time to their deferiptions. I3g
The moon is not a planet, but only a fatellite or at- of the
tendant of the earth, going round the earth from moon,
change to change in 29 days 12 hours and 44 minutes,
and round the fun with it every year. The moon’s dia¬
meter is 2180 miles; and her diftance from the earth’s
centre is 240,000. She goes round her orbit in 27 days
7 hours 43 minutes, moving about 2290 miles every
hour; and turns round her axis exadlly in the time that
fhe goes round the earth, which is the reafon of her
keeping always the fame fide towards us, and that her
day and night taken together is as long as our lunar
month. r39
The moon is an opaque globe like the earthy and Refleas the
(hines only by refle&ing the light of the fun: there- ^un s fight-
fore, whilft that half of her which is towards the fun is
enlightened, the other half muft be dark and invifible.
Hence fhe difappears when fhe comes between us and the
fun ; becaufe her dark fide is then towards us. When
fhe is gone a little way forward, we fee a little of her
enlightened fide; which ftill increafes to our view, as
fhe advances forward, until fhe comes to be oppofite to
the fun; and then her whole enlightened fide is towards
the earth, and fhe appears with a round illumined orb,
which we call the full moon; her dark fide being then
5 G 2 turned
792
ASTRONOMY. Sed. V.
From the full Hie feems can find the latitude of ours. For the earth keeping
PI. XLIII.
% i.
Earth ap¬
pears a
moon to our
turned away from the earth,
to decreafe gradually as Ihe goes through the other half conftantly.
of her courfe; (hewing us lefs and lefs of her enlight-   ~
ened fide every day, till her next change or conjunction
with the fun, and then (he difappears as before.
Her orbit is reprefented in the fcheme by the little
circle m, upon the earth’s orbit 0 : but it is drawn
more than fifty times too large in proportion to the
earth’s ; and yet is almoft too fmall to be feen in the
diagram.
The moon has fcarce any difference of feafons; her
axis being almoft perpendicular to the ecliptic. What
is very Angular, one half of her has no darknefs at all;
the earth conftantly affording it a ftrong light in the
fun’s abfence; while the other half has a fortnight’s
darknefs and a fortnight’s light by turns.
Our earth is thought to be a moon to the moon ;
waxing and waning regularly, but appearing 13 times
as big, and affording her 13 times as much light as (he
does us. When (he changes to us, the earth appears
full to her; and when (he is in her firft quarter to us,
the earth is in its third quarter to her; and vice verfa.
But from one half of the moon, the earth is never
feen at all: from the middle of the other half, it is al¬
ways feen over head; turning round almoft 30 times as
quick as the moon does. From the circle which limits
our view of the moon, only one half of the earth’s fide
next her is feen ; the other half being hid below the
horizon of all places on that circle. To her the earth
feems to be the biggeft body in the univerfe; for it ap¬
pears 13 times as big as (he does to us.
As the earth turns round its axis, the feveral conti¬
nents, feas, and ifiands, appear to the moon’s inhabi¬
tants like fo many fpots of different forms and bright-
nefs, moving over its furface; but much fainter at feme
times than others, as our clouds cover them or leave
them. By thefe fpots the Lunarians can determine the
time of the earth’s diurnal motion, juft as we do the
motion of the fun: and perhaps they meafure their time
by the motion of the earth’s fpots; for they cannot
have a truer dial.
The moon’s axis is fo nearly perpendicular to the
ecliptic, that the fun never removes fenfibly from her
equator; and the obliquity of her orbit, which is next
,How the
Lunar inha¬
bitants can
meafure . _ _ „ w
their year, to nothing as feen from the fun, cannot caiife the fun gibbous, as at </. At E, her whole enlightened fide is
very nearly fo, over one meridian of the
moon, the eaft or weft diftances of places from that me¬
ridian are as eafily found, as we can find our diftance
from the equator by the altitude of our celeftial poles.
As the fun can only enlighten that half of the earth
which is at any moment turned towards him, and, be¬
ing withdrawn from the oppofite half, leaves it in dark¬
nefs ; fo he likewife doth to the moon : only with this
difference, that as the earth is furrounded by an at-
mofphere, we have twilight after the fun fets ; but if
the moon has none of her own, nor is included in that
of the earth, the lunar inhabitants have an immediate
tranfition from the brighteft fun-(hine to the blackeft
darknefs. For, let t r k s w be the earth, and A, B, PI. XLVII.
C, D, E, F, G, H, the moon in eight different parts of fig- 3-
her orbit. As the earth turns round its axis from weft
to eaft, when any place comes to t the twilight begins
there, and when it revolves from thence to r the fun S
rifes; when the place comes to s the fun fets, and when
it comes to w the twilight ends. But as the moon
turns round her axis, which is only once a month, the
moment that any point of her furface comes to r (fee
the moon at G), the fun rifes there without any previous
warning by twilight; and when the fame point comes
to / the fun fets, and that point goes into darknefs as
black as at midnight. 143 |
The moon being an opaque fpherical body (for her Her phafe* i|j
hills take off no more from her roundnefs than the ine- explained, qj
qualities on the furface of an orange takes off from its
roundnefs), we can only fee that part of the enlighten¬
ed half of her which is towards the earth. And there¬
fore, when the moon is at A, in conjunction with the
fun S, her dark half is towards the earth, and (he dif¬
appears, as at a, there being no light on that half to
render it vifible. When (he comes to her firft octant
at B, or has gone an eighth part of her orbit from her
conjunction, a quarter of her enlightened fide is to¬
wards the earth, and (he appears horned, as at b.
When (he has gone a quarter of her orbit from be¬
tween the earth and fun to C, (he (hews us one half of
her enlightened fide, as at c, and we fay (he is a quar¬
ter old. At D, (he is in her fecond oCtant; and by
(hewing us more of her enlightened fide (he appears
to decline fenfibly from her equator. Yet her inhabi¬
tants are not deftitute of means for afeertaining the
length of their year, tho’ their method and ours muft
differ. For we can know the length of our year by the
return of our equinoxes; but the Lunarians, having al¬
ways equal day and night, muft have recourfe to an¬
other method : and we may fuppofe, they meafure their
year by obferving when either of the poles of our earth
begins to be enlightened, and the other to difappt -
towards the earth; and therefore (lie appears round,
at e; when we fay it is full moon. In her third oCt¬
ant at F, part of her dank fide being towards the
earth, (he again appears gibbous, and is on the de¬
creafe, as at f. At G, we fee juft one half of her en¬
lightened fide ; and (he appears half decreafed, or in
her third quarter, as at g. At H, we only fee a quar¬
ter of her enlightened fide, being in her fourth oCtant;
where (he appears horned, as at h. And at A, ha-
which is always at our equinoxes ; they being conve- ving completed her courfe from the fun to the fun a-
niently fituated for obferving great tracks of land about
our earth’s poles, which are entirely unknown to us.
Hence we may conclude, that the year is of the fame
abfolute length both to the earth and moon, though
very different as to the number of days: we having 365^
natural days, and the Lunarians only 12-^, everyday
and night in the moon being as long as 29I- on the
,41 earth.   o r ,  
Longitude The moon’s inhabitants on the fide next the earth we have not a full view of her enlightened fide at that
eafily found. may as eafily find the longitude of their places as we time. When full in the higheft part of her orbit, a roun
;ain, (he difappears ; and we fay it is new moon.
Thus, in going from A to E, the moon feems conti¬
nually to increafe; and in going from E to A, to de¬
creafe in the fame proportion; having like phafes at e-
qual diftances from A to E, but as feen from the fun S
(he is always full. t44
The moon appears not perfectly round when (he is Never ap-
full in the higheft or loweft part of her orbit, becaufe pears per-
793
Sea. V. ASTRO
fmall deficiency appears on her lower edge; and the
contrary when full in the loweft part of her orbit.
It is plain by the figure, that when the moon chan¬
ges to the earth, the earth appears full to the moon ;
and vice verfa. For when the moon is at A, new to
the earth, the whole enlightened fide of the earth is
towards the moon ; and when the moon is at E, full
to the earth, its dark fide is towards her. Hence a
new moon anfwers to a full earth, and a full moon to a
145 new earth. The quarters are alfo reverfed to each other.
Agreeable Between the third quarter and change, the moon is
tmtTof'her fre(luentty v*fible in the forenoon, even when the fun
phafes. Ihines ; and then (he affords us an opportunity of fee¬
ing a very agreeable appearance, where-ever we find a
globular Hone above the level of the eye, asfuppofeon
the top of a gate. For, if the fun fhines on the ftone,
and we place ourfelves fo as the upper part of the ftone
may juft feem to touch the point of the moon’s lower-
moft horn, we fhall then fee the enlightened part of the
ftone exactly of the fame fhape with the moon ; horn¬
ed as fhe is, and inclined the fame way to the horizon.
The reafon is plain; for the fun enlightens the ftone
the fame way as he does the moon : and both being
globes, when we put ourfelves into the above fituation,
the moon and ftone have the fame pofition to our eyes;
and therefore we muft fee as much of the illuminated
part of the one as of the other.
The pofition of the moon’s cufps, or a right line
touching the points of her horns, is very differently
inclined to the horizon at different hours of the fame
days of her age. Sometimes (he ftands, as it were,
upright on her lower horn, and then fuch a line is per-
146 pendicular to the horizon : when this happens, fhe is
maldegree ,n what the aftronomers call the nonagejimul degree;
which is the higheft point of the ecliptic above the ho¬
rizon at that time, and is 90 degrees from both fides
of the horizon where it is then cut by the ecliptic.
But this never happens when the moon is on the meri¬
dian, except when fhe is at the very beginning of Can¬
cer or Capricorn.
That the moon turns round her axis in the time that
fhe goes round her orbit, is quite demonftrable ; for,
a fpeftator at reft, without the periphery of the moon’s
orbit, would fee all her fides turned regularly towards,
him in that time. She turns round her axis from any
ftar to the fame ftar again in 27 days 8 hours; from
the fun to the fun again in 29-^ days : the former is the
length of her fidereal day, and' the latter the length
of her folar day. A body moving round the fun would
have a folar day in every revolution, without turning on
its axis; the fame as if it had kept all the while at
reft, and the fun moved round it: but without turning
round its axis it could never have one fidereal day, be-
caufe it would always keep the fame fide towards any
given ftar.
If the earth had no annual motion, the moon would
go round it fo as to complete a lunation, a fidereal,
and a folar day, all in the fame time. But, becaufe
the earth goes forward in its orbit while the moon goes
round the earth in her orbit, the moon muft go as much
N O M Y.
more than round her orbit from change to change in
completing a folar day, as the earth has gone forward
in its orbit during that time, i. e. almoft a twelfth part
of a circle.
If the earth had no annual motion, the moon’s mo- Delineatior.
tion round the earth, and her track in open fpace, °f her path
would be always the fame (k). But as the earth and moon tllC
move round the fun, the moon’s real path in the hea¬
vens is very different from her vifible path round the
earth ; the latter being in a progreffive circle, and the
former in a curve of different degrees of concavity,
which would always be the fame in the fame parts of
the heavens, if the moon performed a complete number
of lunations in a year without any fraction.
Let a nail in the end of the axle of a chariot-wheel
reprefent the earth, and a pin in the nave the moon ;
if the body of the chariot be propped up fo as to keep
that wheel from touching the ground, and the wheel be
then turned round by hand, the pin will defcribe a
circle both round the nail and in the fpace it moves
through. But if the props be taken away, the horfes
put to, and the chariot driven over a piece of ground
which is circularly convex ; the nail in the axle will
defcribe a circular curve, and the pin in the nave will
ftill defcribe a circle round the progreffive nail in the
axle, but not in the fpace through which it moves.
In this cafe, the curve defcribed by the nail will re¬
ferable in miniature as much of the earth’s annual path
round the fun, as it defcribes whilft the moon goes as
often round the earth as the pin does round the nail:
and the curve defcribed by the pin will have fome re-
femblance of the moon’s path during fo many luna¬
tions.
Let us now fuppofe that the radius of the circular PI. XLVII.
curve defcribed by the nail in the axle is to the radius fig- 4.
of the circle which the pin in the nave defcribes round
the axle, as 337-^0 1 ; (l) which is the proportion of
the radius or femidiameter of the earth’s orbit to that
of the moon’s, or of the circular curve A1234567B,
&c. to the little circle a ; add then, whilft the pro¬
greffive nail defcribes the faid curve from A to E, the
pin will go once round the nail with regard to the cen¬
tre of its path, and in fo doing will defcribe the curve
abode. The former will be a true reprefentation of
the earth’s path for one lunation, and the latter of the
moon’s for that time. Here we may fet afide the ine¬
qualities of the moon’s motion,, and alfo the earth’s
mbving round its common centre of gravity and the
moon's : all which, if they were truly copied in this
experiment, would not fenfibly alter the figure of the
paths defcribed by the nail and pin, even though they
fhould rub againft a plain upright furface all the way,
and leave their trafts vifible upon it. And if the cha¬
riot was driven forward on fuch a convex piece of ground,
fo as to turn the wheel feveral times round, the track
of the pin in the nave would ftill be concave toward the
centre of the circular curve defcribed by the nail in the
axle ; as the moon’s path is always concave to the fun
in the centre of the earth’s annual orbit.
In this diagram, the thickeft curve line ABCDE,
with
(k) In this place, we may confider the orbits of all the fatellites as circular, with refpedt to their primary planets ;
becaufe the excentricities of their orbits are too fmall to affedt the phenomena here defcribed.
(l) . The figure by which this is illuftrated is borrowed from Mr Ferguion, whom we principally follow in our ex¬
planations of the phenomena. Later obfervations have determined the proportions to be different; but we cannot find:
that any delineation of this kind hath been given by aftronomers, according to the new proportions.
794
A S T ft
witli the numeral figures fet to it, reprefents as much
of the earth’s annual orbit as it defcribe.s in 32 days
from weft to eaft ; the little circles at A, B, C, D, E,
Ihew the moon’s orbit in due proportion to the earth’s;
and the fmalleft curve a Q. f reprefents the line of the
moon’s path in the heavens for 32 days, accounted
from any particular new moon at a. The fun is fuppo-
fed to be in the centre of the curve A1 2 3 4 56 7 B, &c.
and the fmall dotted circles upon it reprefent the moon’s
orbit, of which the radius is in the fame proportion to
the earth’s path in this fcheme, that the radius of the
moon’s orbit in the heavens was fuppofed to bear to the
radius of the earth’s annual path round the fun; that is,
as 246,000, to 81,000,000, or as 1 to 337t*
When the earth is at A, the new moon is at a; and
in the feven days that the earth dcfcribes the curve
1234567, the moon in accompanying the earth
defcribes the curve a b ; and is in her firit quarter at b
when the earth .is at B. As the earth defcribes the
curve B 8 ,9 10 11 12 13 14, the moon defcribes the
curved c; and is at c, oppofite to the fun, when the
earth is at C. Whilft the earth defcribes the curve C
15 16 17 18192021 22, the moon defcribes the curve
c d; and is in her third quarter at d when the earth is
at D. And laftly, whilft the earth defcribes the curve
D 23 24 25 26 27 28 29, the moon defcribes the curve
d e ; and is again in conjunction at e with the fun when
the earth is at E, between the 29th and 30th day of
the moon’s age, accounted by the numeral figures from
the new moon at A. In defcribing the curve a C <?,
the moon goes round the progreffive earth as really as
if fhe had kept in the dotted circle A, and the earth
I4g continued immoveable in the centre of that circle.
Her path And thus we fee, that although the moon goes
always con- round the earth in a circle, with refpeft to the earth’s
cave to the centre, her real path in the heavens is not very different
Un‘ in appearance from the earth’s path. To ihew that the
moon’s path is concave to the fun, even at the time of
change, it is carried on a little farther into a fecond
lunation, as to f.
The moon’s abfolute motion from her change to her
firft quarter, or from a to bt is fo much flower than
the earth’s, that fhe falls 240,000 miles (equal to the
femidiameter of her orbit) behind the earth at her firft
quarter in b, when the earth is in B ; that is, fhe falls
back a fpace equal to her diftance from the earth. From
that time her motion is gradually accelerated to her
oppofition or full at c ; and then fhe is come up as far
as the earth, having regained what fhe loft in her firft
quarter from a to b. From the full to the laft quarter
at d, her motion continues accelerated fo as to be juft
as far before the earth at d, as fhe was behind it at
her firft quarter in b. But from d to e her motion is
retarded fo, that fhe lofes as much with refpeft to the
earth as is equal to her diftance from it, or to the fe¬
midiameter of her orbit; and by that means fhe comes
to e, and is then in conjun&ion with the fun as feen
from the earth at E. Hence we find, that the moon’s
abfolute motion is flower than the earth’s from her
third quarter to her firft, and fwifter than the earth’s
from her firft quarter to her third; her path being
lefs curved than the earth’s in the former cafe, and
more in the latter. Yet it is ftill bent the fame way
towards the fun; for if we imagine the concavity of
the earth’s orbit to be meafured by the length of a per-
D N O M Y. Sed. V.
pendicular line C g, let down from the earth’s place
upon the ftraight line b g d at the full of the moon,
and conne£ting the places of the earth at the end of
the moon’s firft and third quarters, that length will
be about 640,000 miles; and the moon when new
only approaching nearer to the fun by 240,000 miles
than the earth is, the length of the perpendicular let
down from her place at that time upon the fame ftraight
line, and which fhews the concavity of that part of her
path, will be about 400,000 miles. r49
The moon’s path being concave to the fun through- A difficulty
out, demonftrates that her gravity towards the fun, at concerning
herconjun&ion, exceeds her gravity towards the earth;
and if we confider that the quantity of matter in the °
fun is vaftly greater than the quantity of matter in the
earth, and that the attra&ion of each body diminifhes
as the fquare of the diftance from it increafes, we ihall
foon find, that the point of equal attra&ion between
the earth and the fun, is much nearer the earth than
the moon is at her change.- It may then appear fur-
prifing that the moon does not abandon the earth
when file is between it and the fun, becaufe fhe is con-
fiderably more attra&ed by the fun than by the earth
at that time. But this difficulty vanifhes when we con¬
fider, that a common impulfe on any fyftem of bodies
affedts not their relative motions; but that they will
continue to attradf, impel, or circulate round one ano¬
ther, in the fame manner as if there was no fuch im¬
pulfe. The moon is fo near the earth, and both of
them fo far from the fun, that the attra&ive power of
the fun may be confidered as equal on both ; and there- ■
fore the moon will continue to circulate round the earth
in the fame manner as if the fun did not attraft them
at all: like bodies in the cabbin of a fhip, which may
move round or impel one another in the fame manner
when the fhip is under fail, as when it is at reft ; be-
£aufe they are all equally affedted by the common mo¬
tion of the fhip. If by any other caufe, fuch as the
near approach of a comet, the moon’s diftance from
the earth fhould happen to be fo much increafed, that
the difference of their gravitating forces towards the
fun fhquld exceed that of the moon towards the earth ;
in that cafe, the moon, when in conjundlion, would a-
bandon the earth, and be either drawn into the fun,
or comet, or circulate round about it.
The ruggednefs of the moon’s furface mentioned
n°40,41. is of great ufe to us, by refledfing the fun’s light
to all fides : for if the moon were fmooth and polifhed
like a looking-glafs, or covered with water, fhe could
never diftribute the fun’s light all round ; only in fame
pofitions fhe would fhew us his image, no bigger than
a point, but with fuch a luftre as would be hurtful to
our eyes. IJO
The moon’s furface being fo uneven, many have won- Why her
dered why her edge appears not jagged, as well as the edge appears
curve bounding the light and dark places. But if we always even,
confider, that what we call the edge of the moon’s difk
is not a Angle line fet round with mountains, in which
cafe it would appear irregularly indented, but a large
zone having many mountains lying behind one another
from the obferver’s eye, we fhall find that the moun¬
tains in feme rows will be oppofite to the vales in
others; and fo fill up the inequalities as to make her
appear quite round : juft as when one looks at an
orange, although its roughnefs be very difcernible on
the
I
795
Sea. V. ASTRONOMY.
the fide next the eye, efpecially if the fan or a candle
fhines obliquely on that fide, yet the line terminating
tSJ the vifible part ftill appears fmooth and even.
Of Mars. The planet Mars comes next in order, being the firfl:
above the earth’s orbit. His diftance from the fun is
computed to be 145,014, [48 miles; and by travelling
PI. XLIII. at the rate of yy^Symiles every hour, as in the circle J1,
%• 1. he goes round the fun in 686 of our days and 23
hours ; which is the length of his year, and contains
66y|- of his days ; every day and night together being
40 minutes longer than with us. His diameter is
5400 miles, and by his diurnal rotation the inhabitants
about his equator are carried 669 miles every hour.
His quantity of light and heat is equal but to one
half of ours; and the fun appears but half as big to him
as to us.
This planet being but a fifth part fo big as the earth,
if any moon attends him, Ihe muft be very fmall, and
has not yet been difcovered by our beft teleicopes. To
Mars, our earth and moon appear like two moons, a
I bigger and a lefs ; changing places with one another,
and appearing fometimes horned, fometimes half or
three quarters illuminated, but never full; nor at moft
above one quarter of a degree from each other, altho’
they are 240,000 miles afunder.
Our earth appears almoft as big to Mars as Venus
does to us, and at Mars it is never feen above 48 de¬
grees from the fun ; fometimes it appears to pafs over
the dilk of the fun, and fo do Mercury and Venus:
but Mercury can never be feen from Mars by fuch eyes
as ours, unaffifted by proper inftruments ; and Venus
will be as feldom feen as we fee Mercury. Jupiter and
Saturn will appear bigger to Mars than to us. His
axis is perpendicular to the ecliptic, and his orbit is two
■ degrees inclined to it.
'Of Jupiter. Jupiter, the biggeft of all the planets, is ftill higher in
■ the fyftem, being 494,990,976 miles from the fun; and
going at the rate of 29,083 miles every hour in his or¬
bit, as in the circle finifhes his annual period in
eleven of our years 314 days and 12 hours. He is
above 1300 times as big as the earth ; for his diameter
is 94,000 miles, which is more than eleven times the
diameter of the earth.
Jupiter turns round his axis in 9 hours 56 minutes ;
fo that his year contains 10,470 days; and the diurnal
! velocity of his equatorial parts is greater than the fwift-
nefs with which he moves in his annual orbit; a An¬
gular circumftance, as far as we know. By this prodi¬
gious quick rotation, his equatorial inhabitants are
carried 29,542 miles every hour (which is 4000 miles
in one hour more than an inhabitant of our earth’s e-
quator moves in 24 hours), befides'the 29,083 above-
mentioned, which is common to all parts of his furface,
by his annual motion. By this prodigioufly fwift ro¬
tation on his axis the centrifugal force of his equa¬
torial parts is able to fliorten his polar diameter by
tV of the whole, fo that the difference is very per-
ceptible through a good telefcope.
Has no fen- The axis of Jupiter is fo nearly perpendicular to his
fible change orbit, that he has no fenfible change of feafons; which
0 feafons. -s a great advantage, and wifely ordered by the Author
f of Nature. For, if the axis of this planet were in¬
clined any confiderable number of degrees, juft fo ma-
ny degrees round each pole would in their turn be al¬
moft fix of our years together in darknefs. And, as
each degree of a great circle on Jupiter contains 820
of our miles at a mean rate, it is eafy to judge what
vaft tra&s of land would be rendered uninhabitable by
any confiderable inclination of his axis.
The fun appears but part fo big to Jupiter as to
us ; and his light and heat are in the fame fmall pro¬
portion, but compenfated by the quick returns thereof,
and by four moons (fome bigger and fome lefs than
our earth) which revolve about him : fo that there is
fcarce any part of this huge planet but what is during
the whole night enlightened by one or more of thefe
moons, except his poles, whence only the fartheft
moons can be feen, and where their light is not
wanted, becaufe the fun conftantly circulates in or near
the horizon, and is very probably kept in view of both
poles by the refra&ion of Jupiter's atmofphere, which,
if it be like ours, has certainly refractive power enough
for that purpofe.
The orbits of thefe moons are reprefented in the
fcheme of the folar fyftem by four fmall circles marked
1. 2. 3. 4. on Jupiter’s orbit % ; but they are drawn
greatly too large in proportion to it. The firft moon,
or that neareft to Jupiter, goes round him in 1 day 18
hours and 36 minutes of our time; and is 266,332 miles
diftant from his centre : The fecond performs its revo¬
lution in 3 days 13 hours and 15 minutes, at 423,000
miles diftance : The third in 7 days 3 hours and 59 mi-
minutes, at the diftance of 676,078 miles: and the
fourth, or outermoft, in 16 days 18 hours and 30 mi¬
nutes, at the diftance of 1,189,148 miles from his cen¬
tre.
The angles under which the orbits of Jupiter’s
moons are feen from the earth, at its mean diftance
from Jupiter, are as follow: The firft, 3' 55"; the fe¬
cond, 6' 14'; the third, 9' 58”; and the fourth, 17’
30". And their diftances from Jupiter, meafured by
his femidiameters, are thus : The firft 5^ ; the fecond,
9; the third, I4|-g-; and the fourth, 25-j4- This
planet, feen from its neareft moon, appears 1000 times
as large as our moon does to us; waxing and waning
in all her monthly ftiapes, every 10 hours. ,J4
Jupiter’s three neareft moons fall into his fiiadow, and Longitude
are eclipfed in every revolution: but the orbit of the determil!.ett
fourth moon is fo much inclined, that it paffeth by its or his hue!
oppofition to Jupiter, without falling into his ftiadow, lire,,
two years in every fix. By thefe eclipfes, aftronomers
have not only difcovered that the fun’s light takes up
eight minutes of time in coming to us ; but they have
alfo determined the longitudes of places on this earth
with greater certainty and facility, than by any other
method yet known.
Jupiter’s orbit is 1 degree 20 minutes inclined to the
ecliptic. His north node is in the 7th degree of Can¬
cer, and his fouth node in the yrh degree of Capricorn.
The curves which Jupiter’s fatellites deferibe, are all Delineation
of different forts from the path deferibedby our moon, °^e P3'!15
although thefe fatellites go round Jupiter, as the moon iitcs'Slat^'
goes round the earth. Let ABCDE, Sec. be as much
of Jupiter’s orbit as he deferibes in 18 days from A to
T; and the curves a, b, c, d will be the paths of his PI. XLVII,
four moons going round him in his progrefiive motion, fig- S.
Now let us fuppofe all thefe moons to fet out from a
conjunction with the fun, as feen from Jupiter at A ;
then, his firft or neareft moon will be at a, his fecond
at b-, his third at <r, and his fourth at d. At the end
of
96
ASTRONOMY. Sett. V.
of 24 terreftrial hours after this conjundlion, Jupiter primary planet in the centre of the card was carried for-
hasmovedto B, his firft moon or fatellite has defcribed ward on the line ; andfo finifhed the figure, by draw-
the curve a 1, his fecond the curve b t, his third c x, ing the lines of each fatellite’s motion through thofe
and his fourth d 1. The next day, when Jupiter is at (almoft innumerable) points : by which means, this is
C, his firil fatellite has defcribed the curve a 2, from its perhaps as true a figure of the paths of the fatellites as
conjun&ion, his fecond the curve b 2, his third the can be defined. And in the fame manner might thofe
curve c 2, and his fourth the curve d 2, and fo on. The of Saturn’s fatellites be delineated,
numeral figures under the capital letters fhew Jupiter’s It appears by the fcheme, that the three firft fatel-
place in his path every day for 18 days, accounted from lites come almoft into the fame line or pofition every
Ato T ; and the like figures fet to the paths of his fa- feventh day ; the firft being only a little behind with
tellites, ftiew where they are at the like times. The the fecond, and the fecond behind with the third. But
firft fatellite, almoft under C, is ftationary at + as feen the period of the fourth fatellite is fo incommenfurate
from the fun, and retrograde from + to 2 : at 2 it to the periods of the other three, that it cannot be jj
appears ftationary again, and thence it moves forward guefied at by the diagram when it would fall again in-
until it has paft 3, and is twice ftationary and once re- to a line of conjunAion with them, between Jupiter
trograde between 3 and 4. The path of this fatellite and the fun. And no wonder ; for fuppofing them
interfeAs itfelf every 42J- hours, making fuch loops as all to have been once in conjunAion, it will require
in the diagram at 2. 3. 5. 7. 9. 10. 12. 14. 16. 18. a 3,087,043,493,260 years to bring them in conjunc-
little after every conjunAion. The fecond fatellite l, tion again. JS(; j||
moving flower, barely croffes its path every 3 days 13 Saturn, the remoteft of all the planets, is about Of Saturn, ii,
hours ; as at 4. 7. 11. 14. 18. making only five loops 907,956,130 miles from the fun ; and, travelling at PI- XLII1. ,j
and as many conjunAions in the time that the firft makes the rate of 22,101 miles every hour, as in the circle u !j
ten. The third fatellite c moving ftill flower, and ha- marked h), performs its annual circuit in 29 years 167
ving defcribed the curve c 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. comes to days and 5 hours of our time ; which makes only one
an angle at 7 in conjunAion with the fun at the end of year to that planet. Its diameter is 78,000 miles ; and
7 days four hours; and fo goes on to defcribe fuch therefore it is near 1000 times as big as the earth,
another curve 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. and is at 14 To Saturn the fun appears only ^ part fo big as
in its next conjunAion. The fourth fatellite d is al- to us ; and the light and heat he receives from the fun
ways progreffive, making neither loops nor angles in are in the fame proportion to ours. But, to compen-
the heavens ; but comes to its next conjunAion at e be- fate for the fmall quantity of fun-light, he has five
tween the numeral figures 16 and 17, or in 16 days 18 moons, all going round him on the outfide of his
hours. ring> and nearly in the fame plane with it. The firft
The method ufed by Mr Fergufon to delineate the or neareft moon to Saturn, goes round him in one day-
paths of thefe fatellites was the following. Having 21 hours 19 minutes; and is 140,000 miles from his
drawn their orbits on a card, in proportion to their re- centre : the fecond, in 2 days 17 hours 40 minutes, at
lative diftances from Jupiter, he meafured the radius the diftance of 187,000 miles : the third, in 4 days
of the orbit of the fourth fatellite, which was an inch 12 hours 25 minutes; at 263,000 miles diftance : the
and parts of an inch ; then multiplied this by 424 fourth, in 15 days 22 hours 41 minutes; at the di-
for the radius of Jupiter’s orbit, becaufe Jupiter is 424 ftance of 600,000 miles : and the fifth, or outermoft,
times as far from the fun’s centre as his fourth fatel- at 1,800,000 miles from Saturn’s centre, goes round
lite is from his centre ; and the produA thence ari- him in 79 days 7 hours 48 minutes. Their orbits in
fing was 483^0 inches. Then taking a fmall cord the fcheme of the folar fyftem gre reprefented by the
of this length, and fixing one end of it to the floor of five fmall circles marked 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. on Saturn’s or-
a long room by a nail, with a black-lead pencil at the bit; but thefe, like the orbits of the other fatellites,
other end he drew the curve ABCD &c. and fet off a are drawn vaftly too large in proportion to the orbits of
degree and half thereon, from A to T ; becaufe Jupi- their primary planets. 157 |
ter moves only fo much, whilft his outermoft fatellite The fun ftiines almoft 15 of our years together on Phenomey;
goes once round him, and fomewhat more ; fo that one fide of Saturn’s ring without fetting, and as long n.a of ^is 1
this fmall portion of fo large a circle differs but very on the other in its turn. So that the ring is vifible to nn^'
little from a ftraight line. This done, he divided the the inhabitants of that planet for almoft 15 of our years,
fpace AT into 18 equal parts, as AB, BC, &c. for the and as long invifible, by turns, if its axis has no inclina-
daily progrefs of Jupiter ; and each part into 24 for his tion to its ring ; but if the axis of the planet be inclin-
hourly progrefs. The orbit of each fatellite was alfo ed to the ring, fuppofe about 30 degrees, the ring will
divided into as many equal parts as the fatellite is appear and difappear once every natural day to all the
hours in finiftilng its fynodical period round Jupiter, inhabitants within 30 degrees of the equator, on both
Then.drawing a right line through the centre of the Tides, frequently eclipfing the fun on a Saturnian day.
card, as a diameter to all the four orbits upon it, he Moreover, if Saturn’s axis be fo inclined to his ring,
put the card upon the line of Jupiter’s motion, and it is perpendicular to his orbit; and thereby the incon-
transferred it to every horary divifion thereon, keeping venience of different feafons to that planet is avoided,
always the faid diameter-line on the line of Jupiter’s For, confidering the length of Saturn’s year, whifch is
path ; and running a pin through each horary divifion almoft equal to-thirty of ours, what a dreadful condi- *
in the orbit of each fatellite as the card was gradually tion muft the inhabitants of his polar regions be in,
transferred along the line ABCD &c. of Jupiter’s mo- if they be half that time deprived of the light and heat
tion, he marked points for every hour through the of the fun ? which is not their cafe alone, if the axis
card for the curves defcribed by the fatellites, as the of the planet be perpendicular to the ring; for then the
797
Sea. V. A S T Pv <
ring muft hide the fun from vaft tracks of land on each
fide of the equator for 13 or 14 of our years together,
on the fouth fide and north fide by turns, as the axis
inclines to or from the fun: the reverfe of which in¬
convenience is another good prefumptive proof of the
inclination of Saturn’s axis to his ring, and aifo of his
158 axis being perpendicular to his orbit.
Phenomena This ring, feen from Saturn, appears like a vaft lu-
of Saturn s 3^^ jn the heavens, as if it did not belong to
rin^‘ the planet. When we fee the ring moft open, its Iha-
dow upon the planet is broadeft; and from that time
the ftiadow grows narrower, as the ring appears to do
to us; until, by Saturn’s annual motion, the fun comes
to the plane of the ring, or even with its edge ; which
being then direfted towards us, becomes invifible on
account of its thinnefs ; the ring difappears twice in
every annual revolution of"Saturn, namely, when he is
in the 19th degree both of Pifces and of Virgo. And
when Saturn is in the middle between thefe points, or
in the I9rh degree either of Gemini or of Sagittarius,
his ring appears moft open to us; and then its longeft
diameter is to its (horteft, as 9 to 4.
As Saturn goes round the fun, his obliquely pofited
ring, like our earth’s axis, keeps parallel to itfelf, and
„ is therefore turned edgewife to the fun twice in a Sa¬
turnian year, which is almoft as long as 30 of our years.
But the ring, though confiderably broad, is too thin
to be feen by us wheq it is turned edgewife to the fun,
at which time it is alfo edgewife to the earth ; and
therefore it difappears once in every 15 years to us. As
the fun Ihines. half a year together on the north pole
of our earth, then difappears to it, and (hines as long
on the fouth pole; fo, during one half of Saturn’s
year, the fun Ihines on the north fide of his ring, then
difappears to it, and (hines as long on its fouth fide.
When the earth’s axis inclines neither to nor from the
fun, but fidewife to him, he inftantly ceafes to fliine on
one pole, and begins to enlighten the other; and when
Saturn’s ring inclines neither to nor from the fun, but
fidewife to him, he ceafes to ftiine on the one fide of it,
and begins to Ihine upon the other.
To fuch eyes as ours unaffifted by inftruments, Ju¬
piter is the only planet that can be feen from Saturn,
and Saturn the only* planet that can be feen from Ju¬
piter. So that the inhabitants of thefe two planets
muft either fee much farther than we do, or have equally
good inftruments to carry their fight to remote objefls,
if they know that there is fuch a body as our earth in
the univerfe : for the earth is no bigger feen from Ju¬
piter, than his moons are feen from the earth ; and if
his large body had not firft attrafted our fight, and
prompted our curiofity to view him with a telefcope,
we fhould never have known any thing cf his moons;
unlefs by chance we had direffed the telefcope toward
that fmall part of the heavens where they were at the
time of obfervation. And the like is true of the moons
of Saturn.
The orbit of Saturn is 2J- degrees inclined to the
ecliptic, or orbit of our earth, and interfe&s it in the
21degree of Cancer and of Capricorn ; fo that Sa-
159 turn’s nodes are only 14 degrees from Jupiter’s.
Quantity of The quantity of light afforded by the fun to Jupi-
joyU e en- terj i)e;ng kut ^ part> an(j to gaturn onjy ^ part>
of what we enjoy, may at firft thought induce us to
believe that thefe two planets are entirely unfit for ra-
VOL. I.
3 N O M Y.
tional beings to dwell upon. But that their light is
not fo weak as we imagine, is evident from their bright-
nefs in the night time; and alfo from this remarkable
phenomenon, that when the fun is fo much eclipfed to
us, as to have only the 40th part of his diflc left unco¬
vered by the moon, the decreafe of light is not very
fenfible ; and juft at the end of darknefs in total eclipfes
when his weftern limb begins to be vifible, and feems
no bigger than a bit of fine filver wire, every one is fur-
prifed at the brightnefs wherewith that fmall part of him
fhines. The moon, when full, affords travellers light e-
nough to keep them from miftaking their way; and yet,
according to Mr Boguer, the light of the fun is 300,000
times as flrong as that of the moon. Confequently, the
fun gives almoft 10,360 times as much light to Saturn,
as the full moon does to us; and above 30,000 times
as much to Jupiter. So that thefe two planets, even
without any moons, would be much more enlightened
than we at firft imagine; and, by having fo many, they
may be very comfortable places of refidence. Their
heat, fo far as it depends on the force of the fun’s rays,
is certainly much lefs than ours; to which no doubt
the bodies of their inhabitants are as well adapted as
ours are to the feafons we enjoy. And if we confider
that Jupiter never has any winter, even at his poles,
which probably is alfo the cafe with Saturn, the cold
cannot be fo intenfe on thefe two planets as is gene¬
rally imagined. Befides, there may be fomething in the
nature of their mould warmer than in that of our earth;
and we find that all our heat depends not on the rays
of the fun ; for if it did, we ftiould always have the
fame months equally hot or cold at their annual returns.
But it is far otherwife, for February is fometimes warm¬
er than May ; which muft be owing to vapours and
exhalations from the earth. ioo
In the Philofophical Tranfa&ions a method is Mr Azout’s
given by Mr Azout for knowing how much Jupiter meth°d of
or Saturn are illuminated experimentally. .ft ft wrfe,
admitting the fun s rays into a dark room through a jupitfr an(j
convex lens ; when being colle&ed into a focus, they Saturn,
will afterwards diverge to any diftance we pleafe. This
experiment, however, will be apt to raife doubts in the
minds of thofe who try it, either with regard to the
diminution of the fun’s light at thofe diftances, or with
regard to the fubftances of the planets. For it is cer¬
tain, that the brightnefs of the fuperior planets is far
from being diminiflied in the proportion that it ought
to be were all the wandering bodies in our fyftem of
a fimilar fubftance. Jupiter, for inftance, as he hath
not the 50th part of the light that Venus hath, feeing
he is removed to fuch a diftance as to appear as fmall
as fhe does, ought to ftiine with only the 50rl1 part of
herlultre: but it is manifeft he has much more; of con-'
fequence, either the fun’s light muft be ftronger at Ju¬
piter than is commonly fuppofed, or he muft be formed
of a fubftance more capable of refle&ing the light than
Venus.
In fig. 2. we have a view of the proportional breadth pj, XLIIf.
of the fun’s face or difk, as feen from the different pla¬
nets. The fun is reprefented N° 1. as feen from Mer¬
cury; N° 2. as feen from Venus; N° 3. as feen from
the earth; N° 4. as feen from Mars; N° 5. as feen
from Jupiter; and, N° 6. as feen from Saturn.
Let the circle B (fig. 3.) be the fun as feen from any
planet, at a given diltance: to another planet, at double
5 H that
■()$
ASTRONOMY.
that diftance, the fun will appear juft of half that breadth,
as A; which contains only one fourth part of the area
or furface of B. For all circles, as well as fquare furfa-
ces, are to one another as the fquares of their diameters.
Thus, the fquare A (fig. 4.) is juft half as broad as the
fquare B; and yet it is plain to fight, that B contains
four times as much furface as A. Hence,- by compa¬
ring the diameters of the above circles (fig. 2.) together,
it will be found, that, in round numbers, the fun ap¬
pears 7 times larger to Mercury than to us, 90 times
larger to us than to Saturn, and 630 times as large to
Mercury as to Saturn.
. Under fig. 3. are the names and chara&ers of the
twelve figns of the zodiac, which the reader fhould be
perfectly well acquainted with, fo as to know the cha-
ra&ers without feeing the names. Each fign contains
30 degrees, as in the circle (fig. 1.) bounding the folar
fyftem; to which the characters of the figns are fet in
their proper places.
Part of the paths of three comets are delineated in
the fcheme of the folar fyftem, and the years marked
in which they made their appearance. It is believed,
that there are at leaft 21 comets belonging to our fy¬
ftem, moving in all forts of directions. Of all thefe,
the periods of the above-mentioned three only are
known with any degree of certainty. The firft of thefe
comets appeared in the years 1531, 1607, 1682, and
1759 ; and is expeCted to appear every 75th year af¬
terwards. The fecond of them appeared in 1532 and
1661; and may be expeCted to return in 1789, and e-
very 129th year afterwards. The third, having laft
appeared in 1680, and its period being no lefs than
573 years, cannot return until the year 2225. This
comet, at its greateft diftance, is about 11,200,000,000
miles from the fun; and at its leaft diftance from
the fun’s centre, which is 490,000 miles, is within lefs
than a third part of the fun’s femidiameter from his
furface. In that part of its orbit which is neareft the
fun, it flies with the amazing fwiftnefs of 880,000
miles in an hour ; and the fun, as feen from it, appears
an hundred degrees in breadth ; confequently, 40,000
times as large as he appears to us. The aftonifti-
ing length that this comet runs out into empty fpace,
fuggefts to our minds an idea of the vaft diftance be¬
tween the fun and the neareft fixed ftars ; of whofe at¬
tractions all the comets muft keep clear, to return pe¬
riodically, and go round the fun : and it fliews us al-
fo, that the neareft ftars, which are probably thofe
that feem the largeft, are as big as our fun, and of the
fame nature with him ; otherwife, they could not ap¬
pear fo large and bright to us, as they do, at fuch an
immenfe diftance.
Se£t. VI. Of the Ebbing and Flowing of the Sea,
and the Phenomena of the Harvefl and Horizontal
Caufeofthe The caufe of the tides was difcovered by Kepler,
vered'b^0' w^0’ tn his Introduftion to the Phyfics*of the Heavens,
Kepler. ^us explains it: “ The orb of the attracting power,
which is in the moon, ia extended as far as the earth ;
and draws the waters under the torrid zone, aCting up¬
on places where it is vertical, infenlibjy on confined
feas and bays, but fenfibly on the ocean whofe beds are
large and where the waters have the liberty of recipro¬
cation, that is, of rifing and falling/’ And in the 70th
Sed. VI.
page of his Lunar HJlronomy “ But the caufe of the
tides of the fea appears to bo-the bodies of the fun and
moon drawing the waters of the-fea.” This hint be-
ing given, the immortal Sir Ifaac Newton improved it,
and wrote fo amply on the fubjeCt, as to make the
theory of the tides in a mariner quite his own, by dif-
covering the caufe of their rifing on the fide of the
earth oppofite to the moon. For Kepler believed, that
the prefence of the moon occafioned an impulfe which
caufed another in her abfence.
It has been already obferved, that the power of gra- pj.XLVIIlll
vity diminifhes as the fquare of the diftance increafes ; fig. 4.
and therefore the waters at Z on the fide of the earth
ABCDEFGH next the moon M are more attracted
than the central parts of the earth O by the moon, and
the central parts are more attracted by her than the wa¬
ters on the oppofite fide of the earth at n: and therefore
the diftance between the earth’s centre and the waters
on its furface under and oppofite to the moon will be
increafed. For, let there be three bodies at H, O, and
D: if they are all equally attracted by the body M,
they will all move equally faft toward it, their mutual
diftances from each other continuing the fame. If the
attra&ion of M is unequal, then that body which is
moft ftrongly attracted will move fafteft, and this will
increafe its diftance from the other body. Therefore,
by the law of gravitation, M will attraCl H more
ftrongly than it does O, by which the diftance between
H and O will be increafed; and a fpeCtator on O will |
perceive H rifing higher toward Z. In like manner,
O being more ftrongly attracted than D, it will move
farther towards M than D does: confequently, the di¬
ftance between O and D will be increafed; and a fpec-
tator on O, not perceiving his owrn motion, will fee D
receding farther from him towards n: all effeCts and
appearances being the fame, whether D recedes from
O, or O from D.
Suppofe now there is a number of bodies, as A,B,
C,D,E,F,G,H, placed round O, fo as to form a flex¬
ible or fluid ring : then, as the whole is attracted to¬
wards M, the parts at H and D will have their di¬
ftance from O increafed; whilft the parts at B and F
being, nearly at the fame diftance from M as O is, thefe,
parts will not recede from one ano?her; but rather, by ,
the oblique attraction of M, they will approach nearer
to O. Hence, the fluid ring will form itfelf into an
ellipfe ZIBLwKFNZ, w'hoi’e longer axis «OZ pro¬
duced will pafs through M, and its fhorter axis EOF
will terminate in B and F. Let the ring be filled with
fluid particles, fo as to form a fphere round O; then,
as the whole moves towards M, the fluid fphere being
lengthened at Z and n, will aflume an oblong or oval
form. If M is the moon, O the earth’s centre, ABC
DEFGH the fea covering the earth’s furface, it is evi¬
dent, by the above reafoning, that whilft the earth by
its gravity falls toward the moon, the water direCIly
below her at B will fwell and rife gradually towards
her; alfo the water at D will recede from the centre
[ftriCtly fpeaking, the centre recedes from D3, and rife
on the oppofite fide of the earth ; whilft the water at
B and F is deprefled, and falls below the former level.
Hence as the earth turns round its axis from the moon
to the moon again in 24^ hours, there will be two tides
of flood and two of ebb in that time, as we find by ex¬
perience-
As
'99
Sed. VI.
ASTRONOMY.
161
Why the
tides are
high at full
moon.
Influence of
the fun in
railing tides.
Why they
higheft
! when the
' the meri-
As this explanation of the ebbing and flowing of the
fea is deduced from the earth’s conftantly falling to ¬
wards the moon by the power of gravity, fome may
find a difficulty in conceiving how this is poffible, when
the moon is full, or in oppolition to the fun ; fincethc
earth revolves about the fun, and muft continually fall
towards it, and therefore cannot fall contrary ways at
the fame time : or if the earth is conftantly falling to¬
wards the moon, they muft come together at laft. To
remove this difficulty, let it be confidered, that it is not
the centre of the earth that defcribes the annual orbit
round the fun, but the (m) common centre of gravity
of the earth and moon together : and that whilft the
earth is moving round the fun, it alfo defcribes a circle
round that centre of gravity; going as many times
round it in one revolution about the-fun as there are
lunations or courfes of the moon round the earth in a
year: and therefore the earth is conftantly falling to¬
wards the moon from a tangent to the circle it defcribes
round the fa id common centre of gravity. Let M be
the moon, T W part of the moon’s orbit, and C the
centre of gravity of the earth and moon ; whilft the
moon goes round her orbit, the centre of the earth de¬
fcribes the circle dg e round C, to which circle g a k
is a tangent; apd therefore when the moon has gone
from M to a little paft W, the earth has moved from
g to e; and in that time has fallen towards the moon,
from the tangent at « to <?: and fo on, round the whole
circle.
The fun’s influence in raifing the tides is but fmall
in comparifon of the moon’s; for though^the earth’s
diameter bears a confiderable proportion to its diftance
from the moon, it is next to nothing when compared
to its diftance from the fun. And therefore the differ¬
ence of the fun’s attraction on the fides of the earth un¬
der and oppofite to him, is much lefs than the differ¬
ence of the moon’s attraction on the Tides of the earth
under and oppofite to her ; and therefore the moon muft
raife the tides much higher than they can be raifed by
the fun.
On this theory, the tides ought to be higheft direCt-
ly under and oppofite to the moon; that is, when the
moon is due north and fouth. But we find, that in
open feas, where the water flows freely, the moon M
is generally paft the north and fouth meridian, as at f>,
when it is high water at Z and at «. The reafon is
obvious : for though the moon’s attraction was to ceafe
altogether when fhe was paft the meridian, yet the mo¬
tion of afcent communicated to the water before that
time would make it continue to rife for fome time af¬
ter ; much more muft it do fo when the attraction is
only diminiftied ; as a little impulfe given to a moving
ball will caufe it {till to-move farther than otherwife it
could have done ; and as experience fhews, that the
day is hotter about three in the afternoon, than when
the fun is on the meridian, becaufe of the increafe made
to the heat already imparted.
The tides anfwer not always to the fame diftance of
the moon from the meridian at the fame places ; but
are varioufly affeCkd by the aCtion of the fun, which
brings them on fooner when the moon is in her firft
and third quarters, and keeps them back later when Ihe
is in her fecond and fourth: becaufe, in the former
cafe, the tide raifed by the fun alone would be earlier
than the tide raifed by the moon; and, in the latter
cafe, later.
The moon goes round the earth in an elliptic orbit;
and therefore, in every lunar month, ffie approaches
nearer to the earth than her mean diftance, and recedes
farther from it. When ffie is neareft, ffie attracts
ftrongeft, and fo raifes the tides moft ; the contrary
happens when ffie is fartheft, becaufe of her weaker at-
traClion. When both luminaries are in the equator,
and the moon in perigeo, or at her lead diftance from
the earth, ffie raifes the tides higheft of all, efpecially
at her conjunction and oppofition; both becaufe the
equatorial parts have the greateft centrifugal force from
their defcribing the largelt circle, and from the concur¬
ring aCtions of the fun and moon. At the change, the
attractive forces of the fun and moon being united,
they diminiffi the gravity of the waters under the moon,
and their gravity on the oppofite fide is diminiffied by
means of a greater centrifugal force. At the full,
whilft the moon raifes the tide under and oppofite to
her, the fun, aCting in the fame line, raifes the tide un¬
der and oppofite to him ; whence their conjoint effeCt is
the fame as at the change ; and, in both cafes, occafion
what we call the Spring tides. But at the quarters the
fun’s aftion on the waters at O and H diminiffies the
effeCt of the moon’s aCtion on the waters at Z and N ;
fo that they rife a little under and oppofite to the fun
at O and H, and fall as much under and oppofite to
the moon at Z and N; making what we call the Neap
tides, becaufe the fun and moon then aCt crofs-wife to
each other. But thefe tides happen not till fome time
after; becaufe in this, as in other cafes, the aClions do not
produce the greateft effeft when they are at the ftrong¬
eft, but fome time afterward.
The fun, being nearer the earth in winter than in
fummer, is of courfe nearer to it in February and Oc¬
tober than in March and September; and therefore the
greateft tides happen not till fome time after the au¬
tumnal equinox, and return a little before the vernal.
The fea, being thus put in motion, would continue
to ebb and flow for feveral times, even though the fun
and moon were annihilated, or their influence ffiould
ceafe ; as, if a bafon of water were agitated, the wa¬
ter would continue to move for fome time after the ba¬
fon was left to ftand ftill; or like a pendulum, which,
having been put in motion by the hand, continues to
make feveral vibrations without any new impulfe.
When the moon is in the equator, the tides are e-
qually high in both parts of the lunar day, or time of
the moon’s revolving from the meridian to the meridian
again, which is 24 hours 50 minutes. But as the
moon declines from the equator towards either pole,
the tides are alternately higher and lower at places ha¬
ving north or fouth latitude. For one of the higheft
elevations, which is that under the moon, follows her
towards the pole to which ffie is neareft, and the other
5 H 2 declines
(m) This centre is as much nearer the earth's centre than the moon’s as the earth is heavier, or contains a greater
quantity of matter than the moon, namely, about 40 times. If both bodies were fufpended on it, they would hang
in equilibria. So that dividing 240,000 miles, the moon’s diftance from the earth’s centre, by 40, the excefs of the
earth’s weight above the moon’s, the quotient will be 6000 miles, which is the diftance of the common centre of gra¬
vity of the earth and moon from the earth’s centre.
Soo
ASTRONOMY. Sett. VI.
declines towards the oppofite pole ; each elevation de-
fcribing parallels as far diftant from the equator, on
oppofite fides, as the moon declines from it to either
fide ; and confequently, the parallels defovibed by thefe
elevations'of the water are twice as many degrees from
one another, as the moon is from the equator; in-
creafing their diftance as the moon increafes her decli¬
nation, till it be at the greateft, when the faid parallels
are, at a mean ftate, 47 degrees from one another: and
on that day, the tides are moft unequal in their heights.
As the moon returns towards the equator, the parallels
defcribed by the oppofite elevations approach towards
each other, until the moon comes to the equator, and
then they coincide. As the moon declines towards the
oppofite pole, at equal diftances, each elevation de-
fcribes the fame parallel in the other part of the lunar
day, which its oppofite elevation defcribed before.
Whilft the moon has north declination, the greateft:
tides in the northern hemifphere are when file is above
the' horizon ; and the reverfe whilft her declination is
PL XLIX. fouth. Let NESQ^be the NCS its cixiSj LQ
fig- 3- 4- 5- the equator, T 05 the tfopic of Cancer, t vy the tro¬
pic of Capricorn, a b the ardtic circle, c ci the antardtic,
N the north pole, S the fouth pole, M the moon, F
and G the two eminences of water, whofe lowed parts
are at a and d, at N and S, and at b and c, always 90
degrees from the higheft. Now, when the moon is in
her greateft north declination at M, the higheft eleva¬
tion G under her is on the tropic of Cancer T 05,
and the oppofite elevation F on the tropic of Capri¬
corn t >y ; and thefe two elevations defcribe the tropics
by the earth’s diurnal rotation. All places in the
northern hemifphere ENtVhave the higheft tides when
they come into the pofition b 25 Q, under the moon ;
and the lowed tides when the earth’s diurnal rotation
carries them into the pofition a TE, on the fide oppo¬
fite to the moon ; the reverfe happens at the fame time
in the fouthern hemifphere ESQ^as is evident to fight.
The axis of the tides a C d has now its poles a and d
(being always 90 degrees from the higheft elevations)
in the ardlic and antardtic circles ; and therefore it is
plain, that at thefe circles there is but one tide of
flood, and one of ebb, in the lunar day. For, when
the point a revolves half round to £, in 12 lunar hours,
it has a tide of flood ; but when it comes to the fame
point a again in 12 hours more, it has the lowed ebb.
In feven days afterward, the moon M comes to the e-
quino&ial circle, and is over the equator EQ^ when
both elevations defcribe the equator ; and in both he-
mifpheres, at equal diftances from the equator, the
tides are equally high in both parts of the lunar day.
The whole phenomena being reverfed, when the moon
has fouth declination, to what they were when her de¬
clination was north, require no farther defcription.
In the three laft-mentioned figures, the earth is or-
thographically projedted on the plane of the meridian ;
but, in order to defcribe a particular phenomenon, we
now projedt it on the plane of the ecliptic. Let HZON
(fig. 2.) be the earth and fea, FED the equator, T
the tropic of Cancer, C the ardlic circle, P the north
ole, and the curves 1, 2, 3, &c. 24 meridians or
our-circles, interfedting each other in the poles;
AGMas the moon’s orbit, S the fun, M the moon, Z
the water elevated under the moon, and N the oppofite
equal elevation. As the loweft parts of the water are
always 90 degrees from the higheft, when the moon is
in either of the tropics (as at M), the elevation Z is on
the tropic of Capricorn, and the oppofite elevation N on
the tropic of Cancer ; the low-water circle HCO touch¬
es the polar circles at C ; and the high-water circle
ETP6 goes over the poles at P, and divides every pa¬
rallel of latitude into two equal fegments. In this cafe, ■j
the tides upon every parallel are alternately higher and
lower ; but they return in equal times : the point T,
for example, on the tropic of Cancer (where the depth
of the tide is reprefented by the breadth of the dark
fhade), has a (hallower tide of flood at T, than when it
revolves half round from thence to 6, according to the
order of the numeral figures”; but it revolves as foon
from 6 to T as it did from T to 6. When the moon
is in the equinodlial, the elevations Z and N are tranf-
ferred to the equator at O and FI, and the high and
low water circles are got into each other’s former pla¬
ces ; in which cafe the tides return in unequal times,
but are equally high in both parts of the lunar day : for
a place at 1 (under D) revolving as formerly, goes
fooner from 1 to 11 (under F) than from 11 to x, be-
caufe the parallel it defcribes is cut into unequal feg¬
ments by the high-water circle HCO : but the points ~ 1
1 and 11 being equidiftant from the pole of the tides
at C, which is dire£tly under the pole of the moon’s
orbit MGA, the elevations are equally high in both
parts of the day. . ,c* I
And thus it appears, that as the tides are governed
by the moon, they muft turn on the axis of the moon’s °j?t|iee aiu^
orbit, which is inclined 23-I- degrees to the earth’s axis moon’s or-
at a mean ftate: and therefore the poles of the tides bit. ,
muft be fo many degrees from the poles of the earth', or
in oppofite points of the polar circles, going round thefe
circles in every lunar day. It is true, that according
to fig 4. when the moon is vertical to the equator ECQ_,
the poles of the tides feem to fall in with the poles of
the world N and S : but when we confider that FGH
is, under the moon’s orbit, it will appear, that when the
moon is over H, in the tropic of Capricorn, the north
pole of the tides (which can be no more than 90 degrees
from under the moon) muft be atC in the arftic circle,
not at P the north pole of the earth ; and as the moon
afcends from H to G in her orbit, the north pole of the
tides muft Ihift from cto « in the ar&ic circle, and the
fouth pole as much in the antar&ic.
It is not to be doubted, but that the earth’s quick
rotation brings the poles of the tides nearer to the poles
of the world, than they would be if the earth were at
reft and the moon revolved about it only once a month;
for otherwife the tides would be more unequal in their
heights and times of their returns, than we find they
are. But how near the earth’s rotation may bring the
poles of its axis and thofe, of the tides together, or how
far the preceding tides may affect thofe which follow, fo
as to make them keep up nearly to the fame heights
and times of ebbing and flowing, is a problem more fit
to be folved by oblervation than by theory. ij
Thofe who have opportunity to make obfervations,
and chufe to fatisfy themfelves whether the tides are
really affefted in the above manner by the different po-
fitions of the moon, efpecially as to the unequal times
of their returns, may take this general rule for know¬
ing when they ought to be fo affedled. When the
earth’s axis inclines to the moon, the northern tides, if
not
ASTRONOMY.
So i
Sea. VI.
not retarded in their paflage through fhoals and chan¬
nels, nor affected by the winds, ought to be greateft
when the moon, is above the horizon, leaft when {he is
below it; and quite the reverfe when the earth’s axis
declines from her: but in both cafes, at equal intervals
of time. When the earth’s axis inclines’fidewife to
the moon, both tides are equally high, but they hap¬
pen at unequal intervals of time. In every lunation the
earth’s axis inclines once to the moon, once from her,
and twice fidewife to her, as it does to the fun every
year ; becaufe' the moon goes round the ecliptic every
month, and the fun but once in a year. In fummer, the
earth’s axis inclines towards the moon when new ; and
therefore the day-tides in the north ought to be higheft,
and night-tides loweft, about the change: at the full,
the reverfe. At the quarters, they ought to be equally
high, but unequal in their returns ; becaufe the earth’s
axis then inclines fidewife to the moon. In winter, the
phenomena are the fame at full moon as in fummer at
new. In autumn, the earth’s axis inclines fidewife to
the moon when new and full ; therefore the" tides
ought to be equally high and uneven in their returns at
thefe times. At the lirft quarter, the tides of flood
fliould be leaft when the moon is above the horizon,
greateft when {he is below it ; and the reverfe at her
third quarter. In fpring, the phenomena of the firft
quarter anfwer to thofe of the third quarter in au¬
tumn ; and vice verfa. The nearer any time is to ei¬
ther of thefe feafons, the more the tides partake of the
phenomena of thefe feafons; and in the middle between
any two of them the tides are at a mean ftate between
thofe of both.
In open feas, the tides rife but to very fmall heights
in proportion to what they do in wide-mouthed rivers,
opening in the dire&ion of the ftream of tide. For, in
channels growing narrower gradually, the water is ac¬
cumulated by the oppofition of the contracting bank :
like a gentle wind, little felt on an open plain, but
ftrong and briik in a ftreet; efpecially if the wider end
of the ftreet be next the plain, and in the way of the
j6(S wind.
|Irregular!- The tides are fo retarded in their paffage thro’ dif-
|ties of tides ferent fhoals and channels, and otherwife fo varioufly
[accounte afpe(qe(l foy ftriking againft capes and headlands, that
to different places they happen at all diftances of the
moon from the meridian, confequently at all hours of
the lunar day. The tide propagated by the moon in
the German ocean, when Ihe is three hours paft the
meridian, takes 12 hours to come from thence to Lon¬
don bridge ; where it arrives by the time that a new
tide is raifed in the ocean. And therefore, when the
moon has north declination, and we ftiould expedt the
tide at London to be greateft when the moon is above
the horizon, we find it is leaft ; and the contrary when
{he has fouth declination. At feveral places it is high-
water three hours before the moon comes to the meri¬
dian ; but that tide which the moon pufties as it were
before her, is only the tide oppofite to that which was
raifed by her when fliewas nine hours paft the oppofite
meridian.
There are no tides in lakes, becaufe they are gene¬
rally fo fmall, that when the moon is vertical Ihe at¬
tracts every part of them alike, and therefore, by ren¬
dering all the water equally light, no part of it can be
raifed higher than another. The Mediterranean and
Baltic feas have very fmall elevations, becaufe the in¬
lets by which they communicate with the Ocean are
fo narrow, that they cannot, in fo {hort a time, receive
or difcharge enough to raife or fink their furfaces fen-
fibly. , Ifi7
Air being lighter than water, and the furface of the Why the
atmofphere being nearer to the moon than the furface mo°n does
of the fea, it cannot be doubted that the moon raifes
much higher tides in the air than in the fea. And there- ter.
fore many have wondered why the mercury does not fink
in the barometer when the moon’saftionon the particles
of air makes themlighter as file paffes over the meridian.
But we muft confider, that as thefe particles are ren¬
dered lighter, a greater number of them is accumu¬
lated, until the deficiency of gravity be made up by the
height of the column ; and then there is an equili¬
brium, and confequently an equal preffure upon the
mercury as before ; fo that it cannot be affeCted by the
aerial tides. It is very probable, however, that the
ftars which are feen through an aerial tide of this kind
will have their light more refraCted than thofe which are
feen through the common depth of the atmofpherc ;
and this may account for the fuppofed refractions by
the lunar atmofphere that have been fometimes ob-
ferved. Seen0 43. i<58
It is generally believed that the moon rifes about 50 Ofthe har-
minutes later every day than on the preceding; but ve^ 1,noon•
this is true only with regard to places on the equator.
In places of confiderable latitude there is a remarkable
difference, efpecially in the harveft-time. .Here the
autumnal full moons rife very foon after fun-fet for fe¬
veral evenings together. At the polar circles, where
the mild feafon is of very ftiort duration, the autumnal
full moon rifes at fun-fet from the firft; to the third
quarter. And at the poles, where the fun is for half
a year abfent, the winter full-moons fliine conftahtly
without fetting from the firft to the third quarter.
All thefe phenomena are owing to' the different angles
made by the horizon and different parts of the moon’s
orbit; and may be explained in the following manner.
The plane of the equinoCtial is perpendicular to the
earth’s axis : and therefore, as the earth turns round
its axis, all parts of the equino&ial make equal angles
with the horizon both at rifing and fetting ; fo that
equal portions of it always rife or fet in equal times.
Confequently, if the moon’s motion were equable, and
in the equinoCtial, at the rate of 12 degrees n min.
from the fun every day, as it is in her orbit, <he would
rife and fet 50 minutes later every day than on the
preceding : for 12 deg. 11 min. of the equinoCtial rife Jj
or fet in 50 minutes of time in all latitudes.
But the moon’s motion i« fo nearly in the ecliptic,
that we may confider her at prefent as moving in it.
Now the different parts of the ecliptic, on account of
its obliquity to the earth’s axis, make very different
angles with the horizon as they rife or fet. Thofe
parts or figns which rife with the ftnalleft angles fet
with the greateft, and vice verfu. In equal times,
whenever this angle is leaft, a greater portion of the
ecliptic rifes than when the angle is larger ; as may be
feen by elevating'the pole of a globe to any confider¬
able latitude, and then turning it round its axis in the
horizon. Confequently, when the moon is in thofe
figns which rife or fet with the fmalleft angles, flie
rifes or fets with the leaft difference of time; and with
the
802
ASTRO
the greatefl: difference in thofe figns which rife or fet
with the greatefl angles.
PI.XLVIII. Let FUP be the axis of a globe, 2d TR the tropic
1‘ of Cancer, L ^ vy the tropic of Capricorn, £5 EU vy
the ecliptic touching both the tropics, which are 47
degrees from each other, and A B the horizon. The
equator, being in the middle between the tropics, is cut
by the ecliptic in two oppofite points, which are the
beginnings of Aries and Libra, K is the hour-circle
with its index, F the north pole of the globe elevated
to a confiderable latitude, fuppofe 40 degrees above the
horizon ; and P the fouth pole depreffed as much be¬
low it. Becaufe of the oblique pofition of the fphere
in this latitude, the ecliptic has the high elevation
N £5 above the horizon, making the angle NU 35
of 73-i- degrees with it when Cancer is on the meridian,
at which time Libra rifes in the eaft. But let the
globe be turned half round its axis, till Capricorn comes
to. the meridian and Aries rifes in the eaft ; and then
the ecliptic will have the low elevation N L above the
horizon, making only an angle NUL of 26-^ degrees
with it; which is 47 degrees lefs than the former angle,
equal to the diftance between the tropics.
In northern latitudes, the fmalleft angle made by
the ecliptic and horizon is when Aries rifes, at which
time Libra fets ; the greateft when Libra rifes, at
which time Aries fets. From the rifing of Aries to
the rifing of Libra (which is twelve (n) fidereal hours)
the angle increafes ; and from the rifing of Libra to the
rifing of Aries, it decreafes in the fame proportion.
By this article and the preceding, it appears that the
ecliptic rifes fafteft about Aries, and floweft about
Libra.
On the parallel of London, as much of the ecliptic
rifes about Pifces and Aries in two hours as the moon
goes through in fix days : and therefore, whilft the
moon is in thefe figns, ihe differs but two hours in
rifing for fix days together; that is, about 20 minutes
later every day or night than on the preceding, at a
mean rate. But in 14 days afterwards, the moon comes
to Virgo and Libra, which are the oppofite figns to
Pifces and Aries ; and then fhe differs almoft four times
as much in rifing ; namely, one hour and about fifteen
minutes later every day or night than the former, whilft
Ihe is in thefe figns.
As the moon can never be full but when Ihe is op¬
pofite to the fun, and the fun is never in Virgo and
Libi^a but in our autumnal months, it is plain that the
moon is never full in the oppofite figns, Pifces and
Aries, but in thefe two months. And therefore we
Ml can have only two full moons in the year, which rife
fo near the time of fun-fet for a week together, as a-
bovementioned. The former of thefe is called the har-
169 vejl moon, and the latter the hunter's moon.
■Why the Here it will probably be alked, why we never ob-
fame phe- ferve this remarkable rifing of the moon but in harveft,
notobferved^ee*nS ^le *s Pi^ces antl Aries twelve times in the year
at other befides ; and mull then rife with as little difference of
times. time as in harveft ? The anfwer is plain : for in winter
thefe figns rife at noon ; and being then only a quarter
of a circle diftant from the fun, the moon in them is in
N O M Y. Sed. VI.
her firft quarter : but when the fun is above the hori¬
zon, the moon’s rifing is neither regarded nor per¬
ceived. In fpring,- thefe figns rife with the fun, be¬
caufe he is then in them; and*as the moon changeth
in them at that time of the year, Ihe is quite invifible.
In fummer, they rife about midnight; and the fun being
then three figns, or a quarter of a circle, before them, '
the moon is in them about her third quarter; when
rifing fo lat.e, and giving but very little light, her rifing
paffes unobferved. And in autumn, thefe figns, being
oppofite to the fun, rife when he fets, with the moon
in oppofition, or at the full, which makes her rifing
very confpicuous.
At the equator, the north and fouth poles lie in the
horizon; and therefore the ecliptic makes the fame
angle fouthward with the horizon when Aries rifes, as
it does northward when Libra rifes. Confequently,
as the moon rifes and fets nearly at equal angles with
the horizon all the year round, and about 50 minutes
later every day or night than on the preceding, there
can be no particular harveft-moon at the equator.
The farther that any place is from the equator, if
it be not beyond the polar circle, the more the angle
is diminilhed which the ecliptic andhorizon make when
Pifces and Aries rife: and therefore when the moon is
in thefe figns, Ihe rifes with a nearly proportionable
difference later every day than on the former; and is for
that reafon the more remarkable about the full, until
we come to the polar circles, or 66 degrees from the
equator ; in which latitude the ecliptic and horizon be¬
come coincident every day for a moment, at the fame
fidereal hour (or 3 minutes 56 feconds fooner every
day than the former), and the very next moment one
half of the ecliptic containing Capricorn, Aquarius, Pif¬
ces, Aries, Taurus, and Gemini, rifes, and the oppo¬
fite half fets. Therefore, whilft the moon is going
from the beginning of Capricorn to the beginning of
Cancer, which is almoft 14 days, Ihe rifes at the fame
fidereal hour; and in autumn juft at fun-fet, becaufe
all that half of the ecliptic, in which the fun is at that
time, fets at the fame fidereal hour, and the oppofite
half rifes ; that is, 3 minutes 56 feconds, of mean fo-
lar time, fooner every day than on the day before. So
whilft the moon is going from Capricorn to Cancer,
Ihe rifes earlier every day than on the preceding; con¬
trary to what Ihe does at all places between the polar
circles. But during the above 14 days, the moon is
24 fidereal hours later in fetting ; for the fix figns
which rife all at once on the eaftern fide of the horizon
are 24 hours in fetting on the weftern fide of it.
In northern latitudes, the autumnal full moons are in
Pifces and Aries, and the vernal full moons in Virgo
and Libra ; in fouthern latitudes, juft the reverfe, be¬
caufe the feafons are contrary. But Virgo and Libra
rife at as fmall angles with the horizon in fouthern la¬
titudes, as Pifces and Aries do in the northern; and
therefore the harveft-moons are juft as regular on one
fide of the equator as on the other.
As thefe figns, which rife with the leaft angles, fet
with the greateft, the vernal full moons differ as much
in their times of rifing every night as the autumnal full
?(n) The ecliptic, together with the fixed ftars, make 366^ apparent diurnal revolutions about the earth in a year;
the fun only 365L Therefore the ftars gain 3 minutes 56 feconds upon the fun every day: fo that a fidereal day con¬
tains only 33 hours 56 minutes of mean folar time; and a natural or folar day 24 hours. Hence u fidereal hours are
si minutes j8 feconds fliorter than it folar.
Sea. VI. ASTRONOMY. 803
moons differ in their times of fetting ; and fet with as
little difference as the autumnal full moons rife: the one
being in all cafes the reverfe of the other.
Hitherto, for the fake of plainnefs, we have fuppofed
the moon to move in the ecliptic, from which the fun
never deviates. But the orbit in which the moon really
moves is different from the ecliptic ; one half being
elevated 5-5- degrees above it, and the other half as
much deprefled below it. The mobn’s orbit therefore
interfefts the ecliptic in two points diametrically oppo-
fite to each other; and thefe interfeftions are called the
Moon's Nodes. So the moon can never be in the eclip¬
tic but when fhe is in either of her nodes, which is at
leaft twice in every courfe from change to change, and
fometimes thrice. For, as the moon goes almoft a
whole fign more than round her orbit from change to
change ; if fhe paffes by either node about the time of
1^ • change, {he will pafs by the other in about 14 days
after, and come round to the former node two days a-
gain before the next change. That node from which
the moon begins to afcend northward, or above the eclip¬
tic, in northern latitudes, is called the Afcending Node;
and the other the Defcending Node, becaufe the moon,
when file paffes by it, defcends below the ecliptic fouth-
ward.
The moon’s oblique motion with regard to the eclip¬
tic caufes fome difference in the times of her rifing and
fetting from what is already mentioned. For when fhe
is northward of the ecliptic, fhe rifes fooner and fets
later than if fhe moved in the ecliptic : and when fhe
is fouthward of the ecliptic, fhe rifes later and fets
fooner. This difference is variable, even in the fame
iigns, becaufe the nodes fhift backward about I9y de¬
grees in the ecliptic every year; and fo go round it
contrary to the order of figns in 18 years 225 days.
When the afcending node is in Aries, the fouthern
half of the moon’s orbit makes an angle of 5-f degrees
lefs with the horizon than the ecliptic does, when A-
ries rifes in northern latitudes : for which reafon the
moon rifes with lefs difference of time whilfl: fhe is in
Pifces and Aries, than fhe would do if (lie kept in
the ecliptic. But in 9 years and 112 days afterward,
the defcending node comes to Aries; and then the
moon’s orbit makes an angle 5 j- degrees greater with
the horizon when Aries rifes, than the ecliptic does at
that time ; which caufes the moon to rife with greater
difference of time in Pifces and Aries than if fhe moved
in the ecliptic.
To be a little more particular ; when the afcending
node is in Aries, the angle is only 9^ degrees on the
parallel of London when Aries rifes ; but when the
defcending node comes to Aries, the angle is 20y de¬
grees. This occafions as great a difference of the moon’s
rifing in the fame figns every nine years, as there would
be on two parallels io§- degrees from one another, if
170 the moon’s courfe were in the ecliptic.
• Revolution As there is a complete revolution of the nodes in 1 By
moon^s years, there muff be a regular period of all the varie-
Sodes. t*es which can happen in the rifing and fetting of the
moon during that time. But this fhifting of the nodes
never affefts the moon’s rifing fo much, even in her
quickeft defcending latitude, as not to allow us ftill the
benefit of her rifing nearer the time of fun-fet for a few
days together about the full in harveft, than when fhe
is full at any other time of the year.
At the polar circles, when the fun touches the fum- i7>
mer tropic, he continues 24 hours above th| horizon ; LonS
and 24 hours below it, when he touches the winter tro- JJ^'inter at
pic. For the fame reafon, the full moon neither rifes the poles,
in fummer, nor fets in winter, confidering her as mo¬
ving in the ecliptic. For the winter full moon being
as high in the ecliptic as the fummer fun, muff there¬
fore continue as long above the horizon; and the fum¬
mer full moon being as low in the ecliptic as the winter
fun, can no more rife than he does. But thefe arc on¬
ly the two full moons which happen about the tropics,
for all the others rife and fet. In fummer, the full
moons are low, and their flay is fhort above the hori¬
zon, when the nights are fhort, and we have leaft oc-
cafion for moon light: in winter they go high, and
ftay long above the horizon, when the nights are long,
and we want the greateft quantity of moon-light.
At the poles, one half of the ecliptic never fets, and
the other half never rifes : and therefore, as the fun is
always half a year in deferibing one half of the ecliptic,
and as long in going through the other half, it is na¬
tural to imagine that the fun continues half a year to¬
gether above the horizon of each pole in its turn, and
as long below it; rifing to one pole when he fets to
the other. This would be exaitly the cafe if there were
no refraction : but by the atmofphere’s refracting the
fun’s rays, he becomes vifible fome days fooner, and
continues fome days longer in fight, than he would o-
therwife do : fo that he appears above the horizon of
either pole before he has got below the horizon of the
other. And, as he never goes more than 23’- degrees
below the horizon of the poles, they have very little
dark night; it being twilight there, as well as at o-
ther places, till the fun be 18 degrees below the hori¬
zon. The full moon, being always oppofite to the fun,
can never be feen while the fun is above the horizon,
except when fhe is in the northern half of her orbit;
for whenever any point of the ecliptic rifes, the oppo¬
fite point fets. Therefore, as the fun is above the ho¬
rizon of the north pole from the 20th of March till
23d of September, it is plain that the moon, when full,
being oppofite to the fun, mult be below the horizon
during that half of the year. But when the fun is in
the fouthern half of the ecliptic, he never rifes to the ‘
north pole; during which half of the year, every full
moon happens in fome part of the northern half of the
ecliptic which never fets. Conftquently, as the polar
inhabitants never fee the full moon in fummer, they have
her always in the winter, before, at, and after the full,
fhining for 14 of our days and nights. And when the Jj
fun is at his greateft depreflion below the horizon, be¬
ing then in Capricorn, the moon is at her firft quarter
in Aries, full in Cancer, and at her third quarter, in Li¬
bra. And as the beginning of Aries is the rifing point
of the ecliptic. Cancer the higheft, and Libra the fet¬
ting point, the moon rifesat her firft quarter in Aries jg
is moft elevated above the horizon, and full, in Cancer ;
and fets, at the beginning of Libra, in her third quarter,,
having continued vifible for 14 diurnal rotations of the
earth. Thus the poles are fupplied one half of the
winter-time with conftant moon-light in the fun’s ab-
fence ; and only lofe fight of the moon from her third
to her firft quarter, while fhe gives but very little light,,
and could be but of little and fometimes of no fervice
to them. A bare view of the figure will make this
plaint
§04
A S T Pv O
Pl.XLVIII. plain: in which let S be the fun ; e, the earth in fummer,
%• 3- when its north pole n inclines toward the fun ; and E
the earth in winter, when its north pole declines from
him. and NWS is the horizon of the north
pole, wmch is coincident with the equator; and, in
both thefe pofitions of the earth, rf1 25 is the
moon’s orbit, in which fne goes round the earth, ac¬
cording to the order of the letters abed, ABC D.
When the moon is at a, (he is in her third quarter to the
earth at e, and juft rifing to the north pole ; at £ ftie
changes, and is at the greateft height above the hori-
zoft, as the fun likewife is ; at c (he is in her firft quarter,
fettiag below the horizon ; and is loweft of all under
it at d, when oppofite to the fun, and her enlightened
fide toward the earth. But then fhe is full in view to
the fouth pole p ; which is as much turned from the
fun as the north pole inclines toward him. Thus, in our
fummer, the moon is' above the horizon of the north
pole whilft ihedeferibes the northern half of the eclip¬
tic <Y’ 25 or from her third quarter to her firft;
and below the horizon during her progrefs through the
fouthern half °p ; higheft at the change, moft
depreffed at the full. But in winter, when the earth
is at E, and its north pole declines from the fun, the
new moon at D is at her greateft depreffion below the
horizon NWS, and the full moon at B at her greateft
height above it; rifing at her firft quarter A, and keeping
above the horizon till (he comes to her third quarter C.
At a mean ftate (he is 234- degrees above the horizon
at B and b, and as much below it at D and d, equal
to the inclination of the earth’s axis F. S or S
are, as it were, a ray of light proceeding from the fun
to the earth; and (hews that when the earth is at e, the
fun is above the horizon, vertical to the tropic of Can¬
cer; and when the earth is at E, he is below the hori¬
zon, vertical to the tropic of Capricorn.
Horizontal The fun and moon generally appear larger when near
moon ac- the horizon than when at a diftance from it; for which
counted for there have been various reafons affigned. The follow-
by Mr Fer- jng account is given by Mr Fergufon. “ Thefe lumi-
gu °n' naries, although at great diftances from the earth, ap-
N O M Y. Sed. VI.,
up in the form of a tube, of fuel) a width, that, ob-
naries, although at great diftances from the earth, ap^
pear floating as it were on the furface of oiy atmo-
Pl. XLV. fphere, HGF/cC, a little way beyond the clouds ; of
fig. 1. which, thofe about F, diredtty over our heads at E, are
nearer us than thofe about H or c in the horizon HEc.
Therefore, when the fun or moon appear in the horizon
at e, they are not only feen in a part of the (ley which
is really farther from us than if they were at any con-
fiderable altitude, as about/*; but they are alfo feen
m through a greater quantity of air and vapours at c than
^ at f. Here we have two epneurring appearances which
deceive our imagination, and caufe us to tefer the fun
and moon to a greater diftance at their rifing or fetting
about c, than when they are confiderably high, as at
f: firft, their feeming to be on a part of the atmo¬
sphere at c, which is really farther than f from a fpec-
tator at E; and, fecondly, their being feen through a
grofier medium when at c than when at f, which, by
rendering them dimmer, caufes us to imagine them to
be at a yet greater diftance. And as, in both cafes,
they are feen much under the fame angle, wij naturally
judge them tobelargeft when they feem fartheft from us.
“ Any one may fatisfy himfelf that the moon appears
under no greater angle in the horizon than on the me¬
ridian, by taking a large (heet of paper, and rolling it
ferving the moon through it when (he rifes, (he may as
it were juft fill the tube : then tie a thread round it
to keep it of that fize ; and when the moon comes to
the meridian, and appears much lefs to the eye, look at
her again through the fame tube, and (he will fill ft juft
as much, if not more, than (he did at her rifing.
“ When the full moon is in her perigee* or at her
leaft diftance from the earth, (he is feen under a larger
angle, and muft therefore appear bigger than when (he
is full at other times : And if that part of the atmo-
fphere where (he rifes be more replete with vapours
than ufual, (lie appears fo much the dimmer; and
therefore we fancy her to be (till the bigger, by refer- i
ring her to an unufually great diftance, knowing that
no objefts which are very far diftant can appear big
unlefs they really be fo.” jyj ijj
To others this folution has appeared unfatisfaftory; ByMrDuni
and accordingly Mr Dtinn has given the following dif-
fertation on this phenomenon, Phil. Tranf. Vol. LXFV.
1. “ The fun and moon, when they are in or near the
horizon, appear to the naked eye of the generality of
perfons, fo very large in comparifon with their apparent
magnitudes when they are in the zenith, or fomewhat
elevated, that feveral learned men have been led to in¬
quire into the caufe of this phenomenon; and after en¬
deavouring to find certain reafons, founded on the prin¬
ciples of phyfics, they have at laft pronounced this
phenomenon a mere optical illufion.
2. “ The principal diflertations which Ihave feen con¬
ducing to give any information on this fubje<ft, or help¬
ing to throw any light on the fame, have been thofe
printed on the tranfa&ions of the Royal Society, the
Academy of Sciences at Paris, the German A<fts, and
Dr Smith’s Optics ; but as all the accounts which I
have met with in thefe writings any way relative to
this fubjeft, have not given me that fatisfa&ion which
I have defired, curiofity has induced me to inquire after
the caufe of this Angular phenomenon in a manner
fomewhat different from that which others have done
before me, and by fuch experiments and obfervations
as have appeared to me pertinent; fome of which have
been as follows, viz.
3. “ Ihaveobfervedthe rifing and fetting fun near the
vifible horizon, and near rifing grounds elevated above
the vifible horizon about half a degree, and found him
to appear largeft when near to the vifible horizon; and
particularly a confiderable alteration of his magnitude
and light has always appeared to me from the time of
his being in the horizon at rifing, to the time of his
being a degree or two above the horizon, and the con¬
trary at his fetting ; which property I have endeavour¬
ed to receive as a prejudice, and an impofition on my
fight and judgement, the ufual reafons for this ap¬
pearance.
4. “ I have alfo obferved that the fun near the horizon
appears to put on the figure of a ffpheroid, having its
vertical diameter appearing to the naked eye (horter
than the horizontal diameter; and, bymeafuring thofe
diameters in a telefcope, have found the vertical one
(horter than the other. ,
5. “ I have made frequent obfervations and compa-
rifons of the apparent magnitude of the fun’s dilk, with
obje&s diredlly under him, when he has been near the
horizon, and with fuch obje&s as I have found by
meafurement
So
/
Sea. VI. ASTRO
meafuremcat to be of equal breadth with the fun's dia¬
meter ; but in the hidden tranfition of the eye from
the fun to the objedt, and from the object to the fun,
have always found the fun to appear leaft ; and that
v/hen two right lines have been imaginarily produced
by the Tides of thofe equal magnitudes, they have not
appeared to keep parallel, but to meet beyond the fun.
6. “ From thefe and other like circumltances, I firft
began to fufpedt that a hidden dip of the fun into the
horizontal vapours, might fome how or other be the
caufe of a fudden apparent change of magnitude ; al¬
though the horizontal vapours had been difallowed to
be able to produce any other than a refradlion in a
vertical direftion ; and, reducing things to calculation,
found, that from the time when the fun is within a di¬
ameter or two of the horizon, to the time when he is
a femidiameter below the horizon, the fun’s rays be¬
come palfable through fuch a length of medium, reck¬
oning in the direction of the rays, that the total quan¬
tity of medium (reckoning both depth and denfity)
through which the rays pafs, being compared with the
like total depth and denfity through which they pafs at
feveral elevations, it was proportionable to the difference
of apparent magnitude, as appearing to the naked eye.
7. “ Thiscircumftanceof fudden increafe and decreafe
of apparent magnitude, and as fudden decreafe and in¬
creafe of light (for they both go together), feemed to
me no improbable caufe of the phenomenon, although
I could not then perceive how fuch vapours might con¬
tribute toward enlarging the diameter of the fun in a
horizontal dire&ion.
8. “ I therefore examined the fun’s dilk again and a-
gain, by the naked eye and by telefcopes, at different
altitudes; and, among feveral circumftances, found the
folar maculae to appear larger and plainer to the naked
eye, and through a telefcope, the fun being near the
horizon, than they had appeared the fame days when
the fun was on the meridian, and to appearance more
ftrongly defined, yet obfcured.
9. “ A little before fun-fetting, I have often feen the
edge of the fun with fuch protuberances and indentures
as have rendered him in appearance a very odd figure ;
the protuberances ftiooting out far beyond, and the
indentures preffing into tl\e difk of the fun ; and always,
through a telefcope magnifying 55 times, the lower
limb has appeared with a red glowing arch beneath it,
and clofe to the edge of the fun, while the other parts
have been clear.
10. “ At fun-fetting, thefe protuberances and inden¬
tures have appeared to Aide along the vertical limbs,
from the lower limb to the higher, and there vanifh-
ing, fo as often to form a fegment of the fun’s upper
limb, apparently feparated from the dilk for a fmall
fpace of time.
11. “ Atfun-rifing Ihavefeen the like protuberances,
indentures, and dices, above defcribed; but with this
difference of motion, that at fun-rifing they firft appear
to rife in the fun’s upper limb, and Hide or move down¬
ward to the lower limb ; or, which is the fame thing,
they always appear at the rifing and fetting of the fun,
to keep in the feme parallels of altitude by the tele¬
fcope. This property has been many times fo difcern-
able, even by the naked eye, that I have obferved the
fun’s upper limb to fhoot out towards right and left, and
move downwards, forming the upper part of the dilk
Vol. II.
N O M Y.
an apparent portion of a leffer fpheroid than the lower
part at rifing, and the contrary at fetting. Through
the telefcope this has appeared more plain in propor¬
tion to the power of magnifying.
12. “ Thefe protuberances and indentures fo eafily
meafurable by the micrometer, whilft the telefcopc
wires appeared ftrait, enabled me to conclude, that
certain ffrata of the atmofphere have different refractive
powers; and, lying horizontally acrofs the conical or
cycloidal fpace traced out by the rays between the eye
and that part of the atmofphere firff touched by the
rays, muff have been the caufe of fuch apparent pro¬
tuberances and indentures in an horizontal direction a-
crofs the fun’s vertical limbs ; and alfo that the bot¬
toms of thofe protuberances and indentures muff be
confiderably enlarged, and removed to appearance far¬
ther from the centre of the dilk than they would have
been had there been no fuch ftrata to refraCt.
13. “ Before fun-rifing, when the fun has been near
the tropic; and the Iky, at the utmoft extent of the
horizon, hath appeared very clear; and when certain
fogs have appeared in ftrata placed alternately between
the hills, and over intervening rivers, valleys, &c. fo
as to admit a fight of the rifing fun over thofe fogs ; I
have obferved with admiration, the moll diftant trees
and bulhments, which at other times have appeare'd
fmall to the naked eye, but while the fun has been
palling along a little beneath the horizon obliquely un¬
der them, juft before fun-rifing, when the fun has been
thus approaching towards trees and bulhments, they
have grown apparently very large to the naked eye,
and alfo through a telefcope ; and they have loft that
apparent largenefs as the fun has been paffed by them.
Thus a few trees Handing together on the rifing
ground, at the diftance of a few miles, have appeared
to grow up into an apparent mountain. Such apparent
mountains formed from trees put on all forms and lhapes,
as doping, perpendicular, over-leaning, &c. but foon
recover their natural appearance when the fun is pall
by them, or got above the horizon.
14. “ Mountains themfelves, at a diltance, fometimes
appear larger than at other times. Bealls and cattle
in the midll of, and being furrounded with, water,
appear nearer to us than when no water furrounds them.
Cattle, houfes, trees, all objeCls on the fummit of a
hill, when feen through a fog, and at a proper diftance,
appear enlarged. All bodies admit of larger apparent
magnitudes when feen through fome mediums than 0-
thers.
“ But more particularly,
15. “ I took a cylindrical glafs veffel about two feet
high; and having graduated its Tides to inches, I placed
it upright on a table, with a piece of paper under the
bottom of the glafs, on which paper were drawn pa¬
rallel right lines at proper diftances from each other ;
and having placed a IhiHing at the bottom of the veffel,
k was nearly as low as the paper. Pouring water into
the veffel, and viewing the drilling through the medium
of water with one eye, whilft I beheld with the other
eye where the edges of the {hilling were projected on
the paper and its parallels, I found the {hilling appear
larger at every additional inch depth of the water; and
this was the cafe if either eye was ufed ; and the fame
when the eye was removed far from the furface or near
to it, or in any proportion thereto.
16. “ I
8o6
ASTRONOMY. Seft. VII.
16. ‘‘ I took large veffels; and, filling them with wa¬
ter, placed different bodies at the bottoms of thofe vef¬
fels. It always followed, that the greater depth of water
I looked through, in the dire&ion from my eye to the
objefts in the water, the nearer thofe objedls appeared
to me. Thus light bodies appeared more mellow and
faint, and dark bodies rather better defined, than out of
the water, when they were not deeply immerfed. And
thus they appeared under whatever dire&ions or pofi-
tions I viewed the bodies.
17. “ I placed different bodies in proper veffels of fair
water, and immerfed my face in the water ; viewing the
bodies in and through the water. They all appeared
to me plain, when not too far from the eye; and altho*
a little hazy at the edges, they appeared much en¬
larged, and always larger through a greater depth of
water. Thus a {billing appeared nearly as large as half
a crown, with'a red glowing arch on that fide oppofite
to the fun, when the fun mined on the water. From
this experiment I concluded, that divers fee light obje&s
not only larger, but very diftin&ly, in the water.”
From thefe experiments he draws a confirmation of
his do&rine, that the appearances treated of arife from
the different ftrata of the atmofphere; and then con¬
cludes, that the rays coming from the fun are by the
horizontal vapours “ firft obftrufted, and many of
them totally abforbed ; the reft proceeding with a re¬
tarded motion, are thereby firft refle&ed, and then lefs
refracted through the humours of the eye ; and laftly,
that hereby the image on the retina becomes enlarged.”
Sett. VII. Of drawing a Meridian Line. Of So¬
lar and Sidereal Time, and of the Equation of
Time.
The foundation of all aftronomical obfervations is a
knowledge of the exatt time when the fun, or any o-
ther of the celeftial bodies, comes to the meridian; and
therefore aftronomers have been very attentive to the
moft proper methods of drawing a meridian line, by
which only this can be exactly known. The eafieft
method of doing this is the following, recommended by
,74 Mr Fergufon.
Fergufon’s Make four or five concentric circles, about a quarter
method of 0f an inch from one another, on a flat board about a
SridhiV foot in breadth ; and let the outmoft circle be but lit-
line. t^an t^ie k°arcl will contain. Fix a pin perpen¬
dicularly in the centre, and of fuch a length that its
whole fhadow may fall within the innermoft circle for
at leaft four hours in the middle of the day. The pin
ought to be about an eighth part of an inch thick, and
to have a round blunt point. The board being fet
exattly level in a place where the fun fhines, fuppofe
from eight in the morning till four in the afternoon,
about which hours the end of the fhadow fhould fall
without all the circles ; watch the times in the forenoon
when the extremity of the fhortening fhadow juft tou¬
ches the feveral circles, and there make marks. Then,
in the afternoon of the fame day, watch the lengthen¬
ing fhadow; and where its end touches the feveral cir¬
cles in going over them, make marks alfo. Laftly,
with a pair of compafles, find exattly the middle point
between the two marks on any circle, and draw aftraight
line from the centre to that point; which line will be
covered at noon by the fhadow of a fmall upright wire,
which fhould be put in the place of the pin. The rea-
fon for drawing feveral circles is, that in cafe one part
of the day fhould prove clear, and the other part fome-
what cloudy, if you mifs the time when the point of
the fhadow fhould touch one circle, you may perhaps
catch it in touching another. The bell time for draw¬
ing a meridian line in this manner is about the fum-
mer folftice; becaufe the fun changes his declination
floweft, and his altitude fafteft, in the longeft days.
If the cafement of a window on which the fun fhines
at noon be quite upright, you may draw a line along
the edge of its fhadow on the floor, when the ihadovv
of the pin is exa&ly on the meridian line of the board:
and as the motion of the fhadow of the cafement will be
much more fenfible on the floor than that of the fhadow
of the pin on the board, you may know to a few feconds
when it touches the meridian line on the floor. ,7S ||
This method may fuffice for ordinary purpofes, but for Another |
aftronomers the following is preferable. Take the gno-, -pranf H
mon of an horizontal dial for the latitude of the place, 1 ‘ aii ‘
and to the hypotenufa fix two fights, whofe centres may
be parallel to the fame: let the eye-fight be a fmall
hole, but the other’s diameter muft be equal to the tan¬
gent of the double diftance of the north-ftar from the
pole; the diftance of the fights being made radius, let
the ftile be rivetted to the end of a ftraight ruler; then
when you would make ufe of it, lay the ruler on an
horizontal plane, fo that the end to which the ftile is
fixed mayoverhang; then look through the eye-fight,
moving the inftrument till the north-ftar appears to
touch the circumference of the hole in the other fight,
on the fame hand with the girdle of Cafliopeia, or on
the oppofite fide to that whereon the ftar in the Great
Bear’s rump is at that time; then draw a line by the
edge of the ruler, and it will be a true meridian line. 175 ji
A meridian line being by either of thefe methods To find the 3
exadlly drawn, the time when the fun or any .other ||
of the celeftial bodies is exattly in the meridian may ‘ I
be found by a common quadrant, placing the edge of
it along the line, and obferving when the fun or other
luminary can be feen exattly through its two fights,
and noting exattly the time; which, fuppofing the lu¬
minary viewed to be the fun, will be exattly noon, or
12 o’clock ; but as the apparent diameter of the fun
is pretty large, it ought to be known exaftly when
his centre is in the meridian, which will be fome fhort
fpace after his weftern limb has arrived at it, and be¬
fore his eaftern limb comes thither. It will be proper,
therefore, to obferve exattly the time of the two limbs
being feen through the fights of the quadrant; and the
half of the difference between thefe times added to the
one, or fubtrafted from the other, will give the exatt
time when the fun’s centre is in the meridian. What
we fay with regard to the fun, is alfo applicable to the
moon; but not to the ftars, which have no fenfible
diameter. To render this more intelligible, the ollow-
ing fhort defeription of the quadrant, and method of
taking the altitudes of celeftial bodies by it, is fubjoined.
In Plate XLIX. let HOX be a horizontal line, fup- Fig. 6.
pofed to be extended from the eye at A to X, where 177 ;
the fky and earth feem to meet at the end of a long take tM|
and level plain ; and let S be the fun. The arc XY £
will be the fun’s height above the horizon at X, and bodies,
is found by the inftrument EDC, which is a qnadrant-
al board, or plate of metal, divided into 90 equal parts
or
Sed. VII. ASTRONOMY. 807
or degrees on Its limb DPC ; and has a couple of little
brafs plates, as a and b, with a fmall hole in each of
them, called Jight-holes, for looking through, parallel
to the edge of the quadrant whereon they ftand. To
the centre E Is fixed one end of a thread F, called the
plumb-line, which has a fmall weight or plummet P
fixed to Its other end. Now, if an obferver holds the
quadrant upright, without inclining it to either fide,
and fo that the horizon at X is feen through the fight-
holes a and b, the plumb-line will cut or hang over
the beginning of the degrees at o, in the edge EC:
but if he elevates the quadrant fo as to look through
the fight-holes at any part of the heavens, fuppofe to
the fun at S ; juft fo many degrees as he elevates the
fight-hole b above the horizontal line HOX, fo many
degrees will the plumb-line cut in the limb CP of the
quadrant. For, let the obferver’s eye at A be in the
centre of the celeftial arc XYV (and he may be faid
to be in the centre of the fun’s apparent and diurnal
orbit, let him be on what part of the earth he will), in
which arc the fun is at that time, fuppofe 25 degrees
high, and let the obferver hold the quadrant fo that he
may fee the fun through the fight-holes ; the plumb-
line freely playing on the quadrant will cut the 25th de¬
gree in the limb CP, equal to the number of degrees
of the fun’s altitude at the time of obfervation. (N. B.
Whoever looks at the fun, muft have a fmoked glafs
before his eyes, to fave them from hurt. The better
way is, not to look at the fun through the fight-holes,
but to hold the quadrant facing the eye, at a little di-
ftance, and fo that, the fun Ihining through one hole,
178 the ray may be feen to fall on the other.)
Difference By obfervations made in the manner above dire&ed, it
hrancTfide' *S ^oun^’ t^at t^ie ^ars aPPear t0 g° round the earth in
real days. 23 hours 56 minutes 4 feconds, and thefun in 24 hours:
fo that the ftars gain three minutes 56 feconds upon
the fun every day, which amounts to one diurnal revo¬
lution in a year; and therefore, in 365 days as meafu-
red by the returns of the fun to the meridian, there are
366 days as meafured by the ftars returning to it: the
former are called folar days, and the latter ftdereal.
If the earth had only a diurnal motion, without an
annual, any given meridian would revolve from the fun
to the fun again in the fame quantity of time as from
any ftar to the fame ftar again ; becaufe the fun would
never change his place with refpedt to the ftars. But,
as the earth advances almoft a degree eaftward in its
orbit in the time that it turns eaftward round its axis,
whatever ftar paffes over the meridian on any day with
the fun, will pafs over the fame meridian on the next
day when the fun is almoft a degree ftiort of it; that
is, 3 minutes 56 feconds fooner. If the year contain¬
ed only 360 days, as the ecliptic does 360 degrees,
the fun’s apparent place, fo far as his motion is equa¬
ble, would change a degree every day; and then the
fidereal days would be juft 4 minutes fhorter than the
folar.
PI. XLVI. Let ABCDEFGHIKLM be the earth’s orbit, in
% J* which it goes round the fun every year, according to
the order of the letters,- that is, from weft to eaft ;
and turns round its axis in the fame way from the fun
to the fun again in every 24 hours. Let S be the fun,
and R a fixed ftar at fuch an immenfe diftance, that
the diameter of the earth’s orbit bears no fenfible pro¬
portion to that diftance. Let Not be any particular
meridian of the earth, and N a given point or place
upon that meridian when the earth is at A, the fun S
hides the ftar R, which would always be hid if the earth
never removed from A ; and confequently, as the earth
turns round its axis, the point N would always come
round to the fun and ftar at the fame time. But when
the earth has advanced, fuppofe a twelfth part of its
orbit, from A to B, its motion round its axis will bring
the point N a twelfth part of a natural day, or two
hours, fooner to the ftar than to the fun ; for the angle
of NB« is equal to the angle ASB ; and therefore
any ftar, which comes to the meridian at noon with
the fun when the earth is at A, will come to the me¬
ridian at 10 in the forenoon when the earth is at B.
When the earth comes to C, the point N will have
the ftar on its meridian at 8 in the morning, or four
hours fooner than it comes round to the fun ; for it
muft revolve from N to n, before it has the fun in its
meridian. When the earth comes to D, the point N
will have the ftar on its meridian at 6 in the morning;
but that point muft revolve fix hours more from N to n,
before it has mid-day by the fun : for now the angle
ASD is a right angle, and fo is ND# ; that is, the
earth has advanced 90 degrees in its orbit, and muft
turn 90 degrees on its axis to carry the point N from
the ftar to the fun : for the ftar always comes to the
meridian when Not is parallel to RSA; becaufe DS
is but a point in refped of RS. When the earth is
at E, the ftar comes to the meridian at 4 in the mor¬
ning ; at F, at two in the morning; and at G, the
earth having gone half round its orbit, N points to the
ftar R at midnight, it being then dire&ly oppofite to
the fun ; and therefore, by the earth’s diurnal motion,
the ftar comes to the meridian 12 hours before the fun.
When the earth is at H, the ftar comes to the meridian
at 10 in the evening; at 1, it comes to the meridian at
8, that is, 16 hours before the fun ; at K, 18 hours
before him ; at L, 20 hours ; at M, 22; and at A, e-
qually with the fun again. j7p
Thus it is plain, that an abfolute turn of the earth Sidereal
on its axis (which is always completed when any par- Iear con~
ticular meridian comes to be parallel to its fituation at 3 S
any time of the day before) never brings the fame me¬
ridian round from the fun to the fun again ; but that
the earth requires as much more than one turn on its
axis to finifh a natural day, as it has gone forward in
that time; which, at a mean ftate, is a 365th part of
a circle. Hence, in 365 days, the earth turns 366
times round its axis; and therefore, as a turn of the
earth on its axis completes a fidereal day, there muft
be one fidereal day more in a year than the number
of folar days, be the number what it will, on the earth
or any other planet. One turn being loft with refpeft
to the number of folar days in a year, by the planet’s
fjoing round the fun ; juft as it would be loft to a travel¬
er, who, in going round the earth, would lofe one day
by following the apparent diurnal motion of the fun ;
and confequently would reckon one day lefs at his re¬
turn (let him take what time he would to go round
the earth) than thofe who remained all the while at the
place from which hefet out. So, if there were two earths
revolving equally on their axes, and if one remained
at A until the other had gone round the fun from A
to A again, that earth which kept its place at A would
have its folar and fidereal days always of the fame
5 I 2 length;
8o8
180
Inequality
of folar
time.
1S1
Equation
plained.
PL XLVI
fig. 4.
ASTRONOMY.
length ; and fo would have one folar day more than
the other at its return. Hence, if the earth turned
but once round its axis in a year, and if that turn was
made the fame way as the earth goes round the fun,
there would be continual day on one fide of the earth,
and continual night on the other.
The earth’s motion on its axis being perfe&ly uni¬
form, and equal at all times of the year, the fidereal
days are always precifely of an equal length ; and fo
would the folar or natural days be, if the earth’s orbit
were a perfeft circle, and its axis perpendicular to its
orbit. But the earth’s diurnal motion on an inclined
axis, and its annual motion in an elliptic orbit, caufe
the fun’s apparent motion in the heavens to be unequal:
for fometimes he revolves from the meridian to the me¬
ridian again in fomewhat lefs than 24 hours, Ihewn by
a well-regulated clock ; and at othertimes in fomewhat
more: fo that the time Ihewn by an equal going clock
and a true fun-dial is never the fame but on the 15th
of April, the )6th of June, the 3t'sr of Auguft, and the
24th of December. The clock, if he goes equably,
and true all the year round, will be before the fun
from the 24th of December till the 15th of April;
from that time till the 16th of June, the fun will be be¬
fore the clock ; from the 16th of June till the 31st of
Auguft, the clock will be again before the fun ; and
from thence to the 24th of December, the fun will be
fafter than the clock.
As the equation of time, or difference between the
time fhewn by a well-regulated clock and a true fun-
dial, depends upon two caufes, namely, the obliquity
of the ecliptic, and the unequal motion of the earth in
it, We .fhall firft explain the effects of thefe caufes fepa-
rately confidered, and then the united effedts refulting
from their combination.
The earth’s motion on its axis being perfe&ly equa¬
ble, or always at the fame rate, and the plane of the
equator being perpendicular to its axis, it is evident
that in equal times equal portions of the equator pafs
over the meridian ; and fo would equal portions of the
ecliptic, if it were parallel to, or coincident with,
the equator. But, as the ecliptic is oblique to the
equator, the equable motion of the earth carries un¬
equal portions of the ecliptic over the meridian in
equal times, the difference being proportionate to the
obliquity; and as fome parts of the ecliptic are much
more oblique than others, thofe differences are un¬
equal among themfelves. Therefore, if two funs fhould
ftart from the beginning either of Aries or Libra, and
continue to move through equal arcs in equal times,
one in the equator, and the other in the ecliptic, the
equatorial fun would always return to the meridian in
24 hours time, as meafured by a well regulated clock:
but the fun in the ecliptic would return to the meridian
fometimes fooner and fometimes later than the equa¬
torial fun ; and only at the fame moments with him
on four days of the year ; namely, the 20th of March,
when the fim enters Aries ; the 21st of June, when he
enters Cancer ; the 23d of September, when he enters
Libra; and the 21st of December, when he enters Ca¬
pricorn ; and to this fidfitious fun the motion of a well
regulated clock always anfwers.
Let Z ^ 2 be the earth; ZFRs, its axis; abode,
Sec. the equator; ABCDE, &c. the northern half of the
ecliptic from ^ to on the fide of the globe next
Sed. VII
the eye ; and MNOP, See. the fouthern half on the op-
pofite fide from to c'f. Let the points at A, B,
C, D, E, F, &c. quite round from <Y> to ^ again
bound equal portions of the ecliptic, gone through in
equal times by the real fun; and thofe at a, b, c, d, e,f,
&c. equal portions of the equator deferibed in equal
times by the fidlitious fun; and let Z(Y,2 be the me¬
ridian.
As the real fun moves obliquely in the ecliptic, and
the fidlitious fun diredlly in the equator, with refpedt
to the meridian ; a degree, or any number of degrees,
between ^ and F on the ecliptic, muft be nearer the
meridian Z CV> z, than a degree, or any correfponding
number of degrees, on the equator from to f; and
the more fo, as they are the more oblique : and there¬
fore the true fun comes fooner to the meridian every
day whilft he is in the quadrant ‘Y’ F, than the fidli¬
tious fun does in the quadrant CV)/'; for which reafon,
the folar noon precedes noon by the clock, until the
real fun comes to F, and the fidlitious to f; which two
points, being equidiftant from the meridian, both funs
will come to it precifely at noon by the clock.
Whilft thereal fundefcribes.the ftcondquadrant of the
ecliptic FGHIKL from Cancer to fie comes later to
the meridian every day, than the fidlitious fun moving
through the feeond quadrant of the equator from f to
-tl ; for the points at G, H, I, K, and L, being far¬
ther from the meridian, their correfponding points at
, h, i, and /, muft be later of coming to it : and as
oth funs come at the fame moment to the point -fn.
they come to the meridian at the moment of noon by
the clock.
In departing from Libra, through the third qua¬
drant, the real fun going through MNOPQ_towards
>j> at R, and the fidlitious fun through mmpq towards
r, the former comes to the meridian every day fooner
than the latter, until the real fun comes to and the
fidlitious to r, and then they both come to the meridian
at the fame time.
Laftly, as the real fun moves equably thro’ STUVW,
from Vf towards'V7; and the fidtitious fun thro’ stuviv,
from r towards °Y, the former comes later every day
to the meridian than the latter, until they both arrive
at the point V5? and then they make it noon at the
fame time with the clock.
Having explained one caufe of the difference of time
fhewn by a well-regulated clock and a true fun-dial,
and confidered the fun, not the earth, as moving in the
ecliptic ; we now proceed to explain the other caufe of
this difference, namely, the inequality of the fun’s ap¬
parent motion, which is floweft in fummer, when the
fun is fartheft from the earth,and fwifteft in winter when
he is neareft to it. But the earth’s motion on its axis is
equable all the year round, and is performed from well
to call; which is the way that the fun appears to change
his place in the ecliptic.
If the fun’s motion were equable in the ecliptic, the
whole difference between the equal time as Ihewn by
the clock, and the unequal time as Ihewn by the fun,
would arife from the obliquity of the ecliptic. But the
fun’s motion fometimes exceeds a degree in 24 hours,
though generally it is lefs : and when his motion is
floweft, any particular meridian will revolve fooner to
him than when his motion is quickeft ; for it will over¬
take him in lefs time when he advances a lefs fpace than
when
Sed. VII. ASTRONOMY. 809
when he moves through a larger.
Now, if there were two funs moving in the plane of
the ecliptic, fo as to go round it in a year ; the one
defcribing an equal arc every 24 hours, and the other
defcribing fometimes a lefs arc in 24 hours, and at
other times a larger, gaining at one time of the year
what it loft at the oppoiite ; it is evident, that either of
thefe funs would come fooner or later to the meridian
than the other; as it happened to be behind or before
the other ; and when they were both in conjun&ion,
they would come to the meridian at the fame moment.
Pl.XLVII. As the real fun moves' unequably in the ecliptic, let
*2- >• us fuppofe a fi&itious fun to move equably in a circle
coincident with the plane of the ecliptic. Let ABCD
be the ecliptic or orbit in which the real fun moves, and
the dotted circle abed the imaginary orbit of the ficti¬
tious fun; each going round in a year according to the
order of letters, or from weft to eaft. Let HIKLbe
the earth turning round its axis the fame way every 24
hours ; and fuppofe both funs to ftart from A and *,
in a right line with the plane of the meridian EH, at
the fame moment: the real fun at A, being then at his
greateft diftance from the earth, at which time his
motion is floweft; and the fictitious fun at a, whofe
motion is always equable, beoaufe his diftance from the
earth is fuppofed to be always the fame. In the time
that the meridian revolves from H to H again, accord¬
ing to the order of the letters HIKL, the real fun has
moved from A to F; and the fiStitious with a quicker
motion from a Xo f, thro’ a large arc : therefore, the
meridian EH will revolve fooner from H to ^ under the
real fun at F, than from H E to ^ under the fi&itious fun
at -f ; and conlequently it will then be noon by the fun-
dial fooner than by the clock.
As the real fun moves from A towards C,the fwift-
nefs of his motion increafes all the way to C, where it
is at the quickeft. But notwithftanding this, the fic-
* titious fun gains fo much upon the real, foon after his
departing from A, that the increafing velocity of the
real*fun does not bring him up with the equally moving
fi&itious fun till the former comes to C, and the lat¬
ter to c, when each has gone half round its refpeftive
orbit; and then being in conjunction, the meridian
EH, revolving to EK, comes to both funs at the fame
time, and therefore it is noon by them both at the fame
moment.
But the increafed velocity of the real fun, now being
at the quickeft, carries him before the fiClitious one;
and therefore, the fame meridian will come to the ficti¬
tious fun fooner than to the real: for whilft the ficti¬
tious fun moves from c to g, the real fun moves thro’
a greater arc from C to G confequently the point K
has its noon by the clock when it comes to C, but not
its noon by the fun till it Comes to /. And although
the velocity of the real furi diminifhes all the way from
C to A, and the fiCtitknjs fun by an equable motion is
Hill coming nearer to the real fun, yet they are not in
conjunction till the one comes to A and the other to a,
and then it is noon by them both at the fame moment.
Thus it appears, that the folar noon is always later
than noon by the clock whilft the fun goes from C to
A; fooner, whilft he goes from A to C; and at thefe two
points the fun and clock being equal, it is noon by them
both at the fame moment.
The point A is called the fun’s apogee, becaufe
when he is there he is at his gfeateft diftance from the
earth ; the point C his perigee, becaufe when in it he
is at his leaft diftance from the earth: and a right line,
as AEC, drawn through the earth’s centre, from one
of the points to the other, is called the line of the Jlp-
ftdes-
The diftance that the fun has gone in any time from
his apogee (not the diftance he has to go to it, though
ever fo little) is called his mean anomaly, and is reckon¬
ed in figns and degrees, allowing 30 degrees to a fign.
Thus, when the fun has gone fuppofe 174 degrees from
his apogee at A, he is faid to be 5 figns [4 degrees
from it, which is his mean anomaly ; and when he is
gone fuppofe 355 degrees from his apogee, he is faid
to be 11 figns 25 degrees from it, although he be but
5 degrees ftiort of A in coming round to it again.
From what was faid above, it appears, that when the
fun’s anomaly is lefs than 6 figns, that is, when he is
any where between A and C, in the half ABC of his
orbit, the folar noon precedes the clock noon ; but
when his anomaly is more than 6 figns, that is, when
he is any where between C and A, in the half CDA
of his orbit, the clock noon precedes the folar. When
his anomaly is o figns o degrees, that is, when he is in
his apogee at A ; or 6 figns o degrees, which is when
he is in his perigee at C ; he comes to the meridian at
the moment that the fidlitious fun does, and then it i»
noon by them both at the fame inftant.
Se£l:. VIII. Of caltulating the Diftances, Magni¬
tudes, &c. of the Sun, Moon, and Planets.
This is accomplilhed by finding out the horizontal To find the
parallax of the body whofe diftance you defire to know; ,1°*
that is, the angle under which the femidiameter of the pa*
earth would appear provided we ccfukl fee it from that
body: and this is to be found out in the following man¬
ner.
Let B A G be one half of the earth, A C its femi- PI. XLYV
diameter, S the fun, m the moon, and EKOL a quar- % *•
ter of the circle deferibed by the moon in revolving from
the meridian to the meridian again. Let CRS be the
rational horizon of an obferver at A, extended to the
fun in the heavens; and HAO, his fenfible horizon
extended to the moon’s orbit. ALC is the angle un¬
der which the earth’s femidiameter AC is feen from
the moon at I.; which is equal to the angle OAL,
becaufe the right lines AO and CL which include both
thefe angles are parallel. ASC is the angle under
which the earth’s Temidiametef AC is feen from the
fun at S ; and is equal to the angle OA/j becaufe the
lines AO and CRS are parallel. Now, it is found by
obfervation, that the angle OAL is much greater than
the angle OA/"; but OAL is equal to ALC, and
OA/' is equal to ASC. Now as ASC is much lefs
than ALC, it proves that the earth’s femidiameter
AC appears much greater as feen from the moon at L
than from the fun at S; and therefore the earth is much
farther from the fun than from the moon. The quan¬
tities of thefe angles may be determined by obfervation
in the following manner.
Let a graduated inftrument, as DAE (the larger
the better), having a moveable index with fight-holes,
be fixed in fuch a manner, that its plane furface may
be parallel to the plane of the equator, and its edge
8io
183
Another
method.
ASTRONOMY. Seft. VIIf.1
AD in the meridian : fo that when the moon is in the
equinoftial, and on the meridian ADE, fhe may be
feen through the fight-holes when the edge of the
moveable index cuts the beginning of the divifions at
o, on the graduated limb DE ; and when (he is fo feen,
let the precife time be noted. Now as the moon re¬
volves about the earth from the meridian to the meri¬
dian again in about 24 hours 48 minutes, file will go a
fourth part round it in a fourth part of that time, viz.
in 6 hours 12 minutes, as feen from C, that is, from
the earth’s centre or pole. But as feen from A, the
obferver’s place on the earth’s furface, the moon will
feem to have gone a quarter round the earth when file
comes to the fenfible horizon at O ; for the index
through the fights of which fhe is then viewed will be
at d, 90 degrees from D, where it was when file was
feen at E. Now let the exa6t moment when the moon
is feen at O (which will be when Ihe is in or near the
fenfible horizon) be carefully noted (o), that it may be
known in what time (he has gone from E to O ; which
time fubtrafted from fix hours 12 minutes (the time
of her going from E to L) leaves the time of her going
from O to L, and affords an eafy method for finding
the angle OAL, (called the moon's horizontal parallax^
which is equal to the angle ALC) by the following
analogy: As the time of the moon’s defcribing the arc
EO is to 90 degrees, fo is fix hours 12 minutes to the
degrees of the arc D^E, which meafures the angle
EAL; from which fubtraft 90 degrees, and there re¬
mains the angle OAL, equal to the angle ALC, un¬
der which the earth’s femidiameter AC is feen from
the moon. Now, fince all the angles of a right-lined
triangle are equal to 180 degrees, or to two right
angles, and the fides of a triangle are always propor¬
tional to the fines of the oppofite angles, fay, by the
Rule of Three, As the fine of the angle ALC at the
moon L, is to its oppofite fide AC the earth’s femi¬
diameter, which is known to be 3985 miles ; fo is ra¬
dius, viz. the fine of 90 degrees, or of the right angle
ACL, to its oppofite fide AL, which is the moon.’s
dillance at L from the obferver’s place at A on the
earth’s furface ; or, fo is the fine of the angle CA L
to its oppofite fide CL, which is the moon’s diftance
from the earth’s centre, and comes out at a mean rate
to be 240,000 miles. The angle CAL is equal to
what OAL wants of 90 degrees.
Other methods have been fallen upon for determi¬
ning the moon’s parallax, of which the following is re¬
commended as the beft, by Mr Fergufon, tho’ hither¬
to it has not been put in practice. “ Let two obfervers
be placed under the fame meridian, one in the northern
hemifphere, and the other in the fouthern, at fuch a
diftance from each other, that the arc of the celeftial
meridian included between their two zeniths may be at
leaft 80 or 90 degrees. Let each obferver take the
diftance of the moon’s centre from his zenith, by means
of an exceeding good inftrument, at the moment of
her pafiing the meridian : add thefe two zenith-diftan-
ces of the moon together, and their excefs above the
diftance between the two zeniths will be the diftance
between the two apparent places of the moon. Then,
as the fum of the natural fines of the two zenith-dif-
tances of the moon is to radius, fo is the diftance be¬
tween her two apparent places to her horizontal paral¬
lax : which being found, her diftance from the earth’s
centre may be found by the analogy mentioned above.
Thus, in fig. 1. (2d Plate L.) let VECQJ)e the earth,
M the moon, and "Lhaz an arc of the celeftial meridi¬
an. Let V be Vienna, whofe latitude EV is 48° 20'
north ; and C the Cape of Good Hope, whofe latitude
EC is 340 30' fouth : both which latitudes we fuppofe
to be accurately determined before-hand by the obfer¬
vers. As thefe two places are on the fame meridian
zzVECr, and in different hemifpheres, the fum of their
latitudes 82° 50' is their diftance from each other. Z
is the zenith of Vienna, and z the zenith of the Cape
of Good Hope; which two zeniths are alfo 82° 50’
diftant from each other, in the common celeftial meri¬
dian Zz. To the obferver at Vienna, the moon’s cen¬
tre will appear at a in the celeftial meridian ; and at
the fame inftant, to the obferver at the Cape, it will
appear at h. Now fuppofe the moon’s diftance Z a
from the zenith of Vienna to be 38° 1' 53", and her
diftance z b from the zenith of the Cape of Good Hope
to be 46° 4' 41" : the fum of thefe two zenith-diftan-
ces (Ztf-f-z£) is 84° 6' 34"; from which fubtraft
82° 50", the diftance of Zz between the zeniths of thefe
two places, and there will remain i° 16' 34" for the
arc ba, or diftance between the two apparent places of
the moon’s centre, as feen from V and from C. Then,
fuppofing the tabular radius to be 10,000,000, the na¬
tural fine of 38° 1' 53" (the arc Z«) is 6,160,816, and
the natural fine of 46° 4' 41" (the arc zb) is 7,202,821:
the fum of both thefe fines is I3j363,637. Say there¬
fore, As I3>363,637 is to 10,000,000, fo is i° 16' 34"
to 57' 18" which is the moon’s horizontal parallax.
If the two places of obfervation be not exaftly un¬
der the fame meridian, their difference of longitude
muft be accurately taken, that proper allowance may
be made for the moon’s declination whilft Ihe is palling
from the meridian of the one to the meridian of the
other.
The parallax, and confequently the diftance and
bulk, of any primary planet, might be found in the
above manner, if the planet was near enough to the
earth, fo as to make the difference of its two apparent
places fufficiently fenfible : but the neareft planet is too
remote for the accuracy required. t8^ |
The fun’s diftance from the earth might be found the Parallax 0 |
fame way, though with more difficulty, if his hori- the fun di b
zontal parallax, or the angle OAS equal to the angle kf1
ASC, were not fo fmall .as to be hardly perceptible, ‘ S
being found in this way to be fcarce 10 feconds of
a minute, or the 360th part of a degree. Hence all
aftronomers both ancient and modern have failed in
taking the fun’s parallax to a fufficient degree of ex-
aftnels ; but as fome of the methods ufed are very in¬
genious, and fhew the great acutenefs and fagacity of
the ancient aftronomers, we ftiall here give an account
of them. The firft method was invented by Hip- Hippar- * I
parchus; and has been made ufe of by Ptolemy and chus’s mei (t
his followers, and many other aftronomers. It depends thod offin^i
on an obfervation of an eclipfe of the moon : And the ,n^ u‘ •
principles on which it is founded are, i/l, In a lunar
eclipfe, the horizontal parallax of the fun is equal to
the difference between the apparent femidiameter of the
fun.
(o) Here proper allowance muft be made for the refraction, which being about 34 minutes of a degree in the ho¬
rizon, will caufe the moon’s centre to appear 34 minutes above the horizon when her centre is really in it.
Sea. VIII. A S T R <
fun, and half the angle of the conical fliadow; which
6th plate is eafily made out in this manner. Let the circle AFG
XLII. fig-3- reprefent the fun, and DHE the earth ; let DHM be
the fhadow, and DMC the half angle of the cone.
Draw from the centre of the fun the right line SD
touching the earth, and the angle DSC is the apparent
femidiameter of the earth, feen from the fun, which is
equal to the horizontal parallax of the fun; and the
angle ADS is the apparent femidiameter of the fun,
feen from the earth : The external angle ADS is equal
to the two internals DMS and DSM, by the 32d Prop.
Elem. I. And therefore the angle DSM, or DSC, is
equal to the difference of the angles ADS and DMS.
idly, Half the angle of the cone is equal to the differ¬
ence of the horizontal parallax of the moon, and the
apparent femidiameter of the fhadow, feen from the
earth at the diftance of the moon. For let CDE be
the earth, CME the fhadow, which at the diftance of
the moon being cut by a plane, the fe&ion will be the
circle FLH, whofe femidiameter is FG, and is feen from
the centre of the earth under the angle FTG. But by
the 32d Prop. Elem. I. the angle CFT is equal to the
two internals FMT and FTM. Wherefore the angle
FMT is the difference of the two angles CFT and
GTF: But the angle CFT is the angle under which
the femidiameter of the earth is feen from the moon,
and this is equal to the horizontal parallax of the moon;
and the angle GTF is the apparent femidiameter of the
fhadow feen from the earth’s centre. It is therefore
evident that the half angle of the cone is equal to the
difference of the horizontal parallax of the moon, and
the apparent femidiameter of the fhadow feen from the
earth. Wherefore, if to the apparent femidiameter of
the fun there be added the apparent femidiameter of
the fhadow, and from the fum you take away the ho¬
rizontal parallax of the moon, there will remain the ho¬
rizontal parallax of the fun ; which therefore, if thefe
| were accurately known, would be likewife known ac-
Id85 curately : But none of them can be fo exadtly and nice-
thod infti'f- ^ obtained, as to be fufficient for determining the pa-
ficient. rallax of the fun ; for very fmall errors, which cannot
be eafily avoided in meafuring thefe angles, will pro¬
duce very great errors in the parallax ; and there will
be a prodigious difference in the diftanees of the fun,
when drawn from thefe parallaxes. For example : Sup-
pofe the horizontal parallax of the moon to be 60' 15",
the femidiameter of the fun 16', and the femidiameter
of the fhadow 44' 30"; we fhall conclude from thence,
that the parallax of the fun was 15", and his diftance
from the earth about 13,700 fenaidiameters of the earth.
But if there be an error committed, in determining
the femidiameter of the fhadow, of 12" in deleft (and
certainly the femidiameter of the fhadow cannot be
had fo precifely as not to be liable to fuch an error),
that is, if inftead of 44' 30" we put 44' 18" for the
apparent diameter of the fhadow, all the others re¬
maining as before, we fhall have the parallax of the
fun 3", and its diftance from the earth almoft 70,000
femidiameters of the earth, which is five times more
than what it was by the firft pofition. But if the fault
were in excefs, or the diameter of the fhadow exceed¬
ed the true by 12", fo that we fhould put in 44' 42"
the parallax would arife to 27", and the diftance of
the fun only 7700 of the earth’s femidiameters; which
1. - is nine times lefs than what it comes to by a like error
) N O M Y. 811
in defeft. If an error in deleft was committed of 15",
which is ftill but a fmall miftake, the fun’s parallax
would be equal to nothing, and his diftance infinite.
Wherefore, fince from fo fmall miftakes the parallax
and diftance of the fun vary fo mufti, it is plain that
the diftance of the fun cannbt be obtained by this me¬
thod. 187
Since, therefore, the angle that the earth’s femidia- „
meter fubtends at the fun is fo fmall, thaf it cannot be tho(li 1C”
determined by any obfervation, Ariftarchus Samius,
an ancient and great philofopher and aftronomer, con¬
trived a very ingenious way for finding the angle which
the femidiameter of the moon’s orbit fubtends when
feen from the fun : This angle is about 60 times big¬
ger than the former, fubtended only by the earth’s fe¬
midiameter. To find this angle, he lays down the fol¬
lowing principles.
From the phafes of the moon, it hath been de-
monftrated, that if a plane paffed through the moon’s
centre, to which the line joining the fun and moon’s
centre was perpendicular, this plane would divide
the illuminated hemifphere of the moon from the
dark one : And therefore, if this plane ftiould likewife
pafs through the eye of a fpeftator on the earth, the
moon would appear bifefted, or like a half circle ; and
a right line, drawn from the earth to the centre of the
moon, would be in the plane of illumination, and con-
fequently would be perpendicular to the right line gth
which joins the centres of the fun and moon. Let S be xLII £^.4
the fun, and T the earth, AL^ a quadrant of the moon’s ’ '
orbit; and let the line SL, drawn from the fun, touch
the orbit of the moon in L ; the angle TLS will be a
right angle : And therefore, when the moon is feen in
L, it will appear bifefted, or juft half a circle. At
the fame time take the angle LTS, the elongation of
the moon from the fun, and then we fttall have the angle
LST, its complement to a right angle. But we have
the fide TL, by which we can find the fide ST, the
diftance of the fun from the earth. 188
But the difficult point is to determine exaftly the This me-
moment of time when the moon is bifefted, or in its g^en^n 1 r~
true dichotomy; for there is a confiderable fpace of
time both before and after the dichotomy, nay even in
the quadrature, when the moon will appear bifefted,
or half a circle ; fo that the exaft moment of bifeftion
cannot be known by obfervation, as experience'tells
us : And confequently, the true diftance of the fun
from the earth cannot be obtained by this method.
Since the moment in which the true dichotomy hap-
pens is uncertain, but it is certain that it happens ,89
before the quadrature ; Ricciolus takes that point of Ricrioius’s
time which is in the middlej'between the time that the method*
phafis begins to be doubtful whether it be bifefted or
not, and the time of quadrature : but he had done
better, if he had taken the middle point between the
time when it becomes doubtful whether the moon’s fide
is concave or ftraight, and the time again when it is
doubtful whether it is ftraight or convex ; which point
of time is after the quadrature: and if he had done
this, he would have found the fun’s diftance a great
deal more than he has made it. 199
There is no need to confine this method to the pha-^■nothfIr k?
fis of a dichotomy or bifeftion, for it can be as wellvl ’
performed when the moon has any other phafis bigger
or lefs than a dichotomy : for obferve by a very good
telefcope,
8 I 2
«'h Plate
XLII. fig.5.
ipt
All thefe
methods in-
fufficient.
ipx
Another
method
from the pa¬
rallax of
From that
of Venus.
. ASTRONO M Y. Sea.
telefcope, 'with a wiicrometer, the phafis of the moon, fits over the fun in 1761 and 1769. At thefe times
that is, the proportion of the illuminated part of the the greatell attention was given by aftronomers, but it
diameter to the whole; and at the feme moment of was found impofiible to obferve the exadl times of im*
time take her elongation from the fun : The illuftrated merfion and emerfion with fuch accuracy as had been
part of the diameter, if it be lefs than the femidiameter, expe&ed ; fo that the matter is not yet determined fa
is to be fubduftea from the femidiameter ; but if it be exa&ly as could be wilhed. The method of calcula-
greater, the femidiameter is to be fubdudted from it, ting the fun’s diftance by means of thefe tranfits, is as
VIII. I
and mark the refidue : then fey, As the femidiameter
of the moon ts to the reftdue, lb is the radius to the
fine of an angle, which is therefore found: this angle
added to, or fubtrafted from, a right angle, gives the
exterior angle of the triangle at the moon: but we have
the angle at the earth, which is the elongation ob-
ferved ; which therefore being fubdn&ed from the ex¬
terior angle, leaves the angle at the fun. And in the
triangle SLT, having all the angles and one fide L
T, we can find the other fide ST, the diftance of the
fun from the earth. But it is almoft impofiible to de¬
termine accurately the quantity of the lunar phafis,
■fo that there may not be an error of a few feconds
committed; and confequently, we cannot by this me¬
thod find precifely enough the true diflance of the fun.
However, from fuch obfervations, we are fure, that the
fun is above 7000 femidiameters of the earth diftant
from us. Since therefore the true diftance of the fun
can neither be found by eclipfes, nor by the phafes of
the moon, the aftronomers are forced to have recourfe
to the parallaxes of the planets that are next to us, as
Mars and Venus, which are fometimes much nearer to
us than the fun is. Their parallaxes they endeavour to
find by fome of the methods above explained; and if time ; and confeqi
thefe parallaxes were known, then the parallax and of time,
diftance of the fun, which cannot dire&ly by any ob¬
fervations be attained, would eafily be deduced from
them. For from the theory of the motions of the earth
and planets, we know at any time the proportion of
the diftances of the fun and planets from us ; and the
horizontal parallaxes are in a reciprocal proportion to
thefe diftances. Wherefore, knowing the parallax of
a planet, we may from thence find the parallax of the
fun.
Mars, when he is in an achronycal pofition, that is,
oppofite to the fun, is twice as near to us as the fun is ;
and therefore his parallax will be twice as gr*at. But
Venus, when Ihe is in her inferior conjunftion with
the fun, is four times nearer to us than he is, and her
parallax is greater in the fame proportion : Therefore,
though the extreme ftnallnefsof the fun’s parallax ren-
follows.
In fig 6. let DBA be the earth, V Venus, and 6'
TSR the eaftern limb of the fun. To an obferver at x
B, the point t of that limb will be on the meridian,
its place referred to the heaven will be at E, and Ve¬
nus will appear juft within it at S. But at the feme
inftant, to an obferver at A, Venus is eaft of the fun,
in the right line AVF; the point t of the fun’s limb
appears at e in the heaven; and if Venus were then vi-
fible, ftie would appear at F. The angle CVA is the
horizontal parallax of Venus, which we feek ; and is
equal to the oppofite angle FVE, whofe meafure is
the arc FE. ASC is the fun’s horizontal parallax, e-
qual to the oppofite angle e SE, whofe meafure is the
arc e E ; and FAe (the fame as VAw) is Venus’s ho¬
rizontal parallax from the fun, which may be found by
obferving how much later in abfolute time her total
ingrefs on the fun is, as feen from A than as feen from
B, which is the time fhe takes to move from V to r in
her orbit OVp.
It appears by the tables of Venus’s motion and the
fun’s, that at the time of her tranfit in 1761 Ihe mo¬
ved 4' of a degree on the fun’s dilk in 60 minutes of
itly 4" of a degree in one minute
ders it unobfervable by our fenfes, yet the parallaxes of er of gravity by which the planets are retained in their
Now let us fuppofe, that A is 90° weft of B, fo that
when it is noon at B it will be fix in the morning at
A ; that the total ingrefs as feen from B is at one mi¬
nute paft 12, but that as feen from A it is at feven
minutes 30 feconds paft fix ; dedu£I fix hours for the
difference of meridians of A and B, and the remainder
will be fix minutes 30 feconds for the time by which
the total ingrefs of Venus on the fun at S, is later as
feen from A than as feen from B; which time being
converted into parts of a degree is 26 ', or the arc Fs
of Venus’s horizontal parallax from the fun ; for, as 1
minute of time is to 4 feconds of a degree, fo is 64-
minutes of time to 26 feconds of a degree.
The times in which the planets perform their an¬
nual revolutions about the fun are already known by
obfervation.—From thefe times, and the univerfal pow-
pr rtf* oravitv hv whiVIt tlin r-vl jo «.k~*
Mars or Venus, which are twice or four times greater,
may become fenfible. Th£ aftronomers havebeftowed
orbits, it is demonftrable, that if the earth’s mean dif¬
tance from the fun be divided into 100,000 equal parts.
much pains in finding out the parallax of Mars; but Mercury’s mean diftance from the fun muft be equal
i-  A/r 1 iS‘““ “■ r— to 38,710 of thefe parts—Venus’s mean diftan.ce from
the fun, to 72,333—Mars’s mean diftance, 152,369—
Jupiter’s, 520,096—and Saturn’s, 954,006. Therefore
when the number of miles contained in the mean di-
fome time ago Mars was in his oppofition to the fun,
and alfo in his perihelion, and confequently in his
neareft approach to the earth : And then he was moft
accurately obferved by two of the moft eminent aftro-    
nomers of our age, who have determined his parallax ftance of any planet from the fun is known, we can by
to have beenfcarce30 feconds; from whence it was in- thefe proportions find the mean diftance in miles of
ferred, that the parallax of the fun is fcarce 11 feconds,
and his diftance about 19,00a femidiameters of the
earth.
As the parallax of Venus is ftill greater than that
of Mars, Dr Halley propofed a method by it of find¬
ing the diftance of the fun to within a 500th part of fidered as 723), which differences from the mean dif-
proportions 1
all the reft.
At the time of the above-mentioned tranfit, the
earth’s diftance from the fun was 1015 (the mean di¬
ftance being here confidered as 1000), and Venus’s di¬
ftance from the fun 726 (the mean diftance being con-
the whole. The times of obfervation were at her tran-
tances arife from the elliptical figure of the planets or¬
bits—
Sett. VIII. ASTRONOMY, 813
bits—Subtra&ing 726 parts from 1015, there remain
289 parts for Venus’s diftance from the earth at that
time.
Now, fince the horizontal parallaxes of the planets
are inverfely as their diftances from the earth’s centre,
it is plain, that as Venus was between the earth aud
the fun on the day of her tranfit, and confequently her
parallax at that time greater than the fun’s, if her
horizontal parallax was then afcertained by obfervation,
the fun’s horizontal parallax might be found, and con¬
fequently his diftance from the earth.—Thus, fuppofe
Venus’s horizontal parallax was found to be 36''.34805.
then, As the fun’s diftance 1015 is to Venus's diftance
289, fo is Venus’s horizontal parallax 36 ".3480 to the
fun’s horizontal parallax 10 .3493 on the day of her
tranfit. And the difference of thefe two parallaxes,
viz. 25".9987 (which may be efteemed 26"), will be
the quantity of Venus’s horizontal parallax from the
fun.
To find the fun’s horizontal parallax at the time of
his mean diftance from the earth, fay, As 1000 parts
the fun’s mean diftance from the earth’s centre, is to
1015, his diftance therefrom on the day of the tranfit,
fo is to".3493, his horizontal parallax on that day, to
10".5045, his horizontal parallax at the time of his
,94 mean diftance from the earth’s centre.
Method of The fun’s parallax being thus (or any other way fup-
computing pofed to be) found, at the time of his mean diftance
the fun sdi- from t|ie earth, we may find his true diftance there-
j hf,"parallax. from> in femidiameters of the earth, by the following
analogy. As the fine (or tangent of fo fmall an arc
as that) of the fun’s parallax io".5045 is to radius, fo
is unity or the earth’s femidiameter to the number of
femidiameters of the earth that the fun is diftant from
its centre ; which number, being multiplied by 3985,
the number of miles contained in the earth’s femidi¬
ameter, will give the number of miles by which the
i3j fun is diftant from the earth’s centre.
) Diftances of Then, As 100,000, the earfh’s mean diftance from
the other fun ;n parts, is to 38,710, Mercury’s mean diftance
found5 ”°W ^roni t^ie ^un 'n Parts’ f° t^e earth’s mean diftance
from the fun in miles to Mercury’s mean diftance from
the fun in miles.—And,
As 100,000 is to 72,333, fo is the earth’s mean di¬
ftance from the fun in miles to Venus’s mean diftance
from the fun in miles.—Likewife,
As 100,000 is to 152,369, foisthe earth’s mean di¬
ftance from the fun in miles to Mars’s mean diftance
from the fun in miles.—Again,
As 100,000 is to 520,096, fois the earth’s mean di¬
ftance from the fun in miles to Jupiter’s mean diftance
from the fun in miles. — Laftly,
As 100,000 is to 954,006, fo is the earth’s mean di¬
ftance from the fun in miles to Saturn’s mean diftance
from the fun in miles.
And thus, by having found the diftance of any one
of the planets from the fun, we have fufficient data for
finding the diftances of all the reft. And then from their
apparent diameters at thefe known diftances, their real
diameters and bulks may- be found. According to
the calculations made from the tranfit in 1769, we
have given the diftance of each of the primary and fe-
condary planets from one another, and from the fun.
In Plate XLIII. their proportional bulks are ftiown,ac¬
cording to former calculations by Mr Fergufon 5 and in
Vol. II.
2d Plate XLII. their relative magnitudes according to
the lateft calculations by Mr Dunn. In 3d Plate XLII.
fige 31 4’ S' are given three figures of Jupiter by Mr
Wollafton ; and in Plate XLVI1I. fig. 1. the propor¬
tional diftances of the fatellites of Jupiter and Saturn,
with the magnitudes of the fun, and orbit of our moon,
by Mr Fergufon.
With regard to the fixed ftars, no method of afcer-
taining their diftance hath hitherto been found out. (jar(.
Thofe who have formed conjedtures concerning them, meafuiable.
have thought that they behoved to be at leaft 400,000
times farther from us than we are from the fun.
They are faid to be fixed, becaufe they have been
generally obfetved to keep at the fame diftances from
each other ; their apparent diurnal revolutions being jpf
caufed folely by the earth’s turning on its axis. They Why they
appear of a fenfible magnitude to the bare eye, becaufe
the retina is affefted not only by the rays of light which 1
are emitted diredtly from them, but by many thoufands
more, which falling upon our eye-lids, and upon the
aerial particles about us, are refle&ed into our eyes fo
ftrongly as to excite vibrations not only in thofe points
of the retina where the real images of the ftars are form¬
ed, but alfo in other points at fome diftance round a-
bout. This makes us imagine the ftars to be much big¬
ger than they would appear if we faw them only by
the few rays which come diredUy from them, fo as to
enter our eyes without being intermixed with others.
Any one may be fenfible of this, by looking at a ftar
of the firft magnitude through a long narrow tube ;
which, though it takes in as much of the Iky as would
hold 1000 fuch ftars, yet fcarce renders that one vifible.
The more a telefcope magnifies, the lefs is the aper¬
ture through which the ftar is feen ; and confequently
the fewer rays it admits into the eye. Now, fince the
ftars appear lefs in a telefcope which magnifies 200
times, than they do to the bare eye, infomuch that
they feem to be only indivifible points, it proves at once
that the ftars are at immenfe diftances from us, and that
they Ihine by their own proper light. If they Ihone
by borrowed light, they would be as invifible without
telefcopes as the fatellites of Jupiter are ; for thefe fa¬
tellites appear bigger when viewed with a good tele¬
fcope than the largeft fixed ftars do. ,98
The number of ftars difcoverable, in either hemi- Small num-
fphere, by the naked eye, is not above a thoufand. This bervifiblet®
at firft may appear incredible, becaufe they feem to tliena*ied
be without number: but the deception arifes from e^e"
our looking confufedly upon them, without reducing
them into order. For, look but ftedfaftly upon a
pretty large portion of the (ley, and count the number
of ftars in it, and you will be furprifed to find them
fb few. Or, if one confiders how feldom the moon
meets with any ftars in her way, although there are as
many about her path as in other parts of the heavens,
he will foon be convinced that the ftars are much thin¬
ner fown than he was aware of. The Britilh catalogue,
which, befides the ftars vifible to the bare eye, includes
a great number which cannot be feen without the af-
fiftance of a telefcope, contains no more than 3060, in
both hemifpheres.
As we have incomparably more light from the moon
than from all the ftars together, it were the greateft ab-
furdity to imagine that the ftars were made for no
other purpofe than to caft a faint light upon the earth ;
5 K efpecially
814
ASTRONOMY. Sed. VIII.
efpecially fince many more require the affiflance of a
good telefcope to find them out than are vifible with¬
out that inftrument. Our fun is furrounded by a fy-
ftem of planets and comets; all which would be invi-
fible from the neareft fixed flat*. And from what we
already know of the immenfe diftance of the ftars,
the neareft may be computed at 32,000,000,000,000
199 miles from us, which is farther than a cannon-bullet
Ardent would .fly ;n <7,000,000 years. Hence it is eafy to
rality of a' prove, that the fun, from fuch a diftance, would appear
worlds. nO bigger than a ftar of the firft magnitude. From all
this it is highly probable, that each ftar is a fun to a
fyftem of worlds moving round it, tho’ unfeen by us;
efpecially as the dodfrine of a plurality of worlds is ra¬
tional, and greatly manifefts the power, wifdom, and
aoo goodnefs, of the great Creator. See n° 66.
Different The ftars, on account of their apparently various
•fThe'ftars magn^tu^es» *iave ^een diftributed into feveral claffes,
‘ or orders. Thofe which appear largeft are called Jlars
of the firji magnitude ; the next to them in luftre,yiW.f
of the fecond magnitude ; and fo on to the fixth, which
are the fmalleft that are vifible to the bare eye. This
diftribution having been made long before the inven¬
tion of telefcopes, the ftars which cannot be feen with-
aoi out the afliftance of thefe inftruments are diftinguifh-
Telefcopic ed by the name of telefcopic fars.
The ancients divided the ftarry fphere into particu¬
lar conftellations, or fyftems of ftars, according as they
lay near one another, fo as to occupy thofe fpaces which
the figures of different forts of animals or things would
take up, if they were there delineated. And thofe ftars
aoi which could not be brought into any particular con-
Unformed ftellation were called unformed ftars.
®ars- This divifion of the ftars into different conftellations,
Ufesof their or afterifms> ferves to diftinguifli them from one ano-
divifioninto ther, fo that any particular ftar may be readily found
conftella- in the heavens by means of a celeftial globe ; on w'hich
S10BS. t{je conftellations are fo delineated, as to put the moft
remarkable ftars into fuch parts of the figures as are
moft eafily diftinguilhed. The number of the ancient
conftellations is 48, and upon our prefent globes about
70. On Senex’s globes are inferted Bayer’s letters;
the firft in the Greek elphabet being put to the biggeft
ftar in each conftellation, the fecond to the next, and
fo on : by which means, every ftar is as eafily found as
if a name were given to it. Thus, if the ftar y in the
conftellation of the ram be mentioned, every aftronomer
knows as well what ftar is meant as if it were pointed
out to him in the heavens. i04
There is alfo a divifion of the heavens into three Divifion of
parts. 1. The zodiac ), from zodion, the heavens,
an animal, becaufe moft of the conftellations in it, which '
are twelve in number, have the names of animals: As A- fjJ
ries the ram, Taurus the bull, Gemini the twins, Cancer
the crab, Libra the balance, Scorpio the fcorpion, Sagit¬
tarius the archer, Capricorms the goat, Aquarius the wa¬
ter-bearer, and Pifces the fifties. The zodiac goes quite
round the heavens : it is about 16 degrees broad, fo
that it takes in the orbits of all the planets, and like-
wife the orbit of the moon. Along the middle of this
zone or belt is the ecliptic, or circle which the earth
deferibes annually as feen from the fun, and which the
fun appears to deferibe as feen from the earth. 2. All
that region of the heavens which is on the north fide of
the zodiac, containing 21 conftellations. And, 3. That
on the fouth fide, containing 15. 1CJ
The ancients divided the zodiac into the above 12 Zodiac how
conftellations or figns in the following manner. They divided,
took a veffel with afmall hole in the bottom, and, having
filled it with water, fuffered the fame to diftil drop by
drop into another veffel fet beneath to receive it; be¬
ginning at the moment when fome ftar rofe, and conti¬
nuing till it rofe the next following night. The water
falling down into the receiver they divided into twelve
equal parts; and having two other fmall veffels in readi-
nefs, each of them fit to contain one part, they again
poured all the water into the upper veffel; and, obfer-
ving the rifing of fome ftar in the zodiac, they at the
fame time fuffered the water to drop into one of the
fmall veffels ; and as foon as it was full, they fliifted it,
and fet an empty one in its place. When each veffel
was full, they took notice what ftar of the zodiac rofe;
and tho’ this could not be done in one night, yet in
many they obferved the rifing of 12 ftars or points, by
which they divided the zodiac into 12 parts.
The names of the conftellations, and the number of Catal°2ue
ftars obferved in each of them by different aftronomers,
are as follow.
The ancient Conftellations.
Urfa minor The Little Bear
Urfa major
Draco
Cepheus
Bootes, Arttophilax
Corona Borealis
Hercules, Engonafn
Lyra
Cygnus, Gallina
Cafliopea
Perfeus
Auriga
Serpentarius, Ophiuchus
Serpens
Sagitta
Aquila, Vultur
Antinous
Delphinus
Equulus, Equiftftio
The Great Bear
The Dragon
Cepheus
The Northern Crown
Hercules kneeling
The Harp
The Swan
The Lady in her Chair
Perfeus
The Waggoner
Serpentarius
The Serpent
The Arrow
The Eagle 7
Antinous 5
The Dolphin
The Horfe’s Head
Ptolemy.
8
35
3i
13
23
19
13
29
29
18
5
Tycho.
7
29
32
4
18
8
28
11
18
26
29
9
x5
I3
5
73
40
51
52
8
45
17
47
37
46
40
40
22
5
23
J9
14
6
Flamfteed.
24
87
80
35
54
21
113
21
81
55
59
66
74
64
18
7-i
18
The
Sea. VIII.
81
astronomy.
The
Pegafus, Equus
Andromeda
Triangulum
Aries
Taurus
Gemini
Cancer
Leo
Coma Berenices
Virgo
Libra, Chela
Scorpius
Sagittarius
Capricornus
Aquarius
Pifces
Cetus
Orion
Eridanus, Fluvius
Lepus
Canis major
Canis minor
Argo Navis
Hydra
Crater
Corvus
Centaurus
Lupus
Ara
Corona Auftralis
Pifcis Auftralis
ancient Conftellations.
The Flying Horfe
Andromeda
The Triangle
The Ram
The Bull
The Twins
The Crab
The Lion
Berenice’s Hair 5
The Virgin
The Scales
The Scorpion
The Archer
The Goat
The Water-bearer
The Fifties
The Whale
Orion
Eridanus, the River
The Hare
The Great Dog
The Little Dog
The Ship
The Hydra
The Cup
The Crow
The Centaur
The Wolf
The Altar
The Southern Crown
The Southern Filh
The new Southern Conftellations.
Columba Noachi
Robur Carolinum
Grus
Phoenix
Indus
Pavo
Apus, j4vis Indie a
Apis, Mufca
Chamseleon
Triangulum Auftralis
Pifcis volans, Pajfer
Dorado, Xiphias
Toucan
Hydrus
Noah’s Dove
The Royal Oak
The Crane
The Phenix
The Indian
The Peacock
The Bird of Paradife
The Bee or Fly
The Chameleon
The South Triangle
The Flying Fifti
The Sword Fifti
The American Goofe
The Water Snake
Ptolemy.
23
4
25
23
32
17
24
3i
28
45
38
22
38
34
45
27
7
7
37
W
7
13
Tycho.
x9
23
4
21
43
25
*5
3°
J4
33
28
41
36
!3
!3
2
3
*9
3
4
Hevelius.
38
47
12
27
5i
38
29
49
29
47
39
45
62
27
16
Flamjleed.
89
66
16
66
141
85
83
95
43
no
51
44
69
51
108
"3
97
78
84
19
3i
H
64
60
3i
9
35
24
9
Hevelius's Conflellatiom made out of the unformed Stars.
Hevel. Flamjl.
Lyn
Leo minor
The Lynx
The Little Lion
Afterion & Chara The Greyhounds
Cerberus
Cerberus
53
25
14 Vulpecula & Anfer The Fox and Goofe 27 3^
Scutum Sobiefld
Lacerta
Camelopardalus
Monocerns
Sextans
Sobielki’s Shield
The Lizard
The Camelopard
The Unicorn
The Sextant
32 58
*9 31
4i (p)
Change of Some of the ftars, particularly Ar&urus, have been
ftars^ *n °bfervecl t0 change their places above a minute of a de-
s" gree with refpect to others. But whether this be ow¬
ing to any real motion in the ftars themfelves, muft re¬
quire the obfervations of many ages to determine. If
our folar fyftem changeth its place with regard to ab-
folute fpace, this muft in procefs of time occafion an
apparent change in the diftances of the ftars from each
other: and in fuch a cafe, the places of the neareft ftars
to us being more affedted than thofe which are very re¬
mote, their relative pofitions muft feem to alter, tho’
the ftars themfelves were really immoveable. On the
5 K 2 other
(p) To the conjedhires mentioned n° 65.—70. concerning the difappearance of fome ftars, we may add that of Mr
Maupertuis, who, in his Diflertation on the figures of the celeftial bodies (p. t>i,—63.), is of opinion, that fome ftars,
by their prodigious quick rotations on their axes, may not only aflume the figures of oblate fpheroids, but that, by the
great centrifugal force arifing from fuch rotations, they may become of the figures of mill-ftones ; or be reduced to flat
circular planes, fo thin as to be quite invifible when their edges are turned towards us; as Saturn’s ring is in fuch po-
fitions. But when very excentric planets or comets gQ.round any flat ftar, in orbits much inclined to its equator, the
attraction of the planets or comets in their perihelions muft alter the inclination of the axis of that ftar; on which ac¬
count it will appear more or lefs large and luminous, as its broad fide is more or lefs turned towards us. And thus
he imagines we may account for the apparent changes of magnitude and luftre in thofe ftars, and likewife for their ap¬
pearing and difappearing.
Sio
ASTRONOMY.
Sed. IX.
other hand, if our own fyftem be at reft, and any of
the ftars in real motion, this muft vary their pofitions ;
and the more fo, the nearer they are to us, or fwifter
their motions are, or the more proper the dire&ion of
io8 their motions is for our perception. See note on n° 89.
Change in The obliquity of the ecliptic to the equinoctial is
ty'of the”1" ^oun^ at prefent to be above the third part of a degree
ecliptic. kfs than Ptolemy found it. And moft of the obfervers
after him found it to decreafe gradually down toTycho’s
time. If it be objefted, that we cannot depend on the
obfervations of the ancients, becaufe of the incorrecl-
nefs of their inftruments ; we have to anfwer, that both
Tycho and Flamfteed are allowed to have been very
good obfervers ; and yet we find that Flamfteed makes
this obliquity z \ minutes of a degree lefs than Tycho
did about 100 years before him : and as Ptolemy was
1324 years before Tycho, fo the gradual decreafe an-
fwers nearly to the difference of time between thefe
three aftrohortiers. If we confider, that the earth is
not aperfeCl fphere, but an oblate fpheriod, having its
axis Ihorter than its equatorial diameter; and that the
fun and moon are conftantly aCting obliquely upon the
greater quantity of matter about the equator, pulling
it, as it were, towards a nearer and nearer coincidence
with the ecliptic ; it will not appear improbable that
thefe aftions fhould gradually diminilh the angle be¬
tween thofe planes. Nor is it lefs probable that the
mutual attractions of all the planets fhould have a ten¬
dency to bring their orbits to a coincidence : but this
change is too fmall to become fenfible in many ages.
near it which does not fet; and having by feveral ob¬
fervations, according to the directions given n°i77,
found its greateft and leaft altitudes, divide their dif¬
ference by a; and half that difference added to the
leaft, or fubtraCted from the greateft, altitude of the
ftar, gives the exaCt altitude of the pole or latitude of
the place. Thus, fuppofe the greateft altitude of the ftar
obferved is 6o°, and its leaft 50°, we then know that the
latitude of the place where the obfervation was made is
exaftly 550. 210 |
The latitude being once found, the obliquity of the Obliquityof |
ecliptic, or the angle made by the fun’s annual path j
with the earth’s equator, is eafily obtained by the fol¬
lowing method. Obferve, about the fummer folftice, the
fun’s meridian diftance from the zenith, which is eafily
done by a quadrant with a moveable index furnifhed with
fights; if this diftance is fubtraCted from the latitude of
the place, provided the fun is nearer the equator than
the place of obfervation, the remainder will be the ob¬
liquity of the ecliptic. But if the place of obferva¬
tion is nearer the equator than the fun at that time, the
zenith diftance muft be added. By this method, the obli¬
quity of the ecliptic hath been determined to be 230 29’.
By the fame method the declination of the fun from guiPs decli-H
the equator for any day may be found; and thus a ta- nation. Cr
ble of his declination for every day in the year might
be eonftruCled : thus alfo the declination of the ftars
SeCt. IX. Of calculating the periodical Times, Pla¬
ces, &c. of the Sun, Moon, and Planets; Deli¬
neation of the Phafes of the Moon for any parti¬
cular time-, and the Conflruttion of JJlronomical
Tables.
having the declination of the fun, his right afcen- noplace inil;
1 and place in the ecliptic may be geometrically the ecliptic f:
nd by the folntion of a cafe in fpherical trinonome- how found. I
This title includes almoft all of what may be called
the Pratticalpart of AJlronomy; and as it is by far the
moft difficult and abftrufe, fo the thorough invefttga-
tion of it would neceffarily lead us into very deep geo¬
metrical demonftrations. The great labours of former
aftronomers have left little for fucceeding ones to do in
this refpeCt : tables of the motions of all the celcftial
bodies have been made long ago* the periodical times,
excentricities, &c. of the planets determined; and as we
fuppofe few will defire to repeat thefe laborious ope¬
rations, we (hall here content ourfelves with giving fome
general hints of the methods by which thefe things
have been originally accompliftied, that fo the opera¬
tions of the young aftronomer who makes ufe of tables
already formed to his hand may not be merely mechanical.
* N° 174. jt hath been already obferved*, that the foundation of
all aftronomical operations was the drawing a meridian
2CS> line. This being done, the next thing is to find out
Latitude of the latitude of the place where the obfervations are to
anyplace be made, and for which the meridian line is drawn,
how found. jrrom what hath been faid n° 3. it will eafily be un-
dferftood that the latitude of a place muft always be
equal to the elevation either of the north or fouth pole
above the horizon ; becaufe when we are exa&ly on the
equator, both poles appear in the horizon. There is,
however, no ftar exaftly in either of the celeftial poles ;
therefore, to find the altitude of that invifible point call¬
ed the Pole of the Heavens, we muft choofe fome ftar
might be found.
Hi ’
fion
found by the folntion of a cafe in fpherical trigonome'
try. For let EQjcprefent the celeftial equator, y the £'• XL111-1
fun, and ^ X the ecliptic; then, in the right-angled
fpherical triangle ECy, we have the fide E^, equal to
the fun’s declination : the angle ECyis always 230 29',
being the angle of the ecliptic with the equator; and
the angle _yEC is 90°, or a right angle. From thefe
data we can find the fide EC the right afcenfion; and
Cy the fun’s place in the ecliptic, or his diftance from
the equinodlial point; and thus a table of the fun’s
place for every day in the year, anfwerable to his de¬
clination, may be formed.
Having the fun’s place in the ecliptic, the right af- To find thel
cenfion of the ftars may be found by the help of it and rjght afcen-m
a good pendulum clock: For which purpofe the mo- ^"sot t^ie
tionof the clock-muft be fo adjufted, that the hand may
run thro’ the 24 hours in the fame time that a ftar lea¬
ving the meridian will arrive at it again ; which time is
fomewhat ftiorter than the natural day, becaufe of the
fpace the fun moves through in the mean time eaft-
ward. The clock being thus adjufted, when the fun
is in the meridian, fix the hand to the point from
whence we are to begin to reckon our time ; and then
obferve when the ftar comes to the meridian, and mark
the hour and minute that the hand then (hews: The
hours and minutes defcribed by the index, turned into
degrees and minutes of the equator, will give the dif¬
ference between the right afcenfion of the fun and ftars;
which difference, being added to the right afcenfion of
the fun, will give the right afcenfion of the ftar. Now,
if we know the right afcenfion of any one ftar, we may
from it find the right afcenfions of all the others which
we fee, by marking the time upon the clock between
the arrival of the ftar, whofe right afcenfion we know,
to the meridian, and another ftar, whofe afcenfion is
8i7
Sea. IX.
ASTRONOMY.
to be found. This time converted Into hours and mi¬
nutes of the equator, will give the difference of right
afcenfions; from whence, by addition, we colleft the
214 r’ght afcenfion of the ftar which w^as to be found out.
Their Ion- The right afcenfion and declination of a ftar being
gitudes and known, its longitude, and latitude, or diftance from
found16* the fir ft ftar of Aries, and north or fouth from the
ecliptic, may thence be eafily found, from the folution
of a cafe in fpherical trigonometry, fimilar to that al¬
ready mentioned concerning the fun’s place; and the
places of the fixed ftars being all marked in a catalogue
according to their longitudes and latitudes, it may
thence be conceived how the longitude and latitude
of a planet or comet may be found for any particular
time by comparing its diftance from them, and its ap¬
parent path may thus be traced ; and thus the paths of
Mercury and Venus were traced by M. Caffini, though
us Mr Fergufon made ufe of an orrery for that purpofe.
With regard to the planets, the firft thing to be done
is to find out their periodical times, which is done by
obferving when they have no latitude. At that time
the planet is in the ecliptic, and confequently in one of
its nodes ; fo that, by waiting till it returns to the fame
node again, and keeping an exa& account of the time,
the periodica] time of its revolution round the fun may
be known pretty exactly. By the fame obfervations,
from the theory of the earth’s motion we can find the
pofition of the line of the nodes;, and when once the
pofition of this line is found, the angle of inclination
of that planet’s orbit to the earth may alfo be known.
^ ^ The excentricity of the earth’s orbit may be deter-
•°h’s orbit rn*neft by obferving the apparent diameters of the fun
w deter- at different times: when the fun’s diameter is leaft, the
lined. earth is at the greateft diftance; and when this diame¬
ter is greateft, the earth is at its -leaft diftance from
him. But as this method muft neceffarily be precari¬
ous, another is recommended by Dr Keil, by obferving
the velocity of the earth in its orbit, or the apparent
velocity of the fun, which is demonftrated to be always
reciprocally as the fquare of the diftance.
The excentricities of the orbits of the other planets
may be likewife found by obferving their velocities at
different times ; for all of them obferve the fame pro¬
portions with regard to the increafe or decreafe of their
velocity that the earth does; only, in this cafe, care muft
be taken to obferve the real, not the apparent, veloci¬
ties of the planets., the laft depending on the motion of
the earth at the fame time. Their aphelia, or points of
their orbits where they are fartheftfrom the fun, may
Ire known by making feveral obfervations of their di-
ftances from him, and thus perceiving when thefe di-
218 fiances ceafe to incre&fe.
To find The pofition of the aphelion being determined, the
intheiror5 P^anet,s diftance from it'at anytime may alfo be found
bits. r 1 by obfervation, which is called its true or coequated
anomaly ; but by fupppofing the motion of the planet
to be regular and uniform, tables of that motion may
eafily be conftnnfted. From thence the planet’s mean
place in its orbit may be found for any moment of
time; and one of thefe moments being fixed upon as an
epocha or beginning of the table, it is eafy to under-
ftand, that from thence tables of the planet’s place in
its orbit for any number of years either preceding or
confequent to that period may be conftrudled. Thefe
tables are to be conftrufted according to the meridian
To find the
periodical
times of the
planets.
Excentrici¬
ty of the
Of theothei
planets.
of equal time, and not true or apparent time, becaufe of
the inequalities of the earth’s motion as well as of that
of the planet, and equations muft be made to be ad¬
ded to or fubtratfted from the mean motion of the pla¬
net, as occafion requires ; which will be readily under-
llood from what we have already mentioned concern¬
ing the unequal motion of the earth in its orbit. When
all the neceffary tables are conftrutiled by this or ii-
milar methods, the calculating of the planetary pla¬
ces becomes a mere matter of mechanifm, and confifts
only in the proper additions and fubtradtions according
to the direftions always given along with fuch tables. ai9
It muft be obferved, however, that the accidental in- Inaccuracies
terference of the planets with one another by their from the
mutual attractions render it impoflible to conftrudt any mut»al af-
tables that (hall remain equally perfedt; and therefore
frequent adlual obfervations and corrections of the tables
will be neceffary. This difturbance, however, is incon-
fiderable, except in the planets Jupiter and Saturn, and
they are in conjunction only once in 800 years. 220
What hath been already mentioned with regard to Difficulties
the planets, is alfo applicable to the moon; but with wit,h regar<f
f/r-i x L r 1 • .. . to the moon*
more dmiculty, on account ot the greater inequalities
of her motions. She indeed moves in an ellipfe as the
reft do, and its excentricity may be better computed
from obferving her diameter at different times than that
of the earth’s orbit; but that excentricity is not al¬
ways the fame. The reafon of this, and indeed of
all the other lunar inequalities, is, that the fun has a fen-
fible effedl upon her by his attradlion, as well as the
earth. Confequently, when the earth is at its leaft di¬
ftance from the fun, her orbit is dilated, and (he moves
more flowly; and, on the contrary, when the earth is in
its aphelion, her orbit contradls, and Ihe moves more
fwiftly The excentricity is always greateft when the
line of the apfides coincides with that of the fyzygies,
and the earth at its leaft diftance from the fun. When
the moon is in her fyzygies, /. e. in the line that joins
the centres of the earth and fun, which is either in her
conjunction oroppofition, Ihe moves fwifter, cre ter is pa¬
ribus, than in the quadratures. According to the dif¬
ferent diftances of the moon from the fyzygies, ihe
changes her motion from the conjunction to her firft
quadrature, file moves fomewhat llower; but recovers
her velocity in the fecond quarter. In the third quar¬
ter fhe again lofes, and in the laft again recovers it.
The apogeon of the moon is alfo irregular ; being
found to move forward when it coincides with the line
of the fyzygies, and backwards w’.hen it cuts that line
at right angles. Nor is this motion in any degree equal:
in the conjunction or oppofition, it goes brifldy for¬
wards ; and, in the quadratures, moves either flowly for¬
wards, Hands ftill, or goes backward. The motion of
the nodes has been already taken notice of* : but this * no 17a.
motion is not uniform more than the reft; for when the
line of the nodes coincides with that of the fyzygies,,
they Hand ftill; when their line cuts that at right
angles, they go backwards, with the velocity, as Sir
Ifaac Newton hath Ihewn, of 16", 19"', 24"" an hour. Zll
The only equable motion the moon has, is her revolu- Moves c-
tion on her axis, which ftie always performs exaClly in quably on
the fpace of time in which file moves round the earth. her ax's’
From hence arifeswhat is called the MoorPs libration ;
for as tlje motion round her axis is equable, and that
in her orbit unequal, it follows, that when the moon
regularities
accounted
for by Sir
Jfaac New-
Jler perio¬
dical time
determined
by Coperni-
ASTRO
is in her perigee, where fhe moves fwifteft, that part
of her furface, which on account of the motion in her
orbit would be turned from the earth, is not fo, by
reafon of the motion on her axis. Thus fome parts
in the limb or margin of the moon fometimes recede
from, and fometimes approach towards, the centre of
the difk. Yet this equable rotation produces an ap¬
parent irregularity; for the axis of the moon, not be¬
ing perpendicular, but a little inclined to its orbit,
and this axis maintaining its parallellifm round the
earth, it muft neceflarily change its fituation with re-
fpe& to an obferver on the earth, to whom fometimes
the one and fometimes the other pole of the moon be¬
comes vifible; whence it appears to have a kind of
wavering or vaciliatory motion.
From all thefe irregularites it may well be concluded,
that the calculation of the moon’s place in her orbit is
a very difficult matter; and indeed, before Sir Ifaac
Newton, aftronomers in vain laboured to fubjeft the
lunar irregularities to any rule. By his labours, how¬
ever, and thofe of other aftronomers, thefe difficulties
are in a great meafure overcome; and calculations with
regard to this luminary may be made with as great
certainty as concerning any other. Her periodical
time may be determined from the obfervation of two
lunar eclipfes, at as great a diftance from one ano¬
ther as poffible; for in the middle of every lunar
eclipfe, the moon is exaftly in oppofition to the fun.
Compute the time between thefe two eclipfes or op-
pofitions, and divide this by the number of lunations
that have intervened, and the quotient will be the
fynodical month, or time the moon takes to pafs from
one conjundtion to another, or from one oppofition to
another. Compute the fun’s mean motion in the time
of the fynodical month, and add this to the entire circle
defcribed by the moon. Then, As that fum is to 360“,
fo is the quantity of the fynodical month to the perio¬
dical, or time that the moon takes to move from one
point of her orbit to the fame point again. Thus, Co¬
pernicus in the year 1500, November 6th, at 2 hours
20 minutes, obferved an eclipfe of the moon at Rome;
and Auguft Ist 1523, at 4 hours 25 minutes, another
at Cracow: hence the quantity of the fynodical month
is thus determined
Y. D. H. M.
Obferv. 2d 1523 237 4 25
Obferv. 1st. 1500 2x0 2 20
N O M Y.
Sea. X.
mean motion be conftmdfed; and if from the moon’s
mean diurnal motion that of the fun be fubtra&ed,
the remainder will be the moon’s mean diurnal motion
from the fun.
Having the moon’s diftance from the fun, her pha- 5th Plate
fis for that time may be eafily delineated by the fol- XLI1* fig-
lowing method laid down by Dr Keil. “ Let the cir- J"
cle COBP reprefent the dilk of the moon, which is Her phafes
turned towards the earth; and let OP be the line in delineated,
which the femicircle OMP is projected, which fuppofe
to be cut by the diameter BC, at right angles ; and,
making LP the radius, take LF equal to the cofine
of the elongation of the moon from the fun : And then
upon BC, as the great axis, and LF the lefler axis,
defcribe the femi-diipfe BFC. This ellipfe will cut off
from the dilk of the moon the portion BFCP of the
illuminated face, which is vifible to us from the earth.”
Since in the middle of a total eclipfe the moon is ex- place of thi
aftly in the node, if the fun’s place be found for that nodes how
time, and fix figns added to it, if the eclipfe is a lunar found,
one the fun will give the place of the node, or if the
eclipfe obferved is a folar one, the place of the node
and of the fun are the fame. From comparing two
eclipfes together, the mean motion of the nodes will
thus be found out. The apogee of the moon may be
known from her apparent diameter, as already obfer¬
ved ; and by comparing her place when in the apogee
at different times, the motion of the apogee itfelf may
alfo be determined. '
Thefe Ihort hints will be fufficient to give a general
knowledge of the methods ufed for the folutionof fome
of the moft difficult problems in aftronomy. As for
the proper equations to be added or fubtrafted, in or¬
der to find out the true motion and place of the moon,
together with tfie particular methods of cpnftru&ing
tables for calculating eclipfes, they are given from Mr
Fergufon, in the following feftion.
Se£t. X. Of Eclipfes : With Tables for their Calcu¬
lation ; the method ofconfi rutting them ; rules for
calculation, anddiretlions for the delineation, of
Solar and Lunar Eclipfes.
Interval of time
Add the intercalary 7
days for leap years. 3 •
Exa& interval
292
5
297 2 5,or 11991005'.
This interval divided by 282, the number of months
«lapfed in that time, gives 29 days 12 hours 4X mi¬
nutes for the length of the fynodical month. But from
the obfervations of two other eclipfes, the fame author
more accurately determined the quantity of the fynodi¬
cal month to be 29 degrees 11 hours 45 minutes 3 fe-
conds ; from whence the mean periodical time of the
moon comes to be 27 degrees 7 hours 43 minutes 5 fe-
conds, which exadlly agrees with the obfervations of la-
114 ter aftronomers.
Her diurnal The quantity of the periodical month being given,
and horary by the Rule of Three we may find the moon’s diurnal
motion. anq horary motion ; and thus may tables of the moon’s
Every planet and fatellite is illuminated by the fun;
and cafts a ftiadow towards that point of the heavens
which is oppofite to the fun. This ftxadow is nothing
but a privation of light in the fpace hid from the fun
by the opaque body that intercepts his rays. 227
When the fun’s light is fo intercepted by the moon, Eclipfe de-
that to any place.of the earth the fun appears partly fined,
or wholly covered, he is faid to undergo an eclipfe;
though, properly fpeaking, it is only an eclipfe of that
part of the earth where the moon’s ftxadow or penum¬
bra falls. When the earth comes between the fun and
moon, the moon falls into the earth’s ftiadow; and,
having no light of her own, ftie fuffers a real eclipfe
from the interception of the fun’s rays. When the
fun is eclipfed to us, the moon’s inhabitants, on the
fide next the earth, fee her fliadow like a dark fpot tra¬
velling over the earth, about twice as fall as its equa¬
torial parts move, and the fame way as they move.
When the moon is in an eclipfe, the fun appears eclip¬
fed to her, total to all thofe parts on which the earth’s
fliadow falls, and of as long continuance as they are in
the ftiadow.
That
Sea. X.
ASTRONOMY.
ai8
Figure of
the earth
fpherical.
Moon’s fi¬
gure the
fame.
*30
I Shadows of
1 the earth
i and moon
(I conical.
Why there
•re fo few
j'clipfes.
That the earth is fpherical (for the hills take off no
more from the roundnefs of the earth, than grains of
duft do from the roundnefs of a common globe) is evi¬
dent from the figure of its lhadow on the moon; which
is always bounded by a circular line, although the earth
is incelfantly turning its different fides to the moon, and
very feldom fliews the fame fide to her in different eclip-
fes, becaufe they feldom happen at the fame hours.
Were the earth fhaped like a round flat plate, its fha-
dow would only be circular when either of its fides di-
re&ly faced the moon, and more or lefs elliptical as
the earth happened to be turned more or lefs obliquely
towards the moon when fhe is eclipfed. The moon’s
different phafes prove her to be round ; for, as fhe keeps
ftill the fame fide towards the earth, if that fide were
flat, as it appears to be, fhe would never be vifible from
the third quarter to the firft ; and from the firft quar¬
ter to the third, fhe would appear as round as when we
fay Jhe is full; becaufe, at the end of her firfl quarter,
the fun’s light would come as fuddenly on all her fide
next the earth, as it does on a flat wall, and go off as
abruptly at the end of her third quarter.
If the earth and fun were equally large, the earth’s
fhadow would be infinitely extended, and all of the
fame bulk ; and the planet Mars, in either of its nodes
and oppofite to the fun, would be eclipfed in the earth’s
fhadow. Were the earth larger than the fun, its fhadow
would increafe in bulk the farther it extended, and
would eclipfe the great planets Jupiter and Saturn,
with all their moons, when they were oppofite to the
fun. But as Mars, in oppofition, never falls into the
earth’s fhadow, altho’ he is not then above 42,000,000
miles from the earth, it is plain that the earth is
much lefs than the fun ; for otherwife its fhadow could
not end in a point at fo fmall a diftance. If the fun and
moon were equally large, the moon’s fhadow would go
on to the earth with an equal breadth, and cover a por¬
tion of the earth’s furface more than 2000 miles broad,
even if it fell direftly againft the earth’s centre, as feen
from the moon ; and much more if it fell obliquely on
the earth : But the moon’s fhadow is feldom 150 miles
broad at the earth, unlefs when it falls very obliquely
on the earth, in total eclipfes of the fun. In annular
eclipfes, the moon’s real fhadow ends in a point at fome
diftance from the earth. The moon’s fmall diftance
from the earth, and the fhortnefs of her fhadow, prove
her to be lefs than the fun. And, as the earth’s fha-
dow is large enough to cover the moon, if her diame¬
ter were three times as large as it is (which is evident
from her long continuance in the fhadow when fhe
goes through its centre), it is plain, that the earth is
much bigger than the moon.
Though all opaque bodies, on which the fun fhines,
have their fhadows, yet fuch is the bulk of the fun, and
the diftances of the planets, that the primary planets
can never eclipfe one another. A primary can eclipfe
only its fecondary, or be eclipfed by it; and never but
when in oppofition or conjun&ion with the fun. The
primary planets are very feldom in thefe pofitions, but
the fun and moon are fo every month : Whence one
may imagine, that thefe two luminaries fhould be eclip¬
fed every month. But there are few eclipfes in refpeft
of the number of new and full moons; the reafon of
which we (hall now explain.
If the moon’s orbit were, coincident with the plane
of the ecliptic, in which the earth always moves and
the fun appears to move, the moon’s fhadow would fall
upon the earth at every change, and eclipfe the fun to
fome parts of the earth. In like manner, the moon
would go through the middle of the earth’s fliadow,
and be eclipfed at every full; but with this difference,
that fhe would be totally darkened for above an hour
and an half; whereas the fun never was above four mi¬
nutes totally eclipfed by the interpofition of the moon.
But one half of the moon’s orbit is elevated 5j- degrees
above the ecliptic, and the other half as much depref-
fed below it; confequently, the moon’s orbit interfe&s
the ecliptic in two oppofite points called the moon's nodes,
as has been already taken notice of. When thefe points
are in a right line with the centre of the fun at new or
full moon, the fun, moon, and earth, are all in a right
line; and if the moon be then new, her fhadow falls
upon the earth ; if full, the earth’s fhadow falls upon
her. When the fun and moon are more than 17 de¬
grees from either of the nodes at the time of conjunc¬
tion, the moon is then generally too high or too low
in her orbit to call any part of her fhadow upon the
earth ; when the fun is more than 12 degrees from ei¬
ther of the nodes at the time of full moon, the moon
is generally too high or too low in her orbit to go
through any part of the earth’s fhadow : and in both
thefe cafes there will be no eclipfe. But when the moon
is lefs than 17 degrees from either node at the time of
conjunction, her fhadow or penumbra falls more or lefs
upon the earth, as fhe is more or lefs within this limit.
And when fhe is lefs than 12 degrees from either node
at the time of oppofition, fhe goes through a greater
or lefs portion of the earth’s fhadow, as fhe is more or
lefs within this limit. Her orbit contains 360 degrees ;
of which 17, the limit of folar eclipfes on either fide
of the nodes, and 12, the limit of lunar eclipfes, are
but fmall portions : And as the fun commonly pafles
by the nodes but twice in a year, it is no wonder that
we have fo many new and full moons without eclipfes.
To illuftrate this, (Plate L. fig. 1.) let ABCD be
the ecliptic, RSTU a circle lying in the fame plane
with the ecliptic, and VXYZ the moon’s orbit, all
thrown into an oblique view, which gives them an el¬
liptical fhapeto the eye. One half of the moon’s or¬
bit, as VWX, is always below the ecliptic, and the
other half XYV above it. The points V and X,
where the moon’s orbit interfe&s the circle RSTU,
which lies even with the ecliptic, are the moon’s nodes;
and a right line, as XEV, drawn from one to the other,
through the earth’s centre, is the line of the nodes,
which is carried almoft parallel to itfelf round the fun
in a year.
If the moon moved round the earth in the orbit
RSTU, which is coincident with the plane of the ec¬
liptic, her fhadow would fall upon the earth every time
fhe is in conjun&ion with the fun, and at every oppo¬
fition fhe would go through the earth’s fhadow. Were
this the cafe, the fun would be eclipfed at every chano-e,
and the moon at every full, as already mentioned.
But although the moon’s fhadow N muft fall upon
the earth at a, when the earth is at E, and the moon
in conjun&ion with the fun at i, becaufe fhe is then very
near one of her nodes; and at her oppofition n fhe mult
go through the earth’s fhadow I, becaufe file is then
near the other node; yet, in the time that fhe goes
round!
820
A S T R C
round the earth to her next change, according to the
order of the letters XYVW, the earth advances from
E to e, according to the order of the letters EFGH ;
and the line of the nodes VEX, being carried nearly
parallel to itfelf, brings the point f of the moon’s or¬
bit in conjunction with the fun at that next change;
and then the moon being at f, is too high above the
ecliptic to call her ihadow on the earth : and as the
earth is Hill moving forward, the moon at her next op-
pofition will be at g, too far below the ecliptic to go
through any part of the earth’s lhadow; for by that
time the point g will be at a conliderable diftance from
the earth as feen from the fun.
When the earth comes to F, the moon in conjunc¬
tion with the fun Z is not at i in a plane coincident
with the ecliptic, but above it at Y in the higheft part
of her orbit; and then the point b of her fhadow O
goes far above the earth (as in fig. 2. which is an edge
view of fig. i). The moon at her next oppofition, is
not at o (fig. i.), but at W, where the earth’s ftiadow
goes far above her (as in fig. 2). In both thefe cafes
the line of the nodes VFX (fig. 1) is about ninety de¬
grees from the fun, and both luminaries are as far as
poffible from the limits of the eclipfes.
When the earth has gone half round the ecliptic
from E to G, the line of the nodes VGX is nearly, if
not exaCtly, direfted towards the fun at Z ; and then
the new-moon / calls her lhadow P on the earth G ;
and the full moon p goes through the earth’s lhadow
L ; which brings on eclipfes again, as when the earth
was at E.
When the earth comes to H, the new moon falls not
at m in a plane coincident with the ecliptic CD, but
at W in her orbit below it; and then her lhadow
(fee fig. 2.) goes far below the earth. At the next
full fhe is not at q (fig. 1.) but at Y in her orbit 5-3-
degrees above q, and at her greateft height above the
ecliptic CD ; being then as far as poffible, at any op¬
pofition, from the earth’s lhadow M, as in fig. 2.
So, when the earth is at E and G, the moon is a-
bout her nodes at new and full, and in her greateft
north and fouth declination (or latitude as it is gener¬
ally called) from the ecliptic at her quarters ; but when
the earth is at F or H, the moon is in her greateft
north and fouth declination from the ecliptic at new
and full, and in the nodes about her quarters.
The point X, where the moon’s orbit crolfes the e-
cliptic, is called the afcending node, becaufe the moon
afeends from it above the ecliptic ; and the oppofite
point of interfe&ion V is called the dejeending node, be¬
caufe the moon defeends from it below the ecliptic.
When the moon is at Y in the higheft point of her or¬
bit, Ihe is in her greateft north latitude ; and when Ihe
is at W in the loweft point of her orbit, Ihe is in her
greateft fouth latitude.
of*eclfpf«Ce the line of t^ie noc*es» t^e earth’s axis, was
determined carried parallel to itfelf round the fun, there would be
from the juft half a year between the conjundtions of the fun and
motion of nodes. But the nodes fhift backwards, or contrary to
-the nodes. ^ earth’s annual motion, 19y deg. every year ; and
therefore the fame node comes round the fun 19 days
fooner every year than on the year before. Confe-
quently, from the time that the afcending node X
(when the earth is at E) paffes by the fun as feen from
the earth, it is only 17^ days (not half a year) till the
» N O M Y. Sed. X. |
defeending node V pafles by him. Therefore in what¬
ever time of the year we have eclipfes of the luminaries
about either node, we may be fare that in 173 days
afterward we ftiall have eclipfes about the other node.
And when at any time of the year the line of the nodes
is in the fituation VGX, at the fame time next year
it will be in the fituation rGs; the afcending node ha-
ving gone backward, that is, contrary to the order of
figns, from X to /, and the defeending node from V
to r; each 19-3- deg. At this rate, the nodes fhift
through all the figns and degrees of the ecliptic in 18
years and 225 days ; in which time there would al¬
ways be a regular period of eclipfes, if any complete
number of lunations were finiftied without a fradlion.
But this never happens : for if both the fun and moon
ffiould ftart from a line of conjundtion with either of
the nodes in any point of the ecliptic, the fun would
perform 18 annual revolutions and 222 degrees over
and above, and the moon 330 lunations and 85 degrees
of the 231st, by the time the node came round to the
fame point of the ecliptic again ; fo that the fun would
then be 138 degrees from the node, and the moon 85 |
degrees from the fun.
But, in 223 mean lunations, after the fun, moon,
and nodes, have been once in a line of conjundtion,
they return fo nearly to the fame ftate again, as that
thdi fame node, which was in conjundlion with the fun
and moon at the beginning of the firft of thefe lu¬
nations, will be within 20 12" of a degree of a line
of conjumftion with the fun and moon again, when the
laft of thefe lunations is completed. And therefore
in that time there will be a regular period of eclipfes,
or return of the fame eclipfe, for many ages. In this
period (which was firft difeovered by the Chaldeans)
there are 18 Juiian years n days 7 hours 43 minutes
20 feconds, when the laft day of February in leap-years
is four times included ; but when it is five times inclu¬
ded, the period confifts of only 18 years 10 days 7 hours 433
43 minutes 20 feconds. Confequently, if to the mean when the!
time of any eclipfe, either of the fun or moon, you fame eclip^
add 18 Julian years 11 days 7 hours 43 minutes 20 ret.urnsa* j
feconds, when the laft day of February in leap-years i
comes in four times, or a day lefs when it comes in five ‘ j
times, you will have the mean time of the return of
the fame eclipfe.
But the falling back of the line of conjunctions or
oppofitions of the fun and moon 28' 12" with refped
to the line of the nodes in every period, will wear it
out in procefs of time ; and after that, it will not re¬
turn again in lefs than 12,492 years.—Thefe eclipfes of
the fun, which happen about the afcending node, and
begin to come in at the north pole of the earth, will go
a little foutherly at each return, till they go quite off
the earth at the fouth pole ; and thofe which happen
about the defeending node, and begin to come in at
the fouth pole of the earth, will go a little northerly at
each return, till at laft they quite leave the earth at the
north pole. ■ i
To exemplify this matter, we lhall firft; confider the Hiftory o{ i
fun’s eclipfe, (March 21st old ftyle, April Ist new ^.e £o)?r ** ’
ftyle), A. D. 1764, according to its mean revolutions, ^^4. m *
without equating the times, or the fun’s diftance from
the node ; and then according to its true equated times.
This eclipfe fell in open fpace at each return, quite
clear of the earth, ever fince the creation, till A. D.
1295,
ASTRONOMICAL TABLES for calculating ECLIPSES. i
TABLE I. The mean Time of Nenu Moon in March, Old Stile; oxiith the mean Anomalies of the Sun and Moony and the Sun’s mean
Dijlance from the Moon’s afcending Node, from A. D. 1700 to A. D. 1800 inclufive.
1700
1701
1702
1703
I7°4
D. H. M. S.'s
27 J3 4+ 5 9
16 22 32 41
6 7 21 18
24 4 53 57
1705
1706
1707
1708
8 16 11 258 19 58 48
8 20 59
8 27 36 51
8 16 52 43
5 H 54
i 34 8
13 T3 42
2 22 31 11
21 20 3 50
4 52 27 8 21 24 43
24 30 47
8 13 46 39
8 50
29 2 25 7
18 11 13
7 20 2 20
25 *7 34 59
43 8
9 46 54
29 2 47
8 18 18 39
9 6 40 51
27 22 41
1(5 38.33
9 5 o 45
24 37
*5 3
21 12 35 47
10 21 24 2^
28 18 57 3
18 3 45 40
7 12 34 16
26 10 6 51"
r4 18 55 33
l733 4 3 44 y
173423 1 16 49
173512 Io 5 25
1736 O 18 54 2
173719 l6 26 42
I738 9 I 15
I73927 22 47 51
16 7 36 34
5 16 25 11
24 !3 57 52
*743
1744
‘745
746
‘747
1748
‘749
I75°
I75‘
‘752
78
48
13 22 46 2
7 35
5 -7 44
10 13 56 20
29 11 29
17 20 17 31
7 5 6 L
26 2 38 53
15 11 27 ,
3 20 16 6
78
13 32 29
9 1 54 4‘
2! IO 34
9 9 52 46
3 8
8 28 48 39
8 18 431
6 26 42
8 25 42 34
'69
98
28
14 58 26
9 3 20 38
8 22 36 30
11 52 22
9 o H 34
89
19 30 26
7 52 38
8 27 8 30
8 16 24 22
9 4 46 34
24 2 27
13 18 20
9 1 4° 32
20 56 24
9 9 ‘8 36
68
28 34 28
17 50 20
9 6 12 32
25 28 24
8 14 44 16
1 22 30 37
o 28 7 42
1 7 55 47
9 ‘7 43 52
8 23 20 57
7 3 9
5 12 57 7
4 18 34 ‘3
2 28 22 18
3 59 24
‘3 47 3°
to 23 35 36
9 29 12 42
8 9 o 47
6 18 48 52
5-24 25 57
4 4 14
2 14 2
1 ‘9 39 ‘3
11 29 27 18
“ 5 4 24
9 ‘4 52 29
7 24 4° 34
7 o 17 40
5 5 45
3 ‘9 53 5°
2 25 3° 5^
‘ 5 ‘9
o 10 56
10 20 44 12
9 0 32 J7
8 6923
6 15 57
4 25 45 33
4 1 22 39
2 11 10 44
o 20 58 49
11 26 35 55
a 6 24
9 12 1
7 21 49 11
6 1 37 16
5 7 ‘4 22
3172
1 26 50
1 2 27
r 1 12 15
10 17 52
8 27 40 54
7 7 28 59
6136
4 22 54 10
3 2 42 15
6 14 31
7 23 ‘4
8 1 16 55
8 9 19 42
9 18 2 43
9 26 5 30
o 4 8 17
11 1251 18
11 20 54 5
o 29 37 6
‘ 7 39 54
1 15 42 41
2 14 25 43
3 2 28 30
3 10 3‘ ‘7
4 19 14 18
4 27 17 5
5 5 ‘9 52
6 14 2 54
6 22 5 41
8 o 48 43
8 8 51 29
8 16 54 16
9 25 37 ‘8
o 3 40 5
11 42 52
11 20 25 54
11 28 28 41
7 ii 42
1 15 14 29
1 23 17 16
3 2 o 17
3 3 4
3 18 5 5‘
4 26 48 53
5 4 5‘ 40
5 12 54 27
6 21 37 29
6 29 40 16
8 8 23 18
8 16 26 5
8 24 28 52
° 3 “ 54
1 14 41
10 19 17
11 28 o 30
6 3
14 46 19
1 22 49 5
2 o 51 52
3 9 34 53
3 ‘7 37 4°
3 25 40 2 7.
L. H. M. S.
22 17 48 45
2 37 22
1 25 59
19 8 58 389
8 17 47 15
27 15 19 54
17 o 8
5 8 57
24 6 29 47
13 15 18
1763
1764
1765
1766
3 0 7
20 21 39 40
6 28
29 4 o
1767
1768
1769
1770.
‘77*
1772
‘773
1774
‘775
1776
1777
1778
‘779
1780
1781
>782
*7^3
1784
1785
1786
‘787
178b
1789
1790
1791
1792
‘793
‘794
‘795
1796
1797
1798
‘799
180c
9 3 6 28
22 22 20
8 11 38 12
o 24
8 19 16 16
24 8
7 38 28
26 54 20
16 10 12
9 4 32 24
23 48 16
8 13 4 8
9 1 26 20
20 42 13
9 4 20
33 8
18. 12 49
6 21 38 10
25 19 10 4c
15 3 59 26
4 12
28 20 17
8 17 36 9
9 5 58 2i
25 ‘4 ‘3
8 14 30 5
22 10 20 43
11 19 9
^ 3 57
20 1 30
8 10 19 12
27 7 5‘ 51
16 16 40 28
6 1 29
23 23 1 44
13 7 50 21
14 11 37
9 23
28 20 32 53
18 5 21 30
7 14 10 6
25 11 42 46
14 20 31 23
4 5 ‘9 59
23 2 52 39
11 11 41 15
3° 9 ‘3 55
IQ l8 2 32
9 2 51 8
27 ° 23 48
16 9 12 24
5 18 1 1
24 ‘5 33 4‘
13 o 22
17 8
8 19 21
18 7 26
10 27 55 31
3 S2 37
13 20 42
2 52 17
2289
11 24
29 46 13
8 19 2 5
9 7 24 ‘7
8 26 40 9
48 15 56 1
8 4 18 13
8 23 34 5
2 16 38 57 8 12 49 5:
9 1 12 10
20 28 3
9 8 50 15
8 28 6 7
3 8 ^
17 21 59
9 5 44 “
8 25 o 3
8 14 15 55
9 2 38 7
8 21 53 59
9 10 16 11
8 29 32 3
8 18 47 55
9 7 10 7
8 26 25 59
8 ‘5 4‘ 51
9 4 4 3
23 ‘9 55
Moon’s mean
Anomaly.
7 ‘8 57 .
5 28 45 54
4 8 34
3 14 11 6
1 23 59
o 3 47 ‘6
[i 9 24 21
9 19 12 26
8 24 49 32
7 4 37 37
5 ‘4 25 42
4 20 2 48
2 29 50 53
‘ 9 38 58
o 15 16
10 25 4 9
9 4 52 14
8 10 29 20
6 20 17 25
5 25 54 3‘
4 5 42 36
2 15 30 41
J 21 7 47
o o 55 52
IO IO 43 57
9 16 21 3
7 26 9 8
7 i- 46 14
5 ” 34 ‘9
3 21 22 24
2 26 59 30
1. 6 47 35
11 16 35 40
1022 12 46
9 2 o 52
8 7 37 58
6 17 26 4
4 27 14 9
4 2 5‘ M
2 ‘2 39 ‘9
o 22 27 25
1 28 431
10 7 52 36
5 4 23 28
5 12 26 15
5 20 29
6 29 12 3
7 7 ‘4 5°
8 ‘5 57 52
8 24 o 30
9 2 3 26
10 10 46 27
10 18 49 14
10 26 52
o 5 35
° ‘3 37 49
1 22 20 51
2 o 23 38
2 8 26 25
3 17 9 27
3 25 12 14
4 3 ‘5
5 “ 58 3
5 20 o 50
5 28 3 37
7 ^ 46 38
7 ‘4 49 25
8 23 32 26
9 1 35 ‘3
9 9 38
10 18 21
10 26 23 48
11 4 26 35
6 13 9 36
o 21 12 23
1 29 55 25
2 7 58 12
2 16 o 59
3 24 44
4 2 46 48
4 ‘o 49 35
5 ‘9 32 37
5 27 35 24
7 6 18 26
7 ‘4 2‘ ‘3
7 22 24 c
9171
9 9 9 48
9 ‘7 12 35
‘o 25 55 37
“ 3 58 24
TABLE II.
ASTRONOMICAL TABLES for calculating ECLIPSES.
1752
J7-53
1754
1755
1756
1757
175?
1759
176c
176:
762
765
764
1765
766
767
1768
1769
177c
1771
TABLE II. Mean New Nioon, <&c. in March, Nsnu
Stile, from A. D. 1752 to A. D. 1800. 
D. H. M. S.
42 8
14 20 16 6
4 5 4
23 2 37 22
i2 11 25 59
30 8 58 38
19 17 47
9 2 35 51
28 o 8 31
6 8 57 8
5 !7 45
24 15 18 248
14 ° 7
8 55 36
6 28
10 15 16 53
1772
1773
1774
T775
1776
1777
1778
1779
178c
178
1782
1783
1784
14 44 16; 3 2 42 15
4 o 8: 1 12 30 20
22 22 20J o 18 7 26
8 11 38 1210 27 55 31
9 o o 24I10 3 32 37
158
44 8
9 8
29 12 49 33
7 21 38
7 6 26 46
26 3 59 26
[5 12 48
19 16 16
8 32
8 26 54 20
16 10
5 26 4
23 48 16
813 4.8
2 20
20 42 13
8 9 58 5
23 59
3 47
to 13 35 21
9 19 12 26
7 29 o 31
8 28 20 17
' 17 36 9
6 52
8 25 14 13
8 14 30 5
3 21 36 398
22 19 9
2 3 57 ..
1 12 46 3
19 10 19 12
19 8
55 8
8 19
8 19 7
27 16 40
17 1 29
5 10 !7
24 7 50
13 16 38 578
3 1 27
20 23 o 1
178510 7 48 5c
1786 9 5 21
787
788
1789
308
18 14 10
6 22 58 42 8
25 20 31 23
179015 5 19 a
1791 4 14 8 35
1792
1793
1794
1795
1796
22 11 41 158 21 53 59
11 20 29 51 8 11 95
1797
1798
1799
3 45 57
22 8 9
11 24
° 39 53
8 17 57
26 40
15 56
5 11 53
23 34
12 49 58
2 5 50
20 28
9 43 55
28 6
8 13 20 42
6 23 8 47
5 28 45 54
4 8 3+
2 18 22 5
7 4 37 37
5 H 25 42
3 24 13 47
2 29 50 53
1 9 38 58
11 19 27 3
10 25 4 9
9 4 52 14
7 *4 4° x9
6 20 17 25
5 0 5 3°
4 5 42 36
2 15 30 41
o 25 r8 46
o o 55 52
7 7 H 5°
7 15 17
8 24 o 39
9 2 3 26
9 10 6 13
10 18 49 14
10 26 52
11 4 54 48
O !3 37 49
o 21 40 3
2 o 23 38
2 8 26 25
2 16 29 12
3 25 12 14
4 3 r5
4 11 17 48
5 20 o 50
5 28 3 37
6 6 6 24
7 H 49 25
7 22 52 12
9 1 35 '■S
9 9 38
9 I7 40 47
10 .26 23 48
10 10 43 57
8 20 32
9 26 9
6 5 57 13
7 5 11 34 x9
68
17 21 59
6 37 51
8 25 o 3
' H *5 55
3 3i 47
3 21 22 24
2 1 10 29
1 6 47 35
11 16 35 40
9 26 23 45
30 18 2 32
2 51
8 29 32
8 18 47 55
11 39 448 8 3 47
27 9
16 18
6 2 49 37
1800 25 o 22
12 248 26 25 59
15 41 51
4 57 43
23 !9 55
78 :
n 4 26 35
11 12 29 22
o 21 12 23
o 29 15 10
2 7 58 12
9 2 o 52
7 11 48 5
6 17 26 4
4 27 14 9
3 7 2 14
2 12 39 19
o 22 27 25
11 2 15 30
10 7 52 36
2 16 o 59
2 24 3 46
4 2 46 48
4 !o 49 35
4 18 52 22
5 27 35 24
6 5 38 11
7 H 21 13
7 22 24 <
8 o 26 4'
9 9 9 48
9 i7 12 35
9 25 15 22
3 58 24
6|i77 4 24 18
7 206 17 8 21
8236 5 52 24
9:265 18 36 27
10295 7 20 30
TABLE III. Mean Anomalies, and Sun's mean Diftance
from the Node, for 134 mean Lunations.
D. H. M. S.
29 12 44
59 1 28
88 14 12
: 18 2 56 12
5,I47 J5 4° 15
324 20 4 33
354 8 48 36
383 21 32 40
14 18 22 2
o 29 6 19 o 25 49
1 28 12 39 1 21 38
2 27 18 58
3 26 25 17
4 25 31 37
5 24 37 56
6 23 44 15
7 22 50 35
8 21 56 54
9 21 3 14
2 17 27
3 13 16
4 9 5
5 4 54
6 o 43
6 26 32
7 22 21
8 18 10
10 20 9 33 9 13 59 5
11 1915 5210 9 48 5
18 22 1211 5 37
o 14 33 10! 6 12 54 30
1 o 40 14.
2 1 20 28
320 42
4 2 40 56
5 3 21 10
6 4 1 24
7 4 4i 38
8 5 21 52
9 6 2 6
10 6 42 20
7 22 34
8 2 47
8 43
TA13LE IV. The Days of the Tear, reckoned from the beginning 0/March.
e £ >
3j 3
1414
2323
2424
1546
2758
28
29
3°
31
103
104
105
i°6
76 107
108
78 109
87 118
88 119
89 120
90 121
91 122
92
TABLE Y.
ASTRONOMICAL TABLES for calculating ECLIPSES.
TABLE V. Mean Lunation? from i to iooooo.
Lunat. Days. Decimal Parts. Days Hon. M. S. Th. Fo.
2 58
5 57
8 55
ri 53
H 52
17 50
20 48
23 47
26 45
29 43
59 26
29 ro
58 53
28 36
58 19
28
57 46
27 29
57 12
54 24
51 36
48 48
46
43 12
40 24
37 36
34 48
32
3°
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
200
300
400
500
900
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
80.0c
9000
10000
20000
30000
40000
5000c
60000
70000
R 80000
90000
iooooo
29>53059°85io8o
59.061181702160
88.591772553240
118.122363404320
I47*^529542554°I
17 7. r8 35451064-81
206.714135957561
236.244726808641
265-7753I7659722
295.30590851080
590.61181702160
885.91772553240
1181.22363404320
I476.529542554°i
i77i-83545i°648i
2067.1413595756;
2362.44726808641
2657-753i7659722
2953.o59o85io8o
5906.1181702160
8859.1772553240
11812.2363404320
H765-29542554©1
17718.3545106481
20671.4135957561
23624.4726808641
26577-53i7659722
2953o.59°85io8c
59061.181702160
88591.772553240
118122.36340432c
i47652-9542554°I
177183.54510648J
206714.135957561
236244.726808641
26'5775-3i7659722
295305.90851080
590611.81702160
885917.72553240
1181223.6340432a
1476529.54255401
1771835.45106481
2067141.35957561
2362447.26808641
2657753-i7<559722
29730^9.0851080
= 29
59
88
ri8
x47
177
206
236
265
295
590
885
1181
1476
1771
2067
2362
2657
2953
5906
8859
1-181-2
14765
17718
20671
23624
26577
29530
59061
88591
118122
147652
177183
206714.
236244
265775
295305
590611
885917
t181223
1476529
i77i835
2067141
2362447
2^57753
2993059
12 44 3
1 28 6
14 12 9
2 56 12
J5 40 15
4 2418
17 8 21
5 52 24
18 36 27
7 20 30
1441 o
22 I 31
5 22 I
12 42 32
20 3 2
3 23 33
10 44 3
18 4 34
1 25 4
2 50 9
4 15 *4
5 40 r9
7 5 24
8 30 29
9 55 34
11 20 39
12 45 44
14 1a 49
4 21 39
18 32 28
8 43 18
22 54 7
*3 4 57
3 15 46
17 26 36
7 37 25
21 4-8 15
19 36 30
17 24 46
T5 x3 1
13 1 16
10 49 32
8 37 47
6 25 2
4 1418
2 2 33
48
TABLE VI. The firji mean New Moon, with the mean
Anomalies of the Sun and Moon, and the Sun’s mean
Di/lance from the Afcending Node, next after complete
’ Centuries of Julian years.
Luna¬
tions.
I237
2474
37ii
4948
6185
7422
8658
9895
D. H. M. S.
4 8 10 52
8 16 21 44
13 ° S2 37
17 8 43 29
21 16 54 21
26 1 5 14
o 20 32 3
5 4 42 55
Anomaly.
S O
0321
0 6 42
0 10 3
0 13 24
o 16 46
O 20. 7
II 24 22
11 27 43
Anomaly.
8 15
5 0 44
1 16 6
o 1 28
501
6 16
3 2 12
10 21 45
7 7 7
4 19 27
9 8 55
1 28 22
6 17 49
7 16
3 26 44
7 x5 31
0 4 58
21027
22264
23501
24738
25974
27211
28448
29685
30922
32159
33396
34632
35869
37106
38343
3958c
16080
7316
x8553
19790
2100
2200
2300
2400
2500
2600
40817
42054
432 9°
4452
45764
47001
48238
49475
50711
51948
53185
54422
55659 ..
5689641!
58133
59369
60666 4<
61843
65080 5
64317
900
1000
1100
1200
1300
I4OO
1500
l600
1700
iSOO
14 I? 36 42
x9 1 47 35
23 9 58 27
27 18 9 19
19 22 19 38
24 6 30 30
28 14 41 22
3 10 8 11
2900
3000
3100
3200
7 18 19 3
2 2 29 56
16 10 40
20 18 51 40
33oo
340c
3500
3600
3700
3800
3900
4000
4100
4200
4300
4400
450c
.600
4700
4800
.900
5000
100
5200
655545300
6679115400
6802815500
69265 5600
7050215700
7173958oo
72976:5900
74212 600024
9 12 53 47
13 21 4 40
18 5 15 32
13 26 24
26 21 37 16
1 17 4
6 1 14 58
o 9 25 50
2 13 36
6 21 47
1 5 57 53
15 14 8 45
25 3 2 33
29 !1 13 25
4 6 40 14
8 14 51 6
12 23 1 59
17 7 12 51
21 15 23 43
25 23 34 35
o 19 1 25
5 3 12
9 11 23 9
r3 19 34
18 3 44 54
1 55 46
26 20 6 38
15 33
5 23 44 20
o 7 55 12
14 16 6 4
19 o 16 56
23 8 27 49
27 16 38 41
2 12 5 30
6 20 16 22
4 27 15
15 12 38 7
19 20 48 59
4 59 52
Anomaly.
I 4
4 25
7 46
u 7
o 14 28
11 18 43
II 22 4
11 25 25
28 46
5 29
8 50
13 5
16 26
19 47
23
26 29
29 50
3
7 26
10 47
H
17 30
20 51
3 12 21
11 27 43
8135
4 28 27
24 12
27 33
1 48
5 9
8 30
11 51
15 12
18- 33
o 22 48
026 9
o 29 31
2 52
1 6 13
1 9 34
1 12 55
0179
o 20 31
o 23 52
O 27 13
I o 34
3 55
7 16
11 3.1
14 52
o 18 14
o 21 35
o 24 56
o 28 17
3 22 29
o 7 51
8 23 13
5 8 35
1 23 57
9 i3 30
5 28 52
2 14 14
10 29 36
7 14 58
4 o 20
o 15 42
8 5 15
4 20 37
1 5 59
9 21 21
6 6 43
2 22 4
1 7 26
6 26 59
1 i3 49
9 29 11
5 18 44
246
10 19 28
1 4 5°
3 20 12
o 5 34
7 25 7
4 10 29
o 25 51
9 ” i3
5 26 35
2115
10 27 19
6 16 52
3 2 14
11 17 36
8 2 58
4 l8 2C
I 3 42
9 i9
5 8 37
1 23 59
4 24 25
9 13 53
2 3 20
6 22 47
II 13 15
3 1
7- 20 29
O 9 56
4 29 23
9 18 51
2 818
6 27 45
10 16 32
3 6
7 25 27
o H 54
5* 4
9 23 49
2 13 16
6 2
10 21 30
3 10 58
8 o 25
o 19 52
5 9 20
9 28 47
1 17 34
6 71
10 26 29
3 15 56
8 5 23
o 24 50
4 13 37
9 3 5
1 22 32
6 11 59
11 127
3 20 54
8 10 21
11 29
4 18 36
9 8 3
1 27 30
6 16 57
1 6 25
2 25 52
7 14 39
046
o 921
6 24 43
3 10 5
11 25 27-
4 23 34
9 13
2 2 28
6 21 56
ASTRONOMICAL TABLES for calculating ECLIPSES.
TABLE VII. The annual, or firji Equation of the mean
to the true Syzygy.
Argument. Sun’s mean Anomaly.
4 18
8 35
12 51
017 8
o 21 24
o 25 39
o 28 55
° 34 11
o 38 26
o 42 39
Signs
2 25 9
2 28 29
2 31 57
2 35 22
2 38 44
o 46 52
o 51 4
o 55 17
o 59 27
3 36
7 45
11 53
16
20 6
24 10
1 28 12
1 32 r2
1 36 10
1 40 6
47 54
51 46
55 37
59 26
3
Sign
3 35
6 55
__ 3 37 10
2 10 363 39 18
3 4i 23
3 43 26
3 45 25
H 15
17 52
2 21 27
3 47 19
3 49
3 5° 50
3 52 29
3 54 4
2 42 3
2 45 18
2 48 3°
2 51 4c
54 48
2 57 53
3 o 54
3 3 5i
3 6 45
3 9 36
3 12 24
3 15 9
3 17 51
3 20 30
3 23 5
3 25 36
3 28 3
3 30 26
3 32 45
3 35
On 10 9
Signs Signs Signs Sign;
Signs
4 10 53
4 10 57
4 i° 55
4 i° 49
4 10 39
4 10 24
4 10 4
4 9 39
4 9
4 8 37
59
3 55 35
3 57
3 58 37
3 59 49
3 1 7
2 18
3 23
4 22
5
6 10
58 3
6
7 4'
8 21
8 57
9 29
4 9 55
4 10
4 10 33
4 10 45
4 10 53
3
Signs
3 39 3°
3 37 19
3 35 6
3 32 5°
3 3° 3°
3 28 5
63
7
6 29
5 37
4 4i
3 4°
4
4
4
58 52
3 57 27
83
- 55 59
3 54 26
3 52 49
3 5i .
3 49 26
63
3 47 S8
45 44
3 43 45
3 41 4°
3 39 3°
4
Signs
3 25 35
3 23
3 20 2C
3 17 35
3 H 49
11 59
3 9 6
3 6 10
3 3 10
3 ° 7
2 57
2 53 49
50 36
2 47 18
2 43 57
2 4° 33
37 6
2 33 35
3°
2 26 26
22 47
19 5
i5
11 35
7 45
7
S'gns
5
Signs
56 5
52 6
1 48 4
1 41
1 39 56
1 35 49
t 3i 4i
1 27 31
23 19
l9 5
H 49
10 32
6 15
56
o 57 36
0 53 15
o 48 52
o 44 28
o 40
° 35 36
031 10
o 26 44
O 22 17
o 17 50
o 13 23
8 56
4 29
.6 £
Signs
TABLE VIII. Equation of the Moon's mean Anomaly.
Argument. Sun’s mean Anomaly.
Signs
1 37
3 i3
4 52
6 28
8 6
Sign
o 46 45
o 48 10
° 49 34
° 50 53
o 52 19
9 53 40
Signs
22 :
23 IO
23 57
24 41
25 24
.3
Signs
35
1 35
1 35
1 35
1 34 57
1 34 5°
4
Signs
1 23 4
1 22 14
1 21 24
1 20 32
19 38
18 42
.5
Signs
o 48 19
3°
o 46 5129
o 4C 23 28
° 43 54*2 7
o 42 2426
O 40 5325
9 42
o 11 20
12 56
H 33
16 10
17 47
19 23
o 20 59
o 22 35
24 10
Signs
° 55
o 56 21
O 57 38
o 58 56
o 13
o 25 45
o 27 19
o 28 52
o 30 25
O 31 57
o 33 29
0 35
o 36 32
o 38
39 29
o 40 59
42 26
° 43 54
o 45 19
o 46 45
Sigm
Sign
26 6
26 48
27 28
1 28
28 43
1 29
2 43
3 56
5
6 18
7 27
8 36
9 42
10 49
n 54
12 58
H
15
\6
16 59
17 57
18 52
19 47
20 40
21 32
Signs
Signs
29 17
29 51
30 22
30 50
31 19
31 45
32 12
32 34
32 57
33 i7
33 36
33 52
34 6
34 18
34 30
34 4°
34 48
34 54
34 58
35
Signs
3
Signs
34 43
34 33
34 22
34 9
33 53
i7 45
16 48
1 15 47
H
13 4i
33 37
33 20
33
32 38
32 14
1 3i 5°
3i 23
30 55
30 25
29 54
29 20
28 45
28 9
27 30
26 50
26 27
25 5
24 39
23 52
23 4
s;gnE
.4
Signs
44 8
12 37
11 33
10 26
9
8 8
o 31 3i
o 29 54
o 28 18
0 26 40
3 25 3
6 58
5 46
4 32
3 19
o 45
o 59 26
o 58 7
o 56 45
o 55 23
o 54
o 52 37
o 51
o 49 45
o 48 19
.7
Signs
Signs
3 23 23
3 21 45
o 20 7
18 28
o 16 48
o 15
)o 13 28
0 II ~
010 7
8 20
6 44
5 3
3 21
1 40
6 O
Signs cS
TABLE IX. ThefecondEquation of themean to the true Syzygy.
Argument. Moon’s equated Anomaly.
Add
0 0 05 12 48 8 47 8
Signs
H.M. S-
o 10
o 21
o 32
3 43
o 54
565 30 578
54 5
5 486
16 46 6
27 446
38 406
49
' 33 6
o. 2
11 10
21 54
2 32 34
2 43
Sign
H.M. S.
585 21 568 51 45
56 10
9 o 25
9 4 3i
9 8 25
3°
39 51
48 37
57 i7
5 5i
14 19
22 41
3° 57
39 4
36
47
6 54 46
2 24
7 9 52
17 9
97
Signs
H. M. S.
9 46 448 8 59
9129
9 15 43
9 19 5
9 22 14
9 25 12
9 27 54
9 3° 32
9 32 58
9 35 12
9 37
149
.3
Signs
9 45
9 45 12
9 44
9 42 59
9 41
3 8 3
9 4° 3
9 38 19
9 36 24
9 '34 18
9 32
9 29 33;
9 26 54
9 24 4
9 21
17 5i
.5
Signs
H.M. S.!H.M. S.
4 34 33
7 57 23
7 51 33
7 45
39
464
36 7 39 46 3
363
4 26
4 17 25
4 8 47
o 7
5i 23;
7 33
7 27
7 14
7 7 5°
7 1
6 54
6 47 9
40 6
6 32 56
3 6
42 32
3 33 38
3 24 42
3 15 44
3 6 45
2 57 43
2 48 39
39 34
2 30 28
2 21 19
M
TABLE IX. Z
ASTRONOMICAL TARLES for Calculating ECLIPSES.
Sun’s mea
Longitude. Anomaly.
19 47
19 33
Z9 18
° 3
29 49
19 34
Anomaly.
Motion and
Anomaly.
19 58
29 42
19 17
3 18 4i
4 18 49 58
5 18 24 8
6 18 J7 2<S
7 29 30 44
Sun’s mean Sun’s mean
Motion and dift. from Motion anc
Anomaly. the Node. Anomaly.
1 18
1 18
3 28
4 28 50
J 18 24
6 28 J7
7 29 3°
8 29
9 19 37
28 35
29 34
34 3°
3® 58
39 16
33 4S
3«
38 J7
3° 38
33 14
33 yo
In Lrap-vvars, after helm,ary, add one day, and one d^y's motion.
TABLE XIII,
ASTRONOMICAL TABLES for calculating ECLIPSES.
O
w Signs
TABLE XIII. Equation of the Sun's centre, or the dif¬
ference between his mean and true place. 
Argument. Sun’s mean Anomaly.
Subtract
60 ii 50
7 0 13 48
15 46
o 17 43 1
01940
1 590
3 57
5 56
7 54
9 52
o 21 37
o 23 33
o 25 29
o 27 25
O 29 20
o 31 15
o 33 9
o 35
° 36 55
o 38 47
40 as
o 42 30
o 44 20
o 46 9
o 47 57
49 45
o 51 32
o 53 18
o 55 3
° 56 47
Signs
Sign
5^ 47
58 3°
o 12
1 53
3 33
5
6 50
8 27
11 36
*3 9
14 41
16 11
17 40
*9
20 34
21 59
23 22
24 44
26 5
27 24
28 41
29 57
31 11
32 25
33 35
34 45
35 53
36 59
38
39
Signs Signs
40 7
41 6
42 3
42 59
43 52
44 44
45 34
46 22
47
47 53
48 35
49 l5
49 54
50 30
51 5
51 37
52
52 36
53 3
53 27
53 50
54
54 28
54 44
54 58
55 10
55 20
55 28
55 34
55 37
Signs
9
Slgns
55 37
55 39
55 38
55 36
55 3i
55 24 1
55 15
55 3
54 50
54 35
54 i7
53 57
53 36
53 12
52 46
52
51 48
51 15
50 41
5° 5
49 26
48 46
48 3
47 19
46 32
45 44
44 53
44
43 7
42 10
41
Signs
4
Signs
41 12
40 12
39 10
38 6
37
35 52
34 43
33 32
32 19
31
29 47
28 29
27 9
25 48
24 25
23
21 34
20 6
18 36
l7 5
T5 33
*3 59
12 24
10 47
9 9
7 29
5 49
4 7
2 24
0 39
58 53
7
S'gns
5
Signs
_5l_33
57 7
55 J9
53 30
51 40
49 49
47 57
46 5
44
42 j 6
40 21
38 25
36 28
34 3°
32 32
30 33
28 33
26 33
24 33
22 32
20 30
18 28
16 26
14 24
12 21
10 18
8 14
6 11
4 7
2 4
6
Signs
TABLE XIV. The Sun's Declination.
,! Signs.
11 30
2 23
2 47
3
3 34
3 58
Argument. Sun’s true Place.
1 N.
7
51
12 11
12 32
12 53
ij 13
20 2429:
20 36
20 48
20 59
^ 33
»3 53
H
H 31
H 5°
4 2215 9
4 45 15 2^
5 9‘5 46
5 32 16 4
5 5 16 22
Signs.
Signs
S.
4 A.
Sign!
N.
8 S.
11 30
21
31
21 41
5°
21 59 20
8 19
22
16
22 24
22 31
£2 38
Signs-
9 S.
3 N
J Signs.
N.
6 S.
Signs.
~riv.
7 5.
3C
16 39
16 57
17 14
17 30
46
18
18 18
18 33
18 48
25
10 47
it 8
11 30
Signs.
419
19 31
‘9 45
19 58
Sige,
. £.no S.
5 A.U N.
20 11
22 45
51
56
9 S.
3 N.
TABLE XVI.
The Moon’:
Latitude in E-
clipfes.
Arg. Moon’
equated Di-
ftance from
the Node.
Signs.
North A/cend.
TABLE XV Equation of the S
■ument- Sun’s
1 a
1 5: • T
ot;
oil £4
S9'i ij
• r'
Signs.
Defend
IS 45
20 59
2<5 13
31 i6
3<S 39
41 51
o 47
o Jl
O SI XS
17 S3
32 S2
37 49
TABLE XVII. The Moon's horizontal Parallax, with
the Semidiameters and true Horary Motions of the Sun
and Moon, to every Jixth degree of their mean Anoma¬
lies, the quantities for the intermediate degrees being
eqftly proportioned by fight.
in
54 29
54 31
54 34
54 4°
54 47
S Signs.
North Defend.
Signs.
South Afcend.
This Table
54 56
55 6
55 17
55 29
55 42
15 5°
15 5‘
55 56
56
36 29
56 48
57
H 54
H 55
14 56
057 3016
6 57 5216
1258 12 • 16
1858 31 16
2458 4916
59 6
59 21
59 35
59 48
60
60 11
60 21
60 30
60 38
60 4516 23
n Mt -‘pq ■
3012
3015
3019
30 26
83
3° 34
3° 44
3° 55
9
3i 23
16 9
16 14
16 19
I916 24 36 2C
l6 2836 4C
!6 31
16 32
16 37
16 38
16 39
6 060 4516 2316 3937 4c 2 33 6 o
2231 56
33
33 23
3 4'
34 11
34 34
34 J8
35
35 45
36
37
37 it
37 19
37 28
37 36
821
Sed. X. A S T R C
1295, June 13th old ftyle, at J2 h. 52 m. 59 fee. pofl
meridiem, when the moon’s lhadow iirft touched the
earth at the north pole ; the fun being then 17° 48'
27" from the afeending node. In each period fince
that time, the fun has come 28’ 12" nearer and nearer
the fame node, and the moon's fhadow has therefore
gone more and more foutherly. — In the year 1962,
« ‘ July -18th old ftyle, at 10 h. 36 m. 21 fee. p. m. when
’the fame eclipfe will have returned 38 times, the fun
will be only 24' 45" from the afeending node, and the
centre of the moon’s ftiadow will fall a little northward
of the earth’s centre.—At the end of the next follow¬
ing period, A. D. 1980, July 28th old ftyle, at i 8h.
19 m. 41 fee./>. m. the fun will have receded back 3’
27" from the afeending node, and the moon will have
a very fmall degree of fouthern latitude, Which will
caufe the centre of her lhadow to pafs a very fmall mat¬
ter fouth of the earth’s centre.—After which, in every
following period, the fun will be 28' 12" farther back
from the afeending node than in the period laft before;
• and the moon’s lhadow will go ftill farther and farther
fouthward, until September 12th old ftyle, at 23 h.
46 m. 22 fee. p. m. A. D. 2665 ; when the eclipfe will
have completed its 77th periodical return, and will go
quite off the earth at the fouth pole (the fun being then
I7° 55’ 22” t>ac^ from the node), and cannot come
in at the north pole, fo as to begin the fame courfe
over again, in lefs than 12,492 years afterwards.—And
fuch will be the cafe of every other eclipfe of the fun :
For, as there is about 18 degrees on each lide of the
node within which there is a pofiibility of eclipfes,
their wliole revolution goes through 36 degrees about
j • K that node, which, taken from 360 degrees, leaves re¬
maining 324 degrees for the eclipfes to travel in ex-
panfum. And as this 36 degrees is not gone through
, in lefs than 77 periods, which takes up 1388 years,
the remaining 324 degrees cannot be fo gone through
in lefs than 12,492 years. For, as 36 is to 1388, fo is
i3S 3241012,492.
Of the e- To illuftrate this a little farther, we fhall examine
chpfc in fonr)e 0f the moft remarkable circumftances of the re-
4 ‘ turns of the eclipfe which happened July I4rh 1748,
about noon. This eclipfe, after traverfing the voids
of fpace from the creation, at laft began to enter the
Terra Auftralis Incognita about 88 years after the
conqueft, which was the laft of king Stephen’s reign :
every Chaldean period it has crept more northerly, but
was ftill invifible in Britain before the year 1622 ; when,
on the 30th of April, it began to touch the fouth parts.
■ ■ of England about 2 in the afternoon; its central ap¬
pearance riling in the American fouth feas, and tra¬
verfing Peru and the Amazon’s country, through the
Atlantic ocean into Africa, and fetting in the JE-
thiopian continent, not far from the beginning of the
Red fea.
Its next vifible period was, after three Chaldean revo¬
lutions, in-1676, on the firft of June, rifing central in
the Atlantic ocean, palling us about 9 in the morning,
with four digits eclipfed on the under limb, and fetting
in the gulf of Cochinchina in the Eaft Indies.
It being now near the folftice, this eclipfe was vi-
lible the very next return in 1694, in the evening; and
in two periods more, which was in 1730, on the 4th of
July. was feen about half eclipfed juft after fun-rife, and
obferved both at Wirtemberg in Germany, and Pekin
Vox. II.
) N O M Y.
in China, foon after which it went off.
Eighteen years more afforded us the eclipfe which
fell on the 14th of July 1748.
The next vifible return happened on July 25th 1766
in the evening, about four digits eclipfed ; and, after
two periods more, will happen on Auguft 16th 1802,
early in the morning, about five digits, the centre co¬
ming from the north frozen continent, by the capes of
Norway, through Tartary, China, and Japan, to the
Ladrone iflands, where it goes off.
Again, in 1820, Auguft 26th, between one and two,
there will be another great eclipfe at London, about
10 digits; but, happening fo near the equinox, the
centre will leave every part of Britain to the weft, and
enter Germany at Emden, palling by Venice, Naples,
Grand Cairo, and fet in the gulf of Baffora near that
city.
It will be no more vifible till 1874, when five digits
will be obfeured (the centre being now about to leave
the earth) on September 28th. In 1892, the fun will
go down eclipfed in London ; and again, in 1928, the
palfage of the centre will be in the expanfum, tho’ there
will be two digits eclipfed at London, Oftober the 3 r-c
of that year, and about the year 2090 the whole pe¬
numbra will be wore off; whence no more returns of
this eclipfe can happen till after a revolution of 10,000
years.
From thefe remarks on the entire revolution of this Period in
eclipfe, we may gather, that a thoufand years more or wh>ch the
lefs, (for there are fome irregularities that may protraft
or lengthen this period 100 years), complete the whole are com-P
terreftrial phenomena of any fingle eclipfe: and fince 20 pieced,
periods of 54 years each, and about 33 days, compre ¬
hend the entire extent of their revolution, it is evident,
that the times of the returns will pafs thro’ a circuit of
one year and ten months, every Chaldean period being
10 or 11 days later, and of the equable appearances,
about 32 or 33 days. Thus, though this eclipfe hap¬
pens about the middle of July, no other fubfequent e-
clipfe of this period will return till the middle of the
fame month again ; but wear conftantly each period 10
or 11 days forward, and at laft appear in winter, but
then it begins to ceafe from affefting us.
Another conclufion from this revolution may be
drawn, that there will feldom be any more than two
great eclipfes of the fun in the interval of this period,
and thefe follow fometimes next return, and often at
greater diftances. That, of 1715 returned again in
1733 very great; but this prefent eclipfe will not be
great till the arrival of 1820, which is a revolution of
four Chaldean periods ; fo that the irregularities of
their circuits muft undergo new computations to affign
them exadfly.
Nor do all eclipfes come in at the fouth pole: that Eclipfes
depends altogether on the pofition of the lunar nodes, come in b7
which will bring in as many from the expanfum one and^uth
way as the other; and fuch eclipfes will wear more p0ies.
foutherly by degrees, contrary to what happens in the
prefent cafe.
The eclipfe, for example, of 1736 in September, had
its centre in the expanfum, and fet about the middle of
its obfeurity in Britain ; it will wear in at the north
pole, and in the year 2600, or thereabouts, go off into
the expanfum on the fouth fide of the earth.
The eclipfes therefore which happened about the cre-
5 L ation
822
ASTRONOMY.
Sed. X.
238
Very ar
atlon are little more than half way yet of their ethe-
rial circuit; and will be 4000 years before they enter
the earth any more. This grand revolution feems to
have been entirely unknown to the ancients.
It is particularly to be noted, that eclipfes which
clipfes can- have happened many centuries ago will not be found
not be cal- by our prefent tables to agree exa&ly with ancient ob-
ou'r tables krvat‘ons> ^7 reaf°n of the great anomalies in the lunar
motions; which appears an inconteftable demonftration
of the non-eternity of the univerfe. For it feems con¬
firmed by undeniable proofs, that the moon now finilhes
her period in lefs time than formerly, and will conti¬
nue, by the centripetal law, to approach nearer and
nearer the earth, and to go fooner and fooner round it:
nor will the centrifugal power be fufficient to compen-
fate the different gravitations of fuch an affemblage of
bodies as conftitute the folar fyftem, which would come
to ruin of itfelf, without fome regulation and adjuft-
ment of their original motions. See N° 89.
We are credibly informed from the teftimonyof the
ancients, that there was a total eclipfe of the fun pre-
di&ed by Thales to happen in the fourth year of the
48th Olympiad, either at Sardis or Miletus in Alia,
where Thales then refided. That year correfponds to
the 585th year before Chrift ; when accordingly there
happened a very fignal eclipfe of the fun, on the 28th
of May, anfwering to the prefent 10th of that month.
the mod ufual number is four, and it is very rare to
have more than fix. For the fun paffes by both the
nodes but once a-year, unlefs he paffes by onp of them
in the beginning of the year; and if he does, he will
pafs by the fame node again a little before the year be
finilhed; becaufe, as thefe points move 19-j- degrees
backwards every year, the fun will come to either of
them 173 days after the other. And when either node
is within 17 degrees of the fun at the time of new
moon, the fun will be eclipfed. At the fubfequent
oppofition, the moon will be eclipfed in the other node,
and come round to the next conjunftion again ere the
former node be 17 degrees paft the fun, and will there¬
fore eclipfe him again. When three eclipfes fall a-
bout either node, the like number generally falls about
the oppofite ; as the fun comes to it in 173 days after¬
ward ; and fix lunations contain but four days more.
Thus, there may be two eclipfes of the fun and one of
the moon about each of her nodes. But when the
moon changes in either of the nodes, file cannot be
near enough the other node at the next full to be eclip¬
fed ; and in fix lunar months afterward file will change
near the other node : in thefe cafes, there can be but
two eclipfes in a year, and they are both of the fun.
A longer period than the abovementioned, for com¬
paring and examining eclipfes which happen at long in¬
tervals of time, is 557 years, 21 days, 18 hours, 30 mi-
r
central through North America, the fouth parts of nutes, 11 feconds; in which time there are 6890 mean
France, Italy, foe. as far as Athens, or the ifles in the
JEgean fea ; which is the fartheft that even the Caro¬
line tables carry it; and confequently make it invifible
to any part of Afia, in the total charafter; tho’ there
are good reafons to believe that it extended to Babylon,
and went down central over that city. We are not
however to imagine, that it was fet before it paft Sar¬
dis and the Afiatic towns, where the predi&or lived ;
becaufe an invifible eclipfe could have been of no fer-
vice to demonftrate his ability in aftronomical fci^nces
to his countrymen, as it could give no proof of its rea¬
lity.
For a further illuftration, Thucydides relates, That
a folar eclipfe happened on a fummer’s day, in the af¬
ternoon, in the firft year of the Peloponnefian war, fo
great, that the ftars appeared. Rhodius was vidlor ’
lunations ; and the fun and node meet again fo nearly
as to be but 11 feconds diftant; but then it is not the
fame eclipfe that returns, as in the Ihorter period above-
mentioned. 140 3
Eclipfes of the fun are more frequent than of the Why mordi;
moon, becaufe the fun’s ecliptic limits are greater than eclipfes of |
the moon’s; yet we have more vifible eclipfes of the Ihan^of
moon than of the fun, becaufe eclipfes of the moon are fun are 0i,A
feen from all parts of that hemifphere of the earth which ferved. If
is next her, and are equally great to each of thofe parts;
but the fun’s eclipfes are vifible only to that fmall por¬
tion of the hemifphere next him whereon the moon’s
fhadow falls.
The moon’s orbit being elliptical, and the earth in
one of its focufes, file is once at her leaft diftance from
the earth, and once at her greateft, in every lunation.
the Olympic games the fourth year of the faid war, be- When the moon changes at her leaft diftance from the
ing alfo the fourth year of the 87rh Olympiad, on the
428th year before Chrift. So that the eclipfe mufthave
happened in the 431st year before Chrift; and by com¬
putation it appears, that on the third of Auguft there
was a fignal eclipfe which would have paft over Athens,
central about 6 in the evening, but which our prefent
tables bring no farther than the ancient Syrtes on the
African coaft, above 400 miles from Athens ; which,
fuffering in that cafe but 9 digits, could by no means
exhibit the remarkable darknefs recited by this hifto-
rian: the centre therefore feems to havopaft Athens a-
bout 6 in the evening, and probably might go down
about Jerufalem, or near it, contrary to the conftrudtion
of the prefent tables. Thefe things are only mentioned
by way of caution to the prefent aftronomers, in re¬
computing ancient eclipfes ; and they may examine the
eclipfe of Nicias, fo fatal to the Athenian fleet; that
a39 which overthrew the Macedonian army, &c.
Number of In any year, the number of eclipfes of both lumi-
eclipfes in a naries cannot be lefs than two, nor more than feven;
year.
earth, and fo near the node that her dark ftiadow falls
upon the earth, (he appears big enough to cover the clipfes.
whole diik of the fun from that part on which her ftia¬
dow falls; and the fun appears totally eclipfed there
for fome minutes : but when the moon changes at her
greateft diftance from the earth, and fo near the node
that her dark ftiadow is direfted towards the earth,
her diameter fubtends a lefs angle than the fun's ; and
therefore file cannot hide his whole dilk from any part
of the earth, nor does her ftiadow reach it at that time;
and to the place over which the point of her ftiadow
hangs, the eclipfe is annular, the fun’s edge appear¬
ing like a luminous ring all around the body of the
moon. When the change happens within 17 degrees
of the node, and the moon at her mean diftance from
the earth, the point of her ftiadow juft touches the
earth, and ftie eclipfeth the fun totally to that fmall
fpot whereon her ftiadow falls; but the darknefs is not
of a moment’s continuance.
1 I
..L,i I
are-f
The moon’s apparent diameter, when largeft, ex¬
ceeds
Sea. X. A S T R C
ceeds the fan’s, when leaft, only i minute 38 feconds
of a degree ; and in the greateil eclipfe of the fun that
can happen at any time and place, the total darknefs
continues no longer than whilft the moon is going 1 mi¬
nute 38 feconds from the fun in her orbit, which is a-
i4a bout 3 minutes and 13 feconds of an hour.
Extent of The moon’s dark (hadow covers only a fpot on the
the moon's earth’s furface about 180 Englifh miles broad, when
fhadow and moon’s diameter appears largeft, and the fun’s leaft;
penumbta. an(j ^ totaj Jarknefs Can extend no farther than the
dark lhadow covers. Yet the moon’s partial fhadow
or penumbra may then cover a circular fpace 4900
miles in diameter, within all which the fun is more or
lefs eclipfed, as the places are lefs or more diftant from
the centre of the penumbra. When the moon changes
exa&ly in the node, the penumbra is circular on the
earth at the middle of the general eclipfe; becaufe at
that time it falls perpendicularly on the earth’s furface;
but at every other moment it falls obliquely, and will
therefore be elliptical; and the more fo, as the time is
longer before or after the middle of the general eclipfe.;
and then much greater portions of the earth’s furface
l4J are involved in the penumbra.
Beginning, When the penumbra firft touches the earth, the ge-
ending, &c. neral eclipfe begins ; when it leaves the earth, the ge-
of a folar nera] eclipfe en3s. from the beginning to the end the
e' fun appears eclipfed in fome part of the earth or other.
When the penumbra touches any place, the eclipfe be¬
gins at that place, and ends when the penumbra leaves
it. When the moon changes in the node, the penum¬
bra goes over the centre of the earth’s difk as feen from
the moon ; and confequently, by defcribing the long-
eft line poffible on the earth, continues the longeft up¬
on it; namely, at a mean rate, 5 -hours 50 minutes ;
more, if the moon be at her greateft diftance from the
earth, becaufe (he then moves floweft ; lefs, if ftie be
at her leaft diftance, becaufe of her quicker motion.
To make feveral of the above and other phenomena
plainer, (Plate L. fig. 3.), let S be the fun, E the
earth, M the moon, and AMP the moon’s orbit.
Draw the right line We from the weftern fide of the
fun at W, touching the weftern fide of the moon at c,
and the earth at e: draw alfo the right line W
from the eaftern fide of the fun at V, touching the
eaftern fide of the moon at d, and the earth at e : the
dark fpace ced included between thofe lines is the
moon’s fhadow, ending in a point at e, where it touch¬
es the earth ; becaufe in this cafe the moon is fuppofed
to change at M in the middle between A the apogee,
or fartheft point of her orbit from the earth, and P
the perigee, or neareft point to it. For, had the point
P been at M, the moon had been nearer the earth ;
and her dark fhadow at e would have covered a fpace
upon it about 180 miles broad, and the fun would
have been totally darkened, with fome continuance :
but had the point A been at M, the moon would have
been farther from the earth, and her fhadow would have
ended in a point a little above e, and therefore the fun
would have appeared like a luminous ring all around
the moon. Draw the right lines WX^/A and VXc^,
touching the contrary fides of the fun and moon, and
ending on the earth at a and b : draw alfo the right
line SXM, from the centre of the fun’s difk, thro’
the moon’s centre, to the earth ; and fuppofe the
two former lines VJ'X.db and VXrg to revolve on the
) N O M Y. 823
line SXM as an axis, and their points a and b will
defcribe the limits of the penumbra TT on the earth’s
furface, including the large fpace aba ; within which
the fun appears more or lefs eclipfed, as the places are
more or lefs diftant from the verge of the penum-v
bra ab.
Draw the right line yiz acrofs the-fun’s difk, per¬
pendicular to SXM the axis of the penumbra 2 then
divide the line ^12 into twelve equal parts, as in the
figure, for the twelve digits or equal parts of the fun’s
diameter ; and, at equal diftances from the centre of
the penumbra at e (on the earth’s furface YY) to
its edge ab, draw twelve concentric circles, marked
with the numeral figures 1234 &c. and remember
that the moon’s motion in her orbit AMP is from weft
to eaft, as from r to t. Then,
To an obferver on the earth at b, the eaflern limb
of the moon at d feems to touch the weftern limb of the
fun at W, when the moon is at M; and the fun’s e-
clipfe begins at b, appearing as at A in Plate LI.
fig. 1. at the left hand ; but, at the fame moment of
abfolute time, to an obferver at a in Plate L. fig. 3.
the weftern edge of the moon at c leaves the eaftern
edge of the fun at V, and the eclipfe ends, as at the
right hand C, Plate LI. fig. 1. At the very fame in-
ftant, to all thofe who live on the circle marked 1 on
the earth E, in Plate L. fig. 3. the moon M cuts off
or darkens a twelfth part of the fun S, and eclip-
fes him one digit, as at 1 in Plate LI. fig. 1.: to
thofe who live on the circle marked 2 in Plate L.
fig. 3. the moon cuts off two twelfth parts of the
fun, as at 2 in Plate LI. fig. I.; to thofe on the cir¬
cle 3, three parts; and fo on to the centre at 12
in Plate L. fig. 3. where the fun is centrally eclip¬
fed, as at B in the middle of fig. 1. Plate LI.; un-
under which figure there is a fcale of hours and mi¬
nutes, to (hew at a mean (late how long it is from the
beginning to the end of a central eclipfe of the fun on
the parallel of London ; and how many digits are e-
clipfed at any particular time from the beginning at A
to the middle at B, or the end at C. Thus, in 16 mi¬
nutes from the beginning, the fun is two digits eclip¬
fed ; in an hour and five minutes, eight digits; and in
an hour and 37 minutes, 12 digits.
By Plate L. fig. 3. it is plain, that the fun is to¬
tally or centrally eclipfed but to a fmall part of the
earth at any time, becaufe the dark conical (hadow e
of the moon M falls but on a fmall part of the earth ;
and that the partial eclipfe is confined at that time to
the fpace included by the circle ab, of which only
one half can be projedted in the figure, the other half
being fuppofed to be hid by the convexity of the
earth E : and likewife, that no part of the fun is e-
clipfed to the large fpace YY of the earth, becaufe the
moon is not between the fun and any of that part of
the earth ; and therefore to all that part the eclipfe is
invifible. The earth turns eaftward on its axis, as
from g to h, which is the fame way that the moon’s
(hadow moves ; but the moon’s motion is much fwifter
in her orbit from s to 11 and therefore, although eclip-
fes of the fun are of longer duration on account of the
earth’s motion on its axis than they would be if that
motion was ftopt, yet, in four minutes of time at mod,
the moon’s fwifter motion carries her dark (hadow quite
over any place that its centre touches at the time of
5 L 2 greatefl
ASTRONOMY.
greateft obfcuration. The motion of the fhadow on
the earth’s diflc is equal to the moon’s motion from the
fun, which is about 30-!-minutes of a degree every hour
at a mean rate ; but fo much of the moon’s orbit is e-
qual to 304-degrees of a great circle on the earth ; and
therefore the moon’s fhadow goes 30- degrees, or
1830 geographical miles, on the earth in an hour, or
30^: miles in a minute, which is almoft four times as
fwift as the motion of a cannon-ball.
As feen from the fun or moon, the earth’s axis ap¬
pears differently inclined every day of the year, on ac¬
count of keeping its parallelifm throughout its annual
courfe. In Plate LI. fig. 2. let EDON be the earth
at the two equinoxes and the two folitices, NS its
axis, N the north pole, S the fouth pole, iEQ__the e-
quator, T the tropic of Cancer, t the tropic of Capri¬
corn, and ABC the circumference of the earth’s en¬
lightened di|k as feen from the fun or new moon at thefe
times. The earth’s axis has the pofition NES at the
vernal equinox, lying towards the right hand, as feen
from the fun or new moon ; its poles N and S being
then in the circumference of the dilk ; and the equator
and all its parallels feem to be ftraight lines, becaufe
their planes pafs thro’ the obferver’s eye looking down
upon the earth from the fun or moon dire&ly over E,
where the ecliptic EG interfe&s the equator dL At the
fummer folftice, the earth’s axis has the pofition NDS;
and that part of the ecliptic EG, in which the moon
is then new, touches the tropic of Cancer T at D.
The north pole N at that time inclining 23- degrees
towards the fun, falls fo many degrees within the earth’s
enlightened difk, becaufe the fun is then vertical to D
234- degrees north of the equator and the equa¬
tor with all its parallels feem elliptic curves bending
downward, or towards the fouth pole, as feen from the
fun ; which pole, together with 234-degrees all round
it, is hid behind the diik in the dark hemifphere of
the earth. At the autumnal equinox, the earth’s axis
has the pofition NOS, lying to the left hand as feen
from the fun or new moon, which are then vertical to
O, where the ecliptic cuts the equator Both
poles now lie in the circumference of the diik, the north
pole juft going to difappear behind it, and the fouth
pole juft entering into it ; and the equator, with all its
parallels, feem to be ftraight lines, becaufe their planes
pafs through the obferver’s eye, as feen from the fun,
and very nearly fo as feen from the moon. At the
winter folftice, the earth’s axis has the pofition NNS,
when its fouth pole S inclining 234- degrees towards
the fun, falls 234- degrees within the enlightened diflc,
as feen from the fun or new moon, which are then ver¬
tical to the tropic of Capricorn /, 234- degrees fouth
of the equator iEQj and the equator, with all its pa¬
rallels, feem elliptic curves bending upward; the north
pole being as far hid behind the diflc in the dark he¬
mifphere, as the fouth pole is come into the light. The
nearer that any time of the year is to the equinoxes or
folftices, the more it partakes of the phenomena rela¬
ting to them.
Thus it appears, that from the vernal equinox to
the autumnal, the north pole is enlightened ; and the
equator and all its parallels appear elliptical as feen
from the fun, more or lefs curved as the time is nearer
to, or farther from, the fummer folftice ; and bending
downwards, or towards the fouth pole; the reverie of
Sea. X
which happens from the autumnal equinox to the ver¬
nal. A'little confideration will be fufficient to convince
the reader, that the earth’s axis inclines towards the
fun at the fummer folftice; from the fun at the winter
folftice ; and fideways to the fun at the equinoxes; but
towards the right hand, as feen from the fun at the ver¬
nal equinox; and towards the left hand at the autumal.
From the winter to the fummer folftice, the earth’s axis
inclines more or lefs to the right hand, as feen from the
fun ; and the contrary from the fummer to the winter
folftice. 244
The different pofitions of the earth’s axis, as feen Eclipfes
from the fun at different times of the year, affeft folar fc-fted I -
eclipfes greatly with regard to particular places ; yea, 1,16 P°
fo far as would make central eclipfes which fall at one
time of the year invifible if they fell at another, even
though the moon fhould always change in the nodes,
and at the fame hour of the day ; of which indefinite¬
ly various affedfions, we ftiall only give examples for
the times of the equinoxes and folftices.
In the fame diagram, (Plate LI. fig. 2.), let EG
be part of the ecliptic, and IK, ik, ik, ik, part of
the moon’s orbit; both feen edgewife, and therefore
proje&ed into right lines ; and let the interfe&ions
NODE be one and the fame node at the above times,
when the earth has the forementioneddifferent pofitions;
and let the fpaces included by the circles P/>//> be the
penumbra at thefe times, as its centre is palling over
the centre of the earth’s diflc. At the winter folftice,
when the earth’s axis has the pofition NNS, the centre
of the penumbra P touches the tropic of Capricorn t
in N at the middle of the general eclipfe ; but no part
of the penumbra touches the tropic of Cancer T. At
the fummer folftice, when the earth’s axis has the po¬
fition NDS (iDi being then part of the moon’s orbit
whofe node is at D), the penumbra p has its centre at
D, on the tropic of Cancer T, at the middle of the
general eclipfe, and then no part of it touches the
tropic of Capricorn t. At the autumnal equinox, the
earth’s axis has the pofition NOS, (iOk being then
part of the moon’s orbit), and the penumbra equally
inclades part of both tropics T and t at the middle of
the general eclipfe: at the vernal equinox it does the
fame, becaufe the earth’s axis has the pofition NES;
but, in the former of thefe two laft cafes, the penumbra
enters the earth at A, north of the tropic of Cancer T,
and leaves it at m, fouth of the tropic of Capricorn t;
having gone over the earth obliquely fouthward, as its
centre defcribed the line AOm; whereas, in the latter
cafe, the penumbra touches the earth at n, fouth of the
equator JEQ^and defcribing the line «Ey (limilar to
the former line AOm in open fpace), goes obliquely
northward over the earth, and leaves it at q, north of
the equator.
In all theie circumftances, the moon has been fup-
pofed to change at noon in her defcending node: Had
fhe changed in her afcending node, the phenomena
would have been as various the contrary way, with re-
fpeft to the penumbras going northward or fouthward
over the earth. But becaufe the moon changes at all
hours, as often in one node as in the other, and at all
diftances from them both at different times as it hap¬
pens, the variety of the phafes of eclipfes are almoft
innumerable, even at the fame places ; confidering
alfo how varioufly the fame places are fituated on the
Sett. X.
ASTRONOMY.
82c
enlightened diik of the earth, -with refpeft to the pen¬
umbra’s motion, at the difi'ef'ent hours when eclipfes
happen.
When the moon changes 17 degrees fhort of her de¬
fending node, the penumbra P18 juft touches the
northern part of the earth’s dxik, near the north pole
N ; and as feen from that place, the moon appears to
and at thofe places where the penumbra leaves the
earth, the eclipfe ends with the fetting fun, on the top
of his eaftern edge, which is then the uppermoft, juft
at its difappearing in the horizon.
If the moon were furrounded by an atmofphere of
any confiderable denfity, it would feem to touch the fun
a little before the moon made her appulfe to his edge,
touch the fun, but hides no part of him from fight, and we ftiould fee a little faintnefs on that edge before
Had the change been as far Ihort of the afcending it were eclipfed by the moon : but as no fuch faintnefs
node, the penumbra would have touched the fouthern
part of the diflc near the fouth pole S. When the moon
changes 12 degrees fhort of the defending node, more
than a third part of the penumbra Pi 2 falls on the
northern parts of the earth at the middle of the gene¬
ral eclipfe: Had (he changed as far paft the fame node,
as much of the other fide of the penumbra about P
would have fallen on the fouthern part of the earth ;
all the reft in the expanfum, or open fpace. When
the moon changes 6 degrees from the node, almoft the
whole penumbra P6 falls on the earth at the middle may be explained in lefs time.
has been obferved, it ferns plain, that the moon has
no fuch atmofphere as that of the earth. The faint
ring of light furrounding the fun in total eclipfes, call¬
ed by Caffini la cbevelure du foleil, is faid to be the at¬
mofphere of the fun ; becaufe it has been obferved
to move equally with the fun, not with the moon.
See n°+3- ... *45
Having been fo prolix concerning eclipfes of the fun, Lunar e.
we (hall drop that fubjeil at prefent, and proceed to the clipfes ex-
doftrine of lunar eclipfes; which, being more Ample, plained.
of the general eclipfe. And laftly, when the moon
changes in the node at N, the penumbra PN takes
That the moon can never be eclipfed but at the time
of her being full, and the reafon why ftie is not e-
54S w
Duration of The nearer that the penumbra’s centre is to the e-
e<:!jpfo in quator at the middle of the general eclipfe, the longer
partsof the *s ^ ^uratlon t^ie eclipfe at all thofe places where
eaith, it is central; becaufe, the nearer that any place is to
the equator, the greater is the circle it defcribes by
the earth’s motion on its axis: and fo, the place mo-
the longeft courfe pofiible on the earth’s difk ; its centre clipfed at every full, has been -Ihewn already. In
falling on the middle thereof, at the middle of the ge- Plate L. fig. 3. let S be the fun, E the earth,
neral eclipfe. The farther the moon changes from ei- RR the earth’s ftiadow, and B the moon in oppofition
ther node, within 17 degrees of it, the /hotter is the to the fun: In this fituation the earth intercepts the
penumbra’s continuance on the earth, becaufe it goes fun’s light in its way to the moon; and when the moon
over a lefs portion of the di/k, as is evident by the touches the earth’s fhadow at v, /he begins to be eclip-
figure. fed on her eaftern limb x, and continues eclipfed until
her weftern limb ^ leaves the/hadow at w .• at B/he is
in the middle of the /hadow, and confequently in the
middle of the eclipfe. I4y
The moon, when totally eclipfed, is not invifible if Why the
fhe be above the horizon and the /ky be clear ; but ap- moon is vi-
pears generally of a du/ky colour, like tarni/hed cop-
ving quicker, keeps longer in the penumbra, whole per, which fome have thought to be the moon’s native p
motion is the fame way with that of the place, though light*. But the true caufe of her being viiible is the » Seen0 43,
fafter, as has been already mentioned. Thus (fee the fcattered beams of the fun, bent into the earth’s /ha-
earth at D and the penumbra at 12) whilft the point daw by going through the atmofphere ; which, being
b in the polar circle abed is carried from 3 to c by the more or lefs denfe near the earth than at confiderable
earth’s diurnal motion, the point d on the tropic of heights above it, refra&s or bends the fun’s rays more
Cancer T is carried a much greater length from d to inward, the nearer they are pafling by the earth’s fur-
D ; and therefore, if the penumbra’s centre goes one fa'ce, than thofe rays which go through higher parts of
time over c and another time over D, the penumbra the atmofphere, where it is lefs denfe according to its
will be longer in pafiing over the moving place d than height, until it be fo thin or rare as to lofe its refrac-
it was in pafiing over the moving place b. Confequent- tive power. Let the circle fg h i, concentric to the
ly, central eclipfes about the poles are of the (horteft du- earth, include the atmofphere whofe refra&ive power
ration ; and about the equator, of the longeft. vani/hes at the heights y and i ; fo that the rays W/w
In the middle of fummer, the whole frigid zone, in- and Yiv go on ftraight without fuffering the lead re-
cluded by the polar circle abed, is enlightened ; and if fraction: but all thofe rays which enter the atmofphere
it then happens that the penumbra’s centre goes over between f andi, and between i and/, on oppofite fidesof
the north pole, the fun will be eclipfed much the fame the earth, are gradually more bent inwardas they go thro’
number of digits at a as at c; but whilft the penumbra a greater portion of the atmofphere, until the rays
moves eaftward over c, it moves weftward over a ; be- and V/ touching the earth at m and n, are bent fo much
caufe, with refpeft to the penumbra, the motions of a as to meet at q, a little /hort of the moon ; and there-
and c are contrary : for c moves the fame way with the fore the dark /hadow of the earth is contained in the fpace
penumbra towards d, but # moves the contrary way to- vtoqpn, where none of the fun’s rays can enter: all the reft
wards b ; and therefore the eclipfe will be of longer R R, being mixed by the fcattered rays which are re-
j—. .i— iL- 1—-- framed as above, is in fome meafure enlightened by them;
and fome of thofe rays falling on the moon, give her the
colour of tarni/hed copper, or of iron almoft red hot.
So that if the earth had no atmofphere, the moon would
duration at c than at a. At a the eclipfe begins on
the fun’s eaftern limb, but at c on his weftern : at all
places lying without the polar circles, the fun’s eclip¬
fes begin on his weftern limb, or near it, and end on
r near his eaftern. At thofe places where the penum- be as invifible in total eclipfes as,/he is when 1;
bra touches the earth, the eelipfe begins with the ri- the moon were fo near the earth as to go into its dark
fing fun, on the top of his weftern or uppermoil edge ; /hadow, fuppofe about po, /he would be invifible during
her;
$26
ASTRONOMY.
Sed. X.
her ftay in it; but vifxble before and after in the fainter
fhadow RR.
When the moon goes thro’ the centre of the earth’s
fliadow, fhe is directly oppofite to the fun : yet the
moon has been often feen totally eclipfed in the horizon
when the fun was alfo vifible in the oppofite part of it:
. for, the horizontal refra&ion being almoft 34 minutes
of a degree, and the diameter of the fun and moon be¬
ing each at a mean Hate but 32 minutes, the refra&ion
caufes both luminaries to appear above the horizon
when they are really below it.
When the moon is full at 12 degrees from either of
her nodes, (he juft touches the earth’s (hadow, but en¬
ters not into it. In Plate LI. fig. 2. let GH be
the ecliptic, ef the moon’s orbit where ihe is 12 de¬
grees from the node at her full; c^her orbit where ihe
is 6 degrees from the node, a b her orbit where Ihe is
full in the node, A B the earth’s (hadow, and M the
the moon. When the moon defcribes the line ef, (he
juft touches ;the fhadow, but does not enter into it;
when (he defcribes the line id, (he is totally, tho’ not
centrally, immerfed in the (hadow; and when (he de¬
fcribes the line ah, (he paffes by the node at M in the
centre of the (hadow, and takes the longeftline poflible,
which is a diameter, through it: and fuch an eclipfe
being both total and central is of the longed: duration,
namely, 3 hours 57 minutes 6 feconds from the begin¬
ning to the end, if the moon be at her gteateft diftance
from the earth; and 3 hours 37 minutes 26 feconds,
if (he be at her lead diftance. The reafon of this differ¬
ence is, that when the moon is fartheft from the earth,
(he moves flowed:; and when neared: to it, quickeft.
The moon’s diameter, as well as the fun’s, is fuppo-
fed to be divided into 12 equal parts, called digits; and
fo many of thefe parts as are darkened by the earth’s
(hadow, fo many digits is the moon eclipfed. All that
the moon is eclipfed above 12 digits, (hews how far the
(hadow of the earth is over the body of the moon, on
that edge to which (he is neareft at the middle of the
249 eclipfe.
Lunar e- It is difficult to obferve exaftly either the beginning
elipfes dif- or ending of a lunar eclipfe, even with a good telefcope,
ferved^ °b" ^ecau^e t^ie earth’s (hadow is fo faint and ill defined a-
bout the edges, that when the moon is either juft
touching or leaving it, the obfeuration of her limb is
fcarce fenfible; and therefore the niceft obfervers can
hardly be certain to four or five feconds of time. But
both the beginning and ending of folar eclipfes are vi-
fibly inftantaneous ; for the moment that the edge of
the moon’s, dilk touches the fun’s, his roundnefs feems
a little broke on that part; and the moment (he leaves
l4!) it, he appears perfe&ly round again.
Eclipfes 1° aftronomy, eclipfes of the moon are of great ufe
ufefulin de- for afeertaining the periods of her motions ; efpecially
termining fuch eclipfes as are obferved to be alike in all her cir-
^ngitn es, cumftances> an(] have long intervals of time between
them. In geography, the longitudes of places are
found by eclipfes: but for this purpofe eclipfes of the
moon are more ufeful than thofe of the fun, becaufe
they are more frequently vifible, and the fame lunar
eclipfe is of equal largenefs and duration at all places
where it is feen. In chronology, both folar and lunar
eclipfes ferve to determine exaftly the time of any paft
event: for there are fo many particulars obfervable in
every eclipfe, with refpeft to its quantity, the places
where it is vifible (if of the fun), and the time of the
day or night, that it is impoffible there can be two folar
eclipfes in the courfe of many ages which are alike in
all circumftances. h
From the above explanation of the doftrine of eclip- Darkncfs as
fes, it is evident, that the darknefs at our Saviour’s cru- our Savi-1
cifixion was fupernatural. For he fuffered on the day fj^ion fu-l
on which the paffover was eaten by the Jews, on which pernaturalA
day it was impoffible that the moon’s (hadow could fall
on the earth; for the Jews kept the paffover at the
time of full moon: nor does the darknefs in total eclip¬
fes of the fun laft above four minutes in any place;
whereas the darknefs at the crucifixion lafted three
hours, Matth. xxviii. 15. and overfpread at lead all the
land of Judea. jjj |;
The theory of eclipfes being now, we hope, pretty Conftruc- |y
plainly laid down, the conftruftion of tables for their ^.on®f ^’jl1
calculation will be underftood from the following con- cutting
fiderations. clipfes. J
The motions of the fun and moon are obferved to
be continually accelerated from the apogee to the pe¬
rigee, and as gradually retarded from the perigee to
the apogee ; being flowed: of all when the mean ano¬
maly is nothing, and fwifteft of all when it is fix figns.
When the luminary is in its apogee or perigee, its
place is the fame as it would be if its motion were e-
quable in all parts of its orbit. The fuppofed equable
motions are called mean; the unequable are juftly cal¬
led the true.
The mean place of the fun or moon is always for¬
warder than the true place, whilft the luminary is mo¬
ving from its apogee to its perigee ; and the true place
is always forwarder than the mean, whilft the lumina¬
ry is moving from its perigee to its apogee. In the
former cafe, the anomaly is always lefs than fix figns ;
and in the latter cafe, more.
It has been found, by a long feries of obfervations,
that the fun goes through the ecliptic, from the vero¬
nal equinox to the fame equinox again, in 365 days g
hours 48 minutes 55 feconds ; from the firft ftar of
Aries to the fame ftar again, in 365 days fix hours nine
minutes 24 feconds; and from his apogee to the fame
again, in 365 days fix hours 14 minutes o feconds.— . I
The firft of thefe is called the folar year ; the fecond, the
ftderealyear ; and the third, the anomalijlicyear. So
that the folar year is 20 minutes 29 feconds (horter
than the fidereal; and the fidereal year is 4 minutes
36 feconds (horter than the anomaliftic. Hence it ap¬
pears, that the equinoftial point, or interfeftion of
the ecliptic and equator at the beginning of Aries, goes
backward with refpeft to the fixed ftars, and that the
fun’s apogee goes forward.
It is alfo obferved, that the moon goes through her
orbit, from any given fixed ftar to the fame ftar again,
in 27 days 7 hours 43 minutes 4 feconds at a mean rate;
from her apogee to her apogee again, in 27 days 13
hours 18 minutes 43 feconds ; and from the fun to the
fun again, in 29 days 12 hours 44 minutes 3—feconds.
This (hews, that the moon’s apogee moves forward in
the ecliptic, and that at a much quicker rate than the
fun’s apogee does; fince the moon is five hours 55 mi¬
nutes 39 feconds longer in revolving from her apogee
to her apogee again, than from any ftar to the fame
ftar again.
The moon’s orbit croffes the ecliptic in two oppo¬
fite
827
Sea.
AS.TRONOMY.
X.
fite points, which are called her Nodes : and it is ob-
ferved, that (he revolves fooner from any node to the
node again, than from any ftar to the ftar again, by 2
hours 38 minutes 27 feconds; which (hews, that her
nodes move backward, or contrary to the order of figns,
in the ecliptic.
The time in which the moon revolves from the
fun to the fun again (or from change to change) is
called a Lunation; which, according to Dr Pound’s
mean meafures, would always confift of 29 days 12
hours 44 minutes 3 feconds 2 thirds 58 fourths, if the
motions of the fun and moon were always equable.
Hence, 12 mean lunations contain 354 days 8 hours
48 minutes 36 feconds 35 thirds 40 fourths, which is
10 days 21 hours 11 minutes 23 feconds 24 thirds 20
fourths lefs than the length of a common Julian year,
confiding of 365 days 6 hours: and 13 mean luna¬
tions contain 383 days 21 hours 32 minutes 39 feconds
38 thirds 38 fourths, which exceeds the length of a
common Julian year, by 18 days 15 hours 32 minutes
39 feconds 38 thirds 38 fourths.
The mean time of new moon being found for any
given year and month, as fuppofe for March 1700,
old dilet if this mean new moon falls later than the
11th day of March, then 12 mean lunations added
to the time of this mean new moon will give the time
of the mean new moon in March 1701, after having
thrown off 365 days. But when the mean new moon
happens to be before the nrh of March, we mud add
13 mean lunations, in order to have the time of mean
new moon in March the year following ; always taking
care to fubtradt 365 days in common years, and 366
days in leap-years, from the fum of this addition.
Thus, A. D. 1700, old dile, the time of mean
new moon in March was the 8th day, at 16 hours 11
minutes 25 feconds after the noon of that day (viz. at
11 minutes 25 feconds pad four in the morning of the
9th day, according to common reckoning). To this
we mud add 13 mean lunations, or 383 days 21 hours
32 minutes 39 feconds 38 thirds 38 fourths, and the
fum will be 392 days 13 hours 44 minutes 4 feconds
38 thirds 38 fourths : from which fubtraft 365 days,
becaufe the year 1701 is a common year, and there will
remain 27 days 13 hours 44 minutes 4 feconds 38
thirds 38 fourths for the time of mean new moon in
March, A. D. 1701.
Carrying on this addition and fubtra&ion till A. D.
1703, we find the time of mean new moon in March
that year to be on the 6th day, at 7 hours 21 mi¬
nutes 17 feconds 49 thirds 46 fourths pad noon; to
which add 13 mean lunations, and the fum will be 390
days 4 hours 53 minutes 57 feconds 28 thirds 20 fourths;
from which fubtraft 366 days, becaufe the year 1704
is a leap-year, and there will remain 24 days 4 hours
53 minutes 57 feconds 28 thirds 20 fourths, for the
time of mean new moon in March, A. D. 1704.
In this manner was the fird of the following tables
condru&ed to feconds, thirds, and fourths ; and then
wrote out to the neared feconds.—The reafon why we
chofe to begin the year with March, was to avoid the
inconvenience of adding a day to the tabular time in
leap-years after February, or fubtrafting a day there¬
from in January and February in tholjp years; to which
all tables of this kind are fubjeft, which begin the year
with January, in calculating the times of . new or full
moons.
The mean anomalies of the fun and moon, and the
fun’s mean motion from theafcending node of the moon’s
orbit, are fet down in Table III. from 1 to 13 mean
lunations.—Thefe numbers, for 13 lunations, being
added to the radical anomalies of the fun and moon,
and to the fun’s mean didance from the afcending node,
at the time of mean newmoon in March 1700 (Table I.),
will give their mean anomalies, and the fun’s mean di¬
dance from the node, at the time of mean new moon
in March 1701 ; and being added for 12 lunations to
thofe for 1701, give them for the time of mean new
moon in March 1702. And fo on, as far as you pleafe
to continue the table (which is here carried on to the
year 1800), always throwing off 12 figns when their
fum exceeds 12, and fetting down the remainder as
the proper quantity.
If the numbers belonging to A. D. 1700 (in
Table I.) be fubtra&ed from thofe belonging to 1800,
we (hall have their whole differences in 100 complete
Julian years ; which accordingly we find to be 4 days
8 hours 10 minutes 52 feconds 15 thirds 40 fourths,
with refpeft to the time of mean new moon.—Thefe
being added together 60 times (always taking care to
throw off a whole lunation when the days exceed 29^),
make up 60 centuries, or 6000 years, as in Table
VI. which was carried on to feconds, thirds, and
fourths ; and then wrote out to the neared feconds.
In the fame manner were the refpeftive anomalies and
the fun’s didance from the node found, for thefe cen-
turial years ; and then (for want of room) wrote out
only to the neared minutes, which is fufficient in whole
centuries. By means of thefe two tables, we may
find the time of any mean new moon in March, toge¬
ther with the anomalies of the fun and moon, and the
fun’s didance from the node, at thefe times, within
the limits of 6000 years, either before or after any
given year in the 18th century ; and the mean time of
any new or full moon in any given month after March,
by means of the third and fourth tables, within the
fame limits, as (hewn in the precepts for calculation.
Thus it would be a very eafy matter to calculate the
time of any new or full moon, if the fun and moon
moved equably in all parts of their orbits.— But we
have already (hewn, that their places are never the fame
as they would be by equable motions, except when
they are in apogee or perigee ; which is, when their
mean anomalies are either nothing, or fix figns: and
that their mean places are always forwarder than their
true places, whild the anomaly is lefs than fix figns ;
and their true places are forwarder than the mean,,
whild the anomaly is more.
Hence it is evident, that whild the fun’s anomaly is
lefs than fix figns, the moon will overtake him, or be
oppofite to him, fooner than die could if his motion
were equable; and later whild his anomaly is more
than fix figns.—The greated difference that can pof-
fibly happen between the mean and true time of new
or full moon, on account of the inequality of the fun’s
motion, is 3 hours 48 minutes 28 feconds : and that
is, when the fun’s anomaly is either 3 .figns 1 degree,
or 8 figns 29 degrees; fooner in the fird cafe, and
later in the lad.— In all other figns and degrees of a-
nomaly, the difference is gradually lefs, and vanidies
when the anomaly is either nothing or fix figns.
828
!
ASTRONOMY.
Sea. X. !
The fun is in his apogee on the jo11' of June, and
in his perigee on the 30th of December, in the prefent
age : fo that he is nearer the earth in our winter than
in our fummer.—The proportional difference of di-
ftance, deduced from the difference of the fun’s ap¬
parent diameter at thefe times, is as 983 to 1017.
The moon’s orbit is dilated in winter, and contradl-
cd in fummer; therefore the lunations are longer in
winter than in fummer. The greatefl difference is
found to be 22 minutes 29 feconds ; the lunations in-
creafing gradually in length whilft the fun is moving
from his apogee to his perigee, and decreafing in length
whilft he is moving from his perigee to his apogee.—On
this account, the moon will be later every time in co¬
ming to her conjumftion with the fun, or being in op-
pofition to him, from December till June, and fooner
from June till December, than if her orbit had conti¬
nued of the fame fize all the year round.
As both thefe differences depend on the fun’s ano-
_maly, they may be fitly put together into one table,
and called The annual or firjl equation of the mean to
the truefyzygjflfzz Table VII.) This equational dif¬
ference is to be fubtrafted from the time of the mean
fyzygy when the fun’s anomaly is lefs than fix figns,
and added when the anomaly is more.—At the greateft
it is 4 hours 10 minutes 57 feconds, viz. 3 hours 48
minutes 28 feconds, on account of the fun’s unequal
motion, and 22 minutes 29 feconds, on account of the
dilatation of the moon’s orbit.
This compound equation would be fufficient for re¬
ducing the mean time of new or full moon to the true
time thereof, if the moon’s orbit were of a circular
form, and her motion quite equable in it. But the
moon’s orbit is more elliptical than the fun’s, and her
motion in it fo much the more unequal. The diffe¬
rence is fo great, that fhe is fometimes in conjun&ion
with the fun, or in oppofitionto him, fooner by 9 hours
47 minutes 54 feconds, than fhe would be if her mo¬
tion were equable ; and at other times as much later.
The former happens when her mean anomaly is 9 figns
4 degrees, and the latter when it is 2 figns 26 de¬
grees. See Table IX.
At different diftances of the fun from the moon’s
apogee, the figure of the moon’s orbit becomes diffe¬
rent. It is longeft of all, or moft excentric, when the
fun is in the fame fign and degree either with the moon’s
apogee or perigee ; fhorteft of all, or leaft excentric,
when the fun’s diftance from the moon’s apogee is ei¬
ther three figns or nine figns; and at a mean ftate
when the diftance is either 1 fign 15 degrees, 4 figns
15 degrees, 7 figns 15 degrees, or 10 figns 15 degrees.
When the moon’s orbit is at its greateft excentricity,
her apogeal diftance from the earth’s centre is to her pe-
rigeal diftance therefrom, as 1067 is to 933 ; when
leaft excentric, as 1043 is to 957 ; and when at the
mean ftate, as 1055 is to 945.
But the fun’s' diftance from the moon’s apogee is
equal to the quantity of the moon’s mean anomaly at
the time of new moon, and by the addition of fix figns
it becomes equal in quantity to the moon’s mean ano¬
maly at the time of full moon. Therefore, a table
may be conftru&ed fo as to anfwer to all the various
inequalities depending on the different excentricities of
the moon’s orbit, in the fyzygies } and called The fe-
cond equation of the mean to the true fyzygy (See Ta¬
ble IX.) : and the moon’s anomaly, when equated by
Table VIII. may be made the proper argument for
taking out this fecond equation of time ; which mull
be added to the former equated time, when the moon’s
anomaly is lefs than fix figns, and fubtradled when the
anomaly is more.
There are feveral other inequalities in the moon’s
motion, which fometimes bring on the true fyzygy a
little fooner, and at other times keep it back a little
later, than it would otherwife be : but they are fo fmall,
that they may be all omitted except two ; the former
of which (fee Table X.) depends on the difference be¬
tween the anomalies of the fun and moon in the fyzy¬
gies, and the latter (fee table XL) depends on the fun’s
diftance from-the moon’s nodes at thefe times.—The
greafeft difference arifing from the former is 4 minutes
58 feconds; and from the latter, 1 minute 34 feconds.
The tables here inferted being calculated by Mr Fer- Direaions
gufon according to the methods already given, he gives for *he ufe
the following directions for their ufe. tables0**
To calculate the true time of New or full Moon.
Precept I. If the required time be within the li¬
mits of the 18th century, write out the mean time of
new moon in March, for the propofed year, from Table
I. in the old ftile, or from Table II. in the new ; to¬
gether with the mean anomalies of the fun and moon,
and the fun’s mean diftance from the moon’s afeending
bode. If you want the time of full moon in March,
add the half lunation at the foot of Table III. with
its anomalies, &c. to the former numbers, if the new
moon falls before the 15th of March ; but if it falls af¬
ter, fubtraft the half lunation, with the anomalies, &c.
belonging to it, from the former numbers, and write
down the refpeftive fums or remainders.
II. In thefe additions or fubtraCliohs, obferve, that
60 feconds make a minute, 60 minutes make a degree,
30 degrees make a fign, and 12 figns make a circle.
When you exceed 12 figns in addition, rejeft 12, and
fet down the remainder. When the number of figns
to be fubtraded is greater than the number you fub-
traft from, add 12 figns to the leffer number, and then
you will have a remainder to fet down. In the tables
figns are marked thus % degrees thus °, minutes thus
and feconds thus ".
III. When the required new or full moon is in any
given month after March, write out as many lunations
with their anomalies, and the fun’s diftance from the
node from Table III. as the given month is after March,
fetting them in order below the numbers taken out for
March.
VI. Add all thefe together, and they will give the mean
time of the required new or full moon, with the mean
anomalies and fun’s mean diftance from the afeending
node, which are the arguments for finding the proper
equations.
V. With the number of days added together, enter
Table IV. under the given month; and againft that
number you have the day of mean new or full moon
in the left-hand column, which fet before the hours,
minutes, and feconds, already found.
But (as it will fometimes happen) if the faid num¬
ber of days falls ftiort of any in the column under the
given month, add one lunation and its anomalies, &c.
(from Table III.) to the forefaid fums, and then you
will
829
Se£t.
X. ASTRO
will have a new fum of days wherewith to enter
Table IV. under the given month, where you are fure
to find it the fecond time, if the firft falls fhort.
VI. With the figns and degrees of the fun’s ano¬
maly, enter Table VII. and therewith take out the
annual or firft equation for reducing the mean fyzygy
to the true; taking care to make proportions in the
table for the odd minutes and feconds of anomaly, as
the table gives the equation only to whole degrees.
Obferve, in this and every other cafe of finding equa¬
tions, that if the figns are at the head of the table,
their degrees are at the left hand, and are reckoned
downwards; but if the figns are at the foot of the
table, their degrees are at the right hand, and are
counted upward; the equation being in the body of
the table, under or over the figns, in a collateral line
with the degrees. The titles Add or Subtract at the
head or foot of the tables where the figns are found,
fhew whether the equation is to be added to the mean
time of new or full moon, or to be fubtra&ed from it.
In this table, the equation is to be fubtra&ed, if the
figns of the fun’s anomaly are found at the head of the
table ; but it is to be added, if the figns are at the foot.
VII. With the figno and degrees of the fun’s mean
anomaly, enter Table VIII. and take out the equa¬
tion of the moon’s mean anomaly ; fubtraft this equa¬
tion from her mean anomaly, if the figns of the fun’s
anomaly be at the head of the table, but add it if they
are at the foot; the refult will be the moon’s equated
anomaly, with which enter Table IX. and take out
the fecond equation for reducing the mean to the true
time of new or full moon ; adding this equation, if the
figns of the moon’s anomaly are at the head of the
N O M Y.
table, but fubtradling it if they are at the foot; and
the refult will give you the mean‘time of the required
new or full moon twice equated, which will be fuffi-
ciently near for common almanacs.—But when you
want to calculate an eclipfe, the following equations
muft be ufed : thus,
VIII. Subtraft the moon’s equated anomaly from the
fun’s mean anomaly, and with the remainder in figns
and degrees, enter Table X. and take out the third
equation, applying it to the former equated time, as
the titles, Add or Subtract, do diredl.
IX. With the fun’s mean diftance from the afcend-
ing node enter Table XI. and take out the equation
anfwering to that argument, adding it to, or fubtradt-
ing it from, the former equated time, as the titles direft,
and the refult will give the time of new or full moon,
agreeing with well regulated clocks or watches, very
near the truth. But, to make it agree with the folar,
or apparent time, you muft apply the equation of na¬
tural days, taken from an equation table, as it is leap-
year, or the firft, fecond, or third after. This, how¬
ever, unlefs in very nice calculations, needs not be re¬
garded, as the difference betweeh true and apparent
time is never very confiderable.
The method of calculating the time of any new or
full moon without the limits of the 18th century, will
be fhewn further on. And a few examples compared
with the precepts, will make the whole work plain.
N. B. The tables begin the day at noon, and reckon
forward from thence to the noon following.—Thus,
March the ji51, at 22 h. 30 min. 25 fee. of tabular
time, is April Ist (in common reckoning) at 30 min.
25 fee. after to o’clock in the morning.
EXAMPLE I.
Required the true time of New Moon in April 1764, New Stile ?
By the Precepts.
March 1764,
Add 1 Lunation,
Mean New Moon,
Firft Equation,
Time once equated,
Second Equation,
Time twice equated,
Third Equation,
Time thrice equated,
I'ourth Equation,
True New Moon,
Equation of days,
Apparent time.
Sun’s Anomaly. Moon’s Anomaly. Sun from Node.
D. H. M. S.
8' 55 36
29 12 44 3
29 619
*3 35 21
25 49
11 4 54 48
o 40 14
31 21 39 39
+ 4 10 40
9 1 26 19
11 10 59
11 9 24
+ 1 34 57
32 1 50 19
- 3 24 49
9 20 27 1
Arg. 3J equation.
10 59 18
Arg. 2d equation.
Sun from Node,
Arg. 4'“ e-
quation.
31 22 25 30
+ 4 37
31 22 30 7
+ if
So the true time is 22 h. 30 min. 25 fee. after
the noon of the 31st March; that is, April Ist,
at 30 min. 25 fee. after ten in the morning. But
the apparent time is 26 min. 37 fee. after ten in the
morning.
31 22 30 25
— 3 48
31 22 26 37
5
M
Vot. II.
830
Sea. X.
By the Precepts.
March 1762,
Add 2 Lunations,
New Moon, May,
Subt. 4- Lunation,
Full Moon, May,
Firft Equation,
Time once equated,
Second Equation,
Time twice equated,
Third Equation,
Time thrice equated,
Fourth Equation,
The Full Moon,
ASTRONOMY.
EXAMPLE II.
Qu. The true time of Full Moon in May 1762, Neoa Stile ?
D. H. M. S.
24 15 18 24
59 1 28 6
22 16 46 30
4 18 22
New Moon.
7 22 24 28
+ 3 16 36
8 1 41 4
— 9 47 53
— 2 36
7 'J5 5° 3°
15 50
+
bun’s Anomaly.
Moon’s Anomaly, bun from iNode.
8 23 48 16
1 28 12 39
10 22 o 55
T4 33
to 7 27 45
9 3 57 18
3 30 27
Arg. 3d equation,
23 59
21 38
3 15 37 12
6 12 54 30
9 2 42 42
+ 1 14 36
9 3 57 .18
Arg. 2d equation.
fO 18 49 14
2 1 20 28
20 9 42
15 20 7
Sun from Node,
and Arg. fourth
equation.
Anf. May 7th at 15 h. 50 min. 50 fee. pa(t
noon, viz. May 8th at 3 h. 50 min. 50 fee. in the
morning.
belonging to the faid centuries, and fet them below
To calculate the time of New and Full Moon in a given th0fe taken out for March in the 18th century.
year and month of any particular century, between the
Chr ifian cera and the 18 £6 century.
III. Subtract the numbers belonging to thefe centu¬
ries, from thofe of the 18th century, and the remainders
Precept I. Find a year of the fame number in the will be the mean time and anomalies, &c. of new moon,
1 March, in the given year of the century propofed,—•
Then, work in all refpe&s for the true time of new or
full moon, as fhewn in the above precepts and examples.
IV. If the days annexed to thefe centuries exceed the
number of days from the beginning of March taken
nilt in thf* T PPHtlirv. nHrl a Innatinn anrl ito sinnmu-
18th century with that of the year in the century pro¬
pofed, and take out the mean time of new moon in
March, old ftile, for that year, with the mean anoma¬
lies and fun’s mean diftance from the node at that
time, as already taught.
II. Take as many complete centuries of years from out in the 1 S'*’century, add a lunation and its anoma-
Table VI. as, when fubtra&ed from the abovefaid year lies, &c. from Table III. to the time and anomalies of
in the 18th century," will anfwerto the given year; and new moon in March, and then proceed in all refpe&s
take out the firft mean new moon and its anomalies, &c. as above.—This circumftance happens in Example V.
EXAMPLE III.
Required the true time of Full Moon in April, Old Stile, A. D. 30.
From 1730 fubtraft 1700 (or 17 centuries) and there remains 30.
D. H. M. S.
7 13 19 36
29 I2 44 3
New Moon.
7 12 34 I6
14 18 22
2 6 56 x8
4 17 42
By the Precepts.
March 1730,
Add i Lunation,
Full1 Moon,
1700 years fubtr.
Full D March A. D. 3
Add I Lunation,
Full Moon, April,
Firft Equation,
Time once equated,
Second Equation,
Time twice equated,
Third Equation,
Time thrice equated,
Fourth Equation,
True Full Moon, April, 6 8 25 4
6 2
+ 3
3 39
28 4
6 5 31 43
+ 2 57 48
8 29 31
2 54
6 8 26 37
— 1 33
Sun’s Anomaly.
Moon’s Anomaly.
18 4 31
H 33 1°
9 2 37 41
:i 28 46 o
9 3 51 41
o 29 6 19
;G 2 58
5 10 58 40
4 21 59 20
Arg. 3 d equation.
o 32 17
12 54 3°
3 13 26 47
o 29 36
4 !3 5° 47
o 25 49
5 9 39 47
+ 1 I8 53
5 10 58 40
Arg. 2d equation,
Sun from Node.
17 16
20 7
2 8 37 23
4 29 23
9 9 H 23
1 o 40 14
Sun from Node,
and Arg. fourth
equation.
Hence it appears, that the true time of Full Moon
in April, A. D. 30, old ftile, was on the 6th day*
at 25 m. 4 f. paft eight in the evening.
Sea. X.
ASTRONOMY.
To calculate the true time of New or Full Moon in any fubtraft the time and anomalies belonging to it from
given year and month before the Chrifian ara. thofe of the mean new moon in March, the above-found
Precept I. Find a year in the 18th century, which year °f tbe i8ch century ; and the remainder will de¬
being added to the given number of years before Chriit j1016 the time and anomalies, &c. of mean new moon
diminiihed by one, fhall make a number of complete in March, the given year before Chrift.—Then, for the
centuries. true time thereof in any month of that year, proceed
II. Find this number of centuries in Table VI. and as above taught.
EXAMPLE IV.
Required the true time of New Moon in May, Old Stile, the year before Chrift 585?
The years 584 added to 17x6, make 2300, or 23 centuries.
By the Precepts. New moon. Sun’s Anomaly.
March 1716,
2300 years fubtraft.
March before Chrift 5 85,
Add 3 Lunations,
May before Chrift 585,
Firft Equation,
Time once equated,
Second Equation,
Time twice equated,
Third Equation,
Time thrice equated,
Fourth Equation,
True new moon,
D. H. M. S.
*7 33 29
5 57 53
11 35 36
x4 12 9
28 x 47 45
— 1 37
46
J5
28 4
+
22 50 39
19 47
9 3
2 27
3 39
18 58
o 22 37
15 41 17
6 14 41 2 c
Arg. 3d equation.
Moon’s Anomaly.! Sun from Node.
"I *
4 H
5 59
28 15
17 27
5 !5 42 3
— 46
5 *5 4i 17
Arg. 2d equation,
4 27 17
7 25 27
5° 5
o 42
Sun from Node,
and Arg. fourth
equation.
So the true time was May 28th, at a minutes
30 feconds paft four in the afternoon.
Thefe Tables are calculated for the meridian of Lon- degree that the meridian of the given place is weft ward
don; but they will ferve for any other place, by fub- of London, or adding four minutes for every degree
trading four minutes from the tabular time, for every that the meridian of the given place is eaftward: as in
EXAMPLE V.
Required the true time of Full Moon at Alexandria in Egypt in September, Old Stile, the year before Chrift 201 ?
The years 200 added to 1800, make 2000, or 20 centuries.
By the Precepts.
New Moon.
D. H. M. S.
March 1800,
Add 1 lunation,
From the fum,
Subtrad 2000 years,
N. M. bef. Chr. aox,
. ., C 6 lunations,
[half lunations,
Full Moon, September,
Firft equation,
Time once equated,
Second equation,
Time twice equated,
Third equation.
Time thrice equated,
Fourth equation,
True time at London,
Add for Alexandria,
True time there,
22 17
44 3
42 13
27 18
6
9 19
14 18 57
X77 4 24
14 18 22
22 17 43 21
— 3 52 6
22 13 51 15
— 8 25 4
22 5 26 11
- 5*
22 5 25
2 1 27
7 26 28
Sun’s Anomaly.
Moon’s Anomaly.
8 23 19 55
o ' 29 6 19
9 22 26 14
o 8 50
9 *3 36 x4
5 24 37 56
° H 33
3 22 47 20
o 4 19 55
5 18 27 25
Arg. 3d equation.
7 52 36
25 49
3 41 36
15 42
10 17 59 36
5 4 54 3
6 12 54 30
5 48
1 28
4 19 .55
Arg. 2d equation,
Sun from Node.
3 58 24
o 40 14
4 S8 38
27 45
6 53 38
4 1 24
15 20 7
1 26 15 9
Sun from Node;
and Argument
fourth equation.
Thus it appears, that the true time of Full Moon
at Alexandria, in September, old ftile, the year
before Chrift 201, was the 2 2d day, at 26 minutes
28 feconds after feven in the evening.
5 M 2
EXAMPLE
832
ASTRONOMY. Sed. X.
EXAMPLE VI.
Required the true time of Full Moon at Babylon in October, Old Stile, the 4008 year before the firfl year of
Chrijl, or 4007 before the year of his birth?
The years 4007 added to 1793, make 5800, or 58 centuries.
By the Precepts.
March 1793,
Subtradl 5800 years,
N. M. bef. Chr. 4007,
A ,. C 7 lunations,
Add |half lunations,
Full Moon, Odlober,
Firft Equation,
Time once equated,
Second Equation,
Time twice equated,
Third Equation,
Time thrice equated,
Fourth equation,
Full Moon at London,
Add for Babylon,
JNew Moon.
d. HrMr s:
13
38
Sun’s Anomaly.
Moon’s Anomaly.
•4 20 35
206 17 8
14 18 22
— 13 26
7 52 45
8 29 21
16 17
16
35
0 lo 41
6 23 44 15
o 14 33 10
5 26 58 36
1 26 27 26
1 12 54 58
6 0 43 3
6 12 54 30
26 32 3
- 5 5
4 o 31 10 1 20 27 26
Arg, 3d equation. Arg. 2d equation
Sun from .Node.
9 23 17 26
7 4 41
o 15 20 7
and Argument of
fourth equation,
17
25
So that, on the meridian of London, the true time
was Odtober 23d, at 17 minutes 5 feconds paft four
in the morning; but at Babylon, the true time was
October 23d, at 42 minutes 46 feconds paft fix in
the morning.—This is fuppofed by fome to have
been the year of the creation.
True time there, 22 18 42 46
To calculate the true time of new or full moon in any will anfwer to the given year in which the new or full
given year and month after the l%th century. moon is required ; and take out the firft new moon.
Precept I. Find a year of the fame number in the with its anomalies for thefe complete centuries.
18th century with that of the year propofed, and take I11- Add all thefe together, and then work in all
out the mean time and anomalies, &c. of new moon in rerpedls as above fliewn, only remember to fubtradl a
March, old ftile, for that year, in Table I. lunation and its anomalies, when the abovefaid addition
II. Take fo many years from Table VI. as when carries the new moon beyond the 31st of March ; as
added to the abovementioned year in the 18th century in tke following example.
EXAMPLE VII.
Required the true time of New Moon in July, Old Stile, A. D. 2180? ‘
Four centuries (or 400 years) added to A. D. 1780, make 2180.
By the Precepts.
March 1780,
Add 400 years,
From the fum
SubtraA 1 lunation.
New Moon March 2180,
Add 4 lunations,
New Moon July 2180,
Firft equation.
Time once equated.
Second equation,
Time twice equated,
Third equation.
Time thrice equated,
Fourth equation,
True time, July,
D. H. M. S.
11 19 1
118 2 56 12
New Moon.
23 23 1 44 9
17 8 43 29
Sun’s Anomaly.
Moon’s Anomaly.
41 7 45 !3
29 12 44 3
57
3 39
7 20 53 43
+ 9 24 "
8 6 17 5
+ 3
56
6
+
8 18 35 54
3 26 25 17
I5 I I!
9 38 3'
5 22 34
Arg. 3d equation,
22 35 47
25 49
10 26 46 47
3 *3 16
„ 9 38 .37
Arg. 2d equation.
Sun from Node.
18 21
J7 49
5 29 47
2 40 56
: 8 10 43
Sun from Node
and argument of
fourth equation.
True time, July 8th, at 22 minutes 55 feconds
paft fix in the evening.
la
Sea. X. ASTRO
In keeping by the old ftile, we are always fure to
be right, by adding or fubtrafting whole hundreds of
years to or from any given year in the 18th century.
But in the new ftile we may be very apt to make mif-
takes, on account of the leap-year’s not coming in re¬
gularly every fourth year : and therefore, when we go
without the limits of the 18th century, we had beft
keep to the old ftile, and at the end of the calculation
reduce the time to the new. Thus, in the 22d cen¬
tury, there will be fourteen days difference between the
ftiles ; and therefore, the true time of new moon in
this laft example being reduced to the new ftile, will
be the 22d of July, at 22 minutes 55 feconds paft fix
in the evening.
25 7 To calculate the true place of the Sun for any given
moment of time.
Precept I. In Table XII. find the next lefler year
in number to that in which the fun’s place is fought,
and write out his mean longitude and anomaly an-
fwering thereto: to which add his mean motion and
N O M Y. 8
anomaly for the complete refidue of years, months, days,
hours, minutes, and feconds, down to the given time,
and this will be the fun’s mean place and anomaly at
that time, in the old ftile, provided the faid time be
in any. year after the Chriftian sera. See the firjl fol¬
lowing Example.
II. Enter Table XIII. with the fun’s mean anoma¬
ly, and making proportions for the odd minutes and
feconds thereof, take out the equation of the fun’s cen¬
tre : which, being applied to his mean place as the
title Add or Subtract diredls, will give his true place
or longitude from the vernal equinox, at the time for
which it was required.
III. To calculate the fun’s place for any time in a
given year before the Chriftian sera, take out his mean
longitude and anomaly for the firft year thereof, and
from thefe numbers fubtradl the mean motions and
anomalies for the complete hundreds or thoufands next
above the given year; and, to the remainders, add thofe
for the refidue of years, months, &c. and then work in
all refpefts as above. See the fecond Example following.
EXAMPLE I.
Required the Sun's true place, March 20th Old Stile, 1764, at 22 hours 30 minutes 25 feconds pafl 1
In common reckoning, March 2 Ist, at 10 hours 30 minutes 25 feconds in the afternoon.
Sun’s Longitude. Sun’s Anomaly.
To the radical year after Chrift
Add complete years -— —
— 1701
C60
l 3
March
Biftextile Days — — 20
Hours — — 22
• Minutes — 30
Seconds — 25
Sun’s mean place at the given time —
Equation of the Sun’s centre, add —
Sun’s true place at the fame time —
11 29
1 28
20 43 50
27 12
17 ©
9 11
4i 55
54 13
1 14
10 14 36
1 55 36
13 1 o
29 26 o
39 14 o
2890
; 20 41 55
54 13
x 14
9 1 27 23
Mean Anomaly.
10 12 or qp
EXAMPLE II.
Required the Sun's true place, October 23d, Old Stile, at 16 hours 5 7 minutespajl noon, in the 4008111 year be¬
fore the year of Chrift 1; which was the 4007;h before the year of his birth, and the year of the Julian period 706.
By the Precepts.
From the radical numbers after Chrift
Subtrad thofe for 5000 complete years
Remains for a new radix
To which add,
to bring it to <
the given time. |
complete years — —• —
Sun’s mean place at the given time —
Equation of the fun’s centre fubtrad —
Sun’s Longitude.
9 7 53 10
1 7 46 40
6 30
48 o
36 16
8 29
22 40 12
Ar 39 26
Sun’s Anomaly.
10
6 28 48 o
13 25 o
8 15 23 o
11 21 37 o
11 29 15 o
II 29 53 o
8 29 40
22 40 12
39 26
2 20
4 5 28 33 58
4 Sun’s Anomaly.
Sun’s true place at the fame time
34
ASTRO
So that in the meridian of London, the fun was then
juft entering the fign ^ Libra, and confequently was
upon the point of the autumnal equinox.
If to the above time qf the autumnal equinox at
London, we add 2 hours, 25 minutes 41 feconds for
the longitude of Babylon, we (hall have for the time ,
of the fame equinox, at that place, Odtober 23d, at
19 hours 22 minutes 41 feconds ; which, in the common
way of reckoning, is OAober 24th, at 22 minutes 41
feconds paft feven in the morning.
And it appears by Example VI. that in the fame
year, the true time of full moon at Babylon was Odlo-.
ber 23d, at 42 minutes 46 feconds after fix in the morn¬
ing; fo that the autumnal equinox was on the day next
after the day of full moon The dominical letter for
that year was G, and confequently the 24th of Oftober
was on a Wednefday.
To find the fun's diflance from the moon's afcending node,
at the time of any given new or full moon ; and con¬
fequently, to knpnu whether there is an eclipfe at that
time, or not.
The fun’s diftance from the moon’s afcending node
is the argument for finding the moon’s fourth equation
in the fyzygies, and therefore it is taken into all the
foregoing examples in finding the times thereof. Thus,
at the time of mean new moon in April 1764, the fun’s
mean diftance from the afcending node, is os 50 35’ 2".
See Example I. p. 829.
The defcending node is oppofite to the afcending
one, and they are juft fix figns diftant from each other.
When the fun is within 17 degrees of either of the
nodes at the time of new moon, he will be eclipfed at
that time : and when he is within 12 degrees of either
of the nodes at the time of full moon, the moon will be
then eclipfed. Thus we find, that there will be an
eclipfe of the fun at the time of new moon in April 1764.
But the true time of that new moon comes out by
the equations to be 50 minutes 46 feconds later than
the mean time thereof, by comparing thefe times in the
above example : and therefore, -we muft add the fun’s
motion from the node during that interval, to the above
mean diftance os 50 35' 2", which motion is found in
Table XII. for 50 minutes 46 feconds, to be 2' 12".
And to this we muft apply the equation of the fun’s
mean diftance from the node, in Table XV. found by
the fun’s anomaly, which, at the mean time of new
moon in Example I. is 9s i0~26' 19" ; and then we
{hall have the fun’s true diftance from the node, at the
true time of new moon, as follows :
Sun from Node.
N 0 M Y. Sea. Xj
grees, (hews that the fun muft then be eclipfed.
And now we {hall (hew how to project this, or any
other eclipfe, either of the fun or moon.
To project an Eclipfe of the Sun. ■
In order to this, we muft find the ten following ele¬
ments, by means of the tables.
x. The true time of conjun&ion of the fun and
moon ; and at that time. 2. The femidiameter of the
earth’s dilk, as feen from the moon, which is equal to
the moon’s horizontal parallax. 3. The fun’s diftance
from the folftitial colure to which he is then neareft.
4. The fun’s declination. 5. The angle of the moon’s
vifible path with the ecliptic. 6. The moon’s latitude.
7. The moon’s true horary motion from the fun.
8. The fun’s femidiameter. 9. The moon’s. 10. The
femidiameter of the penumbra.
We (hall now proceed to find thefe elements for the
fun’s eclipfe in April 1764.
To find the true time of new moon. This, by Ex- 260 |
ample I. p. 829, is found to be on the firft day of the
faid month, at 30 minutes 25 feconds after ten in the
morning.
2. To find the moon's horizontal parallax, or femidia- 161 j
meter of the earth's difk, as feen from the moon. Enter
Table XVII. with the figns and degrees of the moon’s
anomaly (making proportions, becaufe the anomaly is
in the table only to every 6th degree), and thereby take
out the moon’s horizontal parallax; which for the a-
bove time, anfwering to the anomaly us 90 24' 21",
is 54 53".
3. To find the fun's diftance from the nearefl folftice,
viz. the beginning of Cancer, which is 3s or 90° from
the beginning of Aries. It appears by Example I. on
p. 833, (where the fun’s place is calculated to the a-
bove time of new moon) that the fun’s longitude from
the beginning of Aries is then os 120 10' 12" : that
is, the fun’s place at that time is CV Aries, 120 10’ xz".
s o ' "
Therefore from - - -3000
Subtract the fun’s longitude or place o 12 10 12
At the mean time of new moon in- ?
April 1764 5
Sun’s motion from the 7,50 minutes
node for y 4^ feconds
Sun’s mean diftance from node at 7
true new moon y
Equation of mean diftance from 7
node, add y
0 5 35
37
5
Sun’s true diftance from the afcend- 7
ingnode ^ o 7 42 14
Which being far within the above limit of 17 de-
Remains the fun’s diftance from 7
the folftice 05 {=2 49 48
Or 770 49' 48"; each fign containing 30 degrees.
4. To find the fun's declination. Enter Table XIV.
with the figns and degrees of the fun’s true place, viz.
os 120, and making proportions for the 10' 12", take
out the fun’s declination anfwering to his true place,
and it will be found to be 40 49' north.
5 . To find the moon's latitude. This depends on her
diftance from her afcending node, which is the fame as
the fun’s diftance from it at the time of new moon;
and is thereby found in Table XVI.
But we have already found, that the fun’s equated
diftance from the afcending node, at the time of new
moon in April 1764, is os 70 42' 14". See above.
Therefore, enter Table XVI. with o figns at the
top, and 7 and 8 degrees at the left hand, and take out
36' and 39", the latitude for 70; and 41' 51", the la¬
titude for 8° : and by making proportions between
thefe latitudes for the 42' 14", by which the moon’s
diftance from the node exceeds 7 degrees; her true la¬
titude will be found to be 40' 18" north afeending.
6. To find the moon’s true horary motion from the fun.
With
S3
Sea. X.
ASTRONOMY.
With the iroon’s anomaly, viz. 11s 90 24’ 11", enter - left hand, whilft the fan is in the other fix figns.
Table XVII. and take out the moon’s horary motion; Open the fe&or till the radius (or diftance of the
which, by making proportions in that table, will be two go’s) of the lines be equal to the length of V/’,
found to be 30' 22". Then, with the fun’s anomaly, an^ fin* r>f C.m’c fVr.tv.
9s i° 16'19", take out his horary motion 2'28" from
the fame table : and fubtrafting the latter from the
former, there will remain 27' 54" for the moon’s true
horary motion from the fun.
7. To find the angle of the moon's vtfihle path ’with the
ecliptic. This, in the projection of eclipfes, may be
always rated at 50 35', without any fenfible error.
8,9. To find the fiemidiameters of the fiun and moon.
Thefe are found in the fame table, and by the fame ar¬
guments, as their horary motions. In the prefent
cafe, the fun’s anomaly gives his femidiameter 16' 6",
and the moon’s anomaly gives her femidiameter 14' 57".
10. To find the femidiameter of the penumbra. Add
the moon’s femidiameter to the fun’s, and their fum
will be the femidiameter of the penumbra, viz. 31' 3".
Now colleft thefe elements, that they maybe found
the more readily when they are wanted in the conftruc-
tion of this edipfe.
1. True time of new moon in ?
April, 1764 - - - £ 1 10 30 25
2. Semidiameter of the earth’s dilk o
3. Sun’s diftance from the neareft folft 77
4. Sun’s declination, north 4
5. Moon’s latitude, north afcending o
6. Moon’s horary motion from the fun o
7. Angle of the moon’s vifible path 7
with the ecliptic 3 ^
8. Sun’s femidiameter
9. Moon’s femidiameter
10. Semidiameter of the penumbra
To projefl an eclipfe of the fun geometrically.
,. Make a fcale of any convenient length, as AC, and
divide it into as many equal parts as the earth’s femi-
difk contains minutes of a degree ; which, at the time
of the eclipfe in April 1764, is 54' 53". Then,
writh the whole length of the fcale as a radius, defcribe
the femicircle AMB upon the centre C ; which femi-
circle ftiali reprefent the northern half of the earth’s
enlightened difk, as feen from the fun.
Upon the centre C raife the ftraight line CH, per¬
pendicular to the diameter ACB ; fo ACB (hail be a
part of the ecliptic, and CH its axis.
Being provided with a good feCtor, open it to the
radius CA in the line of chords; and taking from
thence the chord of 23-'- degrees in your compaffes, fet
it off both ways from H, to g and to h, in the peri- ing drawn through thefe points, fhall reprefent the pa-
phery of the femidilk ; and draw the ftraight line gVh, rallel of latitude, or path of London on the dilk, as
and take the fine of the fun’s diftance from the fol-
ftice (770 49' 48") as nearly as you can guefs, in your
compaffes, from the line of fines, and fet off that dif¬
tance from V to P in the \me gVh, becaufe the earth’s
axis lies to the right hand of the axis of the ecliptic
in this cafe, the fun being in Aries; and draw the
ftraight line C XII P for the earth’s axis, of which P
is the north pole. If the earth’s axis had lain to the
left hand from the axis of the ecliptic, the diftance
VP would have been fet off from V towards g.
To draw the parallel of latitude of any given place,
as fuppofe London, or the path of that place on the
earth’s enlightened dilk as feen from the fun, from fun-
rife till fun-fet, take the following method.
Subtradl the latitude of London, 5i°4-from 90®,
and the remainder 38°-§- will be the co-latitude, which
take in your compaffes from the line of chords, making
CA or CB the radius, and fet it from h (where the
earth’s axis meets the periphery of the dilk) to Viand
VI, and draw the occult or dotted line VI K VI.
Then, from the points where this line meets the earth’s
dilk, fet off the chord of the fun’s declination 40 49’
to D and F, and to E and G, and conneft thefe points
by the two occult lines F XII G and DLE.
BifeA LK XII in K, and through the point K
draw the black line VI K VI. Then making CB the
radius of a line of fines on the fe&or, take the colati¬
tude of London 38°-!- from the fines in your compaf¬
fes, and fet it both ways from K, to VI and VI.—
Thefe hours will be juft in the edge of the dilk at the
equinoxes, but at no other time in the whole year.
With the extent K VI taken into your compaffes,
fet one foot in K (in the black line below the occult
one) as a centre, and with the other foot defcribe the
femicircle VI 7 8 9 10, &c. and divide it into 12 e-
qual parts. Then, from thefe points of divifion, draw
the occult lines 7/, So, gn, &c. parallel to the earth’s
axis C XII P.
With the fmall extent K XII as a radius, defcrib;
the quadrantal arc Xll/j and divide it into iix equal
parts, as XII a, ah, be, cd, de, and ef; andthrougn
the divifion-points a, b, c, d, e draw the occult line.,*
VII> V, VIII d IV, IX c III, X b II, and
XI a I, all parallel to VI K VI, and meeting the
former occult lines 7 85, &c. in the points VII
VIII IX X XI, V IV III II and I : which points
lhall mark the feveral fituations of London on the
earth’s dilk, at thefe hours refpedlively, as feen from
the fun ; and the elliptic curve VI VII VIII, &c. be-
1 which the north pole of the dilk will always be
found.
When the fun is in Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer,
Leo, and Virgo, the north pole of the earth is en¬
lightened by the fun : but whilft the fun is in the o-
ther fix figns, the fouth pole is enlightened, and the
north pole is in the dark.
And when the fun is in Capricorn, Aquarius, Pif-
feen from the fun, from its riling to its fetting,
N. B. If the fun’s declination had been fouth, the
diurnal path of London would have been on the up¬
per fide of the line VI K VI, and would have touched
the line DLE in L. It is requifite to divide the ho¬
rary fpaces into quarters (as fome are in the figure),
and, if poffible, into minutes alfo.
Make CB the radius of a line of chords on the fen¬
ces, Aries, Taurus, and Gemini, the northern half of tor, and taking therefrom the chord of 50 35', the
the earth’s axis C XII P lies to the right hand of the angle of the moon’s vifible path with the ecliptic, fet
axis of the ecliptic, as feen from the fun ; and to the it off from H to M on the left hand of CH, the axis
c£
S36
ASTRO
of the ecliptic, becaufe the moon’s latitude is north
afcending. Then draw CM for the axis of the moon’s
orbit, andbifeft the angle MCH by the right line Cz.
If the moon’s latitude had been north defcending, the
axis of her orbit would have been on the right hand
from the axis of the ecliptic. N. B. The axis of
the moon’s orbit lies the fame way when her latitude
is fouth afcending, as when it is north afcending ; and
the fame way when fouth defcending, as when north
defcending.
Take the moon’s latitude 40' 18" from the fcale
C A in your compaffes, and fet it from i to x in the
bifedfing line Cz, making /x parallel to Cy: and thro’
x, at right angles to the axis of the moon’s orbit CM,
draw the ftraight line N w.\yS for the path of the pe¬
numbra’s centre over the earth’s dilk.—The point <w,
in the axis of the moon’s orbit, is that where the pe¬
numbra’s centre approaches neareft to the centre of the
earth’s dilk, and confequently is the middle of the ge¬
neral eclipfe : the point x is that where the conjuadtion
of the fun and moon falls, according to equal time by
the tables t and the pointy is the ecliptical conjundlion
of the fun and moon.
Take the moon’s true horary motion from the fun,
27' 54", in your compaffes, from the fcale CA (every
divifion of which is a minute of a degree), and with
that extent make marks along the path of the penum¬
bra’s centre ; and divide each fpace from mark to mark
into fixty equal parts or horary minutes, by dots; and
fet the hours to every 60th minute in fuch a manner,
that the dot fignifying the inftant of new moon by
the tables, may fall into the point x, half way between
the axis of the moon’s orbit and the axis of the eclip¬
tic ; and then, the reft of the dots will (hew the points
of the earth’s dilk, where the penumbra’s centre is at
the inftants denoted by them, in its tranfit over the
earth.
Apply one fide of a fquare to the line of the penum¬
bra’s path, and move the fquare backwards and for¬
wards until the other fide of it cuts the fame hour and
minute (as at m and w) both in the path of London,
and in the path of the penumbra’s centre ; and the
particular minute or inftant which the fquare cuts
at the fame time in both paths, fhall be the inftant
of the rifible conjunftion of the fun and moon, or
greateft obfcuration of the fun, at the place for
which the conftruction is made, namely London, in
the prefent example ; and this inftant is at 474- minutes
paft ten o’clock in the morning; which is 17 minutes
five feconds later than the tabular time of true conjunc¬
tion.
Take the fun’s femidiameter, 16' 6", in your com¬
paffes, from the fcale CA, and fetting one foot in the
path of London, at m, namely at 474- minutes paft ten,
with the other foot defcribe the circle UY, which Ihall
reprefent the fun’s dilk as feen from London at the
greateft obfcuration.—Then take the moon’s femidia¬
meter, 14' 57", in your compaffes from the fame fcale ;
and fetting one foot in the path of the penumbra’s cen¬
tre at m, in the 474- minute after ten, with the other
foot defcribe the circle TY for the moon’s dilk, as
feen from London, at the time when the eclipfe is at
the greateft, and the portion of the fun’s dilk which is
hid or cut off by the moon’s, will Ihew the quantity
of the eclipfe at that time; which quantity may be
N O M Y. Se&.
meafured on a line equal to the fun’s diameter, and di¬
vided into 12 equal parts for digits.
Laftly, take the femidiameter of the penumbra,
31' 3", from the fcale CA in your compaffes; and
fetting one foot in the line of the penumbra’s central
path, on the left hand from the axis of the ecliptic,
direft the other foot toward the path of London ; and
carry that extent backwards and forwards, till both
the points of the compaffes fall into the fame inftants
in both the paths : and thefe inftants will denote the
time when the eclipfe begins at London.—Then, do
the like on the right hand of the axis of the ecliptic ;
and where the points of the compaffes fall into the fame
inftants in both the paths, they will Ihew at what time
the eclipfe ends at London.
Thefe trials give 20 minutes after nine in the morning
for the beginning of the eclipfe at London, at the points
N and O ; 474- minutes after ten, at the points m and
72, for the time of greateft obfcuration ; and 18 minutes
after twelve, at R and S, for the time when the eclipfe
ends ; according to mean or equal time.
From thefe times we mull fubtraft the equation of
natural days, viz. three minutes 48 feconds, in leap-
year April 1, and we fhall have the apparent times ;
namely, nine hours 16 minutes 12 feconds for the be¬
ginning of the eclipfe, ten hours 43 minutes 42 feconds
for the time of greateft obfcuration, and 12 hours 14
minutes 12 feconds for the time when the'tclipfe ends
—But the bell way is to apply this equation to the
true equal time of new moon, before the proje&ion be
begun ; as is done in example I. For the motion or
pofition of places on the earth’s difk anfwer to apparent
or folar time.
In this conftru&ion it is fuppofed, that the angle
under which the moon’s difk is feen, during the wholt?
time of the eclipfe, continues invariably the fame ; and
that the moon’s motion is uniform and redlilineal du¬
ring that time. But thefe fuppofitions do not exadtly
agree with the truth ; and therefore, fuppoling the e-
lements given by the tables to be accurate, yet the
times and phafes of the eclipfe, deduced from its con-
flrudlion, will not anfwer exadlly to what paffeth in
the heavens ; but may be at leall two or three minutes
wrong, though done with the greateft care. More¬
over, the paths of all places of confiderable latitudes,
are nearer the centre of the earth’s difk, as feen from
the fun, than thofe conftrudlions make them : becaufe
the difk is projedled as if the earth were a perfeft fphere
although it is known to be a fpheroid. Confequently,
the moon’s fhadow will go farther northward in all
places of northern latitude, and farther fouthward in
all places of fouthern latitude, than it is fhewn to
do in thefe projeftions. According to Meyer’s
Tables, this eclipfe was about a quarter of an hour
fooner than either thefe tables, or Mr Flamfteed’s, or
Dr Halley’s make it; and was not annular at Lon¬
don. But M. De la Caille’s make it almoft central.
77;<? projeftion of lunar edipfes. i
When the moon is within 12 degrees of either of
her nodes at the time when fhe is full, fhe will be e-
clipfed, otherwife not.
We find by example fecond, page 830, that at the
time of mean full moon in May 1762, the fun’s di-
flance from the afcending node was only 40 49' 35" ;
and
9'/ Plate XLiL
/'he /*fffjvcj/'Zsi; Fixer Stajif or tee TFpjitjx JTemisphe^z^^^^^
-f
Comet
, Mam
tjf Plan' XU I
.  
di//
; t?
PLifeXITUi:
V
rS/O
V 4.
Tl;UeXLV
V
Plate XLVT
Plate XLVUi.
' X /irf.
Tlafe L
Plate U.
837
Sea. X.
ASTRONOMY.
Equation of his mean diftance, add
Sun’s true diftance from the node
To which add
38
6 10 32
and the moon being then oppofite to the fun.'muft have
been juft as near her defcending node, and was there¬
fore eclipfed.
The elements for conftru&ing an eclipfe of the
moon, are eight in number, as follow :
i. The true time of full moon ; and at that time,
2. The. moon’s horizontal parallax. 3. The fun’s And the fum will be
femidiameter. 4. The moon’s, e. The femidiameter -un- l „
of the earth’s ihadow at the moon. 6. The moon’s W, ,s, the m°01? s true dlftance from her afcending
latitude. 7. The angle of the moon’s viftble path with n°de f4 true timerof her beIng fu]15 and co^-
the ecliptic. 8. The moon’s true horary motion from <luentl7 the ^gum^nt for find,ng her true latitude at
the fun. Therefore, that tIme,—Therefore, with this argument, enter Ta-
To find the true time of new or full moon. Work ^ XYL maki"g proportions between the latitudes
’ - ' • ’ 1.—Thus we have the be,onging to the 6th and 7th degree of the argument
id 32
as already taught in the precepts*       
true time of full moon in May 1762 (fee example II.
page 830) on the 8th day, at 50 minutes 50 feconds
pall three o’clock in the morning.
2. To find the moon's horizontal parallax. Enter
Table XVII. with the moon’s mean anomaly (at the
above full) 9s 20 42' 42'', and thereby take out her
horizontal parallax ; which by making the requifite
proportions, will be found to be 57' 23".
3, 4. To find the femidiameters of the fun and moon.
Enter Table XVII. with their refpeftive anomalies,
the fun’s being 10s 70 27' 45" (by the above example)
and the moon’s 9* 2° 42' 42" ; and thereby take out
their refpeftive femidiameters ; the fun’s 15'56", and
the moon’s if 38".
5. To find the femidiameter ofthe earth's Jhadonu at the
moon. Add the fun’s horizontal parallax, which is
always 10", to the moon’s which in the prefent cafe
is 57' 23", the fum will be 57' 33", from which fub-
traft the fun’s femidiameter 15' 56", and there will
remain 41' 37" for the femidiameter of that part of
the earth’s Ihadow which the moon then pafles through.
6. To find the moon's latitude. Find the fun’s true
diftance from the afcending node (as already taught
in page 834) at the true time of full moon ; and this
diftance increafed by fix figns, will be the moon’s true
diftance from the fame node ; and confequently the ar¬
gument for finding her true latitude, as ftiewn in page
834-
Thus, in example II. the fun’s mean diftance from
the afcending node was o$ 40 49' 33", at the time of
mean full moon: but it appears by the example, that
the true time thereof was fix hours 33 minutes 38 fe¬
at the left hand (the figns being at top) for the 10' 32"
and it will give 32' 21" for the moon’s true latitude,
which appears by the table to be fouth defcending.
7. To find the angle of the moon's viftble path with the
ecliptic. This may be ftated at 50 33', without any er-
ror of confequence in the projeftion of the eclipfe.
8. To find the moon’s true horary motion from the fun.
With their refpe&ive anomalies take out their horary
motions from Table XVII. and the fun’s horary mo¬
tion fubtrailed from the moon’s, leaves remaining the
moon’s true horary motion from the fun : in the prefent
cafe 30’ 32".
Now colleft thefe elements together for ufe.
. True time of full moon in
May, 1762
D. H. M. S.
8 3 30 30
2. Moon’s horizontal parallax '•
3. Sun’s femidiameter
4. Moon’s femidiameter
3. Semidiameter of the earth’s fhadow7
at the moon 3
6. Moon’s true latitude, fouth defcending
7. Angle of her vifible path with the 7
ecliptic 3
8. Her true horary motion from the fun
0 57 23
0 r5 56
0 J5 38
o 41 37
o 32 21
5 3Yo
o 30 32-
Thefe elements being found for the conftruftion of *81
the moon’s eclipfe in May, 1762, proceed as follows :
Make a fcale of any convenient length, as W X, id Plate L.
conds fooner than the mean time; and therefore we fd div.ide k ‘f0/0 e<lual Parts’ each Part Ending G&3-
tVi*. f_ /r J fora minute of a degt—
muft fubtraft the fun’s motion from the node (found
in Table XII.) during this interval, from the above
mean diftance os 40 49’ 33", in order to have his
mean diftance from it at the true time of full moon.
Then to this apply the equation of his mean diftance
from the node, found in Table XV. by his mean ano¬
maly 10s 70 27' 43"; and laftly add fix figns: fo fhall
the moon’s true diftance from the afcending node be
found as follows :
Sun from node at mean full moon
C 6 hours
His motion from it in 3 33 minutes
(_ 38 feconds
Sum, fubtradl from the uppermoft line
Remains his mean diftance at true 7
full moon —   —  \
Vol. II.
O 4 49 3?
4 32 32
Draw the right line ACB (fig. 4.) for part of the
ecliptic, and CD perpendicular thereto for the fouth-
ern part of its axis ; the moon having fouth latitude.
Add the femidiameters of the moon and earth’s Iha¬
dow together, which, in this eclipfe, will make 57'
13" ; and take this from the fcale in your compafies,
and fetting one foot in- the point C as a centre, with
the other foot defcribe the femicircle ADB ; in one
point of which the moon’s centre will be at the be¬
ginning of the eclipfe, and in another at the end
thereof.
Take the femidiameter of the earth’s ftiadow, 41
37", in your compalfes from the fcale, and fetting one
foot in the centre C, with the other foot defcribe the
femicircle KLM for the fouthern half of the earth’s
fhadow, becaufe the moon’s latitude is fouth in this e-
clipfe.
3 N
Make
83B
ASTRO
Make CD equal to the radius of a line of chords on
the fe&or, and fet off the angle of the moon’s vifible
path with the ecliptic, 50 35', from D to E, and draw
the right line CFE for the fouthern half of the axis of
the moon’s orbit, lying to the right hand from the axis
of the ecliptic CD, becaufe the moon’s latitude is fouth
defcending.— It would have been the fame way (on
the other fide of the ecliptic) if her latitude had been
north defcending ; but contrary in both cafes, if her
latitude had been either north afcending or fouth af-
cending.
Bife& the angle DCE by the right line C g ; in
which line the true equal time of oppofition of the
fun and moon falls, as given by the tables.
Take the moon’s latitude, 32' 2x", from the fcale
with your compaffes, and fet it from C to G, in the
line CG^; and through the point G, at right angles
to CFE, draw the right line PHGFN for the path of
the moon’s centre. Then, F fiiall be the point in the
earth’s fhadow, where the moon’s centre is at the middle
of the eclipfe; G, the point where her centre is at the
tabular time of her being full; and H, the point where
her centre is at the inftant of her ecliptical oppofition.
Take the moon’s horary motion from the fun, 30'
52", in your compaffes from the fcale ; and with that
extent make marks along the line of the moon’s path
PGN: then divide each fpace from mark to mark,
into 60 equal parts, or horary minutes, and fet the
hours to the proper dots in fuch a manner, that the
dot fignifying the inftant of full moon (viz. 50 mi¬
nutes 50 feconds after III in the morning) may be in
the point G, where the line of the moon’s path cuts
the line that bife&s the angle DCE.
Take the moon’s femidiameter, 15' 38", in your
compaffes from the fcale, and with that extent, as a
radius, upon the points N, F, and P, as centres, de-
fcribe the circle Q^for the moon at the beginning of
the eclipfe, when fixe touches the earth’s (hadow at V;
the circle R for the moon at the middle of the eclipfe ;
and the circle S for the moon at the end of the eclipfe,
juft leaving the earth’s fhadow at W.
The point N denotes the inftant when the eclipfe
began, namely, at 15 minutes 10 feconds after II in
the morning ; the point F the middle of the eclipfe at
47 minutes 44 feconds paft III; and the point P the
end of the eclipfe, at 18 minutes after V.—At the
greateft obfcuration the moon was 10 digits eclipfed.
Seft. XL Tie method of finding the Longitude by
the Eclipfes of Jupiter’s Satellites ; The amaz¬
ing Velocity of Light demonjlrated by thefe Ec¬
lipfes ; and of Cometary Eclipfes.
In the former fe&ion, having explained at great
length, how eclipfes of the fun and moon happen at
certain times, it muft be evident, that fimilar eclipfes
will be obferved by the inhabitants of Jupiter and Sa-
itri# turn, which are attended by fo many moons. Thefe
Frequency eclipfes indeed very frequently happen to the fatellites
of thefe e- of Jupiter; and as they are of the greateft fervice in
clipfes. determining the longitudes of places on this earth, a-
ftronomers have been at great pains to calculate tables
for the eclipfes of thefe fatellites by their primary, for
the fatellites themfelves have never been obferved to
cclipfe one another. The conftru£tion of fuch tables
N O M Y. Sed. XI.
is indeed much eafier for thefe fatellites than- of any
other celeftial bodies, as their motions are much more
regular.
The Englifti tables are calculated for the meri¬
dian of Greenwich, and by thefe it is very eafy to
find how many degrees of longitude any place is diftant
either eaft or weft from Greenwich ; for, let an ob-
ferver, who has thefe tables, with a good telefcope
and a well-regulated clock at any other place of
the earth, obferve the beginning or ending of an
eclipfe of one of Jupiter’s fatellites, and note the
precife moment of time that he faw the fatellite
either immerge into, or emerge out of the fliadow,
and compare that time with the time fhewn by the
tables for Greenwich ; then x 5 degrees difference of
longitude being allowed for every hour’s difference of
time, will give the longitude of that place from Green¬
wich; and if there be any odd minutes of time, for e-
very minute a quarter of a degree, eaft or weft, muft
be allowed, as the time of obfervation is later or earlier
than the time fliewn by the tables. Such eclipfes are
very convenient for this purpofe at land, becaufe they
happen almoft every day ; but are of no ufe at fea, be
caufe the rolling of the flxip hinders all nice telefcopi-
cal obfervations.
To explain this by a figure, in Plate XLVI. fig. 1.
let J be Jupiter, K, L, M, N his four fatellites in their
refpe&ive orbits, 1, 2, 3, 4 ; and let the earth be at F
(fuppofe in November, altho’ that month is no other-
wife material than to find the earth readily in this
fcheme, where it is (hewn in eight different parts of
the orbit). Let QJxe a place on the meridian of Green¬
wich, and R a place on fome other meridian eaftward
from Greenwich. Let a perfon at R obferve the inftan-
taneous vaniftiing of the firft fatellite K into Jupiter’s
fhadow, fuppofe at three o’clock in the morning; but by
the tables he finds the immerfion of that fatellite to be
at midnight at Greenwich ; he then can immediately de¬
termine, that as there are three hours difference of
time between Q_and R, and that R is three hours for¬
warder in reckoning than Q^it muft be 45 degrees of
eaft longitude from the meridian of Were this
method as practicable at fea as at land, any failor might
almoft as eafily, and with equal certainty, find the
longitude as the latitude. ^
Whilft the earth is going from C to F in its orbit, When the !
only the immerfions of Jupiter’s fatellites into his fha- |
dow are generally feen ; and their emerfions out of to be ob-i
it while the earth goes from G to B. Indeed, both ferved. " !
thefe appearances may be feen of the fecond, third, and
fourth fatellite when eclipfed, whilft the earth is between
D and E, or between G and A ; but never of the firft
fatellite, on account of the fmallnefs of its orbit and
the bulk of Jupiter, except only when Jupiter is di-
reftly oppofite to the fun, that is, when the earth is at
G; and even then, ftriftly fpeaking, we cannot fee ei¬
ther the immerfions or emerfions of any of his fatellites,
becaufe his body being directly between us and his co-
'nical fhadow, his fatellites are hid by his body a few
moments before they touch his fhadow ; and are quite
emerged from thence before we can fee them, as it were
juft dropping from him. And when the earth is at C,
the fun, being between it and Jupiter, hides both him
and his moons from us.
In this diagram, the orbits of Jupiter’s moons are
drawn
Scd. XT. ASTRO
drawn in true proportion to his diameter; but in pro¬
portion to the earth’s orbit, they are drawn vaftiy too
large.
In whatever month of the year Jupiter is in conjunc¬
tion with the fun, or in oppofition to him, in the next
year it will be a month later at leaft. For whillt the
earth goes once round the fun, Jupiter deferibes a
twelfth part of his orbit. And therefore, when the
earth has finilhed its annual period, from being in a
line with the fun and Jupiter, it muft go as much for¬
warder as Jupiter has moved in that time, to overtake
him again ; juft: like the minute hand of a watch, which
muft, from any conjun&ion with the hour-hand, go
once round the dial-plate and fomewhat above a twelfth
184 part more, to overtake the hour-hand again.
Velocity of It is found by obfervation, that when the earth is
‘2 t' between the fun and Jupiter, as at G, his fatellites are
eclipfed about 8 minutes fooner than they Ihould be
according to the tables ; and when the earth is at B
or C, thefe eclipfes happen about 8 minutes later than
the tables predict them. Hence it is undeniably cer¬
tain, that the motion of light is not inftantaneous,
lince it takes about 16J-minutes of time to go through
a fpace equal to the diameter of the earth’s orbit, which
is 180,000,000 of miles in length ; and confequent-
ly the particles of light fly almoft 200,000 miles e-
very fecond of time, which is above a million of times
fwifter than the motion of a cannon bullet. And as
light is 16|- minutes in travelling acrofs the earth’s
orbit, it muft be S j minutes in coming from the fun
to us : therefore if the fun were annihilated, we ftiould
fee him for 8£ minutes after; and if he were again
created, he would be 8£ minutes old before we could
I fee him.
To illuftrate this progreflive motion of light, (Plate
XLVI. fig. 2.), let A and B be the earth in two dif¬
ferent parts of its orbit, whofe diftance from each other
is 95,000,000 of miles, equal to the earth’s diftance
from the fun S. It is plain, that if the motion of light
were inftantaneous, the fatellite 1 would appear to en¬
ter into Jupiter’s ftiadow FF at the fame moment of
time to a fpedlator in A, as. to another in B. But by
many years obfervations it has been found, that the
immerfion of the fatellite into the fhadow is feen 8|
minutes fooner when the earth is at B, than when it
is at A. And fo, as Mr Romeur firft difeovered, the
motion of light is therebyproved to be progreffive, and
not inftantaneous, as was formerly believed. It is eafy
. > to compute in what time the earth moves from A to
B ; for the chord of 60 degrees of any circle is equal
to the femidiameter of that circle ; and as the earth
goes through all the 360degrees of i^s orbit in a year,
it goes through 60 of thofe degrees in about 61 days.
Therefore, if on any given day, fuppofe .the firft of
June, the earth is at A, on the firft of Auguft it will
be at B; the chord, or ftraight line AB, being equal
to DS the radius of the earth’s orbit, the fame with
AS its diftance from the fun.
As the earth moves from D to C, through the fide
AB of its orbit, it is conftantly meeting the light of
Jupiter’s fatellites fooner, which occafions an apparent
acceleration of theireclipfes ; and as it moves through
the other half H of its orbit, from C to D, it is rece¬
ding from their light, which occafions an apparent re¬
tardation of their eclipfes, becaufe their light is then
N O M Y. 839
longer before it overtakes the earth. 185
That thefe accelerations of the immerfions of Jupi- Accekra-
ter’s fatellites into his (hadow, as the earth approaches
towards Jupiter, and the retardations of their emerfions owing to any
out of his ftiadowq as the earth is going from him, are inequality
not occafioned by any inequality arifing from the motions in the mo-
of the fatellites in excentric orbits, is plain, becaufe it J-'
affe&s them all alike, in whatever parts of their orbit? late 1 es*
they are eclipfed. Befides, they go often round their
orbits every year, and their motions are noway commen-
furate to the earth’s. Therefore, a phenomenon not to
be accounted for from the real motions of the fatellites,
but fo ealily deducible from the earth’s motion, and fo
anfwerable thereto, muft be allowed to refult from it.
This affords one very good proof of the earth’s annual
motion.
From what we have faid in general concerning ec- Ec^'P^s
lipfes, it is plain that fecondary planets are not the only
bodies that may occafion them. The primary planets
would eclipfe one another, were it not for their great
diftances; but as the comets are not fubjedt to the fame
laws with the planets, it is poffiblethey may fometimes
approach fo near to the primary planets, as to caufe
an eclipfe of the fun to thofe planets ; and as the bo¬
dy of a comet bears a much larger proportion to the
bulk of a primary planet than any fecondary, it is plain
that a cometary eclipfe would both be of much longer
continuance, and attended with much greater darknefs,
than that occafioned by a fecondary planet. This be¬
hoved to be the cafe at any rate: but if we fuppofe the
primary planet and comet to be moving both the fame
way, the duration of fuch an eclipfe would be prodi-
gioufly lengthened; and thus, inftead of four minutes,
the fun might be totally darkened to the inhabitants
of certain places for as many hours. Hence we may
account for that prodigious darknefs which we fome¬
times read of in hiftory at times when no eclipfe of
the fun by the moon could poffibly happen (fee N° 12).
It is remarkable, however, that no comet hath ever
been obferved paffmg over the difk of the fun like a
fpot, as Venus and Mercury are; yet this muft certain¬
ly happen, when the comet is in its perihelion, and
the earth on the fame fide of its annual orbit. Such
a phenomenon well deferves the watchful attention of
aftronomers, as it would be a greater confirmation of
the planetary nature of comets, than any thing hither¬
to obferved.
Seft. XII. Of the Divifton of Time. A perpetual
Table of New Moons. The Times of the Birth
and Death of Christ. A Table of remarkable
JEras or Events.
The parts of time are Seconds, Minutes, Hours, Days, 287
Tears, Cycles, Ages, and Periods.
The original ftandard, or integral meafure of time, *88
is a year; which is determined by the revolution of
feme celeftiakbody in its orbit, vise, the fun or moon.
The time meafured by the fun’s revolution in the i8s>
ecliptic, from any equinox or folftice to the fame again,
is called the Solar or Tropical Tear, which contains
365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, 57 feconds ; and is the
only proper or natural year, becaufe it always keeps
the fame feafons to the fame months.
The quantity of time meafured by the fun’s revolu- ipe
5 N 2 tiqn,
840
ASTRONOMY.
tion, as from any fixed ilar to the fame ftar again, is
called the Jiderealyear; which contains 365 days 6
hours 9 minutes 144- feconds ; and is 20 minutes ly-y
feconds longer than the true folar year.
The time meafured by 12 revolutions of the moon,
from the fun to the fun again, is called the lunar year :
it contains 354 days 8 hours 48 minutes 36 feconds ;
and is therefore 1 o days 21 hours o minutes 21 feconds
fhorter than the folar year. This is the foundation of
j9i the epadt.
Civil year. The civil year is that which is in common ufe among
the different nations of the world ; of which, fome rec¬
kon by the lunar, but moft by the folar. The civil fo¬
lar year contains 365 days, for three years running,
which are called common years ; and then comes in what
is called the bijfextile or leap-year, which contains 366
days. This is alfo called the Julian year, on account
of Julius Csefar, who appointed the intercalary day
every fourth year, thinking thereby to make the civil
and folar year keep pace together. And this day, be¬
ing added to the 23d of February, which in the Ro¬
man kalendar was the fixth of the kalends of March,
that fixth day was twice reckoned, or the 23d and 24th
were reckoned as one day, and was called bis fextus
dies ; and thence came the name bijfextile for that year.
But in our common almanacs this day is added at the
end of February.
Civil lunar The civil lunar year is alfo common or intercalary.
year. The common year confifts of 12 lunations, which con¬
tain 354 days; at the end of which, the year begins
again. The intercalary, or embolimic year is that
wherein a month was added, to adjuft the lunar year
to the folar. This method was ufed by the Jews, who
kept their account by the lunar motions. But by in¬
tercalating no more than a month of 30 days, which
they called Ve-Adar, every third year, they fell 34 days
fliort of the folar year in that time.
The Romans alfo ufed the lunar embolimic year at
firft, as it was fettled by Romulus their firft king, who
made it to confift only of xo months or lunations, which
fell 61 days fhort of the folar year, and fo their year be¬
came quite vague and unfixed ; for which reafon, they
were forced to have a table publiihed by the high-
prieft, to inform them when the fpring and other fea-
Calendar re- fons began. But Julius Caefar, as already mentioned,
formed by taking this troublefome affair into confideration, re-
Juhus Cae- £orme(j tjje kalendar, by making the year to confift of
365 days 6 hours.
The year thus fettled, is what we {till make ufe of
in Britain ; but as it is fomewhat more than 11 mi¬
nutes longer than the folar tropical year, the times of
the equinoxes go backward, and fall earlier by one
Se&. XII.
day in about 130 years. In the time of the Nicene
council, (A. D. 325), which-was 1444 years ago,
the vernal equinox fell on the 21st of march; and if
we divide 1444 by 130 it will quote II, which is the
number of days which the equinox has fallen back
fince the council of Nice. This caufing great ciiftur-
bances, by unfixing the times of the celebration of Ea-
fter, and confequently of all the other moveable feafts, ,,9S
Pope Gregory XIII. in the year 1582, ordered ten By Fr>nc
days to be at once ftruck out of that year; and the Gregory,
next day after the 4th of Otlober was called the 15th.
By this means the vernal equinox was reftored to the
2isc of March; and it was endeavoured, by the omif-
fion of three intercalary days in 400 years, to make '
the civil or political year keep pace with the folar for
time to come. This new form of the year is called
the Gregorian account, or ne-vo Jlile; which is recei¬
ved in all countries where the pope’s authority is ac¬
knowledged, and ought to be in all places where truth
is regarded. ^
The principal divifion of the year is into months, Momhs a-
which are of two forts, namely, afironomical and civil, ftronoir.ical
The aftronomical month is the time in which the moon and civil,
runs through the zodiac, and is either periodical or fy-
nodical. The periodical month is the time fpent by the
moon in making one complete revolution from any
point of the zodiac to the fame again ; which is 2711
7h 43m. The fynodical month, called a lunation, is
the time contained between the moon’s parting with
the fun at a conjunftion, and returning to him again,
which is 29d I2h 44m. The civil months are thofe
which are framed for the ufes of civil life ; and are dif¬
ferent as to their names, number of days, and times of
beginning, in feveral different countries. The firft
month of the Jewifh year fell according to the moon in
our Auguft and September, old ftile ; the fecond in
September and O&ober; and fo on. The firft month
of the Egyptian year began on the 29th of our Auguft.
The firft month of the Arabic and Turkifti year began
the i6Eh of July. The firft month of the Grecian year
fell according to the moon in June and July, the fe¬
cond in July and Auguft, and fo on, as in the follow¬
ing table. 2s>7
A month is divided into four parts called 'weeks, and \yecks.
a week into feven parts called days ; fo that in a Julian
year there are 13 fuch months, or 52 weeks, and one
day over. The Gentiles gave the names of the fun,
moon, and planets, to the days of the week. To the
firft, the name of the Sun; to the fecond, of the Moon;
to the third, of Mars ; to the fourth, of Mercury; to
the fifth, of Jupiter; to the fixth, of Venus ; and to
the feventh, of Saturn,
ASTRONOMY.
:Se<T XII.
flaps
N°
The Jewifh year.
Tifri Aug.—Sept.
Marchefvan   Sept.—Oft.
3 CaOeu Oft. —Nov.
4 Tebeth Nov..—Dec.
5 Shebat Dec.—Jan.
6 Adar Jan. —Feb.
Nifan or Abib Feb. —Mar.
8 ! Jiar   Mar.—Apr.
9 | Sivan Apr.—May
to | Tamuz May—June
11 ! Ab June—July
12 Elul July—Aug.
Days in the year
Days N°
The Egyptian year.
jThoth
Paophi
Athir —
Chojac
Tybi —
Mechir
3
4
5
6 |
7 Pharaenoth -
8 iParmuthi -
9 Pachon —
io Payni  
I x |Epiphi  
12 jMefori  
- Auguft 29
- September 2 8
- Oftober 28
- November 27
- December 27
- January 26
- February 25
- March 27
- April
- May
- June
-July
Epagomenae or days added—
Day
In the embolimic year after Adar they added
month called Ve-Adar of 30 days. 
Days in the year
3i * * * * 65
84
i 99
The Arabic and Turkifh year. Days N'
The ancient Grecian year.
Days
Muharram —
Saphar  
Rabia I. —
Rabia II. —
Jornada I. —
Jornada II.
Rajab  
Shafban —
Ramadam —
Shawal  
Dulhaadah -
Dulheggia ■
- July 16
- Auguft 15
- Septemb 13
- Oftober 13
- Novemb. 11
- Decemb. 11
- January 9
- February
- March
- April
- May
- June
Days in the year -
Hecatombason   June -
Metagitnion     July -
Boedromion -
Pyanepfion —
Maimafterion -
Polideon   —
Gamelion 
Anthefterion —
Elaphebolion —
Munichion —
Thargelion —
Schirrophorion ■
• Aug.-
■ Sept.-
• Oft. -
■ Nov. -
■ Dec.-
• Jan, -
- Feb. -
- Mar.-
- Apr.-
- May-
-July
-Aug.
-Sept.
-Oft.
-Nov.
-Dec.
-Jan.
-Feb.
-Mar.
-Apr.
-May
-June
Days in the year -
The Arabians add 11 days at the end of every year, which keep the fame months to the fame
feafons.
i i natu- A day is either natural or artificial. The natural
<1 ad arti- day contains 24 hours; the artificial the time from fun-
* • rife to fun-fet. The natural day is either ajlronomical
or civil. The aftronomical day begins at noon, be*
Icaufe the increafe and decreafe of days terminated by
the horizon are very unequal among themfelves ; which
inequality is likewife augmented by the inconftancy of
the horizontal rcfraftions, and therefore the aftrono-
mer takes the meridian for the limit of diurnal revolu-
I tions, reckoning noon, that is, the inftant when the
fun’s centre is on the meridian, for the beginning of
the day. The Britilh, French, Dutch, Germans, Spa¬
niards, Portuguefe, and Egyptians, begin the civil
day at midnight; the ancient Greeks, Jews, Bohe¬
mian’s, Silefians, with the modern Italians, and Chi-
nefe, begin it at fun-fetting; and the ancient Baby¬
lonians, Perfians, Syrians, with the modern Greeks, at
fun-rifing.
ind^equal An hour *s a certa^n determinate part of the day, and
aTne- is either e(lual or unequal. An equal hour is the 24th
part of a mean natural day, as ftiewn by well regulated
clocks and watches : but thefe hours are not quite e-
qual as meafured by the returns of the fun to the me¬
ridian, becaufe of the obliquity of the ecliptic and fun’s
unequal motion in it. Unequal hours are thofe by
which the artificial day is divided into twelve parts,
and the night into as many.
An hour is divided into 60 equal parts called mi- Minutes, fe
nutes, a minute into 60 equal parts cz\\td fieconds, and coads, dec,
thefe again into 60 equal parts called thirds. The
Jews, Chaldeans, and Arabians, divide the hour into
1080 equal parts called ficruples; which number con¬
tains 18 times 60, fo that one minute contains 18
fcruples.
A cycle is a perpetual round, or circulation of the Cycles!
fame parts of time of any fort. The cycle of the fun
is a revolution of 28 years, in which time the days of
the months return again to the fame days of the week;
the fun’s place to the fame figns and degrees of the e-
cliptic on the fame months and days, fo as not to differ
one degree in 100 years ; and the leap-years begin the
fame courfe over again with refpeft to the days of the
week on which the days of the months fall. The cycle Go,c!eu
of the moony commonly called the golden number, is a numliei'’
revolution of 19 years; in which time, the conjunftions,
oppofitions, and other afpefts of the moon, are within
an hour and half of being the fame as they were on the
fame days of the months 19 years before. The in-
diftion
842
305
To find the
year of any
cycle.
jot)
Variation o!
the golden
numbers.
307
To find the
golden
number.
ASTRONOMY.
Sed. XII
dittton is a revolution of 15 years, ufed only by the
Romans for indicating the times of certain payments
made by the fubjefts to the republic : It was eftablilh-
ed by Conftantine, A. D. 312.
The year of our Saviour’s birth, according to the
vulgar aera, was the 9th year of the folar cycle, the
firft year of the lunar cycle, and the 312th year after
his birth was the firft year of the Roman indi&ion.
Therefore, to find the year of the folar cycle, add 9 to
any given year of Chrift, and divide the fum by 28,
the quotient is the number of cycles elapfed fince his
birth, and the remainder is the cycle for the given
year : If nothing remains, the cycle is 28. To find
the lunar cycle, add 1 to the given year of Chrift, and
divide the fum by 19 ; the quotient is the number of
cycles elapfed in the interval, and the remainder is the
cycle for the given year : If nothing remains, the cy¬
cle is 19. Laftly, fubtraft 312 from the given year
of Chrift, and divide the remainder by 15 ; and what
remains after this divifion is the indidlion for the given
year: If nothing remains^ the indiftion is 15.
Although the above deficiency in the lunar circle of
an hour and an half every 19 years be but fmall, yet
in time it becomes fo fenfible as to make a whole na¬
tural day in 310 years. So that, although this cycle
be of ufe, when the golden numbers are rightly placed
againft the days of the months in the kalendar, as in
the Common Prayer Books, for finding the days of the
mean conjunftions or oppofitiohs of the fun and moon,
and confeqsently the time of Eafter ; it will only ferve
for 310 years, old ftile. For as the new and full
moons anticipate a day in that time, the golden num¬
bers ought to be placed one day earlier in the kalendar
for the next 310 years to come. Thefe numbers were
rightly placed againft the days of new moon in the ka¬
lendar, by the council of Nice, A. D. 325 ; but the
anticipation, which has been negledled ever fince, is
now grown almoft into 5 days : And therefore, all the
yjolden numbers ought now to be placed 5 days higher
in the kalendar for the old ftile than they were at the
time of the faid council; or 6 days lower for the new
ftile, becaufe at prefent it differs 11 days from the old.
In the following table the golden numbers under the
months ftand againft the days of new moon in the left-
hand column, for the new ftile; adapted chiefly to
the fecond year after leap-year, as being the neareft
mean for all the four; and will ferve till the year 1900.
Therefore-, to find the day of new moon in any month
of a given year till that time, look for the golden num¬
ber of that year under the defired month, and againft
it you have the day of new moon in the left-hand co¬
lumn. Thus, fuppofe it were required to find the day
of new moon in September 1769 ; the golden number
for that year is 3, which I look for under September,
and right againft it in the left-hand column you will
find 30, which is the day of new moon in that month.
N. B. If all the golden numbers, except 17 and 6,
were fet one day lower in the table, it would ferve from
the beginning of the year 1900 till the end of the year
2199. The table at the end of this feftion fhews the
golden number for 4000 years after the birth of Chrift,
by looking for the even hundreds of any given year at
the left hand, and for the reft to make up that year at
the head of the table ; and where the columns meet,
you have the golden number (which is the fame both
in old and new ftile) for the given year. Thus, fup¬
pofe the golden number was wanted for the year 1769;
look for 17O0 at the left hand .of the table, and for 69
at the top of it ; then guiding your eye downward
from 69 to over-againft 1700, you will find 3, which
is the golden number for that year.
But becaufe the lunar cycle of 19 years fometimes
includes five leap-years, and at other times only four,
this table will fometimes vary a day from the truth in
leap-years after February. And it is impoflible to have j
one more correft, unlefs we extend it to four times 19
or 76 years; in which there are 19leap-years without
a remainder. But even then to have it of perpetual
ufe, it muft be adapted to the old ftile ; becaufe, in
every centurial year not divifible by 4, the regular 1
courfe of leap-years is interrupted in the new ; as will
be the cafe in the year 1800. 3o8 ]
The cycle of Eafter, alfo called the Dionyjian period, Dionyta
is a revolution of 532 years, found by multiplying the period,
folar cycle 28 by the lunar cycle 19. If the new fyc,eoF
moons did not anticipate upon this cycle, Eafter-day ei‘ j
would always be the Sunday next after the firft full
moon, which follows the 21st of March. But, on ac¬
count of the above anticipation, to which no proper
regard was had before the late alteration of the ftile,
the ecclefiaftic Eafter has feveral times been a week ]
different from the true Eafter within this laft century :
which inconvenience is now remedied by making the
table, which ufed to find Eafterfor ever, in the Com¬
mon Prayer Book, of no longer ufe than the lunar dif¬
ference from the new ftile will admit of.
Theearlieft Eafter pollible is the 22d of March, the 395 '
lateft the 25th of April. Within thefe limits are 35 ]
days, and the number belonging to each of them is
called the number of direftion; becaufe thereby the
time of Eafter is found for any given year. 310
The firft feven letters of the alphabet are commonly -Dominie
placed in the annual almanacs, to ftiew on what days let er" |
of the week the days of the months fall throughout
the year. And becaufe one of thofe feven letters muft
neceffarily ftand againft Sunday, it is printed in a ca¬
pital form, and called the dominical letter ; the other
fix being inferted in fmall chara&ers, to denote the o-
ther fix days of the week. Now, fince a common Julian
year contains 365 days, if this number be divided by 7
(the number of days in a week) there will remain one J
day. If there had been no remainder, it is plain the
year would conftantly begin on the fame day of the |
week: but fince one remains, it is plain, that the year
muft begin and end on the fame day of the week; and
therefore the next year will begin on the day following.
Hence, when January begins on Sunday, A is the do¬
minical or Sunday letter for that year : Then, becaufe
the next year begins on Monday, the Sunday will fall
on the feventh day, to w7hich is annexed thefeventh let¬
ter G, which therefore will be the dominical letter for
all that year: and as the third year will begin on Tuef-
day, the Sunday will fall on the fixth day; therefore F
will be the Sunday letter for that year. Whence it is
evident, that the Sunday letters will go annually in a
retrograde order thus, G, F, E, D, C, B, A. And,
in the courfe of feven years, if they were all common
ones, the fame days of the w-eek and dominical letters
would return to the fame days of the months. But
becaufe there are 366 days in a leap-year, if this num-
lea. XII. ASTRO
ber be divided by 7, there will remain two days over
and above the 52 weeks of which the year confifts.
And therefore, if the leap-year begins on Sunday, it
will end on Monday ; and the next year will begin on
I" Tuefday, the firft Sunday whereof muft fall on the fixth
of January, to which is annexed the letter F, and not
G, as in common years. By this means, the leap-
year returning every fourth year, the order of the do¬
minical letters is interrupted ; andtheferies cannot re¬
turn to its firft ftate till after four times feven, or 28
Mi From the multiplication of the folar cycle of 28 years
Pc* into the lunar cycle of 19 years, and the Roman in-
di&ion of 15 years, arifes the great Julian period, con¬
fining of 7980 years, which had its beginning 764
I years before Strauchius’s fuppofed year .of the. creation
N O M Y.
(for no later could all the three cycles begin together),
and it is not yet completed: And therefore it includes
all other cycles, periods, and aeras. There is but one
year in the whole period that has the fame numbers for
the three cycles of which it is made up : And there¬
fore, if hiftorians had remarked in their writings the
cycles of each year, there had been no difpute about
the time of any aftion recorded by them.
The Dionyfian or vulgar aera of Chrift’s birth was _ .
about the end of the year of the Julian period 4713 ; yearof th/
and confequently the firft year of his age, according to Julian pe-
that account, was the 4714th year of the faid period, riod.
Therefore, if to the current year of Chrift we add
4713, the fum will be the year of the Julian period.
So the year 1769 will be found to be the 6482d year
of that period. Or, to find the year of the Julian pe¬
riod anfwering to any given year before the firft year
of Chrift, fubtraft the number of that given year from
4714, and the remainder will be the year of the Julian
period. Thus, the year 585 before the firft year of
Chrift (which was the 584cl1 before his birth) was the
4129th year of the faid period. Laftly, to find the
cycles of the fun, moon, and indi&ion for any given
year of this period, divide the given year by 28, 19,
and 15; the three remainders wiilbethe cycles fought,
and the quotients the numbers of cycles run fince the
beginning of the period. So in the above 4714th year
of the Julian period, .the cycle of the fun was 10, the
cycle of the moon 2, and the cycle of indiftion 4;
the folar cycle having run through 168 courfds, the
lunar 248, and the indi&ion 314. JI5
The vulgar sera of Chrift’s birth was never fettled Year of
till the year 527, when Dionyiius Exiguus, a Roman clir’^’s
abbot, fixed it to the end of the 4713 th year of the fctqedT*''1*
Julian period, which was four years too late. For our
Saviour was born before the death of Herod, who
fought to kill him as foon as he heard of his birth.
And, according to the teftimony of Jofephus (5. xvii.
ch. 8.) there was an eclipfe of the moon in the time
of Herod’s laft illnefs; which eclipfe appears by our
aftronomical tables to have been in the year of the Ju¬
lian period 4710, March i3 h, at 3 hours pad mid¬
night, at Jerufalem. Now, as our Saviour muft have
been born fome months before Herod’s death, fince in
the interval he was carried into Egypt, the lateft time
in which we can fix the true asra of his birth is about
the end of the 4709th year of the Julian period. 3,4
As there are certain fixed points in the heavensfrom .Eras or E-
which aftronomers begin their computations, fo there Pochs.
are certain points of time from which hiftorians begin
to reckon ; and thefe points or roots of time are called
teras or epochs. The moft remarkable asras are, thofe
of the Creation, the Greek Olympiads, the building
of Rome, the aera of Nabonaffar, the death of Alex-
der, the birth of Chrift, the Arabian Hegira, and the
Perfian Jefdegird: All which, together with feveral-
others of lefs note, have their beginnings in the fol¬
lowing table fixed to the years of the Julian period, to
the age of the world at thofe times, and to the years
before and after the year of Chrift’s birth.
Ai
44
A S T R O N O
A Table of remarkable Hr as and Events.
M Y.
23-
24.
25.
26.
27-
28.
29.
3°*
31*
32,
33-
34-
35-
36-
37-
38.
39-
40.
41.
42.
43-
44.
45-
46.
47-
48.
49.
5°.
51*
52.
The creation of the world - - - . .
The deluge, or Noah’s flood - . . .
The Aflyrian monarchy founded by Nimrod
The birth of Abraham - - - . _
The deftruftion of Sodom and Gomorrah
The beginning of the kingdom of Athens by Cecrops
Mofes receives the ten commandments from God
The entrance of the Ifraelites into Canaan
The deftruftion of Troy - - . . .
The beginning of king David’s reign -
The foundation of Solomon’s temple ...
The Argonautic expedition - -
Lycurgus forms his excellent laws - - -
Arbaces, the firft king of the Medes ...
Mandaucus, the fecond -
Sofarmus, the third ....
The beginning of the Olympiads
Artica, the fourth king of the Medes
The Catonian epocha of the building of Rome
The sera of Nabonaffar ......
The deftruftion of Samaria by Salmanefer
The firft eclipfe of the moon on record
Cardicea, the fifth king of the Medes
Phraortes, the fixth - - - -
Cyaxares, the feventh . - . _
The firft Babylonilh captivity by Nebuchadnezzar
The long war ended between the Medes and Lydians
The fecond Babylonifh captivity, and birth of Cyrus
The deftru&ion of Solomon’s temple ...
Nebuchadnezzar ftruck with madnefs
Daniel’s vifion of the four monarchies ...
Cyrus begins to reign in the Perfian empire
The battle of Marathon - . . . -
Artaxerxes Longimanus begins to reign
The beginning of Daniel’s feventy weeks of years
The beginning of the Pelopennefian war
Alexander’s victory at Arbela ...
The death of Alexander .....
The captivity of 100,000 Jews by king Ptolemy
The coloffus of Rhodes thrown down by an earthquake
Antrochus defeated by Ptolemy Philopater
The famous Archimedes murdered at Syracufe
Jafon butchers the inhabitants of Jerufalem
Corinth plundered and burnt by conful Mummius
Julius Caefar invades Britain - - - -
He correfts the kalendar
Is killed in the Senate-houfe - - -
Herod made king of Judea - - - - .
Anthony defeated at the battle of Aftium
Agrippa builds the Pantheon at Rome
The true aera of Chrift’s birth ....
The death of Herod ....
53. The Dionyfian, or vulgar sera of Chrift’s birth
54. The true year of his crucifixion *
55. The deftruclion of Jerufalem
56. Adrian builds the long wall in Britain
57. Conftantius defeats the Picls in Britain
58. The council of Nice - - -
59. The death of Conftantine the great
60. The Saxons invited into Britain
61. The Arabian Hegira ....
Julian
Period
706
2362
2537
2714
2816
3157
3222
3262
3529
3650
3701
3776
3829
3838
3865
39*5
3938
3945
3961
3967
3992
3993
3996
4058
4080
4107
4111
4”4
4125
4144
4158
4177
4223
4249
4256
4282
4383
439°
4393
4491
4496
4506
4543
4567
4659
4677
4671
4673
4683
4688
4709
47‘°
4713
4746
4783
4833
5019
5038
5050
5158
5335
Y.ofthe
World.
o
1656
1831
2008
2110
2451
2516
2556
2823
2944
2995
3070
31o3
3X59
3209
3232
3239
3255
3261
3286
3287
3290
3352
3374
34°!
3405
3408
3419
3438
3452
347i
35I7
3543
3350
3576
3677
3684
3687
3875
3790
3800
3837
3861
3953
3961
3965
3967
3977
3982
4003
4004
4007
4040
4077
4127
4313
4332
4344
4452
4629
Before
Chrift.
4007
2351
2176
1999
1897
1556
1491
1451
x 184
1063
1012
937
884
875
848
798
775
768
746
721
720
7i7
655
633
606
602
599
588
569
S36
490
464
457
431
33°
323
320
222
217
207
170
146
54
46
42
40
3°
25
4
3
After
Chrift.
o
33
70
120
306
325
337
445
622
Sea. XII
Sea. XII.
ASTRONOMY.
845
i
U 3*7
62. The death of Mohammed the pretended prophet
63. The Perfian Yefdegird ...
64. The fun, moon, and all the planets, in Libra, Sep. 14.
65. The art of printing difeovered
66. The reformation begun by Martin Luther
i feen from the earth
Julian
Period.
5343
5344
5899
6i53
6230
Y. oft he
World.
4637
4638
5[93
5447
5524
After
Chrift.
630
631
1186
1440
1517
In fixing the year of the creation to the 7o6rh year
of the Julian period, which was the 4007th year be¬
fore the year of Chrift’s birth, we have followed Mr
Bedford in his feripture chronology, printed A. D.
1730, and Mr Kennedy in a work of the fame kind,
printed A. D. 1762.—Mr Bedford takes it only for
granted that the world was created at the time of the
autumnal equinox : But Mr Kennedy affirms, that the
faid equinox was at the noon of the fourth day of the
creation-week, and that the moon was then 24 hours
part her oppofition to the fun.—If Mofes had told us
the fame things, we ffiould have had fufficient data for
fixing the asra of the creation : But as he has been
filent on thefe points, we muft confider the beft ac¬
counts of chronologers as entirely hypothetical and
uncertain.
Table, fbewing the Golden Number, (which is the fame both in the Old and New Stile)-
from the Chr ifi an JEra, to A. D. 4000.
Years lefs than an hundred.
Hundreds
of
Years.
12CO
1300
I4OO
1700
[SCO
1900
2000
2100
2200
2300
24OO
25OG
2600
27OO
2 800
29OO
2000
3100
3200
33°°
3400
3500
3600
37oo
3800
3900
4000
3° 3
49 5°
68 69
87 88
l8|19
4! 5
9 10
4,15
9 j 1
5
o
t5 16
1
6 7
t6117
2 j 3
7! 8
Se£L XIII. A Defcription of the Aftronamicdl
Machinery ferving to explain and illufrate the
foregoing part of this Treatife.
The Orrery, (Plate LI. fig. 3.) This machine
fhews the motions of the fun, Mercury, Venus, earth,
and moon ; and occafionally thefuperior planets. Mars,
Jupiter, and Saturn, may be put on ; Jupiter’s four
fatellites are moved round him in their proper times
by a fmall winch ; and Saturn has his five fatellites,
and his ring which keeps its parallelifm round the fun ;
and by a lamp put in the fun’s place, the ring ihews
all its various phafes already deferibed.
Vol. II.
In the centre, N° 1, reprefents the fun, fupported
by its axis, inclining almolt 8 degrees from the axis of
the ecliptic, and turning round in 25^ days on its axis,
of which the north pole inclines toward the eighth de¬
gree of Pifces in the great ecliptic, (N° 11.), where¬
on the months and days are engraven over the figns and
degrees in which the fun appears, as feen from the
earth, on the different days of the year.
The neareft planet (N° 2.) to the fun is Mercury,
which goes round him in 87 days 23 hours, or 87^4
diurnal rotations of the earth; but has no motion round
its axis in the machine, becaufe the time of its diurnal
motion in the heavens is not known to us.
5 O
The
846 ASTRO
The next planet in order is Venus, (N° 3.), which
performs her annual courfe in 224 days 17 hours, and
turns round her axis in 24 days 8 hours, or in 24j-
diurnal rotations of the earth. Her axis inclines 75
degrees from the axis of the ecliptic, and her north
pole inclines towards the 20th degree of Aquarius, ac¬
cording to the obfervations of Bianchini. She ihews all
the phenomena defcribed in Seft. ii.
Next, without the orbit of Venus, is the earth,
(N°4.), which turns round its axis, to any fixed point
at a great diftance, in 23 hours 56 minutes four feconds
of mean folar time ; but from the fun to the fun again,
in 24 hours of the fame time. N° 6. is a fidereal dial-
plate under the earth, and N° 7. a folar dial-plate on
the cover of the machine. The index of the former
fhews fidereal, and of the later, folar time ; and hence
the former index gains one entire revolution on the lat¬
ter every year, as 365 folar or natural days contain
366 fidereal days, or apparent revolutions of the ftars.
In the time that the earth makes 3651- diurnal rotations
on its axis, it goes once round the fun in the plane of
the ecliptic; and always keeps oppofite to a moving
index (N° 10.) which (hews the fun's daily change of
place, and alfo the days of the months.
The earth is half covered with a black cap, for di¬
viding the apparently enlightened half next the fun from
the other half, which, when turned away from him, is
in the dark. The edge of the cap reprefents the circle
bounding light and darknefs, and Ihews at what time
the fun rifes and fets to all places throughout the year.
The earth’s axis inclines 234- degrees from the axis of
the ecliptic; the north pole inclines toward the begin¬
ning of Cancer, and keeps its parallelifm throughout
its annual courfe; fo that in fummerthe northern parts
of the earth incline towards the fun, and in winter from
him : by which means, the different lengths of days
and nights, and the caufe of the various feafons, are
demonftrated to fight.
There is a broad horizon, to the upper fide of which
is fixed a meridian femicircle in the north and fouth
points, graduated on both fides from the horizon to
90° in the zenith or vertical point. The edge of the
horizon is graduated from the eaft and weft to the fouth
and north points, and within thefe divifions are the
points of the compafs. From the lower fide of this
thin horizontal plate ftand out four fmall wires, to which
is fixed a twilight-circle 18 degrees from the graduated
fide of the horizon all round. This horizon may be
put upon the earth, (when the cap istaken away), and
reftified to the latitude of any place ; and then by
a fmall wire called the folar ray, which may be put on
fo as to proceed dire&ly from the fun’s centre towards
the earth’s, but to come no farther than almoft to
touch the horizon. The beginning of twilight, time
of fun-rifing, with his amplitude, meridian altitude,
time of fetting, amplitude then, and end of twilight,
are (hewn for every day of the year, at that place to
which the horizon is re&ified.
The moon (N°5.) goes round the earth, from be¬
tween it and any fixed point at a great diftance, in 27
days 7 hours 43 minutes, or through all the figns and
degrees of her orbit, which is called her periodical re¬
volution ; but Ihe goes round from the fun to the fun
again, or from change to change, in 29 days 12 hours
45 minutes, which is her (ynodical revolution', and in
N O M Y. Sed. XIII,
that time fire exhibits all the phafes already defcribed.
When the abovementioned horizon is redlified to
the latitude of any given place, the times of the moon’s
rifing and fetting, together with her amplitude, are
Ihewn to that place as well as the fun’s ; and all the
various phenomena of the harveft-moon are made ob¬
vious to fight.
The moon’s orbit (N0 9.) is inclined to the ecliptic
(N°ii.), one half being above, and the other below
it. The nodes, or points at o and o, lie in the plane
°fnLe ec^Pt^c> as before defcribed, and ftiift backward
through all its fines and degrees in 184 years. The
degrees of the moon’s latitude to the higheft at NL
(norths latitude) and loweft at SL (fouth latitude),
are engraven both ways from her nodes at o and o, and
as the moon rifes and falls in her orbit according to its
inclination, her latitude and diftance from her nodes
are fhewn for every day, having firft reftified her or¬
bit fo as to fet the nodes to their proper places in the
ecliptic; and then as they come about at different J
and almoft oppofite times of the year, and then point
towards the fun, all the eclipfes may be fliewn for hun¬
dreds of years, (without any new redfification), by
turning the machinery backward for time paft, or for¬
ward for time to come. At 17 degrees diftance from
each node, on both fides is ingraved a fmall fun ; and
at 12 degrees diftance, a fmall moon, which fhew the
limits of folar and lunar eclipfes; and when, at any
change the moon falls between either of thefe fun’s and
the node, the fun will be eclipfed on the day pointed
to by the annual index, (N° 10.); and as the moon
has then north or fouth latitude, one may eafily judge
whether that eclipfe will be vifible in the northern or
fouthern hemifphere: efpecially as the earth’s axis in¬
clines toward the fun or fromjiimat that time. And
when at any full, the moon falls between either of *;
the little moon’s and node, fire will be eclipfed, and
the annual index ftiews the day of that eclipfe. There
is a circle of 294- equal parts (N° 8.) on the cover of j
the machine, on which an index fhews the days of the •
moon’s age.
There are two femicircles (Plate LII. fig. 1.)
fixed to an elliptical ring, which being put like a cap
upon the earth, and the forked part F upon the moon,
fhews the tides as the earth turns round within them,
and they are led round it by the moon. When the dif¬
ferent places come to the femicircle A«E^B, they have ;
tides of flood ; and when they come to the femicircle
CED, they have tides of ebb ; the index on the hour
circle (N° 7. Plate LI.) Ihewing the times of thefe phe¬
nomena.
There is a jointed wire, of which one end being put
into a hole in the upright flem that holds the earth’s
cap, and the wire laid into a fmall forked piece which •
may be occafionally put upon Venus or Mercury, fhews
the direft and retrograde motions of thefe two planets,
with their ftationary times and places, as feen from the
earth.
The whole machinery is turned by a winch or handle
(N° 12.), and is fo eafily moved, that a clock might 1
turn it without any danger of flopping.
To give a plate of the wheel-work of this machine,
would anfwer no purpofe, becaufe many of the wheels ■
He fo behind others as to hide them from fight in any
view whatever..
The
847
ASTRONOMY.
Sea. XIII.
318 The CometArium, (Plate LII. fig. 2.) This curi¬
ous machine fhews the motion of a comet or excentric
body moving round the fun, defcribing equal areas in
equal times, and may be fo contrived as to fliew fuch a
motion for any degree of excentricity. It was invent¬
ed by the late Dr Defaguliers.
The dark elliptical groove round the letters abcdcfghi
klm is the orbit of the comet Y ; this comet is carried
round in the groove according to the order of letters,
by the wire W fixed in the Tun S, and Aides the
wire as it approaches nearer to or recedes farther from
the fun, being neareft of all in the perihelion a, and
fartheft in the aphelion g. The areas, aSb, bSc, cSd,
See. or contents of thefe feveral triangles, are all equal ;
and in every turn of the winch N, the comet Y is car¬
ried over one of thefe areas ; confequently, in as much
time as it moves from f to g, or from g to h, it moves
from m to a> or from a to b •, and fo of the reft, being
quickeft of all at a, and ftoweft at g. Thus the co¬
met’s velocity in its orbit continually decreafes from the
perihelion a to the aphelion g; and increafes in the
fame proportion from g to a.
The elliptic orbit is divided into 12 equal parts or
figns, with their refpeftive degrees, and fo is the circle
nopqrstu, which reprefents a great circle in the heavens,
and to which the comet’s motion is referred by a fmall
knob on the point of the wire W. Whilft the comet
moves from y to £ in its orbit, it appears to move only
about fivedegrees in this circle, as is fliewn by the fmall
knob on the end of the wire W ; but in as fhort time
as the comet moves from m to a, or from a to b, it
appears to deferibe the large fpace tn or no in the hea¬
vens, either of which fpaces contains 120 degrees, or
four figns. Were the-excentricity of its orbit greater,
the greater ftill would be the difference of its motion,
and v/ce verfa.
ABCDEFGHIKLMA is a circular orbit for Aiew-
ing the equable motion of a body round the fun S, de¬
fcribing equal areas ASB, BSC, &c. in equal times
with thofe of the body Y in its elliptical orbit above
mentioned ; but with this difference, that the circular
motion deferibes the equal arcs AB, BC, &c. in the fame
equal times that the elliptical motion deferibes the un¬
equal arcs, ab, be. Sec.
Now, fuppofe the two bodies Y and 1 to ftart from
the points a and A at the fame moment of time, and,
each having gone round its refpeftive orbit, to arrive
at thefe points again at the fame inftant, the body Y
will be forwarder in its orbit than the body 1 all the
way from a to g, and from A to G; but 1 will be
forwarder than Y through all the other half of the or¬
bit ; and the difference is equal to the equation of the
body Y in its orbit. At the points a A, and gG, that
is, that in the perihelion and aphelion, they will be e-
qual; and then the equation vanifties. This thews why
the equation of a body moving in an elliptic orbit, is
added to the mean or fuppofed circular motion from
the perihelion to the aphelion, and fubtrafted from the
aphelion to the perihelion, in bodies moving round the
fun, or from the perigectothe apogee,and from the apo¬
gee to the perigee in the moon’s motion round the earth.
This motion is performed in the following manner
by the machine, (Plate LII. fig. 3.). ABC is a
wooden bar, (in the box containing the wheel-work),
above which are the wheels D and E, and below it the
elliptic plates FF and GG ; each plate being fixed on
an axis in one of its focufes, at E and K; and the
wheel E is fixed on the fame axis with the plate FF.
Thefe plates have grooves round their edges precifely
of equal diameters to one another, and in thefe grooves
is the cat-gut ftring gg, gg croffing between the plates
at b. On H, the axis of the handle or winch N in fig.
2. is an endlefs ferew in fig. 4. working in the wheels
D and E, whofe numbers of teeth being equal, and
ftiould be equal to the number of lines aS, bS, cS, See.
in fig. 2. they turn round their axes in equal times to
one another, and to the motion of the elliptic plates.
For, the wheels D and E having equal numbers of teeth,
the plate FF being fixed on the fame axis with the
wheel E, and the plate II turning the equally big
plate GG by a cat-gut ftring round them both, they
muft all go round their axes in as many turns of the
handle N as either of the wheels has teeth.
Itis eafy to fee, that the end of b of the elliptical plate
FF being farther from its axis E than the oppofite
end I is, muft deferibe a circle fo much the larger in
proportion, and therefore move through fo much more
fpace in the fame time ; and for that reafon the end h
moves fo much fafter than the end I, although it goes
no fooner round the centre E. But then the quick-
moving end h of the plate FF leads about the fhort end
of the plate GG with the fame velocity; and the
Aow-moving end I of the plate FF coming half round as
toB, muft then lead the long end i of the plate GG as
fiowly about: fo that the elliptical plate FF and its
axis E move uniformly and equally quick in every part
of its revolution ; but the elliptical plate GG, together
with its axis K, muft move very unequally in different
parts of its revolution ; the difference being always in-
verfcly as the diftance of any point of the circumference
of GG from its axis at K : or in other words, to in-
ftance in two points, if the diftance "Ki be four, five,
or fix times as great as the diftance K£, the point h will
move in that pofition four, five, or fix times as fail as
the point k does, when the plate GG has gone half
round ; and fo on for any other excentricity or diffe¬
rence of the diftances Ki and K6. The tooth I on
the plate FF falls in between the two teeth at k on the
plate GG, by which means the revolution of the lat¬
ter is fo adjufted to that of the former, that they can
never vary from one another.
On the top of the axis of the equally-moving wheel
D in fig. 3. is the fun S in fig. 2. ; which fun, by the
wire fixed to it, carries the ball 1 round the circle
ABCD, &c. with an equable motion, according to
the order of the letters: and on the top of the axis K
of the unequally-moving ellipfis GG, in fig. 3. is the
fun S in fig. 2. carrying the ball Y unequably round
in the elliptical groove abed. Sec. N. B. This elliptical
groove muft be precifely equal and fimilar to the verge
of the plate GG, which is alfo equal to that of FF.
In this manner machines may be made to fhew the
true motion of the moon about the earth, or of any
planet about the fun, by making the elliptical plates
of the fame excentricities, in proportion to the radius,
as the orbits of the planets are, whofe motions they re~
prefent; and fo their different equations in different
parts of their orbits may be made plain to fight, and
clearer ideas of thefe motions and equations acquired
in half an hour, than could be gained from reading half
A S T R C
a day about fucli motions and equations.
The Improved Celestial Globe, (PI. XLVIII.
fig. 2.) On the north pole of the axis, above the hour-
circle, is fixed an arch MKH of 234- degrees; and at
the end PI is fixed an upright pin PIG, which hands
direiStly over the north pole of the ecliptic, and per¬
pendicular to that part of the furface of the globe. On
this pin are two moveable collets at D and H, to which
are fixed the quadrantile wires N and O, having two
little balls on their ends for the fun and moon, as in the
figure. The collet D is fixed to the circular plate F,
whereon the 294- days of the moon’s age are engraven,
beginning juft under the fun’s wire N; and as this wire
is moved round the globe, the plate F turns round
with it. Thefe wires are cafily turned, if the fcrew G
be flackened : and when they are fet to their proper
places, the fcrew ferves to fix them there fo as in turn¬
ing the ball of the globe, the wires with the fun and
moon go round with it; and thefe two little balls rife
and fet at the fame times, and on thfe fame points of
the horizon, for the day to which they are redtified,
as the fun and moon do in the heavens.
Becaufe the moon keeps not her courfe in the eclip¬
tic, (as the fun appears to do), but has a declination
of 54- degrees on each fide from it in every lunation,
her ball mayrbe fcrewed as many degrees to either fide
of the ecliptic as her latitude or declination from the
ecliptic amounts to at any given time; and for this
purpofe S, Plate L.V. fig. 1. is a fmall piece of pafte-
board, of which the curved edge at S, is to be fet up¬
on the globe at right angles to the ecliptic, and the
dark line over S to ftand upright upon it. From this
line, on the convex edge, are drawn the 54- degrees of
the moon’s latitude on both Tides of the ecliptic ; and
when this piece is fet upright on the globe, its gra¬
duated edge reaches to the moon on the wire O,
by which means fhe is eafily adjufted to her latitude
found by an ephemeris.
The horizon is fupported by two femicircitlar arches,
becaufe pillars would flop the progrefs of the balls
when they go below the horizon in an oblique fphere.
To rettify this globe. Elevate the pole to the latitude
of the place ; then bring the fun’s place in the eclip¬
tic for the given day to the brazen meridian, and fet
the hour index to 12 at noon, that is to the upper 12
on the hour circle ; keeping the globe in that fituation,
fiacken the fcrew G, and fet the fun diredtly over his
place on the meridian ; which done fet the moon’s wire
under the number that expreffes her age for that day
on the plate F, and Ihe will then ftand over her place
in the ecliptic, and (hew what conftellation fhe is in.
Laftly, fallen the fcrew G, and laying the curved edge
of the pafteboard S over the ecliptic below the moon,
adjuft the moon to her latitude over the graduated
edge of the pafteboard ; and the globe will be re&ified.
Having thus re&ified the globe, turn it round, and
obferve on what points of the horizon the fun and moon
balls rife and fet, for thefe agree with the points of
the compafs on which the fun and moon rife and fet in
the heavens on the given day : and the hour index {hews
the times of their rifing and fetting ; and likewife the
time of the moon’s palling over the meridian.
This fimple apparatus fhews all the varieties that
can happen in the rifing and fetting of the fun and
moon : and makes the forementioned phenomena of
N O M Y. Sett.
the harveft moon plain to the eye. It is alfo very ufe-
ful in reading le&ures on the globes, becaufe a large
company can fee this fun and moon go round, rifing
above and fetting below the horizon at different times
according to the feafonsof the year ; and making their
appulfes to different fixed Tears. But in the ufual way,
where there is only the places of the fun and moon in
the ecliptic to keep the eye upon, they are eafily loft
fight of, unlefs they be covered with patches.
The Planetary Globe, (Plate LIII. fig. 1.)
In this machine, a terreftrial globe is fixed on its axis
Handing upright on the pedeftal CDE, on which is
an hour-circle, having its index fixed on the axis, which
turns fomewhat tightly in the pedeftal, fo that the
globe may not be liable to {hake ; to prevent which,
the pedeftal is about twor inches thick, and the axis
goes quite through it, bearing on a {boulder. The
globe is hung in a graduated brazen meridian, much
in the ufdal way; and the thin plate N, NE, E is a
moveable horizon graduated round the outer edge,
for {hewing the bearings and amplitudes of the fun,
moon, and planets. The brazen meridian is grooved
round the outer edge ; and in this groove is a {lender
femicircle of brafs, the ends of which are fixed to the
horizon in its north and fouth points; this femicircle
Aides in the groove as the horizon is moved in rectify¬
ing it for different latitudes. To the middle of this
femicircle is fixed a pin, which always keeps in the
zenith of the horizon, and on this pin the quadrant of
altitude y turns ; the lower end of which, in all politions
touches the horizon as it is moved round the fame.
This quadrant is divided into 90 degrees from the
horizon to the zenithal pin .on which it is turned, at
90. The great flat circle or plate AB is the ecliptic,
on the outer edge of which the figns and degrees are
laid down : and every fifth degree is drawn through
the reft of the furface of this plate towards its centre.
On this plate are feven grooves, to which feven little
balls, are adjufted by Aiding wires, fo that they are ea-
fily moved in the grooves, without danger of ftarting
them. The ball next the terreftrial globe is the moon,
the next without it is Mercury, the next Venus, the
next the fun, then Mars, then Jupiter, and laftly Sa¬
turn. This plate or ecliptic, is fupported by four Itrong
wires, having their lower ends fixed into the pedeftal,
at C, D, E, the fourth being hid by the globe. The
ecliptic is inclined 234- degrees to the pedeftai, and is
therefore properly inclined to the axis of the globe
which ftands upright on the pedeftal.
Ta rettify this viachine. Set the fun, and all the pla¬
netary balls, to their geocentric places in the ecliptic
for any given time, by an ephemeris; then fet the
north point of the horizon to the latitude of your place
on the brazen meridian, and the quadrant of altitude
to the fouth point of the horizon; which done, turn
the globe with its furniture till the quadrant of altitude
comes right againft the fun, viz. to his place in the
ecliptic : and keeping it there, fet the hour index to
the XII next the letter C ; and the machine will be
reftified, not only for the following problems, but for
feveral others which the artift may eafily find out.
Problem. I. To find the amplitudes, meridian a\ti~
tudes, and times of rijing, culminating, and fetting of
the fun, moon, and planets*
Turn
849
Sea. XIII. ASTRONOMY.
3U
3^3
314
Turn the globe round eaftward, or according to
the order of figns $ and as the e&ftern edge of the-dio-
-rizon comes right againft the fun, moon, or any planet,
the hour index will fhew the time of its rifing ; and
the inner edge of the ecliptic will cut its rifing ampli¬
tude in the horizon. Turn on, and as the quadrant
of ailtitude comes right againft the fun, moon, or pla¬
nets,the ecliptic cuts their meridian altitudes in the qua¬
drant, and th^ hour index (hews the times of their co¬
ming to the meridian. Continue turning, and as the
weftern edge of the horizon comes right againft the
fun, moon, or planets, their fetting amplitudes are cut
i n the horizon by the ecliptic; and the times of their
fetting are (hewn by the index on the hour-circle.
Prob. il. To find the altitude and azimuth of the fun-,
moon, and planets, at any time of their being above
the horizon.
Turn the globe till the index comes to the given
time in the hour-circle, then keep the globe fteady,
and moving the quadrant of altitude to each planet re-
fpe&ively, the edge of the ecliptic will cut the pla¬
net’s mean altitude on the quadrant, and the quadrant
will cut the planet’s azimuth, or point of bearing on
the horizon.
Pros. III. The fun's altitude being given at any time
either before or after noon, to find the hour of the day,
and variation of the compafs, in any knoivn latitude.
With one hand hold the edge of the quadrant right
againft the fun ; and, with the other hand, turn the
globe weftward, if it bp in the forenoon, or eaftward
if it be in the afternoon, until the fun's place at the
inner edge of the ecliptic cuts the quadrant in the fun’s
obferved altitude; and then the hour-index will point
out the time of the day, and the quadrant will cut the
true azimuth, or bearing of the fun for that time :
the difference between which, and the bearing (hewn
by the azimuth' compafs, (hews the variation of the
eompafs in that place of the earth.
The Trajectorium Lunare, Plate LIII. fig. 2.
This machine is for delineating the paths of the earth
and moon, (hewing what fort of curves they make in
the etherial regions. S is the fun, and E the earth,
whofe centres are 95 inches diftant from each other;
every inch anfwering to 1,600,000 of miles. Mis the
moon, whofe centre is parts of an inch from the
earth’s in this machine, this being in juft proportion to
the moon’s diftance from the earth. A A is a bar of
wood, to be moved by hand round the axis g which is
fixed in the wheel Y. The circumference of this wheel
is to the circumference of the fmall wheel L (below the
other end of the bar) as 365!: days is to 294, or as a
year is to a lunation. The wheels are grooved round
their edges, and in the grooves is the cat-gut ftring
GG crofting between the,wheels at X. On the axis
of the wheel L is the index F, in which is fixed the
moon’s axis M for carrying her round the earth E (fix¬
ed on the axis of the wheel L) in the time that the in¬
dex goes round a circle of 29^ equal parts, which are
the days of the moon’s age. The wheel Y has the
months and days of the year all round its limb ; and
in the bar A A is fixed the index /, which points
out the days of the months anfwering to the days of
the moon’s age, (hewn by the index F, in the circle
of 294- equal parts at the other end of the bar. On
the axis of the wheel L is put the piece D, below the
cock C, in which this axis turns round; and in D
are put the pencils e and m, dire&ly under the earth E
and moon M ; fo that m is carried round e, as M is
round E.
Lay the machine on an even floor, prefling gently on
the wheel Y, to caufe its fpiked feet (of which two
appear at P and P, the third being fuppofed to be hid
from fight by the wheel) enter a little into the floor to
fecure the wheel from turning. Then lay a paper a-
bout four feet long under the pencils e and m, crofs-
wife to the bar; which done, move the bar (lowly
round the axis g of the wheel Y ; and as the earth E
goes round the fun S, the moon M will go round the
earth with a duly proportioned velocity; and .the fric¬
tion wheel W running on the floor, will keep the bar
from bearing too heavily on the pencils e and m, which
will delineate the paths of the earth and moon. As
the index I points out the days of the months, the in¬
dex F (hews the moon’s age on thefe days, in the circle
of 294- equal parts. And as this laft index points to
the different days in its circle, the like numeral figures
may be fet to thofe parts of the curves of the earth’s
path and moon’s, where the pencils e and m are at thofe
times refpeftively, to (hew the places of the earth and
moon. If the pencil e be puihed a very little off, as if
from the pencil m, to about part o£ their diftance,
and the pencil m puihed as much towards e, to bring
them to the fame diftances again, though not to the
fame points of fpace ; then, as m goes round e, e will
go as it were round the centre of gravity between the
earth e and moon m; but this motion will not fenfibly
alter the figure of the earth’s path or the moon’s.
If a pin, as p, be put through the pencil m, with
its head towards that of the pin q in the pencil e, its
head will always keep thereto as m goes round s, or as
the fame fide of the moon is {till obverted to the earth.
But the pin p, which may he confidered as an equato¬
rial diameter of the moon, will turn quite round the
point m, making all pofiible angles with the line of
its progrefs, or line of the moon’s path. This is an
ocular proof of the moon’s turning round her axis.
The Tide-dial, Plate LIV. fig. 1. The outfide
parts of this machine confift of, 1. An eight-fided
box, on the top of which at the corners is (hewn the
phafes of the moon at the odftants, quarters, and full.
Within thefe is a circle of 294-equal parts, which arc
the days of the moon’s age accounted from the fun at
new moon, round to the fun again. Within this circle
is one of 24 hours divided into their refpeftive halves
and quarters. 2. A moving elliptical plate, painted
blue, to reprefent the rifing of the tides under and op-
pofite to the moon ; and has the words, high water,
tide falling, low water, tide rifing, marked upon it.
To one end of this plate is fixed the moon M by the
wire W, and goes along with it. 3. Above this el¬
liptical plate is a round one, with the points of the
compafs upon it, and alfo the names of above 200
places in the large machine (but only 32 in the figure,
to avoid confufion) fet over thofe points in which the
moon bears when (he raifes the tides to the greateft
heights at thefe places twice in every lunar day: And
to the north and fouth points of this plate are fixed two
indexes
I
850 ASTRO
Indexes I and K, which (hew the times of high water,
in the hour circle, at all thefe places. 4. Below the
elliptical plate are four fmall plates, two of which pro-
jeft out from below its ends at new and full moon; and
fo, by lengthening the ellipfe, fliew the fpring-tides,
which are then raifed to the greateft heights by the
united attra&ions of the fun and moon. The other
two of thefe fmall plates appear at low water when the
moon is in her quadratures, or at the Tides of the el¬
liptic plate, to ihew the neap-tides ; the fun and moon
then afting crofs-wife to each other. When any two
of thefe fmall plates appear, the other two are hid;
and when the moon is in her oftants, they all difappear,
their being neither fpring nor neap tides at thofe times.
Within the box are a few wheels for performing thefe
motions by the handle or winch H.
Turn the handle until the moon M comes to any gi¬
ven day of her age in the circle of 294- equal parts,
and the moon’s wire W will cut the time of her co¬
ming to the meridian on that day, in the hour circle;
the XII under the fun being mid-day, and the oppo-
fite XII mid-night: Then looking for the. name of
any given place on the round plate (which makes zgi-
rotations whilft the moon M makes only one revolution
from the fun to the Wn again), turn the handle till that
place comes to the word high •water under the moon,
and the index which falls among the forenoon hours
will drew the time of high water at that place in the
forenoon of the given day: then turn the plate half
round, till the fame place comes to the oppofite high-
water mark, and the index will drew the time of high
water in the afternoon at that place. And thus, as
all the different places come fuccefiively under and op¬
pofite to the moon, the indexes drew the times of high
water at them in both parts of the day: and, when
AST
ASTROP-WELLS, in Northamptondiire, were
recommended by the phyficians Willis and Clever, for
the cure of the fcurvy, adhma, &c.
ASTROSCOPE, a kind of adronomical inftru-
ment, compofed of two cones, on whofe furface the
conftellations, with their ftars, are delineated, by
means whereof the fi:ars may eafily be known. The
aftrofcope is the invention of William Schukhard,
formerly profeffor of mathematics at Tubingen, who
publidied a treatife exprefslyon it, in 1698.
ASTRUC (John), a celebrated phyfician, was
born in the year 1684, at.the little town of Savoy, in
the province of Languedoc. His father, who was a
proteftant clergyman, beftowed particular pains upon
the earlieft part of his education. After which he
went to the univerfity of Montpelier, where he was
created mafter of arts in the year 1700. He then be¬
gan the fimdy of medicine; and, in two years, ob¬
tained the degree of batchelor, having, upon that oc-
cafion, written a differtation on the caufe of fermenta¬
tion, which he defended in a very fpirited manner. On
the 25th of January 1703, he was created do&or of
phyfic ; after which, before arriving at extenfive prac¬
tice, he applied to the ftudy of medical authors, both
ancient and modern, with uncommon affiduity. The
good effefts of his ftudy foon appeared; for, in the
year 1710, he pnblilhed a treatife concerning mufcular
N O M Y. Sea. XIII|]
the fame places come to the low-water marks, the in¬
dexes ftiew the times of low water. For about three
days before and after the times of new and full moon,
the two fmall plates come out a little way from below
the high-water marks on the elliptical plate, to (hew
that the tides rife ftill higher about thefe times: and
about the quarters, the other two plates come out a
little from under the low-water mark, towards the fun,
and on the oppofite fide, (hewing that the tides of
flood rife not then fo high, nor do the tides of ebb fall
fo low, as at other times.
By pulling the handle a little way outward, it is dif-
engaged from the wheel-work, and then the upper
plate may be turned round quickly by hand, fo as the
moon may be brought to any given day of her age in
about a quarter of a minute ; and by pulhipg in the
handle, it takes hold of the wheel-work again.
On AB, (fig. 2.) the axis of the handle H, is an
endlefs fcrew C, which turns the wheel FED of 24 ^
teeth round in 24 revolutions of the handle : this wheel
turns another ONG of 48 teeth, and on its axis is the
pinion PQj>f four leaves, which turns the wheel LKI
of 59 teeth round in 294- turnings or rotations of the
wheel'FED, or in 708 revolutions of the handle, which
is the number of hours in afynodical revolution of the
moon. The round plate, with the names of places up¬
on it, is fixed on the axis of the wheel FED; and the
elliptical or tide-plate with the moon fixed to it, is up¬
on the axis of the wheel LKI; confequently, the for¬
mer makes 29-4 revolutions in the time that the latter
makes one. The whole wheel FED, with the endlefs
fcrew C, and dotted part of the axis of the handle
AB, together with the dotted part of the wheel ONG,
lie hid below the large wheel LKI.
AST
motion, from which he acquired very high reputation.
In the year 17x7, he was appointed to teach medicine
at Montpelier; which he did with fuch perfpicuity and
eloquence, that it was univerfally faid, he had been
born to be a profeffor. His fame foon rofe to fuch a
height, that the king afllgned him an annual falary;
and he was, at the fame time, appointed to fuperintend
the mineral waters in the province of Languedoc.
But, as Montpelier did not afford fufficient fcope for
his afpiring genius, he went to Paris with a great (lock
of manuferipts, which he intended to publifti, after
fubje&ing them to the examination of the learned.
Soon after, however, he left it, having in the year
1729 accepted the office of firft phyfician to the king
of Poland, which was then offered to him. His ftay
in Poland, however, was but of (hort duration, and
he again returned to Paris.
Upon the death of the celebrated Geoffroy, in the
year 1731, he was appointed Regius Profeffor of me¬
dicine at Paris. , The duties of this office he difeharged
in fuch a manner, as to anfwer even the moft fanguine
expeftations. He taught the pradtice of phyfic with
fo great applaufe, as to draw from other univerfities to
that of Paris, a great concourfe of medical ftudents,
foreigners as well as natives of France. At the fame
time he was not more celebrated as a profeffor than a
praftitioner. And, even at an advanced age, he per-
fifted
TlateJjir.
'
Tlate XU L
mate XXV
» J./h// r ^V//,
AST [851] ATA
iiftnri* filled with unwearied affiduity in that intenfe ftudy
II ^ which firft raifed his reputation. Hence it is, that he
— has been enabled to tranfmit to poftenty fo many va-
luable monuments of his medical erudition. He died,
univerfally regreted, on the 15th of May, 1766, in
in the 82J year of his age.
ASTURIA, an ancient kingdom of Spain, fub-
dued by Auguftus emperor of Rome.—The inhabi¬
tants of this country, along with thofe of Cantabria,
aflerted their liberty long after the reft of Spain had
received the Roman yoke. So great was their defire
of liberty, that, after being clofely ihut up by the Ro¬
man army, they endured the moft terrible calamities of
famine, even to the devouring of one another, rather
than fubmit to the enemy. At length, however, the
Afturians were for furrendering ; but the Cantabrians
oppofed this meafure, maintaining that they ought all
|J to die fword in hand like brave men. Upon this the
two nations quarrelled, notwithftanding their defpe-
rate fituation; and a battle enfuing, 10,000 of the A-
fturians were driven to the intrenchments of the Ro¬
mans, whom they begged in the moft moving manner
to receive them on any terms they pleafed. But Tibe¬
rius the emperor’s fon-in-law refufing to admit them
into the camp, fome of thefe unhappy people put an
end to their lives by falling upon their own fwords;
others lighting great fires threw themfelves into them,
while fome poifoned themfelves by drinking the juice
of a venomous herb.
The campaign being put an end to by winter, the
next year the Afturians fummoned all their ftrength
I and refolution againft the Romans ; but, notwithftand¬
ing their utmoft efforts of valour and defpair, they were
I ■ entirely defeated in a moft bloody battle which lafted
two days, and for that time entirely fubdued. A few
| years afterwards they rebelled, in conju&ion with the
Cantabrians; but were foon reduced by the Romans,
who maffacred moft of the young men that were ca¬
pable of bearing arms. This did not prevent them
irom revolting anew in a ihort time afterwards ; but
without fuccefs, being obliged to fubmit to the Roman
power, till the fubverfion of that empire by the Goths.
Asturias, anciently the kingdom of Afturia, is now
a principality of modern Spain, bounded by Bifcay on
the eaft, Galicia on the weft, Caftile and Old Leon
on the fouth, and the fea on the north. Its greateft
length is about no miles, and its breadth 54. On
the fouth it is feparated from Caftile and Old Leon by
high mountains covered with woods. The province is
tolerably fertile ; but thinly inhabited. The inhabi¬
tants value themfelves much on being defcended from
the ancient Goths. Even the poor peafants, who are
fain to go to feek work in other provinces, call them¬
felves illujirious Goths and Mountaineers, thinking it ig¬
nominious to marry even with great and rich families of
another race. This pride is flattered by the refpedl paid
them by the reft of the nation, and theprivilegesbeftow-
ed upon them by the government. The hereditary prince
of Spain is ftiled prince of the Afturias. The moft re-
| markable places in this principality are Oviedo, Gyon,
Santillana, and St Andero. See thefe articles.
I ASTYAGES, fon of Cyaxares, the laft king of
the Medes. He dreamed that from the womb of his
daughter Mandane, married toCambyfesking of Perfia,
there fprung a vine that fpread itfelf over all Alia. She
being with child, he refolved to kill the infant as foon Aftyanax
as born. Its name was Cyrus ; and Harpagus, being .H .
fent to deftroy it, preferved it: which Aftyages after —ttanh*'
a long time hearing of, he caufed Harpagus to eat his
own fon. Harpagus called in Cyrus, who dethroned his
grandfather, and thereby ended the monarchy of the
Medes. See Media and Persia.
ASTYANAX, the only fon of Hedlor and An¬
dromache : after the taking of Troy, he was thrown
from the top of a tower by Ulyffes’s orders.
ASTYNOMI, in Grecian antiquity, magiftrates in
Athens, correfponding to the aediles of the Romans ;
they were ten in number. SeeiEoiLE.
ASYLUM, a fan&uary, or place of refuge, where
criminals flicker themfelves from the hands of juftice.
The afyla of altars and temples were very ancient; and
likewife thofe of tombs, ftatues, and other monuments
of confiderable perfonages : Thus, the temple of Diana
at Ephefus was a refuge for debtors, the tomb of The-
feus for flaves. The Jews had their afyla; the moft
remarkable of which were, the fix cities of refuo-e, the
temple, and the altar of burnt-offerings. °
ASYMMETRY, the want of proportion betw'een
the parts of any thing, being the contrary of fymmetry.
ASYMPTOTE, in geometry, a line which conti¬
nually approaches nearer to another; but, though con¬
tinued infinitely, will never meet with it: Of thefe are
many kinds. In ftriftnefs, however, the term afymptotes
is appropriated to right lines, which approach nearer
and nearer to fome curves of which they are faid to
be afymptotes; but if they and their curve are indefi¬
nitely continued, they will never meet *.
ASYNDETON, in grammar, a figure which o-* See Conic
mits the conjunctions in a fentence ; as in vent, vide,
vici, et is left out.
ATABULUS, in phyfiology, a provincial wind in
Apulia, of a dry pinching quality, and very noxious
in its effefts. The ancient naturalifts fpeak of the A-
tabulus in terms of horror, on account of the ravage
it made among the fruits of the earth, which it fcorched
or withered up.
ATABYRIS, a very high mountain in the -ifland
of Rhodes, on which, according to Strabo and Dio¬
dorus Siculus, there ftood a temple of Jupiter Atra-
byrius, whofe worfliip a colony of Rhodians carried
into Sicily, where a temple was built to the fame deity
at Agrigentum.
ATARGATIS fanum, the temple of a god-
defs worfliipped by the Syrians and Parthians, having
the face of a woman, and tail of a fifli, and called
Derceto by the Greeks. Her temple flood in the city
Bambyce, called afterwards Hierapolis. It was ex¬
tremely rich, infomuch that Craffus, in his march a-
gainft the Parthians, fpent feveral days in weighing
the treafure. Vofiius makes the name of this goddefs
Phoenician, from Addir-dag, the great fifli.
ATALANTA, an ifland in the Euripus of Euboea,
near the Locri Opuntii, faid to have been originally
a city of the Locri, but torn from the continent in the
time of an earthquake, and during an eruption of
mount ./Etna. This happened in the fourth year of
the 93J Olympiad, in the reign of Artaxerxes Mne-
mon, (Pliny, Orofius).
ATALANTIS, Atlantica, or Atlantis. See
Atiantis.
ATARAXY,
Ataraxy
Aterte.
AST [8.
ATARAXY, a term ufed by the ftoics and fceptics,
to denote that calmnefs of mind which fecures us
from all emotions arifing from vanity and felf-conceit.
AT ARNE A, an ancient town of Myfia, fituated
between Adramyttium and Pitane, remarkable for the
marriage of Ariftotle with the filler or concubine of
the tyrant Hermias ; alfo for the dotage of that phi-
lofopher.
ATAXY, in a general fenfe, "the want of order:
With phyficians, it fignifies irregularity of crifes and
paroxyfms of fevers.
ATCHE, in commerce, a fmall filver coin ufed in
Turky, and worth only one third of the Englilh penny.
ATCHIEVEMENT, in heraldry, denotes the arms
of a pcrfon, or family, together with all the exterior
ornaments of the fhieid; as helmet, mantle, creft,
fcrolls, and mdtto, together with fuch quarterings as
may have been acquired by alliances, all marlhalled in
order.
ATCHIEVE. This term is derived from the
French achever, i. e. to finilh or make an end of; but
fignifies, in heraldry, to perform great aftions or ex¬
ploits.
ATE, the goddefs of mifchief, in the Pagan theo-
logy. She was daughter of Jupiter, and call down
from heaven at the birth of Hercules. For Juno ha¬
ving deceived Jupiter, in caufing Euriftheus to be born
before Hercules, Jupiter expreffed his refentment on
Ate, as the author of that mifchief; and threw her
headlong from heaven to earth, fwearing Ihe Ihould
never return thither again, (Horneri II. xix. 125.)
The name of this goddefs comes from «t«m, noceo, to
hurt. Her being the daughter of Jupiter means, ac¬
cording to mythologifts, that no evil happens to us
but by the permiffion of providence; and her banilh-
ment to earth denotes the terrible elfe&s of divine juf-
tice among men.
ATEGUA, or AtTegua, an ancient town of
Spain, placed by feme in the road from Antiquara,
now Antequera, to Hifpalis, or Seville; by others
near Alcala Real; which laft is the more probable fi-
tuation, becaufe the flumen falfum, now the Salado, was
in its neighbourhood. Now Tebala Vieja, or Teivela.
ATELLA, an ancient town of Campania in Italy,
between Capua and Neapolis. From this town the A-
tellanafabtihe, or Atellaniludi, took their name. Thefe
were alfo called Ofci, from their inventor, in whofe ter¬
ritory Atella lay. They were generally a fpecies of
farce, interlarded with much ribaldry and buffoonery;
and fometimes were exordia or interludes prefented
between the afts of other plays. The aftors in thefe
farces were not reckoned among the common players,
nor deemed infamous ; but retained the rights of their
tribe, and might be lifted for foldiers, the privilege
only of free men. The ruins of this town are ftill
to be feen about 1 x miles from the modern Averfa,
which was built out of its materials.
A TEMPO giusto, in mufic, figpifies to fing or
play in an equal, true, and juft time.
ATERNUM, a town of Lucania in Italy, now
Aterniy (Cluvenus) : Alfo a town in the territory of
the Piceni, now Pefcara, a port-town of Naples, fitu¬
ated on the Adriatic. E. Long. 15. 25. N. Lat. 42. 30.
ATESTE, a town in the territory of Venice in
Italy, now called EJle. E. Long. 12. 6. N. Lat. 45.25.
] AST
ATHAMADULET, the prime minifter of the
Perfian empire, as the grand vizier is of the Turkifh
empire. He is great chancellor of the kingdom, pre-
fident of the council, fuperintendent of the finances,
and is charged with all foreign affairs.
ATHAMANTA, spignel; a genus of the di-
nynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants.
Of this genus Linnaeus enumerates nine fpecies; but
none of them merit particular notice except the cre-
tenfis, otherwife called daucus creticus. This is an
umbelliferous plant growing wild in the Levant and
the warmer parts of Europe. The leaves are irregu¬
larly difpofed, and formed like thofe of fennel. The
flower-ftalk rifes about two feet high, fending out
many branches, terminated at the top by compound
umbels, compofed of near 20 fmall ones. Thefe have
white flowers with five petals, which are fucceeded by
oblong, hairy, channelled fruit, divided into two parts,
containing one oblong hairy feed. The feeds have a
warm biting tafte, with an agreeable aromatic fmelh
They are kept in the (hops as a medicine, are carmi¬
native, and faid to be diuretic; but are little ufed in
pra&ice. The plant may be propagated from feeds,
which ftiould be fown on an open bed of light dry
ground; the following autumn the plants fhould be
taken up, and planted at about a foot diftance in a bed
of light fandy earth, where the roots will continue fe-
veral years.
ATHANASIA, Goldilocks ; a genus of the
polygamia sequalis order, belonging to the fyngenefia
clafs of plants. Of this genus, Dr Linnaeus mentions j 1
Species ; of which the following fix are by Mr Miller
reckoned worthy of a place in thofe gardens where
there are conveniencies for preferving tender plants, as
none of thefe fpecies will outlive the winters of this
country. 1. The dentata grows naturally at the Cape
of Good Hope. It rifes three or four feet high,
fending out many fide-branches, garniftied with pretty
long narrow leaves, having fome refemblance to thofe
of buckthorn plantain. The branches are generally
terminated by yellow flowers formed into a kind of
umbel. Thefe flowers appear early in fummer, and
the feeds ripen in autumn. 2. The trifurcata is alfo
a native of Africa, as are the three following forts.
It is a fhrubby plant, about the height of the former,
fending out feveral weak ftioots, garnilhed with awl-
flxaped trifid leaves fet clofe to them, of a pale filvery
colour. The flowers are yellow, and terminate the
branches in a corymbus. They appear in Auguft,
and the feeds ripen in Oftober. 3. The crithmifolia
rifes with a ftrong ftirubby ftalk to the height of fix
or eight feet, fending out many ligneous branches
garnifhed with long narrow leaves terminating in four
or five parts like thofe of famphire. The flowers are
like thofe of the former, and appear in July and Au¬
guft, being fucceeded by feeds which ripen in O&ober.
4. The pubefcens hath ftrong woody ftalks four or
five feet high, covered with a woolly bark, as are alfo
the branches, which are clofely garriiftied with entire,
fpearftiaped, woolly leaves, and are terminated by yel¬
low flowers having a long foot-ftalk, and are fometimes
fucceeded by feeds that ripen in the autumn. 5. The
annua is a low annual plant, feldom rifing above a foot
high, and fending forth two or three flender branches
garnifhed with wing-pointed leaves : tlie ftalks are ter¬
minated
A T H [ 853 ] A T H
jAthanafian mJnated by bright yellow flowers growing in umbels,
1 rec ’ which appear in Auguft and September; but unlefs
the feafon is very favourable, the feeds do not ripen
in this country. 6. The maritima, or fea cudweed,
grows naturally on the coafts of the Mediterranean, as
alfo in Wales, and fome other parts of Britain ; not-
■withftandiug which, Mr Miller fays it muft be put under
a glafs-frame in winter, and rarely perfects good feeds
in Britain. It rifes two or three feet high, fending out
a few weak branches, garnilhed with white fpear-fliaped
leaves terminated by a Angle flower upon each foot-
ftalk. Tbe firft four of thefe forts may be propagated
either by feeds or cuttings ; and their culture is not
materially different from that of the common hot-bed
plants.
ATHANASIAN creed; a formulary, or con-
fefiion of faith, long fuppofed to have been drawn up
by Athanafius bifhop of Alexandria, in the fourth
century, to juflify himfelf againft the calumnies of his
Arian enemies. But it is now generally allowed a-
imong the learned not to have been his. Dr Waterland
aferibes it to Hilary bifhop of Arles, for the follow¬
ing among other reafons : 1. Becaufe Honoratus of
Marfeilles, the writer of his life, tells us, that he com-
Spofed an Expofition of the freed; a properer title for the
Athatiafian, than that of Creed Amply which it now
bears. 2. Hilary was a great admirer and follower of
St Auftin ; and the whole compoAtion of this creed
is in a manner upon St Auftin’s plan, both with refpedl
to the trinity and incarnation. 3. It is agreeable to
the ftyle of Hilary, as far as we can judge from the
little that is left of his works. Upon the whole, he
concludes, that Hilary bifhop of Arles, about the
year 430, compofed the The Expofition of Faith, which
now bears the name of the Athanafian Creed, for the
ufe of the Gallican clergy, and particularly thofe of
the diocefe of Arles: That, about the year 570, it
became famous enough to be commented upon ; but
that, all this while, and for feveral years lower, it had
not yet acquired the name of Athanajian, but was Am¬
ply ftyled The Catholic Faith : That, before 670, A-
thanaflus’s admired name came in to recommend and
adorn it, being in itfelf an excellent fyftem of the A-
thanaflan principles of the trinity and incarnation, in
Ioppofition chiefly to the Arlans, Macedonians, and
Apollinarians. This is the hypotheAs of the learned
author of the Critical Hiflory of the Athanafan Creed.
As to the reception of this creed in the Chriftian
churches, we And, that it obtained in France in the
time of Hincmar, or about 850; that it was recei-
n ved in Spain about 100 years later than in France, and
in Germany much about the fame time. As to our
own country, we have clear and poAtive proofs of this
creed being fung alternately in our churches in the
tenth century. It was in common ufe in fome parts
of Italy, particularly in the diocefe of Verona, about
the year 960, and was received at Rome about the
year 1014. As to the Greek and oriental churches,
it has been queftioned, whether any of them ever re¬
ceived this creed at all; tho fome very conflderable
writers are of a contrary perfuafion. It appears then,
that the reception of this creed has been both general
and ancient ; and may vie with any, in that refpeft,
except the Nicene, or Conftantinopolitan, the only
general creed common to all the churches.
Vow II.
As to the matter of this creed, it is given as a fum- Athanafius
mary of the true orthodox faith, and a condemnation II
of all herefies ancient and modern. Unhappily, how- At anor~
ever, it has proved a fruitful fource of unprofitable
controverfy and unchriftian animoAty even down to the
prefent time.
ATHANASIUS (St), bilhop of Alexandria, and
one of the greateft defenders of the faith againfl: the
Arians, was born in Egypt. He followed St Alex¬
ander to the council of Nice, in 325, where he dif-
puted againft Arius, and the following year was made
bilhop of Alexandria ; but, in 335, was depofed by
the council of Tyre: when, having recourfe to the em¬
peror Conftantine, the Arian deputies accufed him of
having hindered the exportation of corn from Alex¬
andria to Conftantinople; on which the emperor, with¬
out fuffering him to make his defence, banilhed him to
Treves. The emperor, two years after, gave orders
that he fliould be reftored to his bilhopric: but, on his
return to Alexandria, his enemies brought frelh accu-
fations againft him, andchofe Gregory of Cappadocia
to his fee ; which obliged AthanaAus to go to Rome
to reclaim it of pope Julius. He was there declared
innocent, in a council held in 342, and in that of Sar-
dica in 347, and two years after was reftored to his
fee by order of the emperor Conftans ; but after the
death of that prince, he was again banilhed by the em¬
peror Conftantius, which obliged him to retire into
the deferts. The Arians then ele&ed one George in
his room; who being killed in a popular fedition under
Julian, in 360, St AthanaAus returned to Alexandria,
but was again banilhed under Julian, and reftored to
his fee under Jovian. He addrefled to that emperor a
letter, in which he propofed that the Nicene creed
Ihould be the ftandard of the orthodox faith, and con¬
demned thofe who denied the divinity of the Holy
Ghoft. He was alfo banilhed by Valens in 367, and
afterwards recalled. St AthanaAus died on the 2d of
May, 373. _ ;
His w.orks principally contain a defence of the
myftery of the Trinity, and of the incarnation and di¬
vinity of the Word and Holy Spirit. There are three
editions of his works which are efteemed ; that of
Commelin, printed in 160O; that of Peter Nannius,
in 1627 ; and that of father Montfaucon. As to the
creed which bears his name, fee the preceding article.
ATHANATI, in Perflan antiquity, a body of
cavalry, conAfting of 10,000 men, always complete.
They were called (a word originally Greek,
and Agnifying immortal), becaufe, when one of them
happened to die, another was immediately appointed
to fucceed him.
ATHANOR. Chemifts have diftinguilhed by this
name a furnace fo conftrufted that it can always main¬
tain an equal heat, and which lhall laft a long time
without addition of frelh fuel.
The body of the athanor has nothing in it particu¬
lar, and is conftru&ed like ordinary furnaces. But at
one of its Ades, or its middle, there is an upright
hollow tower, which communicates with the Are-pjace
by one or more Hoping openings. This tower ought
to have a lid which exa<ftly clofes its upper opening.
When the athanor is to be ufed, as much lighted
coal is put in the Are-place as is judged neceffary, and
the tower is Ailed to the top with unlighted fuel. The
5 P tower
Athanor
II
Atheling.
* Sec Chemi
fry, n°9S,:
A T H [ 8j4 1 A T H
toiver is then to be exaftly clofed with its lid. As fall ATHELSTAN, a Saxon king of England, na- Athdftkt
as the coal in the fire-place is confumed, that in the tural fon of Edward the elder, and grandfon of the II
tower falls down and fupplies its place. As the coal great Alfred. He fncceededto the crown in 925, and 1 lCns‘
contained in the tower has no free communication with reigned 16 years. There was a remarkable law pafied
the external air, it cannot burn till it falls into the by this prince, which (hews his juft, fentiments of the
fire-place. advantages of commerce, as well as the early attention
The athanor being much celebrated and ufed by an- to it in this country: it declared, that any merchant
cient chemilts, it has been particularly defcribed by who made three voyages on his own account beyond
many authors, and was formerly found in all laborato- the Britilh channel or narrow feas, ftioukLbe entitled
ries. At prefent this furnace is much lefs employed, to the privileges of a thane, or gentleman,
and is even neglefted. The reafon of this is, that all ATHENiEA, in antiquity, a feaft celebrated by
the ancient chemifts were in fearch of the art of ma- the ancient Greeks in honour of Minerva, who was
king gold ; and being excited by this powerful defire, called Athene.
and^ confidence of fuccefs, they fpared no trouble nor ATHENiEUM, in antiquity, a public place where-
expence to accomplilh this defign. They undertook, in the profefibrs of the liberal arts held their affemblies,
without hefitation, operations which required great the rhetoricians declaimed, and the poets rehearfed
length of time and unremitted heat. Whereas now, their performances. Thefe places, of which there
thefe alluring hopes having vaniftied, the cultivators of were a great number at Athens, were built in the man-
chemiftry have no other view than to extend and per- ner of amphitheatres, encompafled with feats, called
fed! the theory of this eftential part of natural philo- cunei. The three molt-celebrated Athenasa were thofe
fophy. This motive, altho’ undoubtedly much nobler at Athens, at Rome, and at Lyons, the fecond of
than the former, feems however to be lefs powerful which was built by the emperor Adrian,
over moft men. For now, all Jong and laborious o- ATHENiEUS, a phyfician, born in Cilicia, cotem-
perations whence chemiftry might receive great advan- porary with Pliny, and founder of the pneumatic fedt.
tages, are neglefted, as being tirefome and difguftful. He taught that the fire, air, water, and earth, are not
There is, in fact, a confiderable difference betwixt the the true elements, but that their qualities are, w'z. heat,
hope of explaining a philofophical phenomenon, and cold, moifture, and drynefs ; and to thefe he added a
that of obtaining an ingot of gold capable of produ- fifth element, which he called fpirit, whence his fedt
cing many others. Hence the inftruments employed had its name.
in long operations, and particularly the athanor, are Athenjeus, a Greek grammarian, born at Nau-
now much negledted ; and alfo becaufe the fuel in the cratis in Egypt in the 3d century, one of the moft
tower is apt to ftick there or fall down at once in too learned men of his time. Of all his works we have
great quantity. The lamp-furnace, which is a true none extant but hi sDeipnofophis, i. e. the fophifts
athanor, may be fuccefsfully employed in operations at table; there is an infinity of fadfs and quotations
> which do not require much heat *. in this work which render it very agreeable to admirers
ATHEISM, the dilbelief of a deity. See Atheist, of antiquity.
ATHEIST, a perfon who does not believe the ex- There was alfo a mathematician of this-name, who
iftence of a Deity. Many people, both ancient and wrote a treatife on mechanics, which is inferted in the
modern, have pretended to atheifm, or have been works of the ancient mathematicians, printed at Paris
reckoned atheifts by the world ; but it is juftly quef- in 1693, in folio, in Greek and Latin,
tioned whether any man ferioufly adopted fuch a prin- ATHENAGORAS, an Athenian philofopher,
ciple. Thefe pretenfions, therefore, muft be founded flourifhed about the middle of the 2d century; and was
on pride or affedlation. remarkable for his zeal for Chriftianity, and his great
Atheifm, as abfurd and unreafonable as it is, has learning, as appears from the apology which he ad-
had its martyrs. Lucilio Vanini, an Italian, na- dreffed to the emperors Marcus Aurelius Antoninus
tive of Naples, publicly taught atheifm in France, and Lucius Commodus.
about the beginning of the feventeenth century; and, ATHENODORUS, a famous ftoic philofopher,
being conviftedof it at Touloufe, was condemned to born at Tarfus, went to the court of Auguftus, and
death. Being preffed to make public acknowledge- was made by him tutor to Tiberius. Auguftus had
ment of his crime, and to afk pardon of God, the a great efteem for him, and found him by experience
king, andjuftice, he anfwered, he did not believe there a man of virtue and probity. He ufed to fpeak very
was a God ; that he never offended the king; and, as freely to the emperor. He, before he left the court
for juftice, he wiftied it to the devil. He confeffed that to return home, warned the emperor not to give him-
he was one of twelve, who parted in company from felf up to anger, but, whenever he fhould be in a paf-
Naples, to fpread their doftrine in all parts of Europe, fion, to rehearfe the 24 letters of the alphabet before
His tongue was firft cut out, and then his body burnt, he refolved to fay or do any thing. He did not live
April 9. 1619. to fee his bad fuccefs in the education of Tiberius.
ATHELING, Adeling, Edling, Ethling, or ATHENOPOLIS, a town of the Maflilienfes, an
Etheling, among the Anglo-Saxons, was a title of ancient nation of Gaul. It is conjedlured by Harduin
honour properly belonging to the heir apparent, or to be the fame with Telo Martins, now Toulon;. by o-
prefumptive, to the crown. This honourable appel- thers to be the fame with Antipolis or Antibes.
lation was firft conferred by king Edward the Confef- ATHENREE, a town of Ireland in the county
for on Edgar, to whom he was great uncle, when, of Galway, and province of Connaught. W. Long,
being without any iffue of his own, he intended to 8. 5. N. Lat. 53. 14.
make him his heir. ATHENS, a celebrated city of Greece, and capi¬
tal
A T H [ 855 ] A T H
Athens, tal of the ancient kingdom of Attica, fituated in E.
Long. 53. N. Lat. 38. 5. See Attica.
y whom In early times, that which was afterwards called the
Dunded. citadel was the whole city ; and went under the name
of Cecropia, from its founder Cecrops, whom the A-
thenians in after times affirmed to have been the firft
builder of cities, and called this therefore by way of
eminence Palis, i. e. the city. In the reign of E-
richthonius it loft the name of Cecropia, and acquired
that of Athens, on what account is not certain ; the
moft probable is, that it was fo named in refpeft to
the goddefs Minerva, whom the Greeks call Athene,
who was alfo efteemed its proteftrefs. This old city
w as feated on the top of a rock in the midft of a large
and*, pleafant plain, which, as the number of inhabit¬
ants increafed, became full of buildings, which indu¬
ced the diftin&ion of Aero and Catapolis, e. of the
upper and lower city. The extent of the citadel was
60 ftadia ; it was furrounded by olive trees, and forti¬
fied, as fome fay, with a ftrong palifade; in fucceeding
times it was encompaffed with a ftrong wall, in which
emarkabk there were nine gates, one very large one, and the reft
'uildings. fmal)< The infide of the citadel was adorned with in¬
numerable edifices. The moft remarkable of wdiich
were, 1. The magnificent temple of Minerva, ftyled
parthenion, becaufe that goddefs was a virgin. The
Perfians deftroyed it; but it was rebuilt with ftill
greater fplendour, by the famous Pericles, all of the
fined marble, with fuch fkill and ftrength, that, in fpite
of the rage of time and barbarous nations, it remains
perhaps the firft antiquity in the world, and ftands
a witnefs to the truth of what ancient writers have
recorded of the prodigious magnificence of Athens in
her flourifhing ftate. 2. The temple of Neptune and of
Minerva; for it was divided into two parts : one facred
to the god, in which was the fait fountain faid to have
fprung upon the ftroke of his trident; the other to the
goddefs proteftrefs of Athens, wherein was the facred
olive which die produced, and her image which fell
down from heaven in the reign of Erichthonius. At
the back of Minerva’s temple was the public treafury,
which was burnt to the ground through the knavery
of the treafurers, who, having mifapplied the revenues
©f the ftate, took this fhort method of making up ac¬
counts. The lower city comprehended \all the build¬
ings furrounding the citadel, the fort Munychia, and
the havens Phalerum and Piraeus, the latter of which
was joined to the city by walls five miles in length ;
that on the north was built by Pericles, but that on
the fouth by Themiftocles; but by degrees the turrets
which were at firft erefted on thefe walls were turned
into dwelling-houfes for the accommodation of the
Athenians, whofe large city was now become too fmall
for them. The city, or rather the lower city, had 13
great gates, with the names of which it is not necef-
fary to trouble the reader. Among the principal edifices
which adorned it, we may reckon, 1. The temple of
Thefeus, erefted by Conon, near its centre. Adjacent
thereto, the young people performed their exercifes.
It was alfo a fanftuary for diftrefled perfons, flaves or
free. 2. The Olympian temple erefted in honour of Jupi¬
ter, the honour of Athens, and of all Greece. The foun¬
dation of it was laid by Pififtratus : it was carried on
but flowly in fucceeding times, 700 years elapfing be¬
fore it was finilhed, which happened under the reign
of Adrian, who was particularly kind to Athens: this Athens,
was the firft building in which the Athenians beheld ‘
pillars. 3. The pantheon, dedicated to all the gods ; a
moft noble ftrufture, fupported by 120 marble pillars,
and having over its great gate two horfes carved by
Praxiteles : it is yet remaining, as we ftiall have oc*-
cafion to (hew hereafter when we come to fpeak of the
prefent ftate of this famous city. In feveral parts of
it were Jlaoi or portico’s, wherein people walked in
rainy weather, and from whence a feft of philofophers
were denominated ftoics, becaufe their mafter Zeno
taught in thofe portico’s. 3
There were at Athens two places called Ceramicus, Ceram inis,
from Ceramus the fon of Bacchus and Ariadne; one
within the city, containing a multitude of buildings of
all forts ; the other in the fuburbs, in which was the
academy, and other edifices. The Gymnafia of Athens
were many; but the moft remarkable tv ere the Lyceum,
Academia, and Cynofarges. The Lyceum flood on
the banks of Iliffus ; fome fay it was built by Pififtra¬
tus, others by Pericles, others by Lycurgus. Here
Ariftotle taught philofophy, inftrufting fuch as came
to hear him as they walked, whence his difciples are
generally thought to derive the name of peripatetics.
The ceramicus without the city was the diftance of fix
ftadia from its walls. The academy made part thereof;
as to the name of which there is fome difjbute. Some
affirm that it was fo called from Academus, an ancient
hero, who, when Helen was ftolen by Thefeus, difeo-
vered the place where ffie lay hid, to Caftor and Pol¬
lux : for which reafon the Lacedemonians, when they
invaded Attica, always fpared this place. -Dictearchus
writes, that Caftor and Pollux had two Arcadians in
their army, the one named Echedemus, the other
rothus ; from the former of thefe he fays this place took
its name, and that the borough of Marathon was fo
called from the other. It was a marfhy unwholefome
place, till Cimon was at great pains to have it drained;
and then it became extremely pleafant and delightful,
being adorned with lhady walks, where Plato read his
leftures, and from thence his fcholars were ftyled aca- 4
demies. The Cynofarges was a place in the fuburbs not Cynofarges,
far from the Lyceum: it was famous on many accounts;
but particularly for a noble gymnafium erefted there,
appointed for the fpecial ufe of fuch as were Athenians
only by one fide. In after times Themiftocles derived
to himfelf ill-will, by carrying many of the nobility to
exercife with him here, becaufe, being but of the half
blood, he could exercife no where elfe but in this gym¬
nafium. Antifthenes inftituted a feft of philofophers,
who from the name of this diftrift, as many think, were
ftyled Cynics.
The havens of Athens were three. Firft the Pyraeus, Hav^nr^
which was diftant about 35 or 40 ftadia from the city,
till joined thereto by the long walls beforementioned, af¬
ter which it became the principal harbour of the city. It
had three docks; Cantharos, Aphrodifium, andZea: the
firft was fo called from an ancient hero, the fecond from
the goddefs Venus who had there two temples, and
the third from bread-corn. There were in this port
five portico’s, which joining together formed one great
one called from thence Macra Stoa, or the grand
portico. There were likewife two great markets or
fora; one near the long portico, the other near the
city. The fecond port was Munichia, a promontory
5 P 2 not
A T H [ 856 ] A T H
Athens. not far dJftant from Pyrasus; a place very ftrong by
nature, and afterwards rendered far ftronger by art.
It was of this that Epimenides faid, if the Athenians
forefaw what mifehicf it would one day produce to
them, they would eat it away with their teeth. The
third was Phalerum, diftant from the city, according
to Thucydides, 35 ftadia, but according to Paufanjas
only 20. This was the moft ancient harbour of A-
thens, as Pyraeus was the moft capacious.-
Prefent this city, as it (lands at prefent, we have the fol-
flate. lowing account by Dr Chandler. “ It is now called
Athini; and is not inconfiderable, either in extent or
the number of inhabitants. It enjoys a fine tempera¬
ture, and a ferene Iky. The air is clear and whole-
fome, though not fo delicately foft as in Ionia. The
town ftands beneath the Acropolis or citadel; not en-
compaffing the rock, as formerly; but fpreading into
the plain, chiefly on the weft and north-weft. Cor-
fairs infefting it, the avenues were fecured, and in 1676
the gates were regularly flint after funfet. It is now
open again; but feveral of the gateways remain, and a
guard of Turks patrols at midnight. Some mafles of
brick-work, (landing feparate, without the town, be¬
longed perhaps to the ancient wall, of which other
traces alfo appear. The houfes are moftly mean, and
ftraggling ; many with large areas or courts before
them. In the lanes, the high walls on each fide, which
are commonly white-waftied, refleft ftrongly the heat
of the fun. The ftreets are very irregular; and an¬
ciently were neither uniform nor handfome. They
have water conveyed in channels from mount Hymet-
tus, and in the bazar or market-place is a large foun¬
tain. The Turks have feveral mofques and public baths.
The Greeks have convents for men and women ; with
many churches, in which fervice is regularly perform¬
ed ; and befides thefe, they have numerous oratories or
chapels, fome in ruins or confiding of bare walls, fre¬
quented only on the anniverfaries of the faints to whom
they are dedicated. A portrait of the owner on a board
is placed in them on that occafion, and removed when
the folemnity of the day is over.
Citadel or “ c*ty Cecrops is now a fortrefs with a thick
city of* Ce- irregular wall, (landing on the brink of precipices, and
crops. inclofing a large area about twice as long as broad.
Some portions of the ancient wall may be difcovered
on the outfide, particularly at the two extreme angles;
and in many places it is patched with pieces of co¬
lumns, and with marbles taken from the ruins. A
confiderable fum had been recently expended on the
fide next Hymettus, which was finiftied before we ar¬
rived. The fcaffolding had been removed to the end
toward Pentele ; but money was wanting, and the
workmen were withdrawn. The garrifon confifts of
a few Turks, who refide there with their families, and
are called by the Greeks Cajiriani, or the foldiers of the
caftle. The rock is lofty, abrupt, andinacceflible, ex¬
cept the front, which is toward the Piraeus; and on
that quarter is a mountainous ridge, within cannon-
fhot. It is deftitute of water fit for drinking; andfup-
plies are daily carried up in earthen jars, on horfes and
affes, from one of the conduits in the town.
“ The acropolis furnifhed a very ample field to the
ancient virtuofi. It was filled with monuments of Athe¬
nian glory, and exhibited an amazing difplay of beau¬
ty, of opulence, and of art; each contending, as it
were, for the fuperiority. It appeared as one entire AthensSpr
offering to the Deity, furpafiing in excellence, and Fp
altoniftiing in richnefs. Heliodorus, named Periegetes
the guide, had employed on it 15 books. The curio-
fities of various kinds, with the pictures, llatues, and
pieces of fculpture, were fo many and fo remarkable,
as to fupply Polemo Periegetes with matter for four
volumes ; and Strabo affirms, that as many would be j
required in treating of other portions of Athens and jj
of Attica. In particular, the number of ftatues was
prodigious. Tiberius Nero, who was fond of images,
plundered the acropolis, as well as Delphi and Olym¬
pia ; yet Athens, and each of thefe places, had not
fewer than 3000 remaining in the time of Pliny. E-
ven Paufanias feems here to be diftreffed by the multi¬
plicity of his fubjedt. But this banquet, as it were, of I
the fenfes has long been withdrawn ; and is now be¬
come like the tale of a vifion. The fpedlator views
with concern the marble ruins intermixed with mean
flat-roofed cottages, and extant amid rubbilh; the fad
memorials of a nobler people; which, however, as vi-
fible from the fea, (hould have introduced modern A-
thens to more early notice. They who reported it
was only a fmall village, mud, it has been furmifed, d1
have beheld the acropolis through the wrong end of |
their telefcopes.
“ The acropolis has now, as formerly, only one
entrance, which fronts the Piraeus. The afeent is by i
traverfes and rude fortifications furniftied with cannon,
but without carriages, and negledled. By the fecond
gate is the ftation of the guard, who fits crofs-legged I
under cover, much at his eafe, fmoking his pipe, or 1
drinking coffee, with his companions about him in j
like attitudes. Over this gateway is an infeription in
large charadlers on a (lone turned upfide down, and 1
black from the fires made below. It records a prefent
of a pair of gates. 8
“ Going farther up, you come to the ruins of the pro- Pfopyljpf
pylea, an edifice which graced the entrance into the
citadel. This was one of the ftru&ures of Pericles,
who began it when Euthymenes was archon, 435 years J
before Chrift. It was completed in five years, at the
expence of 2012 talents. It was of marble, of the jl
Doric order, and had five doors to afford an eafy paf-
fage to the multitudes which reforted on bufinefs or
devotion to the acropolis.
“ While this fabric was building, the architedl Mne-
ficles, whofe aAivity equalled his (kill, was hurt by a fi
fall, and the phyficians defpaired of his life; but Mi- I
nerva, who was propitious to the undertaking, ap- f
peared, it was faid, to Pericles, and preferibed a re¬
medy, by which he was fpeedily and eafily cured. It
was a plant or herb growing round about the acropolis,
and called afterwards parthenium. 9 :
“ The right wing of the propylea was a temple of Temple 1)1
viftory. They related that iEgeus had flood there, Viftory.M®
viewing the fea, and anxious for the return of his fon
Thefeus, who was gone to Crete with the tributary
children to be delivered to the Minotaur. The veffel 1
which carried them had black fails fuiting the occafion 1
of its voyage ; and it was agreed, that, if Thefeus o- j
vercame the enemy, their colour (hould be changed to I
white. The negleft of this fignal was fatal to ^geus, j
who, on feeing the fails unaltered, threw himfelf down
headlong from the rock, and perilhed. The idol was
named *1
A T H
A T H [ 857 ]
Athens, named Viftory without wings ; it was faid, becaufethe
Sr news of the fuccefs of Thefeus did not arrive, but with
the conqueror. It had a pomegranate in the right
hand, and an helmet in the left. As the ftatue was
without pinions, it was hoped the goddefs would re¬
main for ever on the fpot.
“ On the left wing of the propylea, and fronting the
temple of Viflory, was a building decorated with paint¬
ings by Polygnotus, of which an account is given by
Paufanias. This edifice, as well as the temple, was
of the Doric order, the columns fluted, and without
bafes. Both contributed alike to the uniformity and
randeur of the defign ; and the whole fabric, when
nilhed, was deemed equally magnificent and orna¬
mental. The interval between Pericles and Paufanias
confifts of feveral centuries. The propylea remained
entire in the time of this topographer, and, as will be
fhown, continued nearly fo to a much later period.
It had then a roof of white marble, which was unfur-
paffed either in the fize of the (tones, or in the beauty
of their arrangement; and before each wing'was an
equeftrian ftatue.
“ The propylea have ceafed to be the entrance of
the acropolis. The paflage, which was between the co¬
lumns in the centre, is walled up almoft to their capi¬
tals, and above is a battery of cannon. The way now
winds before the front of the ancient ftrudture; and,
turning to the left hand among rubbifti and mean
walls, you come to the back part, and to the five door¬
ways. The foil without is rifen higher than the too
of the two fmaller. There, under the vault and can¬
non, lies an heap of large (tones, the ruin of the roof.
“ The temple of Victory, (landing .on an abrupt
rock, has its back and one fide unencumbered with
the modern ramparts. The columns in the front be-
jo ing walled up, you enter it by a breach in the fide.
Roof car- within the propylea. It was ufed by the Turks as a
ried off by magazine for powder, until about the year 1656; when
lion.XP a fudden explofion, occafioned by lightning, carried a-
way the roof, with a houfe eredted on it, belonging to
the officer who commanded in the acropolis, whofe
family, except a girl, perilhed. The women of the
Aga continued to inhabit in this quarter, but it is
now abandoned and in ruins.
“ The cell of the temple of Victory, which is of
white marble, very thick, and ftrongly cemented, fuf-
ficiently witneffes the great violence it has undergone ;
the (tones in many places being disjointed, as it were,
and forced from their original pofition. Two of thefe
making an acute angle, the exterior edges touching,
without a crevice ; and the light abroad being much
ftronger than in the room, which has a modern roof
and is dark ; the portion in contact becoming pellucid,
had illumined the vacant fpace with a dim colour re-
fembling that of amber. We weredefired to examine
this extraordinary appearance, which the Greeks re¬
garded as a (landing miracle, and which the Turks,
who could not confute them, beheld with equal afto-
niftiment. We found in the gape fome coals, which
had been brought on a bit of earthen ware for the
purpofe of burning incenfe, as we fuppofed, and alfo
a piece of wax-taper, which probably had been light¬
ed in honour of the faint and author of the wonder;
but our Swifs unfortunately carrying his own candle
too far in, the fmoke blackened the marble, and dc-
(troyed the phenomenon. Athens.
“ The building oppolite to the temple has ferved as
a foundation for a fquare lofty tower of ordinary ma-
fonry. The columns of the front are walled lip, and
the entrance is by a low iron gate in the fide. It is now
ufed as a place of confinement for delinquents; but in
1676 was a powder-magazine. In the wall of a ram¬
part near it are fome fragments of exquifite fculpture,
reprefenting the Athenians fighting with the Amazons.
Thefe belong to the freeze, which was then (landing.
In the fccond century, when Paufanias lived, much of
the painting was impaired by age, but fome remained,
and the fubje&s were chiefly taken from the Trojan
(lory. The traces are fince vanifhed.
“ The pediment of the temple of Vidtory, with
that of the oppofite wing, is defcribed as remaining in
1676; but on each building, a fquare tower had been
eredled. One of the dtps in the front of the propylea
was entire, with the four columns, their entablature and
the pediment. The portico, to which the five door¬
ways belonged, confided of a large fquare room, roof¬
ed with (labs of marble, which were laid on two great
marble beams, and fuftained by four beautiful columns.
Thefe were Ionic, the proportions of this order bed
fuiting that purpofe, as taller than the Doric ; the
reafon it was likewife preferred in the pronaos of the
temple of Victory. The roof of the propylea, after
(landing above 2000 years, was probably deftroyed,.
with all the pediments, by the Venetians in 1687,
when they battered the caftle in front, firing red-hot
bullets, and took it, but were compelled to refign it
again to the Turks in the following year. The exte¬
rior walls, and, in particular, a fide of the temple of
Vi6lory, retain many marks of their hollilities. jj
“ The chief ornament of the acropolis was the par- Temple of
thenon or great temple of Minerva, a mod fuperb and Minerva,
magnificent fabric. The Perfians had burned the edi¬
fice, which before occupied the file, and was called
hecatompedon-, from its being 100 feet fquare. The
zeal of Pericles and of all the Athenians was exerted
in providing a far more ample and glorious refidence
for their favourite goddefs. The architedls were
Callicrates and Lftinus; and a treatife on the building
was written by the latter and Carpion. It was of
white marble, of the Doric order, the columns fluted
and without bafes, the number in front eight; and
adorned with admirable fculpture. The (lory of the
birth of Minerva was carved in the front pediment;.
and in the back, her conteft with Neptune for the
country. The beads of burden, which had conveyed
up the materials, were regarded as facred, and recom-
penfed with paflures ; and one, which had voluntarily
headed the train, was maintained during life, without
labour, at the public expence.
“ The ftatue of Minerva, made for this temple by Her ftatue.
Phidias, was of ivory, 26 cubits or 39 feet high. It
was decked with pure gold to the amount of 44 ta¬
lents, fo difpofed by the advice of Pericles as to be
taken off and weighed, if required. The goddefs was
reprefented (landing, with her veftment reaching to
her feet. Her helmet had a fphinx for the creft, and
on the (ides were griffins. The head of Medufa was
on her bread-plate. In one hand (he held her fpear,
and in the other fupported an image ofVidlory about
four cubits high. The battle of the Centaurs and
' Lapithse
Athens.
13
Temple
converted
mofque.
A T H [ 858 ] A T H
Lapithas was carved on her fandals; and on her fhield,
which lay at her feet, the war of the gods and giants,
and the battle of the Athenians and Amazons. By
her fpear was a ferpent, in allufion to the ftory of E-
richthonius; and on the pedeftal, the birth of Pando¬
ra. The Sphinx, the Viftory, and Serpent, were ac¬
counted eminently wonderful. This image was placed
in the temple in the firft year of the 87th Olympiad, in
which the Pelopennefian war began. The gold was
flripped off by the tyrant Lachares, when Demetrius
Poliorcetes compelled him to fly. The fame plunderer
plucked down the golden fliields in the acropolis, and
carried away the golden Vidtories, with the precious
veflels and ornaments provided for the Panathensean
feftival.
“ The parthenon remained entire for many ages af¬
ter it was depraved of the goddefs. The Chriftians
converted it into a church, and the Mahometans into
a mofque. It is mentioned in the letters of Crufius,
and mifcalled the pantheon, and the temple of the
unknown God. The Venetians under Koningfmark,
when they befieged the acropolis in 1687, threw a
bomb, which demolifhed the roof, and, fetting fire to
fome powder, did much damage to the fabric. The
floor, which is indented, ftill witneffes the place of its
fall. This was the fad forerunner of farther defiruc-
tion ; the Turks breaking the ftones, and applying
them to the building of a new mofque, which ftands
within the ruin, or to the repairing of their houfes and
the walls of the fortrefs. The vaft; pile of ponderous
materials, which lay ready, is greatly diminifhed ; and
the whole ftru&ure will gradually be confumed and
difappear.
The temple of Minerva in 1676 was, as Wheeler
and Spon affert, the fineft mofque in the world, with¬
out comparifon. The Greeks had adapted the frabric
to their ceremonial by conftrutting at one end a femi-
circular recefs for the holy tables, with a window : for
before it was enlightened only by the door, obfcurity
being preferred under the heathen ritual, except on
feftivals, when it yielded to fplendid illuminations;
the r'eafon, it has been furmifed, why temples are
commonly found Ample and unadorned on the infides.
In the wall beneath the window were inferted two pie¬
ces of the ftone called phengites, a fpecies of marble
difcovered in Cappadocia in the time of Nero ; and
fo tranfparent, that he ere6ted with it a temple to For¬
tune, which was luminous within, when the door was
fhut. Thefe pieces were perforated, and the light
which entered was tinged with a reddifli or yellowifti
hue. The pifture of the Panagia or Virgin Mary, in
Mofaic, on the ceiling of the recefs, remained; with
two jafper columns belonging totheikreen, which had
feparated that part from the nave ; and within, a ca¬
nopy fupported by four pillars of porphyry, with Co¬
rinthian capitals of white marble, under which the
table had been placed; and behind it, beneath the
window, a marble chair for the archbifhop ; and alfo
a pulpit, Handing on four fmall pillars in'the middle
aile. The Turks had white-waflied the walls, to obli¬
terate the portraits of faints, and the other paintings,
with which the Greeks decorate their places of wor-
Ihip; and had erefted a pulpit on the right hand for
their iman or reader. The roof was difpofed in fquare
compartments; the ftones maffive ; and fome had fal-
len in. It had been fuftained in the pronaos by fix co¬
lumns; but the place of one was then fupplied by a
large pile of rude mafonry, the Turks not having been
able to fill up-the gap more worthily. The roof of
the naos was fupported by colonnades ranging with
the door, and on each fide ; confiftittg of 22 pillars be¬
low, and of 23 above. The odd one was over the en¬
trance, which by that difpofition was left wide and un-
embarraffed; In the portico were fufpended a few lamps,
to be ufed in the mofque at the feafons when the muf-
felmans afiemble before day-break, or to be lighted up
round the, minaret, as is the cuftom during their Ra¬
mazan or Lent. 14
“ It is not eafy to conceive a more ftriking objeft Magnil
than the parthenon, though now a mere ruin. The co- """
lumns within the naos have all been removed: but on
the floor may be feen the circles which dire&ed the
workmen in placing them ; and at the farther end is
a groove acrofs it, as for one of the partitions of the
cell. The recefs erefted by the Chriftians is demoliih-
ed; and from the rubbifti of the ceiling the Turkifli
boys colleft bits of the Mofaic, of different colours,
which compofed the pifture. We were told at Smyr¬
na, that this fubftance had taken a polifti, and been
fet in buckles. This cell is about half demoliftied;
and in the columns, which furrounded it, is a large
gap near the middle. On the walls are fome traces of
the paintings. Before the portico is a refervoir funk
in the rock, to fupply the Turks with water for the
purifications cuftomary on entering their mofques. In
it, on the left-hand, is the rubbifli of the pile erefted
to fupply the place of a column; and on the right, a
ftaircafe, which leads out on the architrave, and has a
marble or two with inferiptions, but worn fo as not to
be legible. It belonged to the minaret, which has
been deftroyed.
“ The travellers, to whom we are indebted for an Sculpnl
account of the mofque, have likewife given a deferip-
tion of the fculpture then remaining in the front. In
the middle of the pediment was feen a bearded Jupiter,
with a majeftic Countenance, ftanding, and naked ; the
right arm broken. The thunder-bolt, it has been fup
pofed, was placed in that hand, and the eagle between
his feet. On his right was a figure, it is conjeftured,
of Viftory, clothed to the mid-leg; the head and arms
gone. This was leading on the horfes of a car, in
which Minerva fat, young and unarmed; her head-
drefs, inftead of a helmet, refembling that of a Ve¬
nus. The generous ardour and lively fpirit vifible in
this pair of celeftial fteeds, was fuch as befpoke the
hand of a matter, bold and delicate, of a Phidias or
Praxiteles. Behind Minerva was a female figure, with¬
out a head, fitting, with an infant in her lap ; and in
this angle of the pediment was the emperor Hadrian
with his arm round Sabina, both reclining, and feem-
ing to regard Minerva with pleafure. On the left fide
of Jupiter were five or fix other trunks to complete the
affembly of deities, into which he received her. Thefe
figures were all wonderfully carved, and appeared as
big as life. Hadrian and his confort, it is likely, were
complimented by the Athenians with places among
the marble gods in the pediment, as benefaftors.
Both of them may be confidered as intruders on the
original company; and pofiibly their heads were pla¬
ced on trunks, which before had other owners. They
ftilj
A T H
[ 859 ]
A T H
Athens, ft ill poffefs their corner, and are eafy to be recognized,
gml though not unimpaired. The reft of the ftatues are
defaced, removed, or fallen. Morofini was ambitious
to enrich Venice with the fpoilsof Athens; and by an
attempt to take down the principal group, haftened
their ruin. In the other pediment is a head or two of
fea-horfes finely executed, with fome mutilated figures ;
and on the architrave beneath them are marks of the
fixtures of votive offerings, perhaps of the golden
to eat of the new eheefe of Attica; and, among her Athens,
perquifites, was a meafure of wheat, and one of barley,
for every birth and burial. This temple was again
burned when Callias was archon, 24 years after the
death of Pericles. Near it was the tomb of Cecrops,
and within it Ereftheus was buried.
“ The ruin of the Eretftheum is of white marble;
thet architectural ornaments of very exquifite workman-
fliip, and uncommonly curious. The columns of the
fiiields, or of feftoons fufpended on folemn occafions, front of the temple of Neptune are Handing with the
1 ' ‘ ’ 1 m i .. • ■ • architrave; and alfo the flereen and portico of Minerva
Polias, with a portion of the cell retaining traces of
the partition-wall. The order is Ionic. An edifice
revered by ancient Attica, as holy in the higheft de¬
gree, was in 1676 the dwelling of a Turkifti family,
and is now deferted and negledted ; but many ponde¬
rous ftones and much rubbifti muft be removed before
the well and trident would appear. The former, at
leaft, might probably be difeovered. The portico is
ufed as a powder-magazine ; but we obtained'permif-
fion to dig and to examine the outfide. The door-way
of the veftibule is walled up, and the foil rifen nearly
to the top of the door-way of the Pandrofeum. By
the portico is a battery commanding the town, from
which afeends an amufing hum. The Turks fire from
it, to give notice of the commencement of Ramazan
or of their Lent, and of bairam or the holy-days, and
on other public occafions.
“ The pandrofeum is a fmall, but very particular
building, of which no fatisfa&ory idea can be commu¬
nicated by defeription. The entablature is fupported
by women called Caryatides. Their ftory is thus re¬
lated. The Greeks, vidforious in the Perfian war,
jointly deftroyed Carya, a city of the. Pelopennefus,
which had favoured the common enemy. They cut
off the males, and carried into captivity the women,
whom they compelled to retain their former drefs and
ornaments, though in a ftate of fervitude. The ar-
chitedfs of thofe times, to perpetuate the memory of
their puniftiment, reprefented them, as in this inftance,
each with a burden on her head, one hand uplifted to
it, and .the other hanging down by her fide. The i-
mages were in number fix, all looking toward the par-
thenon. The four in front, with that next to the
propylea, remain, but mutilated, and their faces be-
fmeared with paint. The foil is rifen almoft to the
Wl, when the temple was dreffed out to receive the votaries
wl'' 6 °f the goddefs.
ifercfthaim “ Neptune and Minerva, once rival deities, were
joint and amicable tenants of the Eredlheum, in which
was an altar of Oblivion. The building was double, a
partition-wall dividing it into two temples, which
fronted different ways. One was the temple of Nep¬
tune Eredlheus, the other of Minerva Polias. The
latter was entered by a fquare-portico connedted with
a marble Ikreen, which fronts towards the propylea.
The door of the cell was on the left hand; and at
the farther end of the paffage was a door leading
down into the Pandrofeum, which was contiguous.
: Temple of “ Before the temple of Neptune Eredtheus was an
leptune E- altar of Jupiter the fupreme, on which no living thing
was facrificed, but they offered cakes without wine.
Within it was the altar of Neptune and Eredtheus;
and two, belonging to Vulcan and a hero named Ba¬
tes, who had tranfmitted the priefthood to his pofte-
rity, which were called Butadte. On the walls were
paintings of this illuftrious family, from which the
prieftefs of Minerva Polias was alfo taken. It was af-
ferted that Neptune had ordained the well of fait wa¬
ter, and the figure of a trident in the rock, to be me¬
morials of his contending for the country. The former,
Paufanias remarks, was no great wonder, for other
wells of a fimilar nature were found inland ; but this,
when the fouth wind blew, afforded the found of waves,
f Minerva “ The temple of Minerva Polias was dedicated by
all Attica, and poffeffed the moft ancient ftatue of their puniftiment, reprefented them,
the goddefs. The demi or towns had other deities, ""''k | u— "
but their zeal for her fuffered no diminution. The
image, which they placed in the acropolis, then the
city, was in after ages not only reputed confummately
holy, but believed to have fallen down from heaven in
the reign of Erichthonius. It was guarded by a larg<
ferpent, which was regularly ferved with offerings of top of the bafement on which they are placed. Thi
honied cakes for his food. This divine reptile was of temple was open or latticed between the ftatues; and
great fagacity, and attained to an extraordinary age. in it alfo was a ftunted. olive-tree, with an altar of Ju-
He wifely withdrew from the temple, when in danger piter Herceus {landing under it. The propylea are
from the Medes ; and, it is faid, was living in the fe- nearly in a line with the fpace dividing it from the par-
cond century. Before this ftatue was an owl; and
golden lamp. This continued burning day and night.
It was contrived by a curious artift, named Callimachus,
and did not require to be repleniftied with oil oftener
' than once a-year. A brazen palm-tree, reaching to
the roof, received its fmoke. Ariftion had let the
holy flame expire while Sylla befieged him, and was
abhorred for his impiety. The original olive-tree,
faid to have been produced by Minerva, was kept in
this temple. When the Medes fet fire to the acropo¬
lis, it was confumed ; but, they afferted, on the follow¬
ing day, was found to have {hot up again as much as
a cubit. It grew low and crooked, but was efteemed
very holy. The prieftefs of Minerva was not allowed
thenon ; which difpofition, befides its other effects, oc-
cafioned the front and flank of the latter edifice to be
feen at once by thofe who approached it from the en¬
trance of the acropolis. X9
“ The ruin of the temple of Jupiter Olympics con- Of Jupiter
fills of prodigious columns, tall, and beautiful, of the Olympias.
Corinthian order, fluted ; fome Angle, fome fupporting
their architraves;'with a few maffive marbles beneath;
the remnant of a vaft heap, which only many ages could
have confumed and reduced into fo fcanty a compafs.
The columns are of very extraordinary dimenfions, be¬
ing about fix feet in diameter, and near fixty in height.
The number without the cell was n6or 120. Seventeen
were {landing in 1676; but a few years before wre arri¬
ved.
A T H [ 860 ] A T H
Athens. ve one was overturned with much difficulty, a nd applied
to the building a new mofque in the bazar or market¬
place. This violence was avenged by the bafhaw of
Negropont, who made it a pretext for extorting from
the vaiwode or governor 15 purfes; the pillar being,
he alleged, the property of their mafter the Grand
Signior. It was an angular column, and of confe-
quence in determining the dimenfions of the fabric.
We regretted that the fall of this mighty mafs had
not been poftponed until we came, as it would have
afforded an opportunity of infpefting and meafuring
fome members which we found far too lofty to be at¬
tempted. On a piece of the architrave, fupported by a
couple of columns, are two parallel walls, of modern
mafonry, arched about the middle, and again near the
top. You are told it has been the habitation of a her¬
mit, doubtlefs of a Stylites; but of whatever building
it has been part, and for whatever purpofe defigned,
it muft have been ere&ed thus high in air, while the
immenfe ruin of this huge ftrudhire was yet fcareely
diminifhed, and the heap inclined fo as to render it ac-
ceffible. It was remarked that two ftones of a ftep in
the front had coalefced at the extremity, fo that no
jun&ure could be perceived; and the like was difeo-
vered alfo in a ftep of the parthenon. In both inftan-
ces it may be attributed to a concretory fluid, which
pervades the marble in the quarry. Some portion re¬
maining in the pieces, when taken green as it were,
and placed in mutual contadft, it exfuded and united
them by a procefs fimilar to that in a bone of an ani-
to mal when broken and properly fet.
Detached « Befides the more ftable antiquities, many dc-
tique*fadp- tac^e^ P‘eces are found in the town, by the fountains,
ture, &c. ^ ftreets, the walls, the houfes, and churches.
Among thefe are fragments of fculpture ; a marble
chair or two, which probably belonged to the Gym-
nafia or theatres ; a fun-dial at the catholicon or ca¬
thedral, inferibed with the name of the maker ; and,
at the archiepifcopal houfe clofe by, a very curious
veflelof marble, ufedas a ciftern to receive water, but
once ferving, it is likely, as a public ftandard or mea-
fure. Many columns occur ; with fome maimed fta-
tues ; and pedeftals, feveral with inferiptions, and al-
moft buried in earth. A cuftom has prevailed, as at
Chios, of fixing in the wall, over the gateways and
doors of the houfes, carved ftones, moft of which ex*
- hibit the funeral fupper. In the courts of the houfes
lie many round ftelae, or pillars, once placed on the
graves of the Athenians; and a great number aredlill
to be feen applied to the fame ufe in the Turkifh bury-
ing grounds before the acropolis. Thefe generally
have concife inferiptions containing the name of the
perfon, and of the town and tribe, to which the de-
ceafed belonged. Demetrius the Phalerean, who en¬
deavoured to reftrain fepulchral luxury, enacted, that
no perfon ftiould have more than one, and that the
height ftiould not exceed three cubits. Another fpe-
cies, which refembles our modern head-ftones, is fome-
times adorned with fculpture, and has an epitaph in
verfe. We faw a few mutilated Hermse. Thefe were
bufts on long quadrangular bafes, the heads frequently
of brafs, invented by the Athenians. At firft they
were made to reprefent only Hermes or Mercury, and
defigned as guardians of the fepulchres in which they
were lodged; but afterwards the houfes, ftreets, and
porticoes of Athens, were adorned with them, and Ath«k
rendered venerable by a multitude of portraits of illu- H
ftrious men and women, of heroes and of gods : and,  ^4—
it is related, Hipparchus, fon of Pififtratus, eredled »
them in the demi or burough-towns, and by the road
fide, inferibed with moral apophthegms in elegiac verfe;
thus making them vehicles of inftrudlion.”
ATHERINA, in ichthyology, a genus of fifties 1)
of the order of abdominales. The charafters of this |
genus are thefe : The upper jaw is plain : the rays of |
the branchioftege membrane are fix ; and the fide-belt ]|
or line fhines like filver. The fpecies are two, viz.
1. The hepfetus, with about 12 rays in the fin next
the anus. It is found in the Mediterranean. It is alfo
very common in the fea near Southampton, where it |i
is called a fmelt. The higheft feafon is from March |!
to the latter end of May, or beginning of June; in ij
which month it fpawns. It never defects the place ; «
and is conftantly taken except in hard froft. It is alfa I
found on other coafts of our ifland. The length is a-
bove four inches^, and the tail is much forked. The
fifti is femipellucid, covered with feales ; the colour
filvery, tinged with yellow : beneath the fide-line is a
row of fmall black fpots. 2. The menidea, with 24
rays in the fin next the anus. This is a very fmall pel- II
lucid fifti, with many black points interfperfed; it has
many teeth in the lips, but none in the tongue or jaws.
It is found in the frefti waters of Carolina, and fpawn*
in April.
ATHEROMA, in furgery, a tumour without pain |
or difcoloration of the fkin, containing, in a membra¬
nous bag, matter refembling pap, intermixed with
hard and ftony particles. Thefe tumours are eafily
cured by incifion.
ATHERTON, or Atherston, a town of War- I
wickftiire in England, fituated on the river Stour, in i .
W. Long. 1. 30. N. Lat. 52. 40. It is a confiderable
town, and had formerly a monaftery ; but now is beft
known by its fair, which is the greateft in England
for cheefe.
ATHLET^E, in antiquity, perfons of ftrength and
agility, difeiplined to perform in the public games.
The word is originally Greek, aflxnrnf; formed from 11
*3-Aof, cert amen, combat; whence alfo the prize '■ I
or reward adjuded the vieftor. Under athletse were
comprehended wreftlers, boxers, runners, leapers, ’•
throwers of the dilk, and thofe praftifed in other ex-
ercifes exhibited in the Olympic, Pythian, and other
folemn fports ; for the conquerors wherein there were
eftabliftied prizes.
ATHLETIC habit, denotes a ftrong hale con-
ftitution of body. Anciently it fignified a full fleftiy ! -
corpulent ftate, fuch as the athletae endeavoured to I
arrive at. The athletic habit is efteemed the higheft j
pitch of health : yet is it dangerous, and the next door ) I
to difeafe ; finee, when the body is no longer capable
of being improved, the next alteration muft be for the
worfe. The chief objeft of the athletic diet, was to
obtain a firm, bulky, weighty body; by force of which,
more than art and agility, they frequently overpower- il
ed their antagonift : hence they fed altogether on dry, : 1
folid, and vifcuous meats. In the earlier days, their ■ i
chief food was dry figs, and cheefe, which was called (1
arida faginat.io, ?»?« Tpo?>», and bwom J'lufypav
Oribafius, or, as others fay, Pythagoras, firft brought
A T H
[ 861 ]
A T K
Athlone this in difufe, and fubftituted flefh fa lieu thereof. They an illhmus about half a league in breadth. It is about
Athos a Pecu^ar bread called ■' They exercifed, 30 miles in circumference, and two in perpendicular
  1- eat, and drank, without ceafing: they were not allowed height. It may be travelled over in about three days, _
to leave off eating when fatiated, but were obliged to and may be feen 90 miles off. There is a fine profpedt
cram on till they could hold no more; by which means from the top ; but, like all other high mountains, the
they at length acquired a degree of voracity" which cold on its fummit is excefiive. It abounds with many
to us feems incredible, and a ftrength proportional.     JI ^
Witnefs what Paufanias relates of the four celebrated
. athletse, Polydamus the Thefialian, Milo the Crotonian,
I * Dflw.Dift. Theagenes the Thafian, and Euthymus the Locrian *:
I miq. The fecond is faid to have carried a bull on his back
a confiderable way, then to have knocked him down
with a blow of his lift, and laftly, as fome add, devour¬
ed him at a meal.
ATHLONE, a town of Weftmeath in Ireland,
fituated on the river Shannon, in W. Long. 8. o. N.
different kinds of plants and trees, particularly the pine
and fir. In the valleys grows a plant called elegia,
whofe branches ferve to make pens for writing. In
fhort, this mountain is faid to be adorned with variety
of herbage and evergreens, a multitude of fprings and
ftreams, and woods growing near the fhore, fo as to
be .one of the moft agreeable places in the world.
It is now inhabited by Caloyers, a fort of Greek
monks, of the order of St Bafil, who never marry ;
though others of that church do. They abftain from
Lat. 53. 20. It is pretty large, and divided into two flefh, and fare very hardly, their ordinary meal being
parts by the river, over which there is a ftone bridge.  >t>l ,
Both divifions are well fortified, but it was taken by
king William in 1691. Below this town the country is
low, flat, and marfhy; and on the bank of the Shannon
there is a great bog, the foil of which is good for no¬
thing but to make turf. This bog extends 50 miles in
length, and in fome places is two or three miles broad.
ATHOL, the moft northern diftrift of Perthfhire
in Scotland, extending in length forty-three miles, and
in breadth thirty. It is bordered on the north by Bade-
nocb, on the weft by Lochaber, on the eaft and fouth-
eaft by Mar and Gowrie, on the fouth by Stratherne
and Perth Proper, and on the fouth-weft by Braidal-
bane. The country is very rough and mountainous,
and contains part of the ancient Caledonian foreft, but
olives pickled when they are ripe. They are about
6000 in all, and inhabit feveral parts of the mountain,
on which are 24 large old monafteries, furrounded with
high walls for a defence againft banditti. They are
fo refpe&ed, that the Turks themfelves will often fend
them alms. Thefe monks are not idle like others; but
labour with the ax, fpade, and fickle, dreffing them¬
felves like hermits. Formeriy they had fine Greek
manuferipts; but are now become fo illiterate, that they
can fcarce read or write.
Through this mountain, or rather through the ifth-
mus behind it, Xerxes king of Perfia is faid to have
cut a paifage for his fleet when about to invade Greece.
In this work he fpent three whole years, and employ¬
ed in it all the forces on board the fleet. He is alfo
thefe mountains are interfperfed with fruitful valleys, faid, before the work was begun, to have written the
Here are feveral villages, but no towns of any confi-
deration. The moft noted place is Blair Caftle, feated
on the river Tilt, near its influx into the Gurry, a
pleafant limpid ftream, that falls into the Tay. This
caftle belongs to the duke of Athol, who derives his
following infolent and ridiculous letter to the moun¬
tain: “ Athos, thou proud and afpiring mountain, that
lifteft up thy head to the very ikies, I advife thee not
to be fo audacious as to put rocks and ftones, that can¬
not be cut, in the way of my workmen. If thou
title from this diftrid, and lives here with great mag- makeft that oppofition, I will cut thee entirely down,
nificence. In the fame neighbourhood we fee the and throw thee headlong into the fea.,, The directors
pafs of Gillicranky, rendered memorable by the battle of this enterprife are faid to have been Bubaris the fon
fought here in the beginning of king William’s reign, of Megabyzus, and Artacheus the fon of Arbeus,
between that monarch’s general M‘Kay, and the High- both Perfians ; but as no traces of fuch a great work
landers adhering to king James. See Gillicranky. remain, the truth of the whole relation has juftly been
ATHOS, a celebrated mountain of Chalcidia in
Macedonia, fituated E. Long. 26. 20. N. Lat. 40.10.
The ancients entertained extravagant notions concern¬
ing its height. Mela affirmed it to be fo high as to
reach above the clouds ; and Martianus Capellinus,
that it was fix miles high. It was a received opinion,
that the fummit of mount Athos was above the middle
region of the air, and that it never rained there ; be-
caufe the allies left on the altars erected near its fummit
were always found as they were left, dry and unfeatter
called in queftion.
ATHY, a town of Ireland in the county of Kil¬
dare, not far from the borders of Queen’s county.
W. Long. 7. o. N. Lat. 53. o.
ATIGNY, an ancient town of Champagne in
France, where feveral of the kings of France had
their refidence. It is feated on the river Arfne, in
E. Long. 4. 47. N. Lat. 49. 30.
ATKINS (Sir Robert), lord chief baron of the
exchequer, was born in 1621, and educated at the uni-
ed. But if on many accounts it was famous among verfity of Oxford, from whence he removed to the inns
the ancients, it is no lefs fo among the moderns. The of court, and became eminent in the law. He was
Greeks, ftruck with its lingular fituation and the vene- made knight of the Bath, with many other perfons of
rable appearance of its towering afeent, eredled fo many the firft diftin&ion, at the coronation of king Charles
churches, monafteries, hermitages, &c. upon it, that II. 101672, he was appointed one of the judges of
it became in a manner inhabited by devotees, and from Common Pleas ; in which honourable ftation he con-
thencc received the name of the i/s/j'; which tinued till 1679, when, forefeeing the troubles that
name it ftill retains, though many of thofe confecra- foon after enfued, he thought fit to refign, and retire
ted works are now decayed. According to the ac- into the country. In 1689, he was made by king
counts of modern travellers, this mountain advances in- William lord chief baron of the exchequer; and a-
to the Archipelago, being joined to the continent by bout the fame time executed the office of fpeaker to
Von. II. 5 Q__ the
A T L [ 862 ] A T L
the houfe of lords, which had been previoufly refufed
by the marquis of Halifax. He diftinguifhed himfelf
by an unfhaken zeal for the laws and liberties of his
country. He wrote feveral pieces, which have been
colle&ed into one volume 8V0, under the title of Par¬
liamentary and Political Prafts. The authors of the
Biographia Britannica remark, that whoever inclines
to be thoroughly informed of the true conftitution of
his country, of the grounds and reafons of the revo¬
lution, and of the danger of fuffering prerogative to
joftle law, cannot read a better or plainer book than
thofe trafts of Sir Robert Atkins. He died in 1709,
aged 88.
Atkins (Sir Robert), fon of the preceding, was
born in 1646, and was eminent for all the virtues that
could adorn an Englilh gentleman. He wrote the an¬
cient and prefent ftate of Glouceilerfiiire, in one large
volume in folio ; and died O&ober 29, 1711.
ATKYNS (Richard), was defcended from a good
family, and was born at Tuffleigh, in Gloucefterrtiire,
in the year 1615. He was educated at Oxford, from
whence he removed to Lincoln’s Inn, and afterwards
diftinguifhed himfelf by his loyalty to king Charles I.
for whom he railed a troop of horfe at his own ex¬
pence. At the Reftoration he was made one of the
deputy lieutenants of Gloucefterfhire, and diftinguifhed
himfelf by his attachment to the government. But
at length being committed prifoner to the Marfhalfea
in Southwark-for debt, he died there on the 14th of
September 1677, He wrote feveral pieces, particu¬
larly atreatife on the original and growth of Printing.
ATLANTIC ocean, that bounded by Europe
and Africa on the eaft, and by America on the weft.
ATLANTICA. See Atlantis.
ATLANTIDES, in aftronomy, a denomination
given to the Pleiades, or feven liars, fometimes alfo
called Vergil'ue. They are thus called, as being fup-
pofed by the poets to have been the daughters either of
Atlas, or his brother Hefperus, who were tranflated
into heaven.
ATLANTIS, Atalantis, or Atlantica, an
illand mentioned by Plato, and fome others of the an¬
cients, concerning the real exiftence of which many
difputes have been raifed. Homer, Horace, and the
other poets, make two Atlantica’s, calling them He-
fperides, and Elyfian fields, making them the habi¬
tations of the bleffed. The moft diftinft account of
this ifland we have in Plato’s Timseus, of which Mr
Chambers gives the following abridgement. “ The
Atlantis was a large illand in the weftern ocean, fi-
tuated before or oppoftte to the ftraits of Gades.
Out of this illand there was an eafy palfage into
fome others, which lay near a large continent ex¬
ceeding in bignefs all Europe and Afia. Neptune
fettled in this illand (from whofe fon Atlas its name
was derived), and divided it among his 10 fons. To
the youngeft fell the extremity of the ifland called
Gadir, which, in the language of the country, ligni-
fies fertile, or abundant in Jheefi. The defcendants of
Neptune reigned here from father to fon for a great
number of generations in the order of primogeniture,
during the fpace of 9000 years. They alio polfelfed
feveral other iflands; and, palling into Europe and A-
frica, fubdued all Libya'as far as Egypt, and all Eu¬
rope to Alia Minor. At length the illand funk under
water ; and for a long time afterwards the fea therea- Atl
bouts was full of rocks and Ihelves.”
Many of the moderns, alfo, are of opinion that
the exiftence of the Atlantis is not to be looked upon
as entirely fabulous. Some take it to have been A-
merica; and from thence, as well as from a paflage in
Seneca’s Medea, and fome other obfcure hints *, they * See
imagine that the new world was not unknown to the rica'
ancients. But allowing this to be the cafe, the above-
mentioned continent which was faid to lie beyond At¬
lantis would feem rather to have been the continent of
America than Atlantis itfelf. The learned Rudbeck,
profeflbr in the univerfity of Upfal, in a work entitled
Htlanticafive Manheim, endeavours to prove that Swe¬
den and Norway are the Atlantis of the ancients; but
this its fituation will by no means allow us to believe.
By Kircher it is fuppofed to have been an ifland extend¬
ing from the Canaries quite to the Azores; that it was
really fwallowed up by the ocean as Plato afferts; and
that thefe fmall iflands are the Ihattered remains of it
which were left ftanding.
ATLAS, king of Mauritania, a great aftronomer,
contemporary with Mofes. From his taking obferva-
tions of the ftars from a mountain, the poets feigned
him to have been turned into a mountain, and to fuf-
tain the heavens on his fhoulders. Being an excellent
aftronomer, and the firft who taught the do&rine of
the fphere, they tell us that his daughters were turned
into ftars; feven of them forming the Pleiades, and
other feven the Hyades.
Atlas, a chain of mountains in Africa, lying be¬
tween the 20th and 25th degree of north latitude,
and fuppofed almoft to divide the continent from call
to weft *. They are faid to have derived their name * ?ee
from Atlas king of Mauritania, who was a great a- frlca.
ftronomer. They are greatly celebrated by the an¬
cients on account of their height, infomuch that the
abovementioned king, who is faid to have been tranf-
formed into a mountain, was feigned to bear up the
heavens on his (boulders. We are aflured, however, by
Dr Shaw, that the part of this chain of mountains
which fell under his obfervation, could not (land in
competition either with the Alps or Apennines. He
tells us, that if we conceive a number of hills, ufually
of the perpendicular height of 400, 500, or 600 yards,
with an eafy afcent, and feveral groves of fruit or fo-
reft trees, riling up in a fucceffion of ranges above
one another; and that if to this profpeft we add now
and then a rocky precipice, and on the fummit of each
imagine a miferable mud-walled village ; we (hall then
have ajuft idea of the mountains of Atlas.
Atlas, in matters of literature, denotes a book of
univerfal geography, containing maps of all the known
parts of the world.
Atlas, in commerce, a filk-fatin, manufactured in
the Eaft Indies. There are fome plain, fome ftriped,
and fome flowered, the flowers of which are either
old or only (ilk. There are atlafles of all colours;
ut moft of them falfe, efpecially the red and the crim-
fon. The manufacture of them is admirable ; the gold
and (ilk being worked together after fuch a manner as
no workmen in Europe can imitate; yet they are very
far from having that fine glofs and luftre which the
French know how to give to their filk ftu(fs. In the
Chinefe manufactures of this fort, they gild paper on.
ATM [ 863 ] ATM
I fc one with leaf-gold ; then cut it in long flips, and atmofphere. If we fuppofe the height of the whole A^o-
1^ n11,0 ^eir lllks.; ^hlck makes them, with very atmofphere divided into innumerab]e§equal parts, the ip‘><=re.
little coft, look very rich and fine. The fame long denfity of each of which is as its quantity, and the 
flips are twifted or turned about filk-threads, fo am- weight of the whole incumbent atmofpherebeing alfo
hcially, as to look finer than gold thread, though it as its quantity, it is evident, that the weiahtofthein-
^TMcfsPHF RF •«= m ft n , , cumbent air is every where as the quantity contained in
AIMOSTKERB, is moft generally underftood the fubjacent part; which makes a difference between
to fignify the whole extent of air diffufed around this the weight of each two contiguous parts of air. By a
, ear.th’ fthe fun> moon» or any other great bod7 in the theorem in geometry, where the differences of mao-ni-
iComponent » .u r 1 • tudes are geometrically proportional to the magnitudes
parts Of our With regard to the component parts of the air we themfelves, thofe magnitudes are in continual arith-
Jtmofphere. breathe, Dr Pneftley hath by undoubted experiments metical proportion ; therefore, if, according; to the fun
■ Py7ed ^'°rbe the nitrOUS. a,cid» and phlo- pofition, the altitude of the air by the addition of new
gifton To thefe we may certainly add water, of which parts into which it is divided, do continually increafe
the fubftances he made ufe of in producing air could in arithmetical proportion, its denfity will be diminifh-
never be perfeft y free; and as the Doaor inclines to ed, or, which is the fame thing, its gravity decreafed
think that the eleftnc fluid may be the phlogifton it- in continual geometrical proportion.
feif we will thus have the fubtile fluid of electricity as From fuch a feries it is%afy, by making two or FoJd in-
a capital ingredient in the compofition of the atmo- three barometrical obfervations, and determinine thefufficiem-
fphere of the earth rarity of the air at two or three different ftationi to
Indeed, whether this fluid is admitted by the Dodor determine its rarity at any aflignable height. Ca cu
or not as an ingredient in the air he diftills, we are lations accordingly were made upon this plan; but it
abfolutely certain that it enters in no fmall quantity having been found that the barometrical obfervations
into the compohtion of the air we breathe. It is alfo by no means correfponded with the denfity which by
certain, that the higher up we go in the atmofphencal other experiments the air ought to have had, it was
regions, the quantity of ekarical fluid is apparently fufpeded that the upper parts of the atmofpherical re!
greater ; neither hath any means been as yet fuggefted, gions were not fubjedt to the fame laws with the lower 4
by which we can determine where this eledncal power ones. Another method therefore was had recourfe to, Another
begins to dimimfh, much lefs where it ceafes altoge- namely, by calculating the height from which the light method*
atmornlS-enCf th™ imaS1rn,?d’ that th.0USh the the fun was refraaed fo as to become vifible to us
atmofphere of the earth, as confifhng of an heteroge- before the fun himfelf arofe. Thus, it was determined
neons mixture of a great number of fl ds> extends that at the he;ght of ^ m;les the’atmof here
b jt for a little way, yet that the ekancal part of it power of refracting light; and therefore, that, if it ex¬
may extend to the moon, or farther, and be the caufe tended beyond that dfftance, it behoved to be the next
of the revolutions of that luminary ; and that a fimilar thing to a perfedl vacuum, and not to be regarded
X- th' ca^ge^ST T?" b'-
r05" The geom^tr'clans of modern times have commonly fpoken of as familiarly as the heighToiTa
* beenvery folicitous to find out the height of the at- mountain, and reckoned to be as certainly, if lot more
ietbods of mofphere ; but the high degree of eledricity always certainly, calculated than the heights of mountains are c
eX1finS in tbe llPPe/Parts4°rf 11 bemg but very lately, Some appearances, however, feemed to form infuper-‘ Strong ob.
| -ght. and even ye imperfedly, difeovered, ,t was neceffarily able objections. The moil remarkable were thofe globes jeflions
r;100^ by hem, f°,that their ?"aV°Ps were of fire called which fometimes appear, and are fr°m u' ,
made without any regard to it, or without fafpefting found to move at vaft heights above thelarth. A very
the exiaence of any fuch thing. The firft attempts remarkable one of this kind was feen by Sir HanI
r t "‘T were foon a^er ^he Sloane, and the account communicated to Dr HaUey,
weight of the^ atmofphere was found out. It having who feems to have been greatly embarraffed by the
been difcoveied, that a column of air whofe bafe was phenomena attending it. The account given by Sir
an inch fquare, and the height of it that of the whole Hans Sloane is as follws : That “ on Tuffday, March
atmofphere weighed 15 lb, and that the weight of 19th 17»s, about eight in the eveningrSg eaft
air was to Mercury as 1 to 10,800, it thence followed, ward by the north-eaft corner of Soufhampton^ftreet
that if the weight of the atmofphere was fufficient to in Bloomfbury Square, London, he faw of a fudden a
aife a column of Mercury to the height of 30 inches, very great light much furpaffing that of the moon
lo^oo?-1 °r the ar colu.mn ,tfelf behoved to be which rtione then very bright. Upon turning to ob-
10,800 tones as much, or a little more than five miles ferve it, he faw a long flream of very bmjht fire
high. But as the air hath alfo a very great elaftic branched in the middle; but at laft it came to be Dear’
I P,UWer’ byf which it expands itfelf when the preffure of fafhioned, tapering upwards, and afterwards fphencal
the reft is taken off from any part of it, it is impoffible though not fo big as the full moon. The colour of it
I A , ?!7gTg .ca,lcula^on ^anr be juft. Another me- was whitilh, with a /hade of blue, of a moft vivid daz
bv°ine^ed)re hth-°',ed. ^ be followed. It being found zling luftre, which feemed in brightnefs very nearly to
by repeated experiments in different countries, that the refemble, if not to furpafs, that of the body of the fun
paces which, any portion of air takes up are recipro- in a clear day. In about half a minute^r lefs it
ca ly proportional to the weights with which it is com- feemed to move over about 20° of the heavens and to
I F ffed> all°wances &>• the gradual decreafe of weight go out as much above the horizon, leaving a vifible
behoved to be made m calculating the height of the track behind it.” All the other obfervers of this phi
5 0^2 nomenon
ATM [ 864
nomenon agreed, that the fplendour of this meteor was
]
ATM
_ very little inferior to that of the fun ; that within doors
the candles fcarce gave any light; and in the ftreets,
not only the ftars difappeared, but the moon, though
then nine days old, and very near the meridian, could
fcarcely be feen, at leaft Ihe call no vifible (hade even
where the beams of the meteor were intercepted by the
houfes; fo that for a few feconds, in all refpects it re-
fembled perfeft day.
Sir Hans Sloane, at London, obferved this meteor
Atm#!
fpberfir!
-m
Height and      r   
magnitude about ^ Pleiades, defcending a little beyond and be-
calciilated°r l°w the ftars in the belt of Orion. At Oxford, from
by Dr Hal- the track it had left in the iky, it was found to have
iey.
paired about x-|-above the preceding ilioulder of Orion,
and about 3!- above the middle of his belt, where there
appeared a luminous nubecula of reddiih light, being
a dilatation of the traft, feeming to have been occa-
fioned by fome exploiion there; and there the ob-
ferver was informed it firft broke out. From this it
proceeded, as to fenfe, in the arch of a great circle,
and paffing in the middle between the tail of Lepus
(8 Bayero) and /3 in the forefoot of Canis Major, it ter¬
minated about S in the breaft of the fame; and at the
place of its extinftion there remained a large whitiih
nubecula, much broader and of a ftronger light than
the reft of the track, by which a very ftrong explofion
was thought to be indicated. At Worcefter it was ob¬
ferved to have left all Orion and Canis Major to the
weftward, and divided the diftance between Sirius and
Procyon, fo as to be almoft twice as far from Procyon
as from Sirius.
From thefe obfervations, the diftances of the three
cities London, Oxford, and Worcefter being known.
vacuum. He offers a kind of dubious conje&iire in¬
deed, that the extreme magnitude of the meteor might
have compenfated for the finenefs of the medium. But
this we think will hardly account for all the phenome¬
na. According to this fuppofition, the explofion of
a globe of fire 2800 yards in diameter in fuch a me¬
dium ought to be equivalent to the explofion of one
300,000 times lefs in the denfer regions of our atmo-
fphere. But globes are to one another as the cubes
of their diameters; therefore, dividing’2800 by the
cube-root of 300,000, we have the diameter of a
fphere of fire, which ought to produce as extenfive ef-
fe&s as this meteor, fuppofing it to explode at the
furface of the earth, or in any part of the atmofphere
of nearly the fame denfity. The diameter of fuch a
globe behoved to be almoft 42 yards, or 126 feet; and
though we muft acknowledge the effe&s of fuch an ex¬
plofion to be prodigious in thofe places that were in it*
neighbourhood, it is fcarce probable that it could ex- ||,
tend in fuch a manner over the whole ifland of Britain.
The truth is, however, that here we have very few |
data to go upon ; the largeft flafhes of lightening, or
meteors that have been obferved in the lower regions I
of the atmofphere, bearing but a very fmall proportion f
to a globe of 42 yards diameter. :
The greateft difficulty, however, is to account for Brighti-iM
the brightnefs of the light. The appearance of me- of its li]l
teors of this kind, and indeed of all kinds, are nowat- anarguflR
tributed to eleftricity ; but ftill the difficulty remains,
We know that the ele6trical fluid pervades the vacuum denfityjpil
of the air-pump with the utmoft facility; but then it the air.pt
appears in long ftreams refembling the aurora borealis,
not in fmall bright and concentrated fparks, as when
as alfo the fun’s place at that time, and the altitudes of drawn from a conduftor, or difcharged from a vial in
the ftars among which it palled, Dr Halley computes
the height of the meteor to have been between 69 and
73A Englilh miles from the furface of the earth, its
diameter to have been 2800 yards, upwards of an En-
glifh mile and an half, and its velocity more than 350
miles in a minute.
Phenomena The perplexing circumftances here are, that, at fuch
difficult to an height, the atmofphere of the earth ought to have
be account- no denfity fufficient to fuftain flame of any kind, much
ed lefs fuch an intenfely dazzling one, and of fuch mag¬
nitude, as this meteor was. Add to this, that, without
air, no found could poffibly have attended its explofion,
nor indeed could any explofion have taken place; yet
all accounts from Devonlhire and Cornwall agreed that
there was heard there a report as of a very great can
the open air. To make this fluid exhibit a very bright
vivid flafh, the prefence of the grofs atmofphere feems
neceffary; and where that is taken off, the ele&ric
fpark always diffufes itfelf over a large furface, and
therefore becomes proportionably lefs bright. Expe¬
rience fhews, that though an ele&rified bottle will dif-
charge itfelf through a great fpace of vacuum, yet the
fpark diverges and lofes its force and brightnefs ; where¬
as this meteor, which at firft was long and branched,
collected itfelf afterwards into a leffer compafs; which
is a very ftrong prefumption of the preffure of a denfer
fluid; not to mention, that an explofion can be only
made by a rare fluid forcing through a denfe one.
Thus gun-powder fired in the open air explodes, be-
caufe the flame forces violently againft the denfe air;
non, or rather a broadfide at fome diftance, followed but though heated ever fo much in vacuo, no fuch ex-
by a rattling noife, as if fome fmall arms had been pro- plofion is produced.
■r n .  J 'T'L .. C   1 J _ ^ T  - "
mifcuoufly difcharged. The fame was heard at Lon¬
don and in Suffex; nor was it known how far it ex¬
tended, as we have certain accounts that it was heard
beyond the city of Aberdeen in the north of Scotland.
What was peculiar to this found was, that it was ac¬
companied with an uncommon tremor in the air, fo as
to fhake the glafs-windows and doors, and, according
to fome, even the houfes themfelves, much beyond the
ufual effeft of cannon though near. The learned Dr
Dr Halley’s Halley acknowledges himfelf unable to reconcile thefe
Inftances'have been known of balls of fire fimilar to Remarks
this meteor, though vaftly inferior in fize and bright-
nefs, travelling along the furface of the ground, or a-
long the fea, and afterwards burfting with an explofion.
A very remarkable one of this kind is mentioned by
Dr Prieftley in his hiftory of eleftricity. The fubftance
of the account is, that as the obferver (Mr Chalmers)
was endeavouring to find the latitude, on board the
Montague, Novr. 4^ 1749, in Lat. 420 48', about 10
minutes before 12, he was defired by one of the quar-
eonjefture. cjrcumftanceg with the received theory of the height of ter-mafters to look to the windward. Upon which he
the atmofphere ; as in the regions in which this meteor
moved, the air ought to have been 300,000 times rarer
than what we breathe, and the next thing to a perfed
obferved a large ball of blue fire rolling on the fur¬
face of the water at about three miles diftance from
them. They immediately lowered their top-fails; but
before
A T M [ 865 ] A T O
before they could raife their main tack, it was advan- As all bodies which are immerfed in the atmofphere
ced within 40 or 50 yards of the main chains. It now of our earth mull fuftain its preffure, which is various
appeared as big as a large milftone; and, riling perpen- at various times, it is plain, that this variation mult
dicularly, went off with an explofion as if hundreds of occafion very confiderable changes in thefe bodies. We
cannon had been fired at once. The noifelafted about have already mentioned, that the preffure of the at-
half a fecond ; after which they found their maintop- mofphere upon every fquare inch of the earth’s furface
malt lhattered to pieces, and their main-mall rent quite is equivalent to 15 pounds. Hence, Dr Cotes hath
down to the keel; five men were knocked down, and computed that the preffure of the whole ambient fluid
Atmo*
Iphere
!l ,
Atomical.
Preflure of
the atmo¬
fphere.
one greatly burnt, &c.
upon the earth’s furface is equivalent to that of a globe
the Now, though we can by no means pretend to give of lead 60 miles in diameter. From this it alfo ap-
i*ravity of
ithe air may
bediminifh-
j;d, without
iiffefting its
■jlenlity.
a reafon why fuch large bodies of eledtric fire Ihould
thus be found travelling as it were in quell of adven¬
tures ; yet as it feems indifputable that they actually
do move in this unaccountable manner, both on the
furface of the earth and at the height of 30, 40, 50, or
70 miles above it, it feems to fome extremely probable,
pears, that the prelfure upon the human body mull be
very confiderable; for, as every fquare inch of furface
fullains a preflure of 15 pounds, every fquare foot, as
containing 144 fquare inches, mull fuftain a preflure of
2160; and therefore, if a man’s body contains 15 fquare
feet of furface, which is pretty near the truth, he mull
that, excepting the mere want of aqueous vapours, the fuftain a weight of 2160X15=32,400 pounds, or fix-
atmofphere even at that great height is not much dif¬
ferent in denfity from what we breathe. To thofe who
confider the effedls of the eledtric fluid upon light bo¬
dies on earth, the decreafe of gravity in the fuperior
regions of the atmofphere will be no argument of its
want of denfity. We know, that it is the nature of filled either with air, or with fome other elaftic fluid,
jJncertainty
|>f barome-
frical obfcr-
hations.
any eledlrified fubftance to attradl light bodies; and
that, by proper management, they may even be fufpend-
ed in the air, without either moving up or down, for a
confiderable time. If this is the cafe with light terref-
trial bodies, it cannot be thought very improbable that
the aerial particles themfelves Ihould be thus aftedted
in thofe regions where eledlricity is fo abundant. It
is poflible, therefore, that where the air is in a highly
eledlrified Hate, its tendency towards the earth or its
gravity may be very much diminilhed, without its den-
iity being at all affedled; and if this is the cafe, it will
no doubt occafion great difficulties in affigning the true
height of the atmofphere, by rendering every barome¬
trical obfervation exceedingly precarious.
From thefe confiderations, and many others that will
naturally occur to every one who attends to this fub-
jedl, it muft appear that the height of our atmofphere
is yet very far from being determined. At firft the
finking of the barometer was thought to be a certain
method of determining the degree of the atmofpherical
denfity on the tops of mountains, and in fome of thefe
it was even faid that the air became too fubfile for
breathing; but this is now found to be a miftake. The
French mathematicians, when on the top of one of the
Andes, and above the common region of clouds, made
no complaint of this kind. On the top of mount iEt-
na, where the fmoke of the mountain finks inftead of name in the dominions of the Great Mogul. It is feat-
teen tun, for his ordinary load, which, by the diminu¬
tion or increafe of the gravity of the atmofphere, may
become heavier or lighter by near a whole tun. By Why we are
this enormous preffure we fhould certainly be crufhed notcrulhed
to pieces in a moment, were not all parts of our bodies 5t*
filled either with air, or with fome other el
the fpring of which is fufficient to counterbalance the
weight of the atmofphere. Whatever this fluid is, we
are fure that it is juft able to counterbalance the atmo¬
fpherical gravity, and no more; for if any confiderable
preffure is fuperadded to that of the air, as by going
into deep water, &c. it is always feverely felt, let it be
ever fo equable. If the preffure is taken off from any
part of the body, as by putting the hand upon the
mouth of an open receiver which is afterwards exhauft-
ed, the weight of the atmofphere then difcovers itfelf,
and we imagine the hand is ftrongly fucked down into
theglafs. See Pneumatics.
To the above-mentioned changes in gravity of the
atmofphere, we owe the prognoftications of the wea¬
ther by the barometer; but thefe changes feem to take
place moftly in fuch places as are at a diftance from
the equator. In the torrid zone, though frequent and
very great changes of weather happen, the barometer
Hands commonly at the fame height, or with littleva-
riation. See Barometer.
For the caufes of the elafticity of the atmofphere,
fee the article Elasticity; for the formation and afcent
of vapour, fe£ Evaporation; and for the other na¬
tural operations, fee Congelation, Cold, Rain,
Hail, Snow, Meteors, &c.
ATOCK, the capital of a province of the fame
rifing, Mr Brydone found no inconvenience in this re-
fpedl. Sir William Hamilton indeed fays he did ; but
befides the conje&ure mentioned under the article ./Et¬
na, we apprehend that the refpiration may be affefted
on the top of a volcano, from fo many different caufes,
that nothing can be concluded from thence. With re¬
gard to the barometer, M. De Luc hath been at in¬
credible paint to afcertain and reduce to rule the irre¬
gularities of it, which he found to arife from the dif¬
ferent temperature of the air; and it is to be hoped that
by his labours the menfuration of altitudes by this in-
ftrument will be greatly facilitated, and the conclufions
rendered much more certain than before, though whe¬
ther the difficulties are entirely removed can only be
determined by future experience. (See Barometer).
ed on a point of land where two large rivers meet, and
is one of the beft fortreffes the Mogul has; but for¬
merly nobody was permitted to enter it without a paf*-
port from the Mogul himfelf- E. Long. 72. 10. N.
Lat. 32. 20.
ATOM, in philofophy, a particle of matter, fo mi¬
nute, as to admit of no divifion. Atoms are the mi¬
nima natura, and are conceived as the firft principles
or component parts of all phyfical magnitude.
ATOMICAL philosophy, or the doftrine of a-
toms, a fyftem which, from the hypothefis that atoms
are endued with gravity and motion, accounted for the
origin and formation of things. This philofophy was.
firft broached by Mofchus, fome time before the Tro¬
jan war; but was much cultivated and improved by
A T R
Atonement Epicurus, whence it is denominated the Epicurean phi-
II hfophy. See Epicurean.
jA;r3flylls- ATONEMENT. See Expiation.
[ 866 ]
A T R
Atrip!
ATONY, in medicine, a defeft of tone or tendon,
or a laxity or debility of the folids of the body.
ATRA bilis, black bile, or melancholy. Ac¬
cording to the ancients it hath a twofold origin:
ist, From the grolfer parts of the blood, and this they
called the melancholy humour. 2d, From yellow bile
being highly conco&ed. Dr Percival, in his Effays
Med. and Exp. fuggefts, that it is the gall rendered
acrid by a ftagnation in the gall-bladder, and rendered
vifcid by the abforption of its fluid parts. Bile in this
ftate difcharged into the duodenum, occafions univerfal
difturbance and diforder, until it is evacuated ; it oc¬
cafions. violent vomiting, or purging, or both; and
previous to this the pulfe is quick, the head aches, a
delirium comes on, a hiccough, intenfe thirft, inward
heat, and a fetid breath. Some defcribe this kind of
bile as being acid, harfh, corroding, and, when poured
on the ground, bubbling up, and railing the earth af¬
ter the manner of a ferment. Dr Percival fays, that
by the ufe of the infuf. fena limoniet. warmed with the
tintt. columb. he had checked the vomitings occafion-
ed by this matter.
Atra dies, in antiquity, denotes a fatal day,
whereon the Romans received fome memorable defeat.
The word literally imports a black day; a denomina¬
tion taken from the colour, which is the emblem of
death and mourning. Whence the Thracians had a
cuftom of marking all their happy days with white
Rones or calculi, and their unhappy days with black
ones; which they call, at the clofe of each day, into an
urn. At the perfonVdeath, the ftones were, taken out;
and from a comparifon of the numbers of each com¬
pletion, a judgment was made of the felicity or in¬
felicity of his courfe of life. The dies atra, or a-
tri, were afterwards denominated nefajli, and pojleri.
Such, in particular, was the day when the tribunes
were defeated by the Gauls, at the river Allia, and loft
•the city; alfo that whereon the battle of Cannae
fought; and feveral others marked ’ ~
lendar as atra or unfortunate.
name of carline thiflle. This fends out many narrow Atrapl
leaves, which are deeply ferrated, and armed with fpines . Jf
on their edges. Thefe lie clofe on the ground; and
between them the flower is fituated, without a ftalk, and
having many florets inclofed in a prickly empalement.
Thofe on the border are white ; but fuch as compofe
the dilk are of a yellowilh colour. It flowers in July,
but never perfects feeds in Britain.
Culture. All thefe plants are natives of the warm
parts of Europe, as Spain, Sicily, and the Archipelago
iflands, from whence their feeds muft be procured.
They muft be fown upon an open bed of light earth,
where the plants are to remain; and when the plants
come up, they fhould be thinned, fo as to leave them
three or four inches afunder. The roots of the fecond
will laft two or three years, and the third is a peren¬
nial plant.
Medicinal Ufes. The root of the third fort was for¬
merly ufed as a warm diaphoretic and alexipharmic ;
but it never came much into ufe in Britain, and the
prefent praftice has entirely reje&ed it. The root is
about an inch thick, externally of a pale rufty brown
colour, corroded as it were in the furface ; and perfo¬
rated with numerous fmall holes, fo as to appear worm-
eaten when cut. It has a ftrorig fmell, and a fubacid,
bitterifh, and weakly aromatic tafte. Frederic Hoff¬
man the Elder, relates, that he has obferved a decoc¬
tion of it in broth to occaflon vomiting.
ATRiETI, in medicine, infants having no perfo¬
ration in the anus, or perfons imperforated in the va¬
gina or urethra.
ATRAPHAXIS, a genus of the digynia order, be¬
longing to the hexandria clafs of plants, for which
there is no Englifh name. There are two fpecies, both
natives of warm countries; but their properties are too
trifling to merit any particular defcription.
ATREUS, in fabulous hiftory, the fon of Pelops
and Hippodamia, and the father of Agamemnon and
Menelaus, is fuppofed to have been king of Mycenae
and Argos about 1228 years before the Chriftian
aera. He drove his brother Thyeftes from court, for
the Roman ca- having a criminal commerce with iErope his wife: but
underftanding that he had had two children by her, he
ATRACTYLIS, distaff-thistle ; a genus of fent for him again, and made him eat them; at which
the polygamia aequalis order, belonging to the fynge-
nefia clafs of plants.
Species. 1. The cancellata, or fmall cnicus, is an
annual plant rifing about eight or nine inches high,
with a flenderjtem, garniflied with hoary leaves, having
fpines on their edges. At the top of thefe branches
are fent out two or three flender ftalks, each termina¬
ted by a head of flowers like thofe of the thiftle. The
empalement is curioufly netted over, and is narrow at
the top, but fwelling below; and contains many flo¬
rets of a purplifh colour. Thefe are each fucceeded by
a Angle downy feed, which in cold years do not ripen
in this country. 2. The humilis, or purple prickly
cnicus, rifes about a foot high, with indented leaves,
having fmall fpines on their edges. The upper part of
the ftalk is divided into two or three flender branches,
each fupporting a head of purple flowers, having rays
inclofed in a fcaly empalement. The flowers appear in
June ; but unlefs the feafon is warm, the feeds will not
ripen in this country. 3. The gummifera, or prickly
gum-bearing.cnicus, known among phyficians by the
horrid a6tion, the fun, it is faid, withdrew his light.
ATRI, a town of Italy, in the farther Abruzzo in
the kingdom of Naples, with the title of a duchy ; it
is the fee of a biftiop, and is feated on a craggy moun¬
tain, four miles from the Adriatic Sea. E. Long. 13. 8.
N. Lat. 42. 45.
ATRIPLEX, orach, or arach ; a genus of the
monoecia order, belonging to the polygamia clafs of
plants.
Species. 1. Thehortenfls, or garden orach, was for¬
merly cultivated in gardens, and ufed as a fubftitute
for fpinach, to which it is ftill preferred by fome, tho’
in general it is difliked by the Englifli; however, it ftill
maintains its credit in France, as alfo in the northern
parts of England. There are three or four varieties of
this plant, vvhofe only difference is their colo'ur ; one
is a deep green, another a dark purple, and a third
with green leaves and purple borders. 2. The halimus,
or broad-leaved orach, was formerly cultivated in gar¬
dens as a fhrub, by fome formed into hedges, and con-
ftantly {beared to keep them thick : but this is a pur-
pofe
A T R
[ 867 ]
A T R
Atriplex, pofe to which it is by no means adapted, as the ihoots feet; and towards the top they divide into two or three Atropa
AlroPa- grow fo vigorous, that it is impoffible to keep the fmall branches garnifhed with oval leaves four inches ^ttac}(ment
hedge in any tolerable order; and what is worfe, in fe- long and three broad, having feveral prominent tranf-   
vere winters the plants are often deftroyed. 3. The verfe ribs on their under fide. The flowers come out
petulacoides, or flmibby fea~orach, grows wild by the from between the leaves on fliort foot-ftalks ; they are
fea-fide in many places of Britain. It is a low under- white, and fhaped like thofe of the common fort, but
fhrub, feldom rifing above two feet and an half, or at fmaller. It flowers in July and Auguft, but feldom
moll three feet high ; but becomes very bulhy. This ripens its fruit in Britain.
may have a place in gardens among other low Ihrubs, Culture. The firft fpecies, which is remarkable for
where it will make a pretty diverfity. Befides thefe, its poifonous qualities, is very feldom admitted in gar-
mine other fpecies are enumerated by botanical writers, dens, nor Ihould it ever be cultivated or allowed to grow
but the abovementioned are the moll remarkable. in thofe places to which children have accefs. The
Culture, &c. The firft fort is annual, fo mull be other kinds are propagated by feeds, and placed in a
propagated by feeds. Thefe are to be fowu at Mi- ftove, as is requifite for the more tender plants,
chaelmas, foon after the feeds are ripe. The plants Poifonous Shtalities, &c. The firft fpecies, as we
require no other culture than to be kept free from have already obferved, is a ftrong poifon. Mr Ray
weeds, to hoe them when they are about an inch high, gives a good account of the fymptoms that follow the
and to cut them down when they are too thick, fo as taking of it inwardly, by what happened to a mendi-
to leave them about four inches afunder. When thefe cant friar upon his drinking a glafs of mallow wine in
plants are fown in a rich foil, and allowed a good di- which the herb was infufed. In a fliort time he became
fiance from each other, the leaves will grow very large, delirious, and foon after was feized. with a grinning
and in this their goodnefs confifts. This muft be eaten laughter; then with feveral irregular motions, and at laft
whilft it is young; for when old, the leaves become with a real madnefs, andfuch a ftupidity as thofe have
tough, and are good for nothing. ' This fpecies is an who are fottifhly drunk; but after all, he was cured by a
article of the materia medica ; a decodtion of the leaves draught of vinegar. Buchannan alfo gives an account
is recommended in coftivenefs, where the patient is of of the deftrudtion of the army of Sweno the Dane, when
a hot bilious difpofition.—The fecond fort may be he invaded Scotland, by mixing a quantity of the bel-
propagated by cuttings. Thefe are to be planted in ladonna berries with the drink which the Scots were,
any of the fummer-months, in a fiiady border; where according to a treaty of truce, to fupply them with,
they will foon take root, and be fit againft the follow- Thisfo intoxicated the Danes, that the Scots fell upon
ing Michaelmas to tranfplant into thofe places where them in their fleep, and killed the greateft part of
they are to remain.—The third fort requires very little them, fo that there were fcarcelymen enough left to car-
culture. It may be alfo propagated from cuttings, and ry off their king. There have alfo been many inftances
is to be planted in a poor gravelly foil. in Britain of children being killed by eating berries of
ATROPA, deadly night-shade ; a genus of a fine black colour, and about the fize of a fmall cher-
the monogynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs ry, wdn’ch are no other than thofe of belladonna. Not-
of plants. withftanding this virulent quality, however, fome have
Species. Of this genus there are -five fpecies enume- prefcribed it as a cure for cancers; but whatever may be
rated by the botanifts ; the three following are the pretended from fome inftances, it feems very unlikely
moft remarkable. 1. The belladona grows wild in that this terrible difeafe fliould be cured, or even alle-
many parts of Britain. It hath a perennial root, viated in the leaft, by any fuch means,
which fends out ftrong herbaceous ftalks of a purplifti ATROPHY, in medicine, a difeafe, wherein the
colour, which rife to the height of four or five feet, body, or fome of its parts, do not receive the necef-
garnilhed with entire oblong leaves, which towards fary nutriment, but wafte and decay inceffantly *. * See the
autumn change to a purpliih colour. The flowers are ATROPOS, in fabulous hiftory, the name of the
H large, and come out fingly between the leaves, upon third of the Parcse, or Fates, whole bufinefs it was to
long foot-ftalks ; bell fhaped, and of a dulky colour on cut the thread of life.
the outfide, but purpliih within. After the flower is ATTACHMENT, in the law of England, im-
paft, the germen turns to a large round berry a lit- plies the taking or apprehending a perfon by virtue
tie flatted at the top. It is firft green ; but, when of a writ or precept. It is diftinguilhed from an ar-
ripe, turns to a Alining black, fits clofe upon the reft, by proceeding out of a higher court by precept
empalement, and contains a purple juice of a nau- or writ; whereas the latter proceeds out of an inferior
feous fweet tafte, and full of fmall kidney-Aiaped court by precept only. An arreft lies only on the body
feeds. 2. The frutefcens is a native of Spain, and of a man ; whereas an attachment lies often on the
IH rifes with a Ihrubby ftem to the height of fix or goods only, and fometimes on the body and goods.
eight feet ; dividing into many branches garnilhed An attachment by writ differs from diftrefs, in not ex-
with round leaves, in fliape like thofe of the ftorax tending to lands, as the latter does ; nor does a diftrefs
tree : thefe are placed alternately on the branches, touch the body, as an attachment does.
The flowers come out between the leaves on fhort foot- Attachment out of the Chancery, is obtained upon
ftalks, ftiaped like thofe of the former, but much lefs ; an affidavit made, that the defendant was ferved with a
Ip of adirtyyellowifhcolour, with a few brown ftripes: but fubpoena, and made no appearance ; or it iffues upon
thefe are never fucceeded by berries in Britain. 3. The not performing fome order or decree. Upon the re-
herbacea, with an herbaceous ftalk, is a native of Cam- turn of this attachment by the ftieriff, quod tion eft in-
peachy. This hath a perennial root, which puts forth ventus in balliva fua, another attachment, with a pro-
feveral channelled herbaceous ftalks rifing about two clamation, iffues j and if he ftill refufes to appear, a
Attach¬
ment
Attainder.
ATT [ 868 ]
ATT
commiflion of rebellion.
Attachment of the Forejl, is one of the three courts
held in the foreft. The loweft court is called the court
of attachment, ox nuood-mote court; the mean, fwan-
mote ; and the higheft, the juflice in eyre's feat. The
court of attachments has its name from the verdurers
of the foreft having no other authority in it, but to re¬
ceive the attachments of offenders againft vert and ve-
nifon taken by the forefters, and to enroll them, that
they may be prefented or punifhed at the next juftice
in eyre’s feat. This attachment is by three means :
by goods and chattels; by body, pledges, or main-
prize ; or by the body only. This court is held every
40 days throughout the year ; and is thence called for¬
ty-days court.
Foreign Attachment is an attachment of money
or goods found within a liberty or city, to fatisfy fome
creditor within fuch liberty or city. By the cuftom of
London, and feveral other places, a man can attach
money or goods in the hands of a ftranger, to fatisfy
himfelf.
ATTACK, a violent attempt upon any perfon or
thing, an affault, or the adi of beginning a combat or
difpute.
Attack, in the military art, is an effort made to
force a poft, break a body of troops, &c.
Attack of a ftege, is a furious affault made by the
befiegers with trenches, covers, mines, &c. in order
to make themfelves mafters of a fortrefs, by ftorming
one of its fides. If there are two or three attacks
made at the fame time, there ftiould be a communica¬
tion betwixt Hem- See Siege.
ATTAINDER, in law. When fentence of death,
the moft terrible and higheft judgment in our laws, is
pronounced, the immediate infeparable confequence by
the common law is attainder. For when it is now clear
beyond all difpute, that the criminal is no longer fit
to Hve upon the earth, but is to be exterminated as a
monfter and a bane to human fociety, the law fets a
note of infamy upon him, puts him out of its projec¬
tion, and takes no farther care of him than barely to
fee him executed. He is then called attaint, attinttus,
fiained, ox blackened. He is. no longer of any credit or
reputation ; he cannot be a witnefs in any court; nei¬
ther is he capable of performing the funftions of an¬
other man : for, by an anticipation of his punifhment,
he is already dead in law. This is after judgment: for
there is great difference between a man convifted, and
attainted; though they are frequently through inac¬
curacy Confounded together. After conviftion only,
a man is liable to none of thefe difabilities t for there
is ftill in contemplation of law a pofiibility of his inno¬
cence. Something may be offered in arreft of judg¬
ment: the indidlment may be erroneous, which will
render his guilt uncertain, and thereupon the prefent
convi&ion may be qualhed: he may obtain a pardon,
or be allowed the benefit of clergy; both which fuppofe
fome latent fparks of merit, which plead in extenuation
of his fault. But when judgment is once pronounced,
both law and faft confpire to prove him completely
guilty ; and there is not the remoteft poffibility left of
any thing to be faid in his favour. Upon judgment
therefore of death, and not before, the attainder of a
criminal commences : or upon fuch circumftances as
are equivalent to judgment of death ; as judgment of
outlawry on a capital crime, pronounced for abfeond-
in^ or fleeing from juftice, which tacitly confeffes the
guilt: And therefore, upon judgment either of out¬
lawry, or of death, for treafon or felony, a man ftiall
be faid to be attainted.
A perfon attainted of high treafon forfeits all his
lands, tenements, and hereditaments ; his blood is cor¬
rupted, and he and his pofterity rendered bafe ; and
this corruption of blood cannot be taken off but by
aft of parliament *. * Se
Attainders may be reverfed or falfified, (i e. proved ^rt.'c'
to be falfe) by writ of error, or by plea. If by writ clrru
of error, it muft be by the king’s leave, &c. 5 and o{ Bl<
when by plea, it may be by denying the treafon,
pleading a pardon by aft of parliament, &c.
Perfons may be attainted by aft of parliament.—
Afts of attainder of criminals have been paffed in fe¬
veral reigns, on the difeovery of plots and rebellions,
from the reign of king Charles II. when an aft
was made for the attainder of feveral perfons guilty
of the murder of king Charles I. Among afts of
this nature, that for attainting Sir John Fenwick,
for confpiring againft king William, is the moft re¬
markable ; it being made to attaint and convift him
of high treafon on the oath of one witnefs, juft after a
law had been enafted, “ That no perfon fhould be
“ tried or attainted of high treafon where corruption
“ of blood is incurred, but by the oath of two lawful
“ witneffes, unlefs the party confefs, Hand mute, &c.”
Stat. 7 and 8 W. 3. cap. 3. But in the cafe of Sir
John Fenwick, there was fomething extiaordinary; for
he was indifted of treafon on the oaths of two witneffes,
though but only one could be produced againft him on
his trial.
ATTAINT, is a writ that lies after judgment a-
gainft a jury of twelve men that have given falfe ver-
dift in any court of record, in an aftion real or per-
fonal, where the debt or damages amount to above 40 s.
Stat. 5 and 34 Ed. III. c. 7. It is called attaint, be-
caufe the party that obtains it endeavours thereby to
ftain or taint the credit of the jury with perjury, by
whofe verdift he is grieved.
The jury who are to try this falfe verdift muft be
twenty-four, and are called the grand jury; for the law
wills not that the oath of one jury of twelve men fliould
be attainted or fet afide by an equal number, nor by
lefs indeed than double the former. And he that brings
the attaint can give no other evidence to the grand
jury, than what was originally given to the petit. For
as their verdift is now trying, and thequeftion is whe¬
ther or no they did right upon the evidence that ap¬
peared to them, the law adjudged it the higheft abfur-
dity to produce any fubfequent proof upon fuch trial,
and to condemn the prior jurifdiftion for not believing
evidence which they never knew. But thofe againft
whom it is brought are allowed, in the affirmance of
of the firft verdift, to produce new matter: becaufe the
petit jury may have formed their verdift upon evidence
of their own knowledge, which never appeared in court;
and becaufe very terrible was the judgment which the
common law inflifted upon them, if the grand jury
found their verdift a falfe one. The judgment was,
1. That they ftiould lofe their liberam legem, and be¬
come for ever infamous. 2. That they ftiould forfeit
all their goods and chattels. 3. That their lands and
tene-
ATT
|Attahit tenements fliould be feifed into the kings hands.
II 4. That their wives and children Pnould be thrown out
Ate a H15‘ of doors. 5. That their houfes ihould be rated and
thrown down. 6. That their trees thould be rooted up.
7. That their meadows thould be ploughed. 8. That
their bodies thould be call into jail. 9. That the party
thould be reftored to all that he loti by reafon of the
unjuft verdict. But as the feverity of this punithment
had its ufual eff’edl, in preventing the law from being
executed, therefore by the ftatute 11 Hen. VII. c. 24.
revived by 23 Hen. VIII. c. 3. and made perpetual by
13 Eliz. c. 25. it is allowed to be brought after the
death of the party, and a more moderate punithment
was infli&ed upon attainted jurors; viz. perpetual in¬
famy, and if the caufe of a£lion were above 40/. value,
a forfeiture of 20/. apiece by the jurors; or, if under
40/. then 5/. apiece; to be divided between the king
and the party injured. So that a man may now bring
an attaint either upon the ftatute or at common law,
at his ele&ion; and in bolh of them may reverfe the
former judgment. But the practice of fetting afide ver-
difts upon motion, and granting new trials, has fo fu-
perfeded the ufe of both forts of attaints, that there is
hardly any inftance of an attaint later than the i6rh
century.
Attaint, among farriers, a knock or hurt in a
horfe’s leg, proceeding either from a blow with ano¬
ther horfe’s foot, or from an over-reach in frofty
weather, when a horfe, being rough-fhod, or having
fhoes with long caulkers, ftrikes his hinder feet againft
his fore-leg.
ATTAINTED, in law, is applied to a perfon’s
being under attainder. See Attainder.
ATTALUS, the name of feveral kings of Perga-
mus. See Pergamus.
ATTELABUS, in zoology, a genus of infefts
belonging to the order of coleoptera or beetle-kind.
It has four wings, of which the fuperior are cruftaceous,
and ferve as a {heath of cover to the inferior, which
are membranous. The head tapers behind, and is in¬
clined ; the feelers turn thicker towards the apex. The
fpeeies are 13 ; viz. 1. The coryli is black, with red
elytra^ or cruftaceous wings. 2. The avellana is black,
with the brtaft, feet, and elytra red. 3vThe curcu-
lionoides is black, with red elytra and bread. The a-
bove three fpecies frequent the leaves of the hazel and
filbert nut-trees. 4. The furinamenfis has a double
indentation (or two teeth) in the top of the elytra.
It is a native of Surinam. 5. The penfilvanicus is
black, with red elytra, a black belt round the middle,
and another towards the apex of the elytra. It is a
native of Philadelphia. 6. The melanurus is black,
with teftaceous elytra, black at the apex. It is a na¬
tive of Sweden. 7. The betula has faltatory or fpringy
legs, and the whole body is of a dark-red colour. It
[j . frequents the leaves of the birch-tree. 8. The formi-
c^rius is black, with red elytra, and a double while
belt towards the bafe. It is a native of Europe.
9.. The fipylus is green, with a hairy breaft, and a
double yellow belt upon the elytra. 10. The apiarius
1 f* Vol. II.
ATT
is bluifli, with red elytra, and three black belts. It is Attcnuanu
a native of Germany. 11. The mollis is yellowifti and H
hairy, with pale elytra, and three belts. It is a native ' £r >ur?'
of Europe. 12. The ceramboides is of a blackifn red
colour, and the elytra is furrowed. It frequents the
fpongy boletus, a fpecies of mufhroom. 13. The bu-
preftoides is of a dark-red colour, with a globular
breaft, and nervous elytra. It is a native of Europe.
ATTENDANTS, medicines which refolve the vif-
cofity of the humours ; thereby promoting their cir¬
culation, as well as the difcharge of all noxious or ex-
crementitious matter.
ATTENTION, is that ftate of mind which pre- °f
pares one to receive impreffions. According to the
degree of attention, objects make a ftronger or weak- s °7' u‘ p'
er impreftion (a). Attention is requifite even to the
fimple a6l of feeing : the eye can take in a confiderable
field at one look ; but no objeCl in the field is feen
diftindtly, but that fingly which fixes the attention :
in a profound reverie that totally occupies the atten¬
tion, we fcarce fee what is direftly before us. In a
train of perceptions, no particular objeft makes fuch a
figure as it would do fingly and apart; for when the
attention is divided among many objedts, no particu¬
lar objedl is intitled to a large {hare. Hence, the ftill-
nefs of night contributes to terror, there being nothing
to divert the attention :
Horror ubique animos, fimul ipfa Glentia terrent. JEneid. ii.
Zara. Silence and folitude are ev’ry where!
1 ‘Through all the gloomy ways and iron doors
That hither lead, nor human face nor voice
Js feen or heard. A dreadful din was wont
To grate ihe fenfe, when enter’d here, from groans
And howls of flaves condemn’d, from clink of chains,
And crafli of rufly bars and creaking hinges;
And ever and anon the fight was dalh’d
With frightful faces, and the meagre looks
Of grim and ghaftly executioners.
Yet more this (Hllnefs terrifies my foul
Than did that feene of complicated horrors.
Mourning Bride, aft 5. fc. 8_
In matters of flight importance, attention is moftly
diredled by will; and for that reafon, it is our own
fault if trifling objedls make any deep impreflion. Had
we power equally to with-hold our attention from mat¬
ters of importance, we might be proof againft any
deep impreffion. But our power fails us here : an
interefting obje£l feizes and fixes the attention beyond
the pofiibility of controtil; and while our attention is
thus forcibly attached to one objeft, others may foli-
cite for admittance; but in vain, for they will not be
regarded. Thus a fmall misfortune is fcarce felt in
prefence of a greater :
Lear. Thou think’ll ’tis much, that this contentious ftorm
Invades us to the Ikin ; fo ’tis to thee;
But where the greater malady is fix’d.
The lefifer is fcarce felt. Thou’dft Ihun a bear;
But if thy flight lay tow’rd the roaring fea,
Thou’dft meet the bear i’ th’ mouth. When the mind’s free,
The body’s delicate : the tempeft in my mind
Doth from my lenfes take all feeling elfe.
Save what beats there. King Lear, aft 3. fc. j.
ATTERBURY (Dr Francis), fon of Dr Lewi*
5 R Atterbury,
[ 869 ]
(a) Bacon, in his natural hiftory, makes the following obfervations. “ Sounds are meliorated by the intenfion of
“ the ft ufe, where the common fenfe is collected moft to the particular fenfe of hearing, and the fight fuf^nded.
“ Therefore founds are fweeter, as well as greater, in the night than in the day ; and I fuppofe they are fweeter to
“ blind men than to others: and it is manifeft, that between fleeping and waking, when all the fenfes are bound and
“ fufpended, mufic is far fweeter than when one is fully waking.”
Atterbury.
ATT [ 87o ] ATT
Atterbury, was born at Milton in Buckinghamihire,
1662 ; educated at Weftminiler ; and from thence e-
lefted to Chrid-Church in Chxford, where he diftin-
guiihed himfelf early by his fine genius and turn for
polite literature. The year he was made M. A. 1687,
he exerted himfelf in the controverfy with the Papifts,
vindicated Luther in the ftrongeft: manner, and fliewed
an uncommon fund of learning, enlivened with great
vivacity: he was indeed feldom difengaged from lite¬
rary difputes, either religious or political ; and was
thought to have had no inconfiderable part in the fa¬
mous controverfy between Mr Boyle and Dr Bentley,
about the genuinenefs of Phalaris’s epiftles. Q^Anne,
upon her acceffion to the throne, appointed him her
chaplain. In September following, he was prefented
to the deanry of Carlifle. A funeral fermon of his
engaged him in a difpute with Mr Hoadly, afterward
bilhop of Winchefter, concerning the advantages of
virtue with regard to the prefent life. His Latin fer¬
mon to the clergy of London at Zion-College, upon
Rom. xiii. 1. pubhlhed by him in 1708, engaged him
in another difpute with Hoadly about paffive obe¬
dience. In 1710 he was fuppofed to have been very
affiftant to Dr Sacheverel. The fame year he was
chofen prolocutor in the convocation of the clergy of
the province of Canterbury ; and the management of
affairs in the lower houfe was principally direfted by
him. In 1713 he was promoted to the fee of Roche-
fter ; and had a confiderable intereft in the miniftry at
that time. During the rebellion in Scotland, when
the Pretender’s declaration was difperfed, the arch-
bilhop of Canterbury, and the bifhops in and near
London, had publifhed a Declaration of their Abhor¬
rence of the prefent Rebellion, and an Exhortation .to
the clergy and people to be zealous in the difcharge of their
duties to his Majefly King George: but the biihop of
Rochefter refufed to fign it; and engaged bifhop Smal-
ridge in the fame refufal, on account of fome reflec¬
tions it contained againft the high-church party. He
appeared generally among the proteftors againft the
meafures of the miniftry under the king, and drew up
the reafons of the protefts with his own hand. In
1722 he was committed prifoner to the tower of Lon¬
don for high treafon. What ftiare he is faid to have
had in the confpiracy appears from the Report of the
Secret Committee of the Houfe of Commons ; which oc-
cafioned a refolution in that houfe, March 11, 1723,
‘ That Francis lord bilhop of Rochefter was princi-
‘ pally concerned in forming, dire&ing, and carrying
‘ on, a wicked and deteftable confpiracy, for invading
‘ thefe kingdoms with a foreign force, and for railing
‘ infurreftions and a rebellion at home, in order to
‘ fubvert our happy eftablilhment in church and ftate,
‘ by placing a popifn pretender on the throne.’ In
confequence of this, a bill was brought in to inflict
pains and penalties upon him, which received the royal
affent, May2y. Tomitigate the fentenceofbanilhment,
his daughter was permitted to attend him. He fof-
tened the rigour of his exile by ftudy, and converfa-
tion with men of letters. It is faid he tranllated Vir¬
gil's Georgies into Englilh, and wrote an Harmonia
Evangelica. He alfo wrote a vindication of himfelf,
bilhop Smallridge, and Dr Aldrich, from a charge
brought againft them by Mr Oldmixon, of altering
and interpolating the lord Clarendon’s hiftory of the
rebellion. He died at Paris, Feb. 15th, 1731 ; and his AtteftatufiK
AtticaJ;
body was brought to England, and interred in Weft-
minfter abbey. Though his charafter is differently re-
prefented by different parties, it is univerfally allowed . f
that he had uncommon abilities, was a fine writer,
and a moft excellent preacher. His fermons are printed
in four volumes 8V0.
ATTESTATION, the aft of affirming or witnef- {
fing the truth of fomething, more efpecially in writing.
ATTIC, any thing relating to Attica, or to the
city of Athens : thus Attic fait, in philology, is a deli¬
cate poignant fort of wit and humour peculiar to the
Athenian writers ; Attic witnefs, a witnefs incapable
of corruption, &c.
Attic Order. See Architecture, n°5'8.
Attic Safe, a peculiar kind of bafe ufed by the
ancient architefts in the Ionic order ; and by Palladio,
and fome others, in the Doric.
Attic Story, in architefture ; a ftory in the upper Ji
part of a houfe, where the windows are ufually fquare. x I|
ATTICA, an ancient kingdom of Greece, fituated Boundaril
along the north coaft of the gulph of Saron, bounded extent, at
on the weft by Megara, mount Cithaeron, and part of
Boeotia ; on the north by the gulph of Euripus, now f|
Stretto di negro ponte, and the reft of Bceotia ; and on f
the eaft by the Europius. It extended in length from
north-weft to fouth-eaft about 60 miles ; its breadth
from north to fouth was yd, decreafing as it approached
the fea.
The foil of this country was naturally barren and J
craggy, though by the induftry of its inhabitants it
produced all the neceflaries of life. On this account
Attica was lefs expofed to invafions than other more » 1
fertile countries; and hence it preferved its ancient in- Inhabitai
habitants beyond all the other kingdoms in its neigh- thougfl(
hnnrlinrtrl • ■fn that- th^vr *•*»*->,♦-L„ C  ^ prod
 — J    ^ ^ . 41J
bourhood; fo that they were reputed to be the fpon-
taneous produftions of the foil; and as a badge of this, foil. ™
Thucydides tells us, they wore golden grafshoppers in
their hair. 3 f
The chief cities in the kingdom of Attica were A- Cities. 1. d
thens the capital; next to it, Eleufis, fituated on the Jf
fame gulph, near the coafts of Megara ; and next to
that, Rhamnus, famed for the temple of Amphiaraus f
and the ftatue of the goddefs Nemefis. 4 j
The firft king of this country, of whom we have any Cecrops jifK
diftinft account, was Cecrops. Others indeed are faid tkh.e firft If11
to have reigned before him, particularly one Aftaeus, kin^‘ j
whofe daughter Cecrops married, and in her right laid
the foundation of his new monarchy. Cecrops is faid
to have been the firft who deified Jupiter, fet up altars
and idols, and inftituted marriage among the Greeks.
He is likewife affirmed to have taught his fubjefts navi¬
gation, and for the better adminiftration of juftice, and
promoting intercourfeamongthem, tohavedivided them
into the firft four tribes called Cecropis, Autochthon, Ac-
tea, and Paralia; and he is alfo by fome faid to be the
founder of the Areopagus. From this monarch the
Athenians affefted to call themfelves Cecropidte till the
reign of Ereftheus their fixth king, after whom they
took the name of Eretthyda.
Cecrops dying after a reign of 50 years, left three Cranausi Is
daughters, by marrying one of which, probably, Cra-
naus a wealthy citizen afeended the throne. He en¬
joyed his crown peaceably for ten years ; till, having
married one of his daughters, named Attis, to Amphic-
tyon
ATT
[ 871 ]
ATT
Attica, tyon the fon of Deucalion, he was by him dethroned,
6~° and forced to lead a private life to the laft. From this
Whence the daughter, the country which before had been called
couhtry was took the name of Attica.
After a reign of ten or 12 years, Amphi&yon was
called At-
up the.iword and flioes, and prepare himfelf to go to
his father.. He was advifed to go by fea rather than “
by land, as, ever fince the departure of Hercules, the
roads had been exceedingly infefted by banditti. The-
feus, however, who had already begun to difeover
himfelf depofed by Eridlhonius, faid to be the fon of marks of uncommon ftrength and courage, no fooner
Erifliio- Vulcan and Tethys : Being lame of both his feet, he
ulus. is faid to have invented coaches, or, as others will have
it, inftituted horfe and chariot races in honour of Mi¬
nerva. He is alfo reported to have been the firft who
g damped iilver coin. He reigned 50 years, and was
Pandion. fucceeded by his fon Pandion the father of Progne and
Philomela ; whofe hard fate, fo famous among the
poets, is fuppofed to have broke his heart, after a reign
of about 40 years. In his time Triptolemus taught
S . the Athenians agriculture, which he had learned from
; 9 Ceres.
iEreftheus. Pandion was fucceeded by his fon Ereftheus, who
being reckoned the moil powerful prince of his time,
Boreas king of Thrace demanded his daughter Orithia
in marriage, and on being refufed carried her off by
force. After a reign of 50 years, Ereftheus being
10 killed in a battle with the Eleufians, was fucceeded by
Cecrops II. jjjs pon Cecrops II. who is generally allowed to have
been the firft who gathered the people into towns ;
they having till then lived in houfes and cottages fcat-
tered here and there, without order or regular diftance.
After a reign of 40 years he was driven out by his bre¬
thren Metion and Pandorus, who forced him to fly in¬
to iEgialea, where he died.
Pandion II. Cecrops II. was fucceeded by his fon Pandion II.
and he was likewife driven out by Metion, who affumed
the government. Pandion in the mean time fled into
Megara, where he married Pelia the daughter of Pylas
king of that place, and was appointed fucceffor to the
kingdom. Here he had four fons, who returning to
Athens, whether with or without their father is un¬
certain, expelled the fons of Metion, and after the de-
ceafe of Pandion their father, divided the government
among themfelves; notwithftanding which, the royal
dignity did in effeft remain with ^Egeus the eldeft.
iEgeus, when he afeended the throne, finding him¬
felf defpifed by his fubje&s becaufe he had no fons, and
heard the name of Hercules mentioned, than he be¬
came defirous of imitating fo great a pattern, and
after performing a number of glorious exploits, for
which fee the article Thessus, he arrived fafe at his
father’s capital.
The great atchievements of our young hero pro- is m^e
cured him a welcome reception at the court of Aigeus, known to
though his birth was unknown to all except Medea, to h'* father,
whom the king had lately been married. This queen
being a forcerefs, it is not to be fuppofed any thing
could be concealed from her: Ihe therefore, by her dia¬
bolical penetration, quickly found out that Thefeus
was the king’s fon; after which fhe became fo jealous
of him on account of his valour, that fhe perfuaded her
old hufband to invite the young ftranger to a banquet,
and poifon him in a glafs of wine. The poifon was ac¬
cordingly prepared, and Thefeus invited; but the
prince fuddenly drawing his fword, it was immediately
recognized by ^Egeus to be the fame he had formerly
buried below the ftone. Upon this, he ftepped forward
to Thefeus, throwing down the poifoned draught in
his way, and, embracing him with much tendernefs,
owned him for his fon before all the court.
At this time the king of Athens had great occafion
for fuch a champion as Thefeus. The ions of Pallas,
who had all along behaved with great infolence, upon
Thefeus being difeovered to be the king’s fon, and
heir apparent to the crown, broke out in open rebel¬
lion. They were foon difeomfited; but iEgeus and ,s
the whole country of Attica were ftill in great diftrefs He kills the
on the following account. Some years before, Andro- Minotaur,
geus, the fon of Minos king of Crete, came to A-
thens to be prefent at one of their feafts. During this
vifit he contrafted fuch an intimacy with the fifty fons
of Pallas, that iEgeus, fearing fome fatal confequen-
ces, catlfed him to be privately murdered. Accord¬
ing to others, Androgeus having undertaken to en-
fometimes infulted by his brother Pallas who had no counter the Marathonian bull, was killed by it. Be
lefs than fifty, confulted the oracle of Apollo at Del¬
phi. Receiving here, as was commonly the cafe, an
anfwer which could not be underftood without a com¬
mentator, he applied to Pittheus king of Troezen, fa-
this as it will, Minos having received news of his fon’s
death, imputed it to the people of Attica; and there¬
fore, after feveral unfuccefsful attempts to revenge his
own quarrel, prayed to the gods to do it for him.
mous for his {kill in expounding oracles. This prince The Athenians, in confequence of this prayer, were vi-
eafily prevailed with him to lie with his daughter iE-
thra, who proved with child; and as none but thefe three
were privy to the fecret, JEgeus, before his return to
Athens, hid a fword and a pair of (hoes under a ftone,
leaving orders with the princefs, that if the child pro¬
ved a boy, fhe fliould fend him to Athens with thefe
tokens, as foon as he was able to lift up that ftone. He
charged her moreover to ufe all imaginable fecrecy, left
the fons of his brother Pallas {hould way-lay and mur¬
der him.
JEthra being delivered of a fon, Pittheus gave out
that Neptune was the father of it. This child was
named- Thefeus, and proved one of the moft famous
heroes of antiquity. Being arrived at th£ age of 16,
his mother brought him to the ftone above-mentioned;
and he having lifted it with eafe, was defired to take
filed with earthquakes, famine, andpeftilence.onaccount
of which they applied to the oracle. Here they were
informed, that no relief was to be had till they were re¬
conciled to the Cretan king. Minos refolving to make
them pay dear for their deliverance, impofed upon
them a tribute of feven young men, and as many vir¬
gins, whom he condemned to be devoured by the Mi¬
notaur, a monfter feigned by the poets to have been
half man and half bull. 'I'his bloody tribute had been
twice paid, and Minos had already fent his meffenger*
the third time, when Thefeus willingly offered himfelf
to be one of the unhappy vidlims, and embarking with
them in one fhip, he gave the pilot two fails, the one
black to fail with, and the other white to be hoifted
up at his return in cafe he came off vi&orious. Our
hero had all the fuccefs he could wiftl; he killed the
J R 2 Minotaur,
ATT [87
Minotaur, prevailed with Minos to remit the tribute.
ATT
Ti ’• and his daughter Ariadne to run away with him ; but
Death of l,cr he left with child in the ifle of Naxos. Unfortu-
'*£cus• nately, however, for iEgeus, the joy of Thd'eus and
his company was fo great, that at their return they
forgot to holft the white flag in token of their victory :
upon which the old king, taking for granted that his
fon was killed, threw himfelf into the fea, which ever
17 fince has from him been called the /Egean Sea.
Thefetis Thefeus, being thus left in poffeffion of the kingdom
tica’ °f At* ■^ttica* began immediately to think of indulging his
* ,8 warlike genius, and rendering the civil affairs of his
New-mo- kingdom as little troublefome as poflible. To accom-
dels the go- plifh this purpofe, he began with gathering moft of the
vernment. peop]e 0f Attica into the old and new town, which he
incorporated into one city. After this he divefted
himfelf of all his regal power, except the title of king,
the command of the army, and the guardianfhip of
the laws. The reft he committed to proper magiftrates
chofen out of three different orders of the people, whom
he divided into nobles, hufbandmen, and artificers.
The firft he invefted with the power of interpreting and
executing the laws, and regulating whatever related to
religion. The other two chofe their inferior magiftrates
from among themfelves, to take care of whatever re¬
lated to their feparate orders: fo that the kingdom was
in fome meafure reduced to a commonwealth, in which
the king had the greateft poft ; the nobles were next
to him in honour and authority ; the hufbandmen had
the greateft profit; and the artifts exceeded them in
number. He likewife abolifhed all their diftinft courts
beauty. Fortune having declared for Thefeus, he aflifted 4
of judicature, and built one common council hall called
prytaneum, which Hood for many ages afterwards.
Having thus new-modelled the government, his next
care was to join to his dominions the kingdom of Me-
gara, in right of his grandfather Pandion II. who had
married the daughter of Pylas, as abovementioned. On
this occafion he eredted the famous pillar in the ifthmus,
which fhewed the limits of the two countries that met
19 there. On the one fide of this pillar was infcribed,
Defeats the « This is not Peloponnefus, but Ionia;” and on the
kiuTthe** other, “ This is Peloponnefus, not Ionia.” After this
Centaurs, he undertook an expedition againft the Amazons,
and carries whom he overcame, took their queen Hippolyta, and
off Helena, afterwards married her. Soon after this, Thefeus con-
trafted an intimacy with Pirithous the fon of Ixion,
and being invited to his nuptials, affifted him in kill¬
ing a number of Centaurs, or rather Theffalian horfe-
men, (who in their cups had offered violence to their
female guefts); and drove the reft out of the country.
Our two affociates then proceeded to Sparta, where
Thefeus fell in love with the famed Helena, at that
time not above nine years old, while he himfelf was
upwards of fifty. Her they carried off; and of the rape
there are various accounts; but the following one, which
is given by Plutarch, is generally allowed to be the moft-
authentic.
According to that hiftorian, they ftole this beauty,
the greateft in the world at that time, out of the temple
of Diana Ortia, where Helena happened to be dan¬
cing. They were purfued as far as Tegea, but made
their efcape out of Peloponnefus; and thinking them¬
felves now fecure of their prey, they agreed to caft lots
for .her, upon condition that he to whofe lot flie fell
fhould affift the other in procuring fome celebrated
his companion in the like attempt upon Proferpina
daughter of Aidonius king of the Molofli in Epirus,
who, being the next beauty to Helena, was-guarded by
the dog Cerberus, which had three heads, and was con-
fequently a very formidable enemy. Her father, how¬
ever, underftanding that they defigned to fteal away
his daughter, threw Pirithous to be torn in pieces by
Cerberus, and put Thefeus in prifon, from whence he jm|
was afterwards relieved at the intercellion of Hercules, by;
After this misfortune, Thefeus at length returned to of
Athens, but found himfelf very coolly received by his
fubje&s. Mneftheus, the fon of Peteus, and great-
grandfon of Eredtheus, had made ufe of the king’s ab-
fence to ingratiate himfelf with the people; and, upon
the commencement of a war with Caftor and Pollux, the
two'brothers of Helena, he perfuaded the people of
Athens to open their gates to the two brothers. Up- jjj
on thisv Thefens was under the neceflity of conveying 0f
away himfelf and family with all poflible privacy. This a
he luckily accomplifhed; and defigned to have failed to Jj
Crete, to have obtained afliftance from Deucalion fon of
Minos, and now brother-in-law to Thefeus himfelf, i|!
he having lately married Phaedra lifter to Deucalion. |
Unfortunately, however, our hero was Ihipwrecked on I
the ifland of Scyros. Here he was at firft kindly re- .
ceived by Lycomedes the king of that illand; but was
foon after killed by a fall from a high rock, over which |
fome fay he was puffied by Lycomedes himfelf, who |
had been prevailed upon to deftroy Thefeus in that -
manner by Mneftheus, that he might with the more fe- ij
curity enjoy the kingdom of Athens.
Mneftheus reigned 24 years, but loft his life at the Miltt
fiege of Troy; and was fucceeded by Demophon one Deitoli
of the fons of Thefeus by Phaedra, who was likewife at
the fiege of Troy, but had the good fortune to return
in fafety. In his reign was erefted the famous court
of the Ephetae; confifting originally of 50 Athenians J
and as many Argives, for trying of wilful murders. By |
this court the- king himfelf afterwards fubmitted to be |
tried for having accidentally killed one of his fubje&s. J
tie reigned 33 years, and was fucceeded by his fon, ac- 1
cording to fome, or according to others his brother, f.
Oxyntes, who reigned 12 years. Oxyntes was fuc- ||
ceeded by his fon Aphydas, who was murdered by I
Thymsetes the baftard fon of Oxyntes.
This king difeovered many bafe qualities unworthy xhliCi
of his dignity; and at laft was depofed by his fubjects depjL
on the following occafion. Xanthus king of Boeotia 1
had a conteft with the Athenians about one of their
frontier towns. He offered to decide the matter by
Angle combat with the king; but this was declined by ||
Thymaetes. It happened, that at that time one Me- ffi
lanthus a Meffenian, who had been driven out of his ]
country by the Heraclidae, was come to Athens; who |
accepted the king of Boeotia’s challenge. At the firft
onfet, Melanthus afked his adverfary, why he had, con¬
trary to the articles, brought a fecond into the field with
him ? and as Xanthus immediately looked about to fee
who was behind him, Melanthus run him thro’ with
his lance. This victory, though it did little honour to
him who gained it, was fo agreeable to the Athenians,
that they depofed their cowardly king Thymastes, af¬
ter he had reigned 8 years; and appointed Melanthus Mel fct
in his ftead, who after a reign of 37 years left the king-
tiora
ATT [ 873 ] ATT
Attica, dom to his fon Codrus.
—This prince reigned about 21 years ; during which
lodrus the time the Dores and Heraclidae had regained all Pelo-
ponnefus, and were upon the point of entering into
iinfeiffor Codrus, being informed that the oracle had
Kountry. promifed them vidlory provided they did not kill the
king 0/ the Athenians, came immediately to a refolu-
tion of dying for his country. Difguifing himfelf,
1 therefore, like a peafant, he went into the enemy’s
camp, and, quarrelling with fome of the foldiers, was
killed by them. On the morrow, the Athenians know-
ing what was done, lent to demand the body of their
king; at which the invaders were fo terrified, that they
| vi decamped without ftriking a blow,
ipublican Upon the death of Codrus, a difpute which happened
vernment among h[s fons concerning the fuccefiion, furnilhed the
iu uce . J^t{lenjans wJth a pretence for ridding themfelves of
their kings altogether, and changing the monarchical
1, form of government into a republican one. It was im-
[ probable, they faid, that they Ihould ever have fo good
a king as Codrus; and to prevent their having a worfe,
! they refolved to have no king but Jupiter. That they
might not, however, feem ungrateful to the family of
ri» Codrus, they made his fon Medon th„eir fupreme magi-
I fixate, with the title of archon. They afterwards ren-
| ” dered that office decennial, but continued it ftill in the
[ family of Codrus. The extinftion of the Medontidae
I at laft left them without reftraint; upon which they not
i only made this office annual, but created nine archons.
! ; By the latter invention they provided againft the too
|; great power of a fingle perlbn, as by the former they
I, took away all apprehenfiori of the archons having time
to eftablilh themfelves, fo as to change the conftitu-
| * tion. In a word, they now attained what they had long
| fought, viz. the making the fupreme magillrates de-
I pendent on the people.
We have a lilt of thefe archons, for upwards of 600
| years, beginning with Creon, who lived about 684
l3 years before Chrift, to Herodes, who lived only 60
Leo legif- years before that time. The firlt archon of whom we
|r of A- hear anything worth notice, is named Draco. He
I35’ reigned in the fecond, or, as others fay, in the latt year
? of the 39th Olympiad, when, it isfuppofed, hepublilh-
!!'. ed his laws: but though his name is very frequently
{ mentioned in hiftory, yet no connected account can be
'v found either of him, or his inftitutions; only, in gene¬
ral, his laws were exceedingly fevere, inflifting death
for the fmallefi: faults; which gave occafionto one De-
Ip1 mades an orator to obferve, that the laws of Draco
were written with blood, and not with ink. For this
f extraordinary feverity he gave no .other reafon, than
!’ that fmall faults feemed to him to be worthy of death,
and he could find no higher punilhment for the great-
eft. He was far advanced in years when he gave laws
to Athens; and to give his inftitutions the greater
weight, he would not fuffer them to be called nomoi,
lp or laws, but tbefmoi, or functions proceeding from more
idled than human wifdom. The extreme feverity of thefe
fflty. laws, however, foon made the Athenians weary both
of them and the author of them; upon which Draco was
obliged to retire to jEgina. Here he was received with
the higheft honours: but the favour of the inhabitants
of this place proved more fatal to him than the hatred
1 of the Athenians; for coming one day into the theatre,
the audience, to Ihew their regard, threw, as the cuftom
then was, their cloaks upon him; and the multitude of Attica.
thefe being very great, they ftifled the old man, who
was too weak to difengage himfelf from their load. His death.
After the expulfion of Draco, nothing remarkable
happened at Athens till the year before Chrift 606,
when we find the republic engaged in a war with the ^
Mitylenians about the city Sigaeum, fituated near the Mitylenian
moiith of the river Scamander. The Athenian army war.
was commanded by Phrynon, a perfon equally remark¬
able for the comelinefs of his perfon and the generofity
of his mind. The Mitylenians were commanded by Pit-
tacus, one of the celebrated fages of Greece. As thefe
commanders looked upon the honour of their relpe&ive
countries to be concerned, they exerted themfelves to
the utmoft. At laft they met in fingle combat: where¬
in Phrynon depended on his valour only; but Pittacus
concealed behind his ihield a net, wherewith he fud-
denly entangled his antagonift, and eafily flew him.
This, however, not putting an end to the war, Peri-
ander tyrant of Corinth interpofed; and both parties
having fubmitted to his arbitration, he decreed that Si-
gajum ftiould belong to the Athenians..
About feven years after this war, a confpiracy was Cylon’s
formed by Cylon fon-in-law to Theagenes tyrant of confpiracy.
Megara, who, having by his affable behaviour procured
many friends, formed a defign of feizing the fovereignty
of Athens. Having confulted the oracle as to the
moft proper time, he wasdire&ed to make the attempt
when the citizens of Athens were employed in celebra¬
ting their higheft feaft to Jupiter. When many of the
citizens,, therefore were gone to the Olympic games,
Cylon and his affociates made themfelves mafters of the
citadel. Here they were inftantly befieged by Mega-
cles at that time archon, and foon reduced to grear
diftrefs for want of water. The chief together with
his brother found means to make their efcape, but the
meaner fort were left to Ihift for themfelves. In this
extremity they fled to the temple of Minerva, from
whence Megacles with much ado prevailed upon them
to come down and fubmit themfelves to the mercy of
their country. Having at laft affented to this, thev
tied a cord to the image of the goddefs, and carried
the clue with them, to demonftrate that though they
were out of the temple they were ftill under Minerva’s
prote&ion. Unfortunately for them, however, as they tors'mallk-
paffed the temple of the furies, the line fnapt of itfelf; creH byMe-
which Megacles conllruing into a renunciation by the gacles.
goddefs, caufed his men fall upon them anddifpatch as
many as they could find. Such as were without the
temple were immediately maffacred, and thofe who fled
thither again were murdered in their fandluary. In ftiort,
none efcaped but fuch as bribed the wives of the offi¬
cers ofjuftice. This carnage, however, did not put an
end to the fedition. The remains of Cylon’s fadlion
created great difturbances, by inlinuating that the vio¬
lation of Minerva’s fandfuary had drawn down the an-
gerof the gods; and thefe difeourfes had fuch an effeft, Who is ex-
that Megacles and his officers were ttyled execrable, and ecrated by-
held to be perfons under the difpleafure of Heaven. the P60?11-
During the time of this confufion, the Megarenfians Unfuccefs-
attacked Nifea, which they took, as well as Salamis; ful war with
and fo completely routed the Athenians in every at- Megara.
tempt to recover the latter, that a law was at laft paf-
fed by which it ftiould be capital for any one to pro-
pofe the recovery of Salamis. About the fame time
the
ATT
the city was diilurbed by reports of frightful appear¬
ances, and filled with fuperftitious fears; the oracle at
Delphi was therefore confulted, and an anfwer returned
that the city behoved to be expiated. Upon this, E-
pimenides the Pheftian was fent for from Crete, to
perform the neceffary ceremonies, he being reputed an
holy man, and one that was deeply {killed in all the
myfteries of religion. His expiation confifted in ta-
■ king fome black, and fome white Iheep, turning them
„U i: _ r   r . r n .1
[ 874 ] ATT
lands, and took it.
On the return of Solon to Athens, he was greatly
honoured by the people, to whom another occafitaih of Ci«
admiring his wifdom was quickly afforded. The in- J'l
habitants of Cirrha, a town fituated in the bay of g^j
Corinth, after having by repeated incurfions wafted the do(
territory of Delphi, at laft befieged the capital itfelf,
with a view of making themfelves mafters of the trea-
fures contained in the temple of Apollo. Advice of
nrophec anc^ dire£Hng fome perfons to follow them to this intended facrilege being fent to the Amphiftyons,
thofe DiaCCS where thev rmirherh anH fhprp t-n rrjr'rtfir*/* {Yut-pc-rrpnpt-^l nf
Salamis re¬
covered by
his means.
thofe places where they couched, and there to facrifice
them to the local deity. He caufed alfo many temples
and chapels to be ere&ed, two of which have been par¬
ticularly noted, viz. the chapel of Contumely, and that
of Impudence- This man is faid to have looked will¬
fully on the port of Munychia for a long time, and then
to have fpoke as follows to thofe that were near him.
“ How blind is man to future things ? for did the A-
thenians know what mifehief will one day be derived
to them from this place, they would eat it with their
teeth.” This predidlion was thought to be accom-
plifhed 270 years after, when Antipater conftrained the
Athenians to admit a Macedonian garrifon into that
place.
About 597 years before Chrift, Solon the famed
Athenian legiflator began to (hew himfelf to his coun¬
trymen. He is faid to have been lineally defeended
from Codrus ; but left by his father in circumftances
rather necefiitous, which obliged him to apply to mer¬
chandize : it is plain, however, both from his words
and writings, that he was a difinterefted patriot. The
Ihamcful decree, that none under pain of death ftiould
propofe the recovery of Salamis, grieved him fo much,
that having compofed an elegy of too verfes, fuch as he
thought would be moft proper to inflame the minds of
the people, he ran into the market-place as if he had
been mad, with his night-cap on his head, repeating
his elegy. A crowd being gathered round the pretended
madman, his Jcinfman Pififtratus mingled among the
reft, and obferving the people moved with Salon's
words, he alfo feconded him with all the eloquence he
was mafter of, and between them they prevailed fofar
as to have the law repealed, and a war was immediately
commenced againft the people of Megara. Who was
commander in this expedition is not certain; but
the city was recovered, according to the moft general
account, by the following ftratagem. Solon coming
■with Pififtratus toColias, and finding there the women
bufy in celebrating, according to cuftom, the feaft of
Ceres, fent a confidant of his to Salamis, who pretended
to be no friend to the people of Attica, telling the
inhabitants of Salamis, that if they had a mind to
feize the faireft of the Athenian ladies, they might now
do it by palling over to Colias. The Megarenfians
giving eafy credit to what the man faid, immediately
fitted out a {hip; which Solon perceiving from the op-
pofite Ihore, difmiffed the women, and having dreffed
a number of beardlefs youths in female habits, under
which they concealed every one a dagger, he fent them
to the fea-fide to dance and divert themfelves as the
women were wont to do. When thofe who came from
Salamis faw thefe young perfons {kipping up and down,
they ftrove who Ihould be firft on fliore; but were every
one of them killed, and their veffel feized; aboard which
the Athenians embarking, failed immediately to Sa-
who were the ftates-general of Greece, Solon advifed
that the matter ffiould be univerfally refented, and that
all the ftates ftiould join in puniftiing the Cirrhasans,
and faving the Delphic oracle. This advice was com¬
plied with, and a general war againft Cirrha declared.
Clyfthenes, tyrant of Sicyon, commanded in chief, and
Alcmaeon was general of the Athenian quota. Solon
went as affiftant or counfellor to Clyfthenes, and by
following his advice the war was conducted to a pro-
fperous iffue. For when the Greek army had befieged
Cirrha for fome time without any appearance of fuc-
cefs, the oracle at Delphi was confulted, from whence i
the following anfwer was returned:
“ In vain you hope to take the place before
“ The tea’s blue waves roll o’er the hallow’d fhore." i|
This anfwer ftruck the whole army with furprife, till |
Solon advifed Clyfthenes to confecrate folemnly the
whole territory of Cirrha to the Delphic Apollo ; fo, t
as that was a maritime country, the fea muft then wafh
the facred coaft. According to Paufanias, the city iji,
was reduced by the following ftratagem, likewife in¬
vented by Solon. He caufed the river Pliftus, which
run through Cirrha, to be turned into another channel,
hoping thereby to have diftreffed the inhabitants for
want of water ; but finding they had many wells with¬
in the city, and were not to be reduced by that means,
he caufed a vaft quantity of roots of hellebore to be
thrown into the river, which was then fuffered to re¬
turn into its former bed. The inhabitants, overjoyed at
the fight of running water, came in troops to drink of
it; whereupon an epidemic flux enfued, and the citi¬
zens. being no longer able to defend the walls, the
town was eafily taken.
On the return of Solon to Athens he found things Athi
again in the utmoft confufion. The remnant of Cy- grea
Ion’s fa&ion gave out, that all forts of misfortunes had fuC<
befallen the republic on account of the impiety of Me-
gacles and his followers, which clamour was heighten¬
ed by the retaking of Salamis about this time by the
Megarenfians. Solon interpofed, and perfuaded thofe
who were ftyled execrable to abide a trial, and 300 per¬
fons were chofen to judge them. The event was, that Meg]
300 of Megacles's party who were alive were fent in- party if
to perpetual baniftiment, and the bones of fuch as were ail
dead were dug up and fent without the limits of their
country.
Though this decilion reftored the public quiet for the Thr
prefent, it was not long before the people were divided tion*
into three fadlions contending about the proper form up.
of government. Thefe were called the Diacrii, Pedixi,
and Parali : the firft of thefe were the inhabitants of
the hilly country, who declared pofitively for demo¬
cracy ; the fecond, dwelling in the lower parts, and
who were far more opulent than the former, declared
for an oligarchy, as fuppofing the government would
fall
ATT [ 875 ] ATT
Attica. moft'y into their hands ; the third party, who lived
I—  on the fea-coait, were people of moderate principles,
ti and therefore were for a mixed government. Befides
;K the difturbances raifed on this account, others were oc-
ffi- cafioned by the rich oppreffing the poor. According
L to Plutarch, the poor being indebted to the rich, either
If; tilled their grounds, and paid them the fixth part of
; the produce, or engaged their bodies for their debts,
H • fo that many were made Saves at home, and many fold
| . ,l| into other countries ; nay, fome were obliged to fell
their children to pay their debts, and others in defpair
I i|. quitted Attica altoget>»;r. The greateft part, how-
I ever, were for throwing off the yoke, and began to
f look about for a leader, openly declaring that they in-
f; tended to change the form of government, and make
1 a repartition of lands. In this extremity, the eyes of
all the citizens were caft upon Solon. The mod pru-
I dent were for offering him the fovereignty; but he per-
R ceiving their intentions, behaved in fuch a manner as
■ to cheat both parties, and Slewed a fpirit of patriotifm
; perhaps never equalled. He refufed the fovereignty
I as far as it might have benefited himfelf; and yet took
E upon himfelf all the care and trouble of a prince, for
43 the fake of his people.
jncho- He was chofen archon without having recourfe to
fit011' lots, and after his ele&ion difappointed the hopes of
R both parties. It was Solon’s fundamental maxim, That
Iwf thofe laws will be bed obferved which power and ju-
■ : dice equally fupport. Wherever, therefore, he found
|> the old conditution confonant to judice in any tole-
P rable degree, he refufed to make any alteration at all,
I* and was at extraordinary pains to Slew the reafon of
i the changes he did make. In fiiort, being a perfeft
j judge of human nature, he fought to rule, only by
|‘ Slewing his fubjefts that it was their intered to obey,
1 and not by forcing upon them what he himfelf edeemed
\ bed. Therefore, to a perfon who aflced whether he
K; had given the Athenians the bed laws in his power,
K he replied, “ I have edablidied the bed they could
.Bt' receive.”
!aN As to the main caufe offedition, viz. the oppreffed
ers’ date of the meaner fort, Solon removed it by a contri-
TO vance which he called Jifachthia, i. e. difcbarge; but
R what this was, authors are not agreed upon. Some
K fay that he releafed all debts then in being, and prohi-
K bited the taking any man’s perfon for payment of a
K debt for the future. According to others, the poor
p were eafed, not by cancelling the debts, but by lower-
ing the intered, and increafing the value of money; a
rf mina, which before was made equal to 73 drachms
|| only, being by him made equal to 100 ; which was of
M great advantage to the debtor, and did the creditor no
|| hurt. It is, however, mod probable that the fifach-
j thia was a general remittance of all debts whatever, o-
|| therwife Solon could not have beaded in his verfes that
he had removed fo many marks of mortgages (b) as
j were every where frequent; that he had freed from ap-
| prehenfion fuch as were driven to defpair,
l“s But in the midd of all Solon’s glory, an accident
|hree which, for a time, hurt his reputation, and
1 had almod entirely ruined his fchemes. He had con-
I fulted Conon, Clinias, and Hipponicus, his three
I friends, on an oration prepared with a view to engage
(b) The Athenians had a cuftom of hanging up billets tc
I money.
the people’s confent to the difcharge ; and thefe three Auks.
men, thus knowing there was to be a general difcharge  
of debts, bafely took the opportunity of borrowing
vad fums before the law was promulgated, in confe-
quence of which they were never obliged to return them.
This was thought at firlt to have been done with
Solon’s confent, and that he had lhared in the money;
but this afperfion was quickly wiped off when it ap¬
peared that the lawgiver himfelf was a very confiderable
lofer by his own law. His friends, however, could ne¬
ver recover their credit, but were ever afterwards dig-
matizedwith the approbrious appellation of chreocopida,
or debt-Jinkcrs. 4(J
The Athenians were as little pleafed with Solon’s So,on b,a-
management as with their former condition ; the rich msd at
thinking he had donetoo much in cancelling the money- wardfap-
debts due to them, and the poor that he had done too plandedand
little becaufe he had not divided the lands of Attica chofen le-
equally. In a (hort time, however, they acquiefced in 2iflator-
the new inditutions, and gave a more public token of
their repentance than they had before diewn of their
difpleafure, indituting a folemn Sacrifice under the name
of Sifacthia, at the fame time that Solon w'as unani-
moufly elefted legiflator of Athens, with full powder to
make laws, and alter or new model the conditution
as he thought fit. 4y
Solon being now inveded with unlimited authority. Compiles a
fet about the arduous talk of compiling new laws for new body of
the turbulent people of Attica; which having at lad laws‘
completed in the bed manner he was able, or in the bed
manner the nature of the people would admit, he pro¬
cured them to be ratified for 100 years. Such as re¬
lated to private aftions were preferved on parallello-,
grams of wood, with cafes which reached from the
ground, and turned about upon a pin like a wheel.
Thefe were thence called Axones; and were placed fird
in the citadel, and afterwards in the prytaneum, that
all the fubje&s might have accefs to them when they
pleafed. Such as concerned public inditutions and fa-
crifices were contained in triangular tables of done
called cyrbes. The Athenian magidrates were fworn
to obferve both ; and in procefs of time thefe monu¬
ments of Solon’s wifdom became fo famous, that all
public acts were from them named Axones and Cyrbes.
After the promulgation of the laws, Solon found H 45
himfelf obliged to leave Athens, to prevent his being WiTor’
continually teazed for explanations and alterations of io years,
them. He therefore pretended an inclination to mer-
chandife, and obtained leave to abfent himfelf for 10
years, during which time he hoped the laws would be
Srown familiar. From Athens Solon travelled into
Igypt, where he converfed with Pfenophis the Hc-
liopolitan, and Sonchis the Saite, the mod learned
prieds of that age. From thefe he learned the fitu-
ationof the ifland Atlantis, of which he wrote an ac¬
count in verfe, which Plato afterwards continued *. * See At-
From Egypt he went to Cyprus, where he was ex- Unth'
tremely well received by one of the petty kings. This
prince lived in a city called Apeia, built by Demo-
phon the fon of Thefeus, on an eminence near the ri¬
ver Clarius, but in a foil craggy and barren. Solon ob-
ferving a very pleafant plain below, engaged the king to
remove thither; affidedin executing the fcheme he had
formed;
fliew that houfes were engaged for fuch and fuch fums of
S°
He returns
to Athens,
but refufes
to refume
his office.
ATT [ 876 ] AT T
formed; and fucceeded fo well, that a new city was Certain it is, that with hi. ,.c :; .d the citadel; Atticalb
formed which foon became populous, and out of grati- but Polysenus hath given an accotmi .-t a very lingular
tude to the Athenian legiflator was called Solos. method which he took to put it out ut n.j power of the
1 But while Solon was thus travelling in quell of wif- Athenians to defend themfelves even againlt fuch a fmall
■s donv, and with a view to benefit thofe among whom he number. Pie fummoned an affembly to be held at the
came, his countrymen, who feem to have refolved on Anacium, and diredted gthat the people Ihould come
being diffatisfied at all events, had again divided them- thither armed. They accordingly came ; and Pililtra--
felves into "three factions. Lycurgus put himfelf at tus harangued them, but in a voice fo low that they
the head of the country people ; Megacles the fon of could not tell wrhat he faid. The people complaining
Alcmaeon was at the head of thofe who lived on the of this, Pifillratus told them that they were hindered
fea-coaft; and Pififtratus put himfelf at the head of from hearing him by the clangor of their arms; but,
the poorer fort, to protedt them, as he pretended, from if they would lay them down i * the portico, he would
tyranny,'but in reality ,to feize on the fovereignty for then be heard diftindtly. This they did; and while
himfelf. All the factions pretended to have a vail re- they liftened very attentively to a long' and eloquent
gard for Solon and his laws, at the fame time that they oration, Pififtratus’s guard conveyed away their arms,
were very defirous of a change ; but how they were to fo that they found themfelves deprived of all power of j
none of them knew, or pretended to refiftance. During the confufion which followed this ja
event, another alfembly was held, wherein Solon en-Solonleaj
Pififtratus
adlimes the
fovereign-
be bettered.
know. „ .
In the midft of this confufion the legillator returned, veighed bitterly againil the meannefs of his country- Athens.
Each of the fa&ions paid their court to him, and af- men, inviting them to take up arms in defence of their
fefted to receive him with the deeped reverence and re- liberty. When he faw that nothing would do, he laid
fpedt; befeeching him to reafiume his authority, and down his own arms, faying, that he had done his ut-
compofe the diforders which they themfelves kept up. mod for his country and his laws. According to Plu-
This Solon declined on account of hjg age, which, he tarch, he refufed to quit the city; but the mod proba-
faid, rendered him unable to fpeak and a£t for the good ble opinion is, that he immediately retired from the
of his country as formerly: however, he fent for the dominions of Athens, and refufed to return,, even at
chiefs of each party, befeeching them in the mod pa- the felicitation of Pifidratus himfelf.
thetic manner not to ruin their common parent, but to Pifidratus, having thus obtained the fovereignty, did Pififtratu^
prefer the public good to their own private intered. not overturn the laws of Solon, but ufed his power governs ,
Pifidratus, who of all the three had perhaps the lead with the greatell moderation. It is not to be expeft-
intention to follow Solon’s advice, feemed to be the ed, however, that fo turbulent a people as the Athe- tion>
mod affefted with his difeourfes; but as Solon per- nians could be fatisfied by any method of government
ceived he affedled popularity by all poffible methods, he could lay down. At the beginning of his admini-
he eafily penetrated into his defigns of affuming the ftration, Megacles and his family retired out of Athens
fovereign power. This he fpoke of to Pifidratus him- to fave their own lives, yet without defpairing of being
felf, at fird privately; but as he faw that his admoni- able fome time or other to return. With this view
tions in this way had no effedl, he then faid the fame Megacles and his affociates entered into a treaty with
things to others, that the public might be on their Lycurgus; and having brought him and his party into
guard againd him. a fcheme for depofing Pifidratus, they concerted mat-
All the wife difeourfes of Solon, however, were lod ters fo well, that Pifidratus was foon obliged to feek Driven dtr
upon the Athenians. Pifidratus had got the meaner for Ihelter fomewhere elfe, and, on his departure, the McSa*
fort entirely at his devotion, and therefore refolved to Athenians ordered his goods to be fold. Nobody, c*es' 1
cheat them out of the liberty which they certainly de- however, except one perfon (Callias), would venture to
ferved to lofe. With this view he wounded himfelf, buy any of them, from an apprehenlion, no doubt,
and, as Herodotus fays, the mules that drew Jus cha- that they would foon be redored to their proper owner,
riot ; then he drove into the market-place, and there which accordingly happened in a very fhort time. W
Ihewed his bleeding body, imploring the prote&ion of As Megacles and his party had negociated with Ly- who ioon
the people from thofe whom his kindnefs to them had curgus to turn out Pifidratus, fo they now entered into after rein-j
rendered his implacable enemies. A concourfe of peo- a treaty with Pifidratus to reindate him in his princi-
pie being indantly formed, Solon came among the red, pality, as foon as they found Lycurgus would not be
and, fufpe&ing the deceit, openly taxed Pifidratus with implicitly governed by them. To accomplilh this, they
his perfidious conduct; but to no purpofe. A general fell upon a very ridiculous projedl; which, however,
affembly of the people was called, wherein it was mo- was attended with the defired fuccefs. They found out
ved by one Aridon, that Pifidratus fhould have a guard, a woman whofe name was PAj/a, of a mean family and
Solon was the only perfon prefect who had refolution fortune, but of a great: dature, and very handfome.
enough to oppofe this meafure ; the richer Athenians, Her they dreffed in armour, placed her in a chariot,
perceiving that the multitude implicitly followed Pifi- and having difpofed things fo as to make her appear
drains, and applauded every thing he faid, remaining with all poflible advantage, they condu&ed her towards
filent through fear. Solon himfelf, when he faw he the city, fending heralds before, with orders to fpeak
could prevail nothing, left the affembly, faying he was to the people in the following terms; “ Give a kind
nvifer than fome, and Jlouter than others. A guard of reception, O Athenians, to Pilidratus, who is fo much
400 men was now unanimoully decreed to Piiidratus, honoured by Minerva above all other men, that die
as we are told by Solon himfelf. This inconfiderable herfelf condefcends to bring him back t
as we are told by Solon himfelf. This inconfiderable herfelf condefcends to bring him back to the citadel.”
body he made ufe of toenflave the people, but in what The report being univerfally fpread that Minerva was
■manner he accomplilhed his purpofe is not agreed, bringing home Pifidratus, and the ignorant multitude
believir.
g
ATT
[ 877 ]
ATT
believing this woman to be the goddefs, addrefTed their themfelves opprefled by tyranny, and were perpetually
“ prayers to her, and received Piiiftratus with the utmoft grumbling from the time he firft afcended the throne
joy. When he had recovered the fovereignty, Pifi-
flratus married the daughter of Megacles as he had
promifed, and gave the pretended goddefs to his fon
Hipparchus.
: Pififtratus did not long enjoy the kingdom to which
he had been reftored in fo ftrange a manner. He had
married the daughter of Megacles, as already obferved;
but having children by a former wife, and remembering
that the whole family of Megacles was reprobated by
the Athenians, he thought proper to let his new fpoufe
remain in a ftate of perpetual widowhood. This flte
patiently bore for fome time, but at laft acquainted
her mother. An affront fo grievous could not fail to
be highly refented. Megacles inflantly entered into a
treaty wkh the malcontents, of whom there were al¬
to the day of his death, which happened about 33 years
after he had firft affumed the fovereignty, of which
time, according to Ariftotle, he reigned 17 years. 60
Pififtratus left behind him two fons named Hippar- Hippjrdius
cbus and Hippias, both men of great abilities, who Il!h‘
fhared the government between them, and behaved with p aS'
lenity and moderation. But though by the mildnefs
of their government the family of thePififtratidas feemed
to be fully eftablifhed on the throne of Athens, a con-
fpiracy was unexpeftedly formed againft both the bro¬
thers.. by which Hipparchus was taken off, and Hip¬
pias narrowly efcaped. The moft material fadts rela¬
ting to this confpiracy are what follow. a
There were at that time in Athens two young men Confpiracy
called Hannodius and Ariftogiton ; the former of thefe Harn‘°“
 -r. A , . -c , v ?. ’ r j . dins and A-
ways great plenty at Athens whatever was the form of was exquifitely beautiful in his perfon, and on that ac- nflogUon
government. This Pififtratus being apprized of, and
perceiving a new ftorm gathering, he voluntarily quit¬
ted Athens, and retired to Eretria. Here having con-
fulted with his fons, it was refolved to reduce Athens
by force. With this view he applied to feveral of the
Greek ftates, who furnifhed him with the troops he de-
fired, but the Thebans exceeded all the reft in their
s liberality ; and with this army he returned to Attica,
according to Herodotus, in the 1 Ith year of his banifh-
ment. They firft reduced Marathon, the inhabitants
of which had taken no meafures for their defence, tho’
they knew that Pififtratus was preparing to attack them.
The republican forces in the mean time marched out
of Athens to attack him ; but behaving in a fecure and to appear in. arms, they fhould attempt to reftore A-
carelefs manner, they were furprifed by Pififtratus, and thens to its former liberty. In this they imagined
totally routed. While they were endeavouring to make that they fhould find themfelves feconded by the whole
their efcape, he eaufed his two fons ride before him body of the people. But when the day appointed was
with all fpeed, and tell thofe they came up with that come, they perceived one of their number talking very
nobody had any thing to fear, but that they might familiarly with Hippias ; and fearing that they were
every one return to his own home. This ftratagem difcovered, they immediately fell upon Hipparchus,
count, according to the infamous cuftom of the Greeks,
violently beloved of the other. This Harmodius was
alfo beloved of Hipparchus ; who, if we may believe
Thucydides, forced him. This was grievoufly refent¬
ed, and revenge determined on ; to haften which, ano¬
ther accident concurred. Hipparchus, finding that Har-
modius endeavoured to avoid him, publicly affronted
him, by not fuffering his fifter to carry the offering of
Minerva, as if (he was a perfon unworthy of that office.
The two young men, not daring to fhew any public
fignsof refentmentjconfulted privately with theirfriends;
among whom it was refolved, that at the approaching
feftival of Panathenaea, when the citizens were allowed
I takes ^
Ft (TeFTionoffo effedfually difperfed the republican army, that it
‘T- was impoffible to rally them, and Pififtratus became a
third time abfolute mafter of Attica.
Pififtratus being once more in poffeffion of the fove.
and difpatched him with a multitude of wounds. In Hipparchus
this exploit the people were fo far from feconding them, khkd.
as they expelled, that they fuffered Harmodius to be
killed by Hipparchus’s guards, and feizing Ariftogiton
reignty, took a method of eftablifhing himfelf on the themfelves delivered him up to Hippias. Some time
throne direftly oppofite to what Thefeus had done, afterwards, however, the rtfpcft they paid to thefe
Inftead of colleding the inhabitants from the country two young men exceeded !ill bounds. They caufed
fiibjefts into cities, as Thefeus had donej Pififtratus made them their praifes to be fung at the Panathenaea, forbid any
l d con- retire from the cities into the country, in order to ap- citizen to call a Have by either of their names, and e- The confpi-
U§ted not- ply themfelves to agriculture. This prevented their redfed brazen ftatues to them in the forum; which fta-ratorsextl'a-
tues were afterwards carried into Perfia by Xerxes, ^a2aiuIy
and fent back from thence by Alexander the Great, onoure ’
Antiochus, or Seleucus, for authors are not agreed by
which. Several immunities and privileges were alfo
granted to the defendants of thefe two patriots, and
all poffible means were taken to render their memory
venerable and refpedled by pofterity.
Hippias being now foie mafter of Athens, and pro- Cruelty of
the laws of Pififtratus to his fubjefts, that this kind -bably exafperated by the murder of his brother, began Hippias.
of garment in fucceeding times became proverbially the to alter hiscondutft greatly, and treat his fubje&s inan
oppreffive and cruel manner. He began with torturing
Ariftogiton, in order to make him confefs his accom¬
plices : but this proved fatal to his own friends: for
" meeting together, and caballing againft him in fuch
bodies as they had been accuftomed to do. By this
means alfo the territory of Athens was greatly melior¬
ated, and great plantations of olives were made over
all Attica, which had before not only been deftitute
of corn, but alfo bare of trees. He alfo commanded,
that, in the city, men ftiould wear a kind of ffieep-ikin
veft, reaching to the knees ; but fo intolerable were
habit of flA'ery.
As prince of Athens, Pififtratus received the tenth
part of every man’s revenues, and even of the fruits
of the earth ; and this alfo, though for the fervice of Ariftogiton impeaching fuch as he knew to be beft af-
t Vi p ilofp fppmprl f r\ ♦ A 4-Vw^i-. no o   XX ^ A ~ T-T1 * „ ~ xl I l* 1
the ftate, feemed to the Athenians a moft grievous
burden. In fhort, though Pififtratus behaved in all
refpe&s as a moft excellent prince, his fubje&s fancied
Vol. II.
fe&ed to Hippias, they were immediately put to death;
and when he had deftroyed all thofe he knew, at laft
told Hippias, that now he knew of none that dcferved
5 S to
ATT [ 878 ] ATT
•Attica, to fuffer death except the tyrant himfelf. Hippias
next vented his rage on a woman named Lextia, who
was kept by Ariftogiton. She endured the torture as
long as fhe could; but finding herfelf unable to bear it
any longer, file at laft bit off her tongue, that Ihe
might not have it in her power to make any difcovery.
To her the Athenians-erected the llatue of a lionefs,
alluding to her name, without a tongue, on which was
engraved a fuitable infcription.
After the confpiracy was, as Hippias thought, tho¬
roughly quafhed, he fet himfelf about (trengthening his
government by all the means he could think of. He
contrafted leagues with foreign princes, increafed his
revenues by various methods, fac. But thefe precautions
were of little avail: the lenity of Pififtratus’s government
had alone fupported it; and Hippias purfuing contrary
methods, was deprived of the fovereignty in lefs than
6$' four years after the death of his brother,
out of'a*" This revolution was likewife owing to the family of
then” Megacles, who were ftyled Alcmjconidx, and had fettled
1 at Lipfydrum. In times of difcontent, which at A-
thens were very frequent, this family was the common
refuge of all who fled from that city ; and at laft they
thought of a method of expelling the Pififtratidae alto¬
gether. The method they took to accomplilh their
purpofe was as follows. They agreed with the Am-
phi&yons to rebuild the temple at Delphi; and being
poffeffed of immenfe riches, they performed their en¬
gagement in a much more magnificent manner than they
were bound to do ; for having agreed only to build
the front of common ftone, they built it of Parian
marble. At the fame time they corrupted the pro-
phetefs Pythia, engaging her to exhort all the Lacedae¬
monians that came to confult the oracle either in be¬
half of the ftate, or their own private affairs, to attempt
the delivery of Athens. This had the defired effedt:
the Lacedaemonians, furprifed at hearing this admoni¬
tion inceffantly repeated, at laft refolved to obey the
divine command, as they imagined it to be; and fent
Anchimolius, a man of great quality, at the head of
an army into Attica, though they were at that time in
league with Hippias, and accounted by him his good
friends and allies. Hippias demanding afliftance from
the Theffalians, they readily fent him 1000 horfe, under
the command of one of their princes named Cineas.
The Lacedaemonians being landed, Hippias fell upon
them fo fuddenly, that he defeated them with great
{laughter, killed their general, and forced the'fhattered
remains of their army to fly to their {hips. The
Spartans, incenfed at this unfortunate expedition, de¬
termined to fend another army into Attica, which
they accordingly did foon after'under their king Cleo-
menes; and he having, at his entrance into the Athe¬
nian territories, defeated the Theffalian horfe, obliged
Hippias to lhut himfelf up in the city of Athens, which
he was foon after forced to abandon altogether. He
was, however, in no want of a place of refuge"; the
Theflalian princes inviting him into their country, and
the king of Macedon offering his family a city and ter-
jg ritory,. if they chofe to retire into his dominions. But
And retires Hippias chofe rather to go to the city of Sigeum,. which
t» Sigeum. pififl.ratus had conquered, and left to his own family.
After the expulfion of the Pififtratidae, the Atheni¬
ans did not long enjoy the quiet they had propofed to
themfelves. They were quickly divided into two fac¬
tions ; at the head of one was Clyfthenes, one of the Attica.;
chief of the Alcmaeonida;; and of the other, Ifagoras, ^ !
a man of great quality, and highly in favour with the Two fact!
Athenian nobility. Clyfthenes applied himfelf to the dons irjJ
people, and endeavoured to gain their affeflion by in- thcns- \
creafing their power as much as poffible. Ifagoras per¬
ceiving that by this means his rival would get the bet¬
ter, applied to the Lacedaemonians for affiflance, revi¬
ving at the fame time the old ftory of Megacles’s facri-
lege, and infifting that Clyfthenes ought to be baniflied 6S }
as being of the family of Megacles. Cleomenes king The Spar-t
of Sparta readily came into his meafures, and fuddenly lans/uppa
difpatched an herald to Athens with a declaration IftSorafl j
of war in cafe all the Alcmasonidae were not imme¬
diately baniflied. The Athenians did not hefitate* to
banifti their benefa&or Clyfthenes, and all his rela¬
tions; but this piece of ingratitude did not anfwer their
purpofe. Cleomenes entered Attica at the head of a
Spartan army; and, arriving at Athens, conde/nned to
banifliment 700 families more than what had been fent
into exile before. Not content with this, he would
have diffolved the fenate, and veiled the government in
300 of the chief of Ifagoras’s fadlion. This the Athe¬
nians would by no means fubmit to; andtherefore took
up arms, and drove Cleomenes and his troops into the
citadel, where they were befieged for two days. On
the third day Cleomenes furrendered, on condition that
all thofe who were in the citadel fliould retire unmo-
lefted. This, though agreed to, was not performed by
the Athenians. They fell upon fuch as were feparated
from the army, and put them to death without mercy.
Among the number of thofe flain on this occafion was
Timefitheus the brother of Cleomenes himfelf. |
The Spartan king was no fooner withdrawn from But withdi
Athens, than he formed a ftrong combination in favour fuccefs.
of Ifagoras. He engaged the Boeotians to attack At¬
tica on the one fide, and the Chalcidians on the other,
while he at the head of a powerful Spartan army entered
the territories of Eleufina. In thisdiftrefs, the Athenians,
not being able to cope with fo many enemies at once,
refolved to fuffer their territories to be ravaged by the
Chalcidians and Boeotians, contenting themfelves with
oppofing the army commanded by Cleomenes in perfon.
But this powerful confederacy was quickly diffolved :
the Corinthians, who were allied with Cleomenes, doubt¬
ing thejufticeof their caufe, returned home; his other
allies likewife beginning to waver, and his collegue A-
rifton, the other king of Sparta, differing in fenti-
ments, Cleomenes was obliged to abandon the enter-
prife. The Spartans and their allies being withdrawn,
the Athenians took a fevere revenge of the Boeotians Boeotians
and Chalcidians, totally routing their forces, and car-and chald«;
rying off a great number of prifoners. The prifoner&dians do-
taken in this war were put in irons, but afterwards fet feate<h
at liberty on paying a ranfom of two minas per head.
Their fetters were, however, hung up in the citadel;
and the Athenians confecrating the tenth of what they
had received for ranfom, purchafed a ftatue reprefenting
a chariot and four horfes, which they fet up in the por¬
tico of the citadel, with a triumphant infcription in to¬
ken of their victory.
Thefe indignities roufing the Bteotians, they im¬
mediately vowed revenge, and engaged on their fide
the people of iEgina, who had an hereditary ha¬
tred at the Athenians; and while the latter bent all
their.
ATT [
if Attica, their attention to the Boeotian war, the iEginetans
landing a confiderable army ravaged the coalb of At-
|i eSpar-^ ^ut while the Athenians were thus employed againft
ot ns to re- the Boeotians and iEginetans, a jealoufy fprung up on
1 Hip- the part of Lacedaemon, which was never afterwards
eradicated. Cleomenes, after his unfuccefsful expedi¬
tion againft Attica, produced at Sparta certain oracles
which he faid he had found in the citadel of Athens
while he was befieged therein : the purport of thefe o-
racles was, that Athens would in time become a rival
to Sparta. At the fame time it was difcovered, that
Clyfthenes had bribed the prieftefs of Apollo to caufe
the Lacedaemonians expell the Pififtratidae from A-
thens; which was facrificing their beft friends to thofe
whom intereft obliged to be their enemies. This had
fuch an efFe&, that the Spartans, repenting their folly
in expelling Hippias, fent for him from Sigeum, in or¬
der to reftore him to his principality: but this not be-
ing agreed to by the reft of the ftates, they were forced
to abandon the enterprife, and Hippias returned to Si-
j 1 geum as he came,
j mfeof the About this time too, Ariftagoras the Milefian, ha-
il’rfiiT1 v‘ng fet on f°ot a revolt in Ionia againft the Perfian
king, applied to the Spartans for amftance; but they
declining to have any hand in the matter, he next ap¬
plied to the Athenians, and was by them furniihed
with 20 ftiips under the command of Melanthus, a
nobleman univerfally efteemed. This rafti a£ion coft
the Greeks very dear, as it brought upon them the
whole power of the Perfian empire ; for no fooner did
the king of Perfia hear of the afliftance fent from A-
thens to his rebellious fubjefts, than he declared him-
felf the fworn enemy of that city, and folemnly be-
fought God that he might one day have it in his power
to be revenged on them.
The Ionian war being ended, by the reduftion of that
country again under the Perfian government, the king
of Perfia fent to demand earth and water as tokens of
fubmiflion from the Greeks. Moft of the iflanders
yielded to this command out of fear, and among the
reft the people of iEgina; upon which the Athenians
accufed the inhabitants of this ifland of treachery to¬
wards Greece, and a war was carried on with them for
a long time. How it ended we are not informed; but
its continuance was fortunate for Greece in general, as,
by inuring them to war, and fea-affairs in particular, it
prevented the whole of the Grecian, ftates from being
fwallowed up by the Perfians who were now about to
invade them.
Befides the difpleafure which Darius had conceived
againft the Athenians on account of the afiiftance
they had afforded the lonians, he was farther ur-
r|! 73 Sec^ t0 an expedition againft Greece by the intrigues
c$ippias ap- of Hippias. Immediately on his returning unfuccefs-
Pes to the fully from Lacedaemon, as above related, Hippias paf-
•wsrfians. pecj over jnt0 ^f,aj went to Artaphernes governor of
the adjacent provinces belonging to the Perfian king,
and excited him to make war upon his country, pro¬
milling to be obedient to the Perfian monarch provided
he was reftored to the principality of Athens. Of this
the Athenians being apprized, fent ambaffadors to
Artaphernes, deiiring leave to enjoy their liberty in
quiet: but that nobleman returned for anfwer, that if
they would have peace w ith the great king, they muft
879 ] ATT
immediately receive Hippias; upon which anfwer, the Attica.
Athenians refolved to afiift the enemies of Darius as “
much as poflible. The confequence of this refolution
was, that Darius commiflioned Mardonius to revenge
him of the infults he thought the Greeks had offered
him. But Mardonius having met with a ftormat fea,
and other accidents, which rendered him unable to do
any thing, Datis, and Artaphernes the fon of Arta¬
phernes abovementioned, were commiflioned to do what
he was to have done. 74
The Perfian commanders, fearing again to attempt They in¬
to double the promontory of Athos, where their vade GreeC8
fleet had formerly fuffered, drew their forces into the
plains of Cilicia ; and palling from thence through the
Cyclades to Euboea, directed their courfe to Athens.
Their charge from Darius was to deftroy both Eretria
and Athens ; and to bring away the inhabitants, that 7J
they might be at his difpofal. Their firft attempt was Eretria <k-
on Eretria, the inhabitants of which fent to Athens ftroyed,
for afliftance on the firft approach of the Perfian fleet.
The Athenians, with a magnanimity almoft unparallelled
at fuch a jun&ure, fent 4000 men to their afliftance; but
the Eretrians were fo much divided among themfelves,
that nothing could be refolved on. One party among
them w’as for receiving the Athenian fuccours into the
city; another, for abandoning the city and retiring in¬
to the mountains of Euboea ; while a third fought to
betray their country to the Perfians for their own pri¬
vate intereft. Seeing things in this fituation, therefore,
and that no good could poflibly be done, one iEfchines,
a man of great authority among the Eretrians, gene-
roully informed the Athenian commanders that they
might return home. They accordingly retired to O-
ropus; by which means they efcaped deftru&ion : for
Eretria being foon after betrayed to the Perfians, was
pillaged, burnt, and its inhabitants fold for Haves.
On the news of this difafter the Athenians immedi¬
ately drew together all the forces they were able, which
after all amounted to no more than 9000 men. Thefe,
with 1000 Plataeans, who afterwards joined them, were
commanded by ten general officers, who had equal
power ; among whom were Miltiades, Ariftidcs, and
Themiftocles, men of diftinguilhed valour and great
abilities. But it being generally imagined that fo
fmall a body of troops would be unable to refift the
formidable power of the Perfians, a meffenger was dif-
patched to Sparta to intreat the immediate afliftance of
that ftate. He communicated his bufinefs to the fe-
nate in the following terms. “ Men of Lacedaemon,
the Athenians defire you to aflift them, and not to fuf-
fer the moft ancient of all the Grecian cities to be en-
flaved by the barbarians. Eretria is already deftroyed,
and Greece confequently weakened by the lofs of fo
confiderable a place.” The afliftance was readily grant¬
ed ; but at the fame time the fuccours arrived fo flow-
ly, that the Athenians were forced to fight without
them. In this memorable engagement in the plains of
Marathon, whither Hippias had conducted the Per- Perfians de-
fians, the latter were defeated with the lofs of 6300 f«ted at
men, while the Greeks loft only 192. The Perfians Marath°n*
being thus driven to their ftiips, endeavoured to double
Cape Sunium, in order to furprize Athens itfelf, be¬
fore the army could return : but in this they were pre¬
vented by Miltiades; who, leaving Ariftides with 1000
men to guard the prifoners, returned fo expeditioufly
5 S 2 with
Attica.
Integrity of
ArifHdes.
Miltiades
ungrateful¬
ly treated by
the Athe¬
nians.
As likewife
Ariftides.
ATT
[ 880 ] ATT
with the other 9000, that he was at the temple of
Hercules, which was but a fmall way diitant, before
the barbarians could attack the city.
After the battle, Ariftides difcharged the truft re-
pofed in him with the greateft integrity. Tho’ there
was much gold and filver in the Perfian camp, and
the tents and Ihips they had taken were filled with all
forts of riches, he not only forbore touching any thing
himfelf, but to the utmoil of his power prevented o-
thers from doing it. Some, however, found means to
enrich themfelves ; among the reft, one Callias, coufin-
german to Ariftides himfelf. This man being a torch-
bearer, and, in virtue of hia office, having a fillet on
his head, one of the Perfians took him for a king, and,
falling down at his feet, difcovered to him a vail quan¬
tity of gold hid in a well. Caliias not only feized, and
applied it to his own ufe, but had the cruelty to kill
the poor man who difcovered it to him, that he might
not mention it to others; by which infamous aftion he
entailed on his poftcrity the name of Laccopluti, or en¬
riched by the 'well.
After the battle of Marathon, all the inhabitants of
Platsea were declared free citizens of Athens, and Mil¬
tiades, Themiftocles, and Ariftides, were treated with
all poffible marks of gratitude and refpedt. This,
however, was but very ffiort-lived ; Miltiades propofed
an expedition againft the ifland of Paros, in which ha¬
ving been unfuccefsful, through whatcaufe is not well
known, he was, on his return, accufed, and condemned
to pay 50 talents, the whole expence of the fcheme ;
and being unable to pay the debt was thrown into pri-
fon, where he foon died of a wound received at Paros.
If any thing can exceed the enormity of fuch a pro¬
ceeding as this, it was the treatment Ariftides next re¬
ceived. Miltiades had propofed an expedition which
had not proved fuccefsful, and in which he might pof-
fibly have had bad defigns; but againft Ariftides not
fomuch as a fhadow of guilt was pretended. On the
contrary, his extraordinary virtue had procured him the
title of Juft, and he had never been found to fwerve
from the maxims of equity. His downfal was occa-
fioned by the intrigues of Themiftocles; who being a
man of great abilities, and hating Ariftides on account
of the charafter he defervedly bore among his country¬
men, took all opportunities of infinuating that his '
rival had in fa£l made himfelf mailer of Athens with¬
out the parade of guards and royalty. “ He gives
laws to the people,” faidhej “ and whatconftitutes a
tyrant, but giving laws ?” In confequence of this ftrange
argument, a ftrong party was formed againft the vir¬
tuous Ariftides, and it was refolved to banilh him for
10 years by the Oftracifm. In this cafe, the name of
the perfon to be banilhed was written upon a Ihell by
every one who defired his exile, and carried to a cer¬
tain place within the forum inclofed with rails. If the
number of Ihells fa collefted exceeded 6000, the fen-
tence was inflifted; if not, it was otherwife. When
the agents of Themiftocles had fufficiently accomplilh-
ed their purpofe, on a fudden the people flocked to
the forum deliring the oftracifm. One of the clowns
who had come from a borough in the country, bring¬
ing a fhell to Ariftides, faid to him, « Write me Ari¬
ftides upon this.” Ariftides, furprifed, alked him if
he knew any ill of that Athenian, or if he had ever
done him any hurt.. “ Me hurt! (faid the fellow), no,
I don’t fo much as know him ; but I am weary and Attica.
Tick at heart on hearing him every where called the
juft." Ariftides therefore took the fhell, and wrote his
own name upon it; and when informed that the oftra¬
cifm fell upon him, modeftly retired out of the forum,
faying, “ I befeech the gods that the Athenians may
never fee that day which Ihall force them to remember
Ariftides.”
After the battle of Marathon, the war with iEgina
was revived with great vigour; but the iEginetans
generally had the fuperiority, on account of their great
naval power. Themiftocles obferving this, was conti-,Themifto-
nually exhorting his countrymen to build a fleet, not
only to make them an equal match for the iEginetansy of a fleet
but alfo becaufe he was of opinion that the Perftans
would foon pay them another vifit. At laft, he had
the boldnefs to propofe, that the money produced by
the filver mines, which the Athenians had hitherto di-
' vided among themfelves, fhould be applied to the build¬
ing of a fleet: which propofal being complied with,
100 galleys were immediately put upon the flocks; and
this fudden increafe of the maritime power proved the
means of faving all Greece from flavery. g,
About three years after the banifhment of Ariftides, Xerxes in-*
Xerxes king of Perfia fent to demand earth and water: vades 1
but Themiftocles defiring to make the breach with Greece'
that monarch ftill wider, put to death the interpreter
for publifhing the decree of the king of Perfia in the
language of the Greeks ; and having prevailed upon
the feveral ftates to lay afide their animofities, and
provide for their common fafety, got himfelf eledled
general of the Athenian army.
When the news arrived that the Perfians were ad¬
vancing to invade Greece by the ftreights of Thermo-
pylte, and that they were for this purpofe tranfporting
their forces by fea, Themiftocles advifed his country¬
men to quit the city, embark on board their galleys,
and meet their enemies while yet at a diftance. This
they would by no means comply with; for which reafon
Themiftocles put himfelf at the head of the army, and
having joined the Lacedaemonians, marched towards
Tempe. Here, having received advice that the ftraits
of Thermopylae were forced, and that both Bceotia
and Thefialy had fubmitted to the Perfians, the army
• returned without doing any thing.
In this diflrefs the Athenians applied to the oracle
at Delphi: from whence they received at firft a very
fevere anfwer, threatening them with total deftrudlion ;
but after much humiliation, a more favourable one was
delivered, in which, probably by the direction of The¬
miftocles, they were promifed fafety in •walls of •wood.
This was by Themiftocles and the greateft part of the ci¬
tizens interpreted as a command to abandon Athens, and
put all their hopes of fafety in their fleet. Upon this, Atjlens ^
the opinion of Themiftocles prevailing, the greateft bandoned.
part began to prepare for this embarkation; and had byitsinha-
money diftributed among them by the council of the knuits. y
Areopagus, to the amount of eight drachms per man:
but this not proving fufficient, Themiftocles gave out
that fomebody had ftolen the fhield of Minerva; under
pretence of fearching for which, he feized on all the
money he could find. Some, however, there were who
refufed to embark with the reft, but raifed to them¬
felves fortifications of wood; underftanding the oracle
in its literal fenfe, andrefolving to wait the arrival of the
Perfians,
ATT
ATT
Perfians, and defend themfelves to the lath In the the body of troops under his command, diflinguiflied
mean time Ariilides was recalled, when the Athenians themfelves in a mod extraordinary manner.
faw it their intereft, left he fliould have gone over to
the Perfians and afiifted them with his advice.
The Perfians having advanced to Athens foon after
the inhabitants had deferted it, met with no oppofition
!Perfians. except from the few juft now mentioned; who, as they
,1 g4 would hearken to no terms of accommodation, were all
iffiyareto- cut in pieces, and the city utterly deftroyed. Xerxes,
AtSaU1' h°wever> being defeated in a fea-fight at Salami’s, was
The fame day that the battle of Platasa was fought,
the Perfians were defeated in a fea-fight at Mycale in
Ionia, wherein it was allowed that the Athenians who
were there behaved better than any of the other Greeks;
but when it was propofed to tranfport the lonians into
Europe, that they might be in perfett fafety, and give
them the territories of fuch Grecian ftates as had fided
with the Perfians, the Athenians refufed to comply.
forced to fly with prodigious lofs. Themiftocles was fearing the lonians would rival them in trade, or refufe
for purfuing him, and breaking down the bridge he
had call over the Hellefpont; but this advice being
rejected, he fent a trufty meffenger to Xerxes, ac¬
quainting him that the Greeks intended to break down
his bridge, and therefore defired him to make all the
hafte he could, left by that means he (hould be fliut up
the obedience they ufed to pay them : befides which,
they would then lofe the opportunity of plundering the
Perfians in cafe of any quarrel with Ionia. Before they
returned home, however, the Athenians crofled over to 8g
the Cherfonefus, and befieged Seftos. The fiege was Seftos taken
long and troublefome : but at laft the garrifon, being hytheAthe-
in Europe. According to Herodotus, he alfo advifed prelfed with hunger, and having no hopes of relief, nians-
the Athenians to quit the purfuit and return home, in divided themfelves into two bodies, and endeavoured to
order to build their ruined houfes. This advice, tho’ make their efcape ; but were purfued, and all either
killed or taken. Oibazus, one of their commanders, was
facrificed to a Thracian god; and the other, called
tyattes, impaled alive, and his fon ftoned before his face,
becaufe he had rifled the fepulchre of Protefilaus. gp
After the vhftories at Platseaand Mycale, the Athe- They re¬
mans returned without any apprehenfion, and began to thcir
rebuild their city in a more magnificent manner than Clt^’
before. Here they were no fooner arrived, than a dif-
pute was ready to be commenced about the form of go¬
vernment. The commons, with Themiftocles at their
head, were for a democracy; to which Ariftides, rather
mifinterpreted by fome, was certainly a very prudent
one, as Xerxes, though once defeated, was ftill at the
head of an army capable of deftroying all Greece; and
had he been driven to defpair by finding himfelf fliut
up, or warmly purfued, it was impoffible to fay what
might have been the event. After this, Themiftocles
formed a fcheme, for the aggrandizement of Athens
indeed, but a moll unjuft and infamous one. It was,
in ftiort, to make Athens miftrefs of the fea by burn¬
ing all the fhips except thofe belonging to that repu¬
blic. He told his countrymen that he had fomething
to propofe of great confequence, but which could not than hazard the raifing difturbances, confented. It
be fpoken publicly: whereupon he was defired to com¬
municate it to Ariftides, by whom the propofal was
rejected ; and Ariftides having informed the Athenians
that what Themiftocles had faid was very advantage¬
ous but very unjuft, they defired him to think no more
of it.
When the fleet returned to Salamis, extraordinary
was therefore propofed, that every citizen fliould have
an equal right to the government; and that the archons
ftiould be chofcn out of the body of the people, with¬
out preference or diftindliont and this propofal being
agreed to, put an end to all difcontents for the prefent.
At this time alfo Themiftocles propofed that the city Themirto-
of Athens ftiould be fortified in the beft manner pof- clesadyi/es
honours were paid to Themiftocles by the Lacedasmo- fible, that it might not be liable to be again deflroyed, Athens ^
*'•’— On his entering that city, they decreed him a when the Perfians fliould take it into their heads to in- and deceives.
vade Greece. At this propofal the Eacedsemonians the Spar-
were exceedingly alarmed; and therefore remonftrated, tans
that ftiould Athens once be ftrongly fortified,, and the
Perfians become poflefled of it, it would be impoflible
to get them out of it again. At laft, feeing thefe ar¬
guments had no effect, they abfolutely forbid the A-
thenians to carry their walls any higher. This com-
wreath of olive, as the prize of prudence; prefented him
with the moft magnificent chariot in Sparta; and when
he returned to Athens, he was efcorted by 500 horfe,
an honour never paid to any ftranger but himfelf. On
his arrival at Athens, however, there were not want¬
ing fome who infinuated that the receiving fuch ho¬
nours from the Lacedaemonians was injurious to the re¬
public ; but Themiftocles confiding in his innocence,, mand gave great offence; but Themiftocles, confidering
treated thefe clamours with contempt, and exhorted his the power of Sparta at that time, advifed the Athenians
countrymen to entertain no doubts of their allies, but to temporize; and to affure the ambaffadors, that they
rather endeavour to preferve the great reputation they Ihould proceed no farther in their work, till, by an em -
had acquired throughout all Greece. baffy of their own, fatisfaftion fliould be given to their
The defeat of Xerxes at Salamis made Mardonius, allies. Being named ambaffador at his own defire
who was left to carry on the war by land, more ready
to treat with the Athenians than to fight them ; and
with this view he fent Alexander king of Macedon to
Athens to make propofals of alliance with that repub¬
lic, exclufively of all the other Grecian ftates. This
Sparta, wnth fome other Athenians, Themiftocles fet out
alone, telling the fenate that it would be for the intereft
of the ftate to delay fending the other ambaffadors as
long as poffible. When arrived at Sparta, he put off
from time to time receiving an audience, on account of
slid time propofal, however, was rejefted|; and the confequence. his colleagues not being arrived: but,in the mean time
“‘jiyed. was, that Athens was a fecond time deftroyed, the the walls of Athens were building with the utmoft ex¬
pedition ; neither houfes nor fepulchres being fpared for
materials; and men, women, children, ftrangers, citi¬
zens, and fervants, working without intermiflion. Of
this the Lacedaemonians having notice, and the reft of
the
was, that Athens was a fecond time deftroyed, the
iiiPer Spartans fending afliftance fo flowly, that the Atheni-
■defeat- ans were f°rced to retire to Salamis: but they were foon
■iPlatxa freed from all apprehenfions by the total defeat and
“Pycate. death of Mardonius at Platsea; where Ariftides, and
ATT [81
Attica, the Athenian ambaffadors being arrived, Themiftocles
]
ATT
and his colleagues were fummoned before the ephori.
who immediately began to exclaim againft the Athe¬
nians for their breach of promife. Themiftocles denied
the charge : he faid his colleagues aflured him of the
contrary; that it did not become a great ftate to give
heed to vague reports, but that deputies ought to be
fent from Sparta to inquire into the truth of the mat¬
ter, and that he himfelf would remain as a hoftage, to
be anfwerable for the event. This being agreed to, he
engaged his affbciates to advife the Athenians to com¬
mit the Spartan ambafladors to fafecuftody, till he fhould
be releafed; after which he publicly avowed the whole
tranfaftion, took the fcheme upon himfelf, and told the
Lacedaemonians that “ all things are lawful for our
country.” The Spartans feeing no remedy, concealed
pT their refentment, and fent Themiftocles home in fafety.
Makes the The next year, being the laft of the 75th Olympiad,
Pyraenm the Themiftocles obferving the inconvenience of the port
thens° * Phalerum, thought of making the Pyroeum the port of
Athens. This he did not at firft think proper to men¬
tion publicly ; but having fignified to the people that
he hadfomething of importance to communicate, they
appointed Xanthippus and Ariftides to judge of his
propofal. They readily came into his meafures, and
told the people that what Themiftocles propofed would
be of the utmoft advantage to the ftate, at the fame
time that it might be performed with eafe. Upon this
they were defired to lay the matter before the fenate;
who coming unanimoufly into their meafure, ambafla¬
dors were difpatched to Sparta to infinuate there how
proper it would be for the Greeks to have fome great
port, where a fleet might always watch the defigns of
the Perfians ; and thus having prevented any umbrage
from their firft undertakings, the work was fet about
with fuch expedition, that it was finifhed before the
Lacedaemonians knew well what they were about.
At this time alfo the fovereignty of the fea was
transferred transferred from Sparta to Athens, through the haugh-
‘ in. H<
Athens, ty behaviour of Paufanias the Lacedaemonian.
had commanded at Platsea, and ftill enjoyed the fu-
preme authority in the war which was all this time car¬
rying on againft the Perfians ; but being elated with
his fuccefs at Plataea, and having entered into a trea-
fonable correfpondence with the enemy, he treated the
captains undei1 his command with the greateft haugh-
tinefs, giving the preference to the Spartans in fuch a
manner that the reft of the Greeks could no longer bear
his infolence. On the contrary, Ariftides, and Cimon
the fon of Miltiades, who commanded the Athenians,
by their obliging behaviour gained the favour of every
body ; fo that the allies, having publicly affronted Pau¬
fanias, put themfelves under the proteftion of the A-
thenian republic ; and thenceforward the Athenians,
and not the Lacedaemonians, had the fupreme com¬
mand.
Ariflides The Greeks being now fenfible that they would al¬
iases Greece ways have occafion to be on their guard againft the
with extra- Perfians, and that it was necefiary to eftablifh a fund
>>7 a common taxation of all the ftates, Ariftides was
*3 e" pitched upon as the only perfon that could be trufted
with the power of allotting to each of the ftates its
proper quota. This difficult talk he undertook, and
executed in a manner unparallelled in the annals of hi-
ftory. All parties were pleafed, and his taxation was
plaufc.
ftyled the happy lot of Greece. The grofs amount of it Attica
was 4.50 talents.
It now came to the turn of Themiftocles to experi- Themiftc
ence the gratitude of his countrymen. His feririces cles bani
had been fo effential, that the treatment he received
may perhaps be a fufficient excufe for modern patriots
when they conned! their own intereft with the fervice
of their country. Themiftocles had plainly faved the
ftate from ruin by his advice; he had diftinguilhed
himfelf by his valour; had rendered Athens, by his
policy, fuperior to the other ftates of Greece ; and
entirely fubverted the Lacedsemonian fcheme of power.
Yet, notwithftanding all this, he was banilhed by
the oftracifm, without the fmalleft crime pretended,
unlefs that he was hated by the Lacedaemonians, and
that he had eredted a temple, near his own houfe, de¬
dicated to Diana, the giver of the befl counfel; inti¬
mating that he himfelf had given the belt counfel for
the fafety both of Athens and of all Greece, which was
no more than the truth. Nay, he was not only driven
out of Athens, but out of all Greece ; fo that he was
forced to feek flicker from the king of Perfia, againft;
whom he had fought with fo much valour. That mo¬
narch gave him a gracious reception; and he was ne¬
ver recalled, becaufe the Greeks had no occafion for
his fervices.
The war with Perfia was not yet difeontinued; tiie jllcc*1-s
Greeks found their advantage in plundering and en- cimon l.
riching themfelves with the fpoils of the king of Perfia’s gainft tfae'i
fubjedts. For this reafon, in the end of the 77th O- Perfians.
lympiad, they equipped a navy, under a pretence of
relieving fuch of the Greek cities in Afia as were fub-
jed! to the Perfians. Of this fleet Cimon, the fon of
Miltiades by the daughter of the king of Thrace, was
appointed commander in chief. He had already tafted
the juftice and generofity of his countrymen, having
been thrown into prifon for his father’s fine, from which
he was releafed by Callias, whom his fifter Elpinice
married on account of his great wealth procured by no
very honourable means. He accepted of the command,
however ; and gained fuch immenfe booty in this ex¬
pedition, that the Athenians were thereby enabled to
lay the foundation of thofe long extended walls which
united the port to the city. The foundation was laid
in a moorifti ground; fo that they were forced to fink
it very deep, and at a great expence : but to this Ci-
rnon himfelf contributed out of his own fliare of the
fpoils, which was very confiderable. He alfo adorned
the forum with palm-trees, and beautified the academy
with delightful walks and fountains.
The Perfians having foon after this expedition in- He fubdue
vaded Cherfonefus, and with theafliftance of theThra- the Cherf<
cians made themfelves mafters of it, Cimon was fent neh*5*
againft them in a great hurry. He had only four ftiips;
but neverthelefs with thefe he took 13 of the Perfian
galleys, and reduced the whole of the Cherfonefus.
After this he marched againft the Thracians, who re¬
volting againft the Athenians, had made themfelves
mafters of the gold mines lying between the rivers
Nyffusand Strymon. The Thracians were quickly ob¬
liged to yield ; after which the Athenians fent a great
colony to Amphipolis a city of Thrace, which for ibme-
time made a confiderable figure, but afterwards at¬
tempting to penetrate into the country of the Edones,
great part of them were deftroyed.
Cimoa
.    
ATT
[ 853 ]
ATT
Cimon alfo fell upon the following expedient to
make Athens irrefiftable at fea by the other ftates of
Greece. Many of the Greek ftates, by virtue of A-
riftides’s taxation, were bound to furnilh men and gal¬
leys, as well as to pay the tax for their fupport. But
when they faw themfelves out of danger from the Per-
and amongft others fpoke to Pericles the celebrated
ftatfeman and orator. He was indeed Cimon’s rival, ~
and had no doubt afilfted in ftirring up the profecution
againft him; but he did not defire his death : and there¬
fore, though appointed to accufe him, Pericles fpoke in
fuch a manner that it plainly appeared he did not think
fjans, moft of them were very unwilling to furnifh their him guilty ; and, in confequence of this lenity, Cimon
quota of men. This the Athenian generals being of- was only banifhed by the oftracifm.
fended with, were for having recourfe to force ; but
Cimon permitted fuch as were defirous of ftaying at
home to do fo, and accepted a futn of money in lieu
of a galley completely manned. By this means he in¬
ured the Athenians, whom he took on board his galleys,
to hardfhip and difcipline; while the allies who re¬
mained at home became enervated through idlen'efs,
and from being confederates, dwindled into tributaries,
and almoft flaves. In the laft year of the 77th O-
lympiad, Cimon was fent to affift the Lacedaemonians
againft their Helotes, who had revolted from them. In
this he was attended with his ufual fuccefs : but, fome
time after, the Lacedaemonians being engaged in the
fiege of Ithome, fent again to the Athenians for fuc-
cour, and Cimon was a fecond time fent to their relief; to revenge themfelves of former quarrels. Havin'
but the Spartans having received a fufticient fupply of therefore drawn in the Argives and Theffalians to be
The Athenian powerwas now rifcn to fuch an height,
that all the other ftates of Peloponnefus looked upon
this republic with a jealous eye, and were continually
watching every opportunity of making war upon it
when the ftate was engaged in troublefome affairs, and
feemed to be lefs able to refill. Thefe attempts, how¬
ever, fo far from leffening, generally contributed to in-
creafe, the power of the Athenians; but in the year 99-
before Chrilt 458, the republic entered into a war with War be-
Sparta, which was fcarce put an end to but by the de- tvveen A ‘
ftrudtion of the city of Athens. For this war, there Spartr"^
was no recent provocation on the part of the Spartans. *
They had fent a great army to afiift the Dorians againft
the Phocians, and the Athenians took this opportunity
troops from other quarters before the arrival of the A-
thenian general, he and his men were difmified without
doing any thing. This grievoufly offended the people
of Athens, who thenceforward hated not only the La¬
cedaemonians, but all their own citizens who were
thought to be friends to that ftate.
It was not poftible, however, that any perfon who
had ferved the ftate fhould efcape banifhment at A-
thens. Cimon had gained great wealth both to the
public and to himfelf. In his public charadter he had
behaved with unimpeached honefty, and as a private
their confederates, they ported themfelves on the Ifth-
mus, fo that the Spartan army could not return with¬
out engaging them. The Athenians and their confe¬
derates amounted to 14,000, and the Spartans to
11,500. The Spartan general, however, not very will-
ing'to hazard a battle, turned afide to Tanagra, a city
in Boeotia, where fome of the Athenians who inclined
to ariftocracy entered into a correfpondence with him.
But before their defigns were ripe for execution, the
Athenian army marched with great expedition to Ta- rco
nagra, fo that a battle became inevitable. When the Athenians
citizen he dedicated his wealth to the moft excellent armies were drawing up in order of battle, Cimon pre- defeated*
purpofes. He demolilhed the inclofures about his
grounds and gardens, permitting every
fented himfelf before his countrymen in complete a,
to enter mour, and went to take port among thofe of his own
tribe; but the popular party raifed fuch a clamour a-
gainft him, that he was forced to retire. Before he de-
and take what fruits they pleafed ; he kept an open
table, where both rich and poor were plentifully en¬
tertained. If he met a citizen in a tattered fuit of parted, however, he exhorted Euthippus and the reft
eloaths, he made fome of his attendants exchange with
him; or if the quality of the perfon rendered that
kindnefs unfuitable, he caufed a fum of money to be
privately given him. All this, however, was not fuf-
ficient: he did not concur with every meafure of the
commonalty ; and therefore the popular party deter¬
mined, not to banilh him, but to put him to death.
The crime laid to his charge was, that by prefents from
the Macedonians he was prevailed upon to let flip a
manifeft opportunity of enlarging his conquefts, after
taking from the Perfians the gold mines of Thrace.
To this accufation Cimon replied, that to the utmoft
of his' power he had profecuted the war againft the
Thracians and other enemies of the ftate of Athens ;
but that it was true he had not made any inroads into
Macedonia, becaufe he did not imagine he was to a£l
as a public enemy of mankind, and becaufe he was
ftruck with refpeft for a nation modeft in their car-
of his friends to behave in fuch a manner that they
might wipe off the afperffon thrown upon him, as if he
had defigned to betray his country’s caufe to the La¬
cedaemonians. Euthippus defired him to leave his ar¬
mour, which he did; and a battle enfuing, the Athe¬
nians were defeated with great lofs, and Euthippus with
the reft of Cimon’s friends were all killed in defence
of-his armour which they had furrounded. Another
engagement foon followed, wherein both armies fuffered
fo much, that they were glad to conclude a ftiort truce,
that each might have time to recruit their fliattered
forces.
The fcale of fortune now feemed to turn in favour They gain
of the Athenians. The Thebans, who had been de- great advan-
prived of the command of Boeotia, on account of their ‘tp5
having fided with Xerxes, were now reftored to it by tan*8^^
the Lacedaemonians. At this the Athenians were fo
difpleafed, that they fent an army under Myronides the
riage, juft in their dealings, and ftritftly honourable in fon of Callias into Boeotia to overturn all that had been
their behaviour towards him and the Athenians : that
if his countrymen looked upon this as a crime, he
mull abide their judgment ; but, for his part, he could
never be brought to think fuch condudl ainifs. Elpi-
uice, Cimon’s lifter, ufed all her intereft in his behalf,
done. That general was met by the Thebans and their
allies, who compofed a numerous and well difciplined
army. Neverthelefs, though the Athenian army was
but an handful in comparifon of their enemies, Myro¬
nides gained a complete viftoryover the allies, in fome
fenfe
ATT
[ 884 ]
ATT
fenfe more glorious than either that of Marathon or
Plataea. In thefe battles they had fought againft effe¬
minate and ill difciplined Perfians, but now they en¬
countered and defeated a fuperior army compofed of
the braveft Greeks. After this victory, Myronides
marched-to Tanagra; which he took by ftorm, and ra¬
zed to the ground : he then plundered Boeotia; defeated
another army which the Boeotians had drawn together
to oppofe him; then fell upon the Locrians ; and,
having penetrated into Theffaly, chaftifed the inha¬
bitants of that country for having revolted from the
Athenians, and from thence returned to Athens laden
with riches and glory.
The next year Tolmides the Athenian admiral in¬
vaded Laconia, where he made himfelf mafter of feveral
places; and on the back of this, Pericles invaded Pelo-
ponnefus with great fuccefs, burning, fpoiling, or tak¬
ing, whatever places he attempted. On his return he
Attic®
children by an Arcadian woman, had preferred a law
whereby the Athenians of the half blood were disfran-
chifed; and this law, on account of the diftribution
of the corn abovementioned, was profecuted with fuch
feverity, that no lefsthanyoooperfons, who till then had
been coniidered as free-men, were fold for flaves. This Number!
piece of cruelty has been of great fervice to the critics, tl?e
as by means of it we know exa&ly the number of Athe- Z£ns
nian citizens, which at this time amounted to no more
than 14,040 perfons, though Athens was now aiming
at no lefs than ere&ing an univerfal monarchy.
Six years, after the conclufion of the peace between
Athens and; Sparta, a war broke out between the Sa¬
mians and Milefians about the city of Priene, feated I0,
under mount Mycale in Ionia. Plowthis war came to Samos
affed the Athenians, is not certainly known: but, fome- duced hyi
how or other, this republic was induced to take the part Pericles*
of the Milefians; and the ifland of Samos was reduced
found the people greatly out of humour on account of by Pericles, who eftablilhed there a democracy, and
Cimon’s banilhment; fo he was immediately recalled.
Cimon was no fooner/eturned, than he fell to his old
employment of plundering the Perfians ; and, accord¬
ing to Plutarch, he had now nothing lefs in view than
the conqueft of the whole Perfian empire. The Per-
fiah monarch finding he could have no reft, at laft fent
orders to Artabazus and Megabizus, his commanders,
to conclude a treaty ; which was done on the following
conditions. 1. That the Greek cities in Afia fhould be
free, and governed by their owm laws. 2. That the
Perfians fliould fend no army within three days journey
of the fea. 3. That no Perfian fhip of war fhould fail
between Thefalis and Cyrene, the former a city of Pam-
phylia, and the latter of Lycia.
While this treaty was carrying on Cimon died, whe¬
ther of ficknefs, or of a wound he had received, is not
known ; and after his death the Athenian affairs be¬
gan to fall into confufion. It w'as now the misfortune
of this ftate to be alike hated by her enemies and allies ;
the confequence of which was, that the latter were per¬
petually revolting whenever they thought they had an
opportunity of doing fti with impunity. The Mega-
rians, at this time, who had been long under the pro¬
left an Athenian garrifon. He was no fooner gone,
however, than the Samians, difliking their new form of
government, drove out the garrifon he had left; but
Pericles quickly returning, belieged and took their
city, demolifhed their walls, and fined them of the whole
expence of the war, part of which he obliged them to
pay down, and took hoftages for the remainder. When
Pericles returned, he procured himfelf to be appointed
to pronounce the public oration in honour of thofe who
fell; which he did with fuch eloquence, that when he
came down from the pulpit, the women gathered about
him, took him by the hand, and crowned him with
garlands. lo8
A little after this commenced the war between the War be,
Corcyrians and Corinthians, which by degrees brought tween th<
the Athenians into thofe engagements that proved the Co,rcy!jii
ruin of their ftate. The caules of this war were the ^hia,^°n*
following. An inteftine war breaking out in the little
territory of Epidamnum, a city of Macedonia, found¬
ed by the Corcyrians, one party called in to their af-
fiftance the Illyrians, and the other the Corcyrians.
The latter negledling the matter, Corinth was applied
to, as the Corcyrians were a colony from that place.
tedtion or dominion of Athens, thought proper for The Corinthians, partly out of pity to the Epidam-
fome reafon or other to difclaim all dependance on
their former proteftors, and have recourfe to Sparta,
with which ftate they entered into a ftridl alliance.
This the Athenians revenged by ravaging the country
of the Megarians ; which foon brought on a renewal
of the Lacedaemonian war that had been for a little time
nians, and partly out of fpleen to the Corcyrians, fent
a very great fleet to the affiftance of the former, by
which means that party which had applied to Corinth
was thoroughly eftabliftied. This being refented by
the Corcyrians, they fent a fleet to Epidamnum to fup-
port the exiles; and accordingly this fleet began to
fufpended. Pericles, however, procured the return of adl offenfively on its entering the port, the chief
A thirty
-years truce
■with the
Laced x mo¬
tile firft Lacedaemonian army, without bloodftied, by
bribing Chandrides the young king of Sparta’s tutor.
In the winter, Tolmides refolved to undertake an expe¬
dition into Boeotia with a fmall body of troops; which
defign he put in execution contrary to the advice of
Pericles, and his raftinefs was foon puniftied by his own
death and the total defeat of his army. Notwithftand-
ing this misfortune, however, Pericles foon after inva¬
ded and reduced Euboea; and the Lacedaemonians, find¬
ing it was not for their intereft to carry on the war,
concluded a truce with the Athenians for 30 years.
manders having inftru&ions to propofe tgrms of ac¬
commodation, to which the Corinthians would by no
means agree. The next year the Corcyrians defeated
at fea the Corinthians and their allies, and took Epi-
damnum by ftorm ; after which they wafted the terri¬
tories of the allies of the Corinthians, which greatly
exafperated the latter. At Corinth, therefore, they
began to make great preparations for carrying on the
war, and preffed their confederates to do the fame, that
they might be in a condition to retrieve the honour
they had loft, and humble this ungrateful colony which
About this time Pfammiticus, king of Egypt, fent had thus infulted her mother-city.
by way of prefent to the people of Athens, 40,000
buftiels of wheat; which proved a great misfortune to
the city: for Pericles, out of fpite to Cimon, who had
The Corcyrians were no fooner acquainted with
thefe proceedings, than they difpatched ambaffadors to
Athens with their complaints ; and thefe were quickly
followed
if Jtidsca bt-
ATT [8
Attica, followed by others from Corinth on the fame errand.
~ At firft the people of Athens inclined to favour the
thensfides Corinthians ; but they foon changed their minds, and
ith the took part with the Corcyrians : they contented them-
j brcyrians. felves, however, with entering into a defenfive alliance
with that little ftate, whereby they promifed to affiit
each other, in cafe either party fhould be attacked;
and in confequence of this treaty they furnilhed the
Corcyrians with ten galleys, under Lacedaemonius the
fon of Cimon, with whom were joined Diotenes and
Proteus as colleagues.
As foon as the feafon of the year permitted, the
Corinthians failed for the coall of Corcyra with a fleet
of 150 Ihips, under the command of Xenoclides, af-
lifted by four other Corinthian admirals ; each fqua-
dron of their allies being commanded by a chief of
their own. The Corcyrian and Athenian fleet amount¬
ed to 120, but the Athenians had orders to give as
little afliftance as poffible. The a&ion was very brilk for
fome time: the Corcyrian right wing broke the left of
the Corinthian fleet; and forcing fome of the Ihips on
Ihore, landed, pillaged their camp, and made a great
number of them prifoners : on the other hand, the Co¬
rinthian Ihips in their right wing beat the Corcyrian
(hips there, they being but very faintly affifted by the
Athenians, till the latter were at laft obliged to defend
themfelves, which they did fo well, that the Corinthians
were glad to retire. The next day preparations were
made on both fides for another engagement; but 20
(hips coming from Athens to the affiftance of the Cor¬
cyrians, the Corinthians declined the combat.
As foon as the Corcyrian war broke out, the Athe-
i 6 nians fent orders to the citizens of Potidaea to demolilh
* a part of their wall, to fend back the magiftrates they
had received from Corinth, and to give hoftages for
their own behaviour. Potidaea was a town in Mace¬
donia, founded by the Corinthians, but at that time
in alliance with the Athenians. Perdiccas king of
Macedon, who hated the Athenians, took this oppor¬
tunity to perfuade the Potidseans to revolt. Accor¬
dingly they fent ambalfadors to Athens to intreat the
revocation of thefe orders ; but at the fame time fent
deputies to Sparta, to join with the Corinthians and
Megarians in their complaints againft the Athenians.
The Athenians upon this fent a confiderable fleet a-
gainft Potidaea under the command of Calias, a no¬
bleman of great courage. The Corinthians on their
part difpatched one Arifteus with a confiderable body
©f troops to the affiftance of that city. An engage¬
ment following, the Athenians were vittors, but with
the lofs of their general. Phormio, who fucceeded in
the command, invefted the city in form, and ftiut up
its port with his fleet; but the Potidseans dreading to
fall into the hands of the Athenians, made a moftob-
ftinate defence, while in the mean time they warmly
folicited the Corinthians to perform their promifes, and
engage the reft of the ftatcs of Peloponnefus in their
quarrel.
The Lacedaemonians having heard what the Corin-
bs demand thians and other little ftates of Greece had to fay a-
tjjiaration gainft the Athenians, fent ambaffadors to the latter,
lles^offbr ^emanc^ing reparation for the injuries, with orders, in
1 ao the * cak arefufal, to declare war. The terms demanded
|(es of were, in the firft place, the expulfion of thofe Athe-
)*eece. nians who were allied to the family of Megacles fo of-
VOL. II.
|e Spar-
85 ] AT T
ten mentioned. This article was on account of Peri- Attic*,
cles ; for he was the fon of Xanthippus the Athenian “
commander at Mycale, by Agarifte niece to the famous
Clyfthenes, who corrupted the prieftefs of Apollo in
order to procure the expulfion of the Piliftratidse.
They next infifted that the fiege of Potidrea fliould be
raifed ; thirdly, that the inhabitants of iEgina Ihould
be left free ; andlaftly, that a decree made againft the
Megarians, whereby they were forbid the ports and
markets of Athens, ftiould be revoked, and all the
Grecian ftates under the dominion of Athens fet at li¬
berty. jjj
Thefe terms the Athenians were perfuaded by Peri- Their terms
cles to rejeft. The arguments ufed by him were in fub- reje<^C!* ''Y
fiance as follows : That whatever the Lacedaemonians pJ^icLs^
might pretend as to the juftice' of the complaints of the
allies, the true ground of this refentment was the pro-
fperity of the Athenian republic, which the Spartans
always hated, and now fought an opportunity of hum¬
bling ; that it mu ft be owing to the Athenians them¬
felves if this defign fucceeded, becaufe for many rea-
fons Athens was better able to engage in a long and
expenfive war than the Peloponnefians. He then laid
before the people an exadt account of their circum-
ftances; putting them in mind, that the treafure
brought from Delos amounted to 10,000 talents;
and that tho’ 4000 of thefe had been expended on the
ftately gate of their citadel, yet that 6000 were ftill
in hand; that they were alfo intitled to the fubfidies
paid by the confederate ftates; that the ftatues of their
gods, the Perfian fpoils, &c. were worth immenfe
lums; that private men were arrived at vaft fortunes;
and that, confidering their trade by fea, they had a
certain annual increafe of wealth; that they had on
foot an army of 12,000 men, and in their colonies and
garrifons 17,000; that their fleet confifted of 300 fail;
whereas the Peloponnefians had no fuch advantages.
For thefe reafons he propofed as the moft feafible, and
likewife the moft equitable fatisfa&ion that could be
given, that they would reverfe their decree againft Me-
gara, if the Lacedaemonians would allow free egrefs
and regrefs in their city to the Athenians and their al¬
lies ; that they would leave all thofe ftates free who
were free at the making of the laft peace with Sparta,
provided the Spartans would alfo leave all ftates free
who were under their dominion ; and that future dif-
putes fhould be fubmitted to arbitration. In cafe thefe
offers fhould be rejected, he advifed them to hazard a
war; telling them, that they fhould not think they ran
that hazard for a trifle, or retain a fcruple in their
minds as if a fmall matter moved them to it, becaufe
on this fmall matter depended their fafety, and the re¬
putation of their conftancy and refolution ; whereas, if
they yielded in this, the next demand of the Lacedae¬
monians would be of a higher nature ; for having once
difeovered that the Athenians were fubjed to fear,
they would thence conclude that nothing could be de¬
nied to Sparta, whereas a ftiff denial in this cafe would
teach them to treat Athens for the future on terms of
equality. He enforced thefe reafons by fhewing that
their anceftors had always aded on the like principles,
and in all cafes preferred their glory to their eafe, and
their liberty to their poffeflions.
This was the origin of the Peloponnefian war,
which makes fo great a figure in ancient hiftory. The
5 T im-
ATT
[ 886 ]
ATT
immediate preliminary to general hoftilities was an at¬
tempt of the Thebans to furprife Plataea. With this
;7n,pT‘l\ 01 fuch of the Plataeans as they had drawn over to their
©n Platsa. mtereit, in making themlelves maiters or the place.
In this defign they fucceeded very well at firft, the
Plataeans who had promifed to open the gates keeping
their words exa&ly, fo that they were inftantly in pof-
feffion of the city. The other party, however, per¬
ceiving how fmall a number they had to contend with,
unanimoufly rofe upon them, killing a great many,
and forcing the reft to furrender themfelves prifoners
of war. Another party came from Thebes to aflift
their countrymen ; but they arrived too late : the Pla¬
taeans, however, forefeeing that they would watte their
JI4 country, promifed to releafe the prifoners if they
They are would forbear to fpoil their lands. On this the The-
maflacred. bans withdrew; and the Platceans cruelly put to death
all their prifoners, to the number of 180, with Eury-
machus their chief, alleging that they had not pro¬
mifed their releafe but in cafe of peace. The Athe¬
nians, as foon as they had notice of this attempt of the
Thebans, caufed all the Boeotians in their territory to
be arrefted; and when they tmderftood how the Pla¬
taeans had delivered themfelves, they fent a great con¬
voy of provifions to that city, and a numerous body
jjj of troops to efcort their wives and children to Athens.
Account of Both parties now prepared in earneft for war, both
the allies on fent ambaffadors to the Perfians, and both fought to
both tides. roufe their allies. Moft of the Greek ftates inclined to
favour the Spartans, becaufe they adled on this occa-
fion as the deliverers of Greece, and becaufe they either
had been, or feared that they would be, oppreffed by the
Athenians. With the Spartans joined all the Pelopon-
nefians,' except the Argives and part ot the Achse-
ans; without Peloponnefus, the Megarians, Phocians,
Locrians, Boeotians, Ambraciots, Leucadians, and A-
nadtorians, declared themfelves on their iide. On the
ether hand, the Chians, Lefbinns, Platasans, Meffeni-
ans, Acarnanians, Corcyrians, Zacynthians, Carians,
Dorians, Thracians, moft part of the iflands, and all
the Cyclades excepting Melos and Thera, with Euboea
Ij6 and Samos, joined the Athenians.
Firft year of The Peloponnefian war commenced 431 years be-
the war. fore Chrift. The Lacedaemonian army was affembled
at the Ifthmus, and confifted of no lefs than 60,000
men ; but before Archidamus king of Sparta, who
commanded in chief, would enter Attica, he difpatched
a herald to Athens. The herald was fent back with¬
out any anfwer, by which all hopes of peace were cut
off. As Archidamus was a friend to Pericles, the lat¬
ter apprehended that he might forbear plundering his
eftates. With this he immediately acquainted the peo¬
ple; telling them at the fame time, that in fuch a cafe
he made a prefent of his lands to the public. He then
advifed the citizens to take no care of defending their
country-feats, but to a-ttend only to the city, bufy them¬
felves in the equipping of fhips, and fettle a thorough
terms, notwithftanding prodigious clamours were raifed
againft him by his countrymen. The allies, however,
had no great reafon to boaft of the advantages they
gained this year: an Athenian fleet ravaged the coafts
of Peloponnefus; another infefted the Locrians, drove
out the inhabitants of iEgina, and repeopled the ifland
from Athens. They likewife reduced Cephalenia, and
fome towns in Acarnania and Leucas which had de¬
clared for the Lacedaemonians; and in the autumn,
when the Peloponnefians were retired, Pericles enter¬
ing the Megarian territory, did all the mifchief that
could be expedfed from a provoked enemy.
The fpring of the fecond year was very fatal to A-
thens by a dreadful plague which deftroyed great num¬
bers of the citizens, while the Peloponnehans under
Archidamus wafted every thing abroad. In the midft
of thefe diftreffes, however, Pericles retained his courage,
and would fuffer none of his countrymen to ftir with¬
out the city either to efcape the plague or infeft the
enemy. He caufed a great fleet to be equipped, on
board which he embarked 4000 foot and 300 horfe,
with which he failed to Epidaurus. Upon this, the
enemy withdrew their forces out of Attica; but Peri¬
cles was able to do no great matter on account of the
plague, which made fo great havock among his men,
that he brought back to Athens only 1500 of the 4000
he carried out. By this misfortune the Athenians were
thrown into defpair; they immediately fued for peace,
which the Spartans were now too proud to grant; then
turning their rage upon Pericles, they difmiffed and fi¬
ned him. Soon after, Pericles’s children and almoft
all his relations died of the plague ; fo that this great
ftatefman was overwhelmed with melancholy, and for
fome time fliut himfelf up from public view: at laft,
through the perfuafion of Alcibiades and fome others,
he (hewed himfelf to the people. They received him
with acclamations, and at his requeft repealed the un¬
juft law he had made, whereby all Athenians of the
half-blood were disfranchifed, and then reinttated him
in all his former honours. Hereupon he inrolled the
only fon he had left, who before had been counted a
baftard on account of his mother being a Milefian.
This year alfo the ifland of Zacynthus was wafted
by the Peloponnefians; and the city of Potidaea fub-
mitted to the Athenians, after the inhabitants had been
driven to fuch extremity as to feed upon human flefli.
The Athenians permitted the men to depart with one
garment, and the women with two; after which, the
town was repeopled by a colony from Athens.
The third year of the Peloponnefian war was re¬
markable for the death of the great Pericles, who was
taken off by the plague. Plataea alfo was befieged by
Archidamus; but without fuccefs, even though the
greateft part of it was fet on fire; the Plataeans refol-
ving to fubmit to every kind of mifery rather than a-
bandon the Athenian caufe. In the end, therefore, the
king of Sparta was obliged to turn the fiege into a
blockade; and having thrown up an entrenchment for
Secondy e*
A dreadf
plague fti
Athens, i
Athenians
fue for
peace.
quefts th<
repeal of hi
Third year*
Pericles j|
dies.
Platata b
r-efolution not to be intimidated with the firft evils of tified with a deep ditch, he left a fufficient number of
war. This propofal the Athenians readily complied
with, and appointed Pericles commander in chief, with
nine more generals to aflift him.
The firft year, the Spartan army committed great
men to guard his lines, and then returned back to Pe¬
loponnefus.
The following fummer, the Peloponnefians under the
command of Archidamus invaded Attica, where they
ravages in Attica, Pericles having no force capable of wafted every thing with fire and fword ; at the fame
oppofing it, and refufing to engage on difadvantageous
time the whole ifland of Lefbos, except the diftridt of
Methymna,
FourthyM
Defpcral
attempt ol
the Plats*
flh year,
itylene,
•. taken
the A-
ATT C 887.] ATT
Methymna, revolted from the Athenians, who here- This the Corcyrians readily promifed, and endeavoured Attlea.
upon inverted the city of Mitylene. All this time the to perform. At firft, thofe who were for an arifto-'
city of Platsea was blocked up by the Peloponnefians; cracy prevailed, and murdered all thofe of the oppoiite
and its inhabitants being now greatly diftreffed for want party that fell into their hands? in which they were af-
of proviilons, the garrifon, confifting of 400 natives and lilted by a fleet of Peloponnefians: but the Athenians
80 Athenians, came to the defperate refolution of for- fending firft one fleet and then another to the afiiftance
cing a pafiage through the enemies lines. When they of the diftreffed party, the Peloponnefians were forced
came to attempt this, however, many of them were in- to withdraw; after which, the democratic party fuffi-
timidated: but 300 perfifted in their refolution ; and of ciently revenged themfelves, and deftroyed their anta-
thefe, 212 got fafe through and marched to Athens, gonifts without mercy. The worft of all was, that,
but the reft were compelled to retire. this example once fet, the feveral ftates of Greece felt
In the beginning of the fifth year, the Peloponne- in their turns the like commotions, which were always
fians fent 40 Ihips to the relief of Mitylene; but with- heightened by agents from Sparta and Athens ; the
out effecft, for the place had furrendered before the former endeavouring to fettle ariftocracy, and the lat-
fleet could come to its afliftance. Paches, the Athe- ter democracy, wherever they came. ,,5
nian commander, likewife chafed away the Peloponne- While the Athenians were thus engaged in a war Athenians
fian fleet upon its arrival; and returning to Lefbos fent wherein they were already overmatched, they fooli/hly cnSa^ ir>a
the Lacedaemonian minifter whom he found in Mity- engaged in a new one, which in the end proved more g-a-|Wul1
lene, together with a deputation, to Athens. On their fatal than all the reft. The inhabitants of Sicily were
arrival, the Lacedsemonian was immediately put to fplit into two factions ; the one called the Doric, at
death; and in a general affembly of the people, it was the head of which was the city of Syracufe; the other
refolved, that all the Mitylenians who were arrived at the Ionic, which owned the Leontines for their chiefs:
man’s eftate ftrould be put to death, and the women the latter perceiving themfelves too weak without fo-
and children fold for flaves. The next day, however, reign aid, fent one Georgias, a celebrated orator, to
this cruel decree was reverfed, and a galley fent with apply to Athens for relief; and he by his finefpeeches
all expedition to countermand thefe bloody orders, fo captivated the giddy and inconftant Athenians,
This laft veffel, however, could not get before the o- that they ran headlong into a war which they were
ther: but Paches, being a man of great humanity, had unable to maintain while engaged with all the Pelo-
taken a day to confider on the orders he had received; ponnefians. Enticed by this new pi-ofpeft, therefore,
during which time, the laft mentioned galley arrived; and grafping at the conqueft of Sicily, as well as of
in confequence of which, only about 1000 of the moft all Greece, they fent a fleet to the afiiftance of the
forward rebels were put to death; the walls of the city Leontines, under the command of Lachetes and Cha-
were alfo demolilhed, their fhips taken away, and their brias; and they were no fooner failed, than another
lands divided among the Athenians, who let them again fleet for the fame purpofe was begun to be fitted out.
to their old mafters at very high rents. The fame furn- All this time, the plague continued to rage with great
mer the Athenians feized the ifland of Minoas, lying violence at Athens, cutting off this year 40OO citizens,
over againft the territory of Megara; and likewife the befides a much greater number of the meaner fort of
port Nifaea, which laft they fortified, and it proved af- people.
■ terwards a place of the utmoft importance to them. At The fixth year of the Peloponnefian war was remark- Sixth year.
a‘ this time alfo the Platasans, driven to the laft extre- able for no great exploit : Agis the fon of Archida-
mity, furrendered to the Lacedaemonians, by whom mus, king of Sparta, affembled an army in order to in-
'they were, to the number of 208, including 25 Athe- vade Attica, but was prevented from fo doing by many
nians, put to death, and their women fold for flaves. great earthquakes which happened throughout Greece.
Their city was foon after rafed by their implacable The next year, however, he entered Attica with his
enemies the Thebans, who left only an inn to fhew army, while the Athenians on their part fent a fleet 12S
where it flood. The fame of Platasa, however, indu- under the command of Demofthenes, to infeft the coafts Seventh
ced Alexander the Great afterwards to rebuild it. of Peloponnefus. As this fleet parted by Laconia, the fo (.
f In this year happened the famous fedition of Cor- commander took notice that the promontory of Pylus, fied by the"
cyra, whence other feditions, when their effects ren- which was joined to the continent by a narrow neck of Athenians,
dered them terrible, have been called Corcfriap. It land, had before it a barren ifland about two miles in
hath been already obferved, that the war between the circumference, in which, however, there was a good
Corcyrians and Corinthians brought on the general war and fafe port, all winds being kept off by the head-
throughout Peloponnefus. A great number of Corey- land, or by theifle. Thefe advantages made him ap-
rians were in the beginning of this war carried away prehend, that a garrifon left here would give the Pelo-
prifoners into Peloponnefus, where the chief of them ponnefians fo much trouble, that they would find it more
were very well treated, but the reft fold forfllaves. The advifeable to protedl their own country than to invade
reafon of this condudl of the Corinthians was a defign that of their neighbours. Accordingly, having raifed
they had formed of engaging thefe Corcyrians to in- a ftrong fortification, he himfelf with five Ihips ftaid
fluence their countrymen to fide with them and their to defend it, while the reft of the fleet proceeded on
allies. With this view they treated them with all ima- , their intended expedition. On the news of this event, 119
ginable lenity and tendernefs, inftilling into them by the Peloponnefian army immediately returned to befiege Be^eSed.
degrees an hatred of democratic government; after Pylus. When they arrived before the place, they took
which they were told, that they might obtain their li- poffefiion of the harbour, and then caufed a chofen bo-
berty upon condition of ufing all their influence at home dy of Spartans take poffeflion of the ifland of Spha&e-
in favour of the allies, and to the prejudice of Athens, ria, after which they attacked the fort with great vi-
J T 2 gour.
ATT
[ 888 ]
Attica, gour. Demodhenes and his garrifon defended them- tives all put an end to their
Spartan
fleet de-
ttroyed.
" felveswith great valour; and an Athenian fleet arriving
very feafonably, offered battle to the Pcloponnefian
fleet. This being refufed, the Athenians boldly failed
into the harbour^ broke and funk moft of the veffels
therein, after which they belieged the Spartans
T T
lives.
In the eighth year Nicias reduced the ifle of Cythera "
on the coaft of Laconia ; as likewife Thyraea, on the E- |
confines of that country. The latter had been given Suceefs of f
to the iEginetans when expelled from their own coun- the Athe-1
try by the Athenians; and they were now condemned to nians.
Sphafteria. The Peloponnefians now began to treat death, as inveterate enemies of the Athenian ftate and
with their enemies, and a truce was concluded during
the time that negociations were carried on at Athens.
One of the articles of this truce was, that the Pelopon¬
nefians ftiould deliver up all their flu'ps, on condition of
nation.—In Sicily, one Hermocrates of Syracufe per-
fuaded all the inhabitants of the ifland to adjuft their
differences among themfelves; upon which the Athe-
generals returned home, and for fo doing two of
having them punctually returned in cafe the treaty did them were baniftied, and the third fentenced to pay a
not take effect. The Athenians having heard the heavy fine.
Spartan ambaffadors, were inclined to put an end to
this deftruCtive war : but CleOn, one of their orators,
Treachery
of the A-
thenians.
The Athenians next laid fiege to Megara under the
conduCt of Hippodrates and Demofthenes ; but Brafi-
a warm and obftinate man, perfuaded his countrymen das a Spartan general coming to its relief, a battle en-
to infill on very unreafonable terms; upon which the fued, by which, though neither party got the better,
ambaffadors returned, and by fo doing put an end to the Lacedaemonian faCtion prevailed in Megara, and party pre-§|
the truce. The Peloponnefians then demanded their many who favoured the Athenians were forced to with-vails' ”
’ “ 1 ' <• j . j .i- draw. After this, fuch as had been banilhed for ad-Sp¬
hering to the Lacedaemonians were allowed to return,
on their taking an oath to forget what was pall, and
attempt nothing that might dillurb their country. As
foon as they were fettled, however, they forgot their
veffels ; but the Athenians refufed to deliver them,
der pretence of their having broke the truce.
The "at Hoftilities being thus recommenced on both fides,
tack^Sphac- the Lacedaemonians attacked the Athenians at Pylus,
teria. while the latter attacked the Spartans at SphaCleria.
The Spartans, though but an handful of men and under oath ; and caufing too of thofe who were moil obnoxi
every imaginable difeouragement, behaved with fuch ous to be apprehended, forced the people to condemn
bravery, that the fiege proceeded veiy flowly, fo that them to death. They then changed the whole form of
133 the people of Athens became very uneafy. They be¬
ckon the gan then to wilh they had embraced the offers of the
orator ap- Spartans> and to rail vehemently againft Cleon, who,
neral?4 SC"t0 excu!'e himfelf, faid, it would be eafy for the general
of the forces they were at that time fending, to attack
the Spartans in the ifle, and reduce them at once. Ni¬
cias, who had been appointed to this command, replied,
that if Cleon believed he could do fuch great things,
he would do well to go thither in perfon : the latter,
imagining this only meant to try him, laid he was
ready to go with all his heart; whereby Nicias catched
him, and declared that he had relinquifhed his charge.
Cleon thereupon faid, that he was no general: but
Nicias told him that he might become one; and the
people, pleafed with the controverfy, held the orator
to his word. Cleon then advancing, told them he was
fo little afraid of the enemy, that, with a very inconfi-
derable force, he would undertake, in conjunction with
thofe already at Pylus, to bring to Athens the Spartans
government, introduced an oligarchy, and poffeffed
themfelves of the fupreme power. ,3* I
In Boeotia fome commotions wereraifed in favour of Athenians
the Athenians ; but their generals Hippocrates and thf:r t
Demofthenes being defeated by the oppoiite party, all .
hopes ceafed of the Athenian power being eftabliflied
in Boeotia. In the mean time Brafidas reduced the ci¬
ty of Amphipolis, which greatly alarmed the Atheni¬
ans, who thereupon fent new fupplies of men, money,
and fhips, to the Macedonian coaft; but all their care
could not prevent a great defertion from their intereft
in tbofe parts, where the valour and condudl of Bra¬
fidas carried all before him.
In the ninth year, the Spartans made new propofals Ninth year,
of peace, which the Athenians were now more inclined A truce coil'
to accept than formerly ; and finding their affairs very chiTd and
much unfettled by the lofs of Amphipolis, a truce for !)rot'en' '
a year was quickly agreed on, while negociations were
in the mean time carrying on for a general peace.
This pacific fcheme, however, was very foon over¬
who gave them fo much trouble in 20 days. The people
134 laughed at thefe promifes : however, they furaifhed thrown by the following accident in Thrace. The city
place * * him with the troops he defired; and to their furprife, of Scione, and that of Menda, revolted to Brafidas;
Cleon brought the Spartans prifoners to Athens within who, knowing nothing of the truce, fought to draw o~
the time appointed. verPotidaea alfo. The Athenians, pretending that Scione
End of the This fummer, likewife, an Athenian fleet was fent to revolted two days after the truce was concluded, made
Corcyrian Sicily, with inftrudlions to put in at Corcyra, and affift
fedition. the government againft the Lacedaemonian faftion
which ftill fubfifted in that ifland. This they effedually
performed; for by their means the exiles fell into the
hands of the other party: thefe they imprifoned; and
then drew them out by 20 at a time, to fuffer death,
which was infli&ed with all the circumftances of
cruelty that party-rage could fuggeft. When only 60
remained, they intreated the Athenians to put them
to death, and not to deliver them up to their country-
but npon this the Corcyrians furrounded the
heavy complaints; afferting that this was a breach of
the truce, and that both it and Menda fhould be re-
ftored to them. This not being effeded by negocia¬
tions, an army was fent againft the two cities, by
which Menda was reduced ; but Scione making an ob¬
ftinate defence, the fiege was turned into a blockade.
In the tenth year, Brafidas made an attempt upon Tcnthyear.
Potidaea; which having failed, the Athenians began to Cleon de¬
recover fome courage. The truce expiring on the day kated and
of the Pythian games, Cleon perfuaded the Athenians
to fend an army into Thrace under his own command. ^'
place where they were confined, endeavouring to bury It confifted of 1200 foot and 300 horfe, all Athenian
them under their darts; upon which the unhappy cap- citizens, who embarked on board 30 galleys. Bra-
fidas
Attica.
iirica.
■fifty
jqjs peace.
s»i 141
-tvdif.
oaents.
1*43
Jghtened
■Alcibi-
ATT [ 889 ] ATT
fidas had an army much inferior; but obferving that
the Athenian general was become carelefss and ne-
gle&ed difcipline, he attacked him. In this engagement
Cleon was killed, and the Athenians defeated with the
lofs of 6oo men, while the Spartans loft only feven ;
but among thefe was their brave commander Bralidas,
whofe death affected them almoft as much as the lofs
of their army did the Athenians.
As the death of Cleon deprived the Athenians of
one of their belt fpeakers, and one who had been very
induftrious in promoting the war, they were now much
more difpofed than formerly to hearken to terms of ac¬
commodation. Amongft the Spartans, too, there was a
party, at the head of whom was Pliftonax their king,
who earneftly wilhed for peace ; and as Nicias laboured
no lefs affiduoufly at Athens to bring about this de-
iirable event, a peace was at laft concluded for fifty
years between the two nations. The conditions were,
that a reftitution of places and prifoners (hould be made
on both fides; excepting that Nifsea fhould remain to
the Athenians, who had taken it from the Megarians;
and that Platasa (hould continue with the Thebans, be-
caufe they abfolutely would not give it up. The Boeo¬
tians, Corinthians, and Megarians, refufed to be in¬
cluded in this peace: but the reft of the allies yielded to
it; and it was accordingly ratified, receiving the name
of the Nieian peace, from Nicias who had fo vigoroully
promoted it.
By this means, however, tranquillity was far from
being reftored. Such of the dates of Peloponnefus as
were diffatisfied, began immediately to league among
themfelves, and to fet on foot a new confederacy, the
head of which was to be the ftate of Argos. The La¬
cedaemonians, too, found it impoffible to perform ex-
adtly the articles of agreement; the city of Amphipolis
in particular, abfolutely refufed to return under the A-
thenian government; for which reafon the Athenians
refufed to evacuate Pylus. In the winter, new nego -
ciations were entered into on all fides, but nothing de¬
termined, and univerfal murmuring and difcontent took
place. Thefe difcontents were not a little heightened
by Alcibiades, who now began to rival Nicias, and,
perceiving the Lacedaemonians made their court moftly
to his rival, took all opportunities to incenfe his coun¬
trymen againft that nation. Nicias, on the other hand,
who wi(hed for nothing fo much as peace, ufedall his en¬
deavours to bring about a reconciliation. The artifices
of Alcibiades, however, added to the turbulent and
haughty difpofition of both nations, rendered this im-
polfible; fo that though Nicias went on purpofe to
Sparta, he returned without doing any thing.
Alcibiades, having thus difpofed every thing ac¬
cording to his wifties, and a war being inevitable, he
began to take the moft prudent methods for preferving
his country in fafety. With this view, he entered into
a league for too years with the Argives, which he ho¬
ped would keep the war at a diftance : he next paffed
over into the territories of Argos, at the head of a
confiderable army ; and laboured, both at that city and
at Patras, to periuade the people to build walls to the
fea, that fo they might the more eafily receive afiiftance
from the Athenians.. But though great preparations
for war were now made, nothing was undertaken this
year; only the Argives thought to have made them-
felves mailers of Epidaurus, but were hindered by the
Lacedaemonians putting a garrifon into it.
The next year (the 14th after the Peloponnefian war
was fir ft begun) a Spartan army, under the command fourteenth
of Agis, entered the territory of Argos where the con- year. \var
federate army lay; but juft as the engagement was a- renewed,
bout to begin, a truce was fuddenly concluded by two
of the Argive generals and the king of Sparta. With
this neither party was pleafed, and both the king and
generals were very ill treated by their citizens. On .
the arrival of fome frefh troops from Athens, therefore, ^efest -
the Argives immediately broke the truce : but the al- ed at Man-
lied army was foon after defeated with great (laughter tinaea.
by Agis; notwithftanding which, however, the Eleans
and Athenians invefted Epidaurus. In the winter, a
ftrong party in Argos joined the Lacedaemonians; in
confequence of which, that city renounced her alliance
with Athens, and concluded one with Sparta for 50
years. In compliment to their new allies, alfo, the
Argives abolilhed democracy in their city, eftablifiiing
an ariftocracy in its place, and affifted the Lacedaemo¬
nians with a confiderable body of troops to force the
Sicyoniahsto do the fame. 147
In the beginning of the ) 5th year, the Argives, with Fifteenth
a levity feemingly natural to all the Greeks, renounced year‘
their alliance with Sparta, abolilhed ariftocracy, drove
all the Lacedaemonians out of the city, and renewed
their league with Athens. The Athenians, in the
mean time, being convinced of the treachery of Perdic-
cas king of Macedon, renounced their alliance with
him, and declared war againft him. 14S
Next year, Alcibiades terminated the difputes in the Sixteenth
city of Argos, by the banilhment of the Spartan fac- deduced
tion ; after which he failed to the ifland of Melos, i,y tiie a-
whofe inhabitants had ailed with the greateft invete- thenians.
racy againft his countrymen : perceiving, however,
that the redu&ion of the ifland would be a work of
time,, he left a confiderable body of forces there, and
returned to Athens. In his abfence the capital of Me¬
los furrendered at diferetion, and the inhabitants were
treated with the utmoll cruelty ; all the men capable
of bearing arms being (laughtered, and the women and
children carried into captivity.
In the beginning of the 17th year, Nicias was ap- Sereiuecnt’;
pointed commander of an expedition againil the Syra- y5ar-
cufans, along with Alcibiades and Lamachus as col-
legues. But while the neceffary preparations were ma-
king, all things were thrown into confufion by the de- Alcibiades
facing of the Hermae, or ftatues of Mercury, of which AiestoSpar-
there was a great number in the city. The authors of11'
this facrilege could by no means be difeovered, though
rewards were offered for this purpofe : at laft the (u-
fpicion fell upon Alcibiades, and for this weighty rea¬
fon he was commanded to return from Sicily to take
his trial. Alcibiades, however, knew the temper of
his countrymen too well to trull himfelf to their mer¬
cy; and therefore, inftead of returning to Athens, he
fled immediately to Sparta, where he met with a gra¬
cious reception ; while the infatuated Athenians were
feverely punilhed by the lofs of their army, generals,
and fleet in Sicily, which the fuperior abilities of Al¬
cibiades would in all probability have prevented. ijo
The 19th and 20th years of the war were fpent by Nineteenth
the Athenians in equipping a new fleet in order to re-
pair their vaft Ioffes: but Alcibiades hurt their interefts ‘ ?
very much, by perfuagling Tiffaphernes the Perfian to
league
is»
Propofe;
the aboli¬
tion of de¬
mocracy at
.Athens.
ATT [ 890 ] AT T
league with the Spartans againfl. them ; at the fame to attack it. On his arrival, however, he was quickly Attica
time he perfuaded feveral of the Ionian dates to revolt convinced of his miftake, being repulfed with lofs, and *
from Athens, but they were in a {hort time obliged a- obliged to retire to his old poll,
gain to fubmit. Notwithftanding all thefe fervices, In the mean time the Athenian army declared again The arm
however, Alcibiades had rendered himfelf fo hateful to for a democracy ; and having recalled Alcibiades, in-
Agis by debauching his wife, that he foon found himfelf veiled him with full power, and infilled on his imme-
obfiged to fly to the -Perfians, where Tiflaphernes gave diate return to Athens to rellore the ancient govern- Alcibiadi
him a very favourable reception, and profited much by ment. This meafure he refufed to comply with, and
' ’ " * ' perfuaded them to flay where they were, in order to
fave Ionia; he alfo prevailed on them to allow fome
deputies, who had been fent from the new governors of
Athens,, to come and deliver their melfage. To thefe
deputies Alcibiades replied, that they Ihould imme¬
diately return to Athens, and acquaint the 400, that
they were commanded immediately to refign their
power and reftore the fenate ; but that the 5000 might
retain theirs, provided they ufed it with moderation.
By this anfwer, the city was thrown into the utmoft Great co^
confufion 5 but the new government party prevailing, fufion at™
his advice, which was, to let the Greeks weaken one
another by their mutual wars, and that the Perfians
ought never to fee one Hate totally deftroyed, but al¬
ways to fupport the weaker party.
When TiiTaphernes had acquiefced with thefe coun-
fels, Alcibiades privately wrote to fome of the officers
in the Athenian army at Samos, that he had been
treating with the Perfians in behalf of his countrymen,
but did not chufe to return till the democracy Ihould
be abolilhed; and to incline the citizens to comply with
this meafure, he told them that the Perfian king dif-
liked a democracy, but would immediately affilt them ambafladors were difpatched to Sparta with orders to1
if that was abolilhed, and an oligarchy erected in its
Head.
On the arrival of Pifander and other deputies from
the army, with the propofals of Alcibiades, the Athe¬
nians without hefitation refolved to overturn that de¬
mocracy which they had all along fo ftrenuoufly de¬
fended. The ilfue of their prefent debates was, that
Pifander with ten deputies Ihould return to Alcibiades,
in order to know on what terms the king of Perlia
would make an alliance with them ; but that cunning
procure peace on any terms. This, however, was not
to be effedled; and Phrynicus, the head of the embaffy,
and likewife of the new government party, was mur¬
dered on his return. After his death, Theramenes,
the head of the other party, feized the chiefs of the
400; upon which a tumult enfued that had almoll pro¬
ved fatal to the city itfelf. The mob, however, being
at lall difperfed, the 400 alfembled, tho’ in great fear,
and fent deputies to the people, promiling to fet all
things to rights. In confequence of this deputation,
Athenian having perceived that Tiffaphernes was by a day was appointed for convoking a general aflembly,
no means difpofed to affift the Athenians on account of and fettling the Hate ; but when that day came, news
their having been lately fuccefsful, he fet up fuch high was brought that the Lacedaemonian fleet appeared i
Aom-inrlo in tVin tintr nf Perfia’a mmp. that the Athe- view, and (leered dlreftlv for Salami's. Thus all wa
New form
of govern¬
ment efta-
fcliihcd.
demands in the king of Perfia’s name, that the Athe¬
nians of themfelves broke off the treaty, and thus Al¬
cibiades preferved the friendlhip of both parties.
Pifander having engaged the army at Samos in his
•fcheme of overturning democracy, that form of go¬
vernment was abolifhed firft in the cities fubjeA to A-
thens, and laftly in the capital itfelf. Pifander’s new
fcheme was, That the old form of government Ihould be
totally diflblved : that five prytanes Ihould be elefted :
view, and fleered direftly for Salamis. Thus all was
again thrown into confufion ; for the people, inllead of
deliberating on the fubjeft propofed, ran in crowds
down to the port, and perceiving the Spartans made
towards Euboea, a fleet of 36 (hips was immediately
difpatched under the command of Thymoehares, to ,J(;
engage'the enemy. This fleet was utterly defeated, Atheniai
22 of the Athenian Ihips being taken, and moll of the fleet <le*
others funk or difabled } but what was worfe, this de- j
that thefe five Ihould chufe 100; and that each of the feat was followed by the revolt of all the country of tdnSt
hundred (liould chufe three : that the 400 thus eleded Euboea except Orcus.
When thefe difmal tidings arrived at Athens, every
Ihould become a fenate witjrfull power; but Ihould oc-
oafionally confult with 5000 of the moll wealthy ci- thing was given up for loll; and had the Lacedsemo
tizens, who Ihould thenceforward be tfteemed only the nians taken this opportunity of attacking the city.
people; and that no authority Ihould remain with the they had undoubtedly fucceeded, and thus put an end
lowed clafs. Though the people were not very fond to the war: but being at all times flow, efpecially in
of this change, thofe who conduded it, being men of naval affairs, they gave the Athenians time to equip a
great parts, found means to edablifh it by force ; for new fleet, and to retrieve their affairs. One good ef-
when the people were gone out of the city to their or¬
dinary employments, the 400, having each a dagge
fed of this difafler, however, was the putting an end
for a time to the internal diffenfions of this turbulent
•concealed under his ved, attended by a guard of 120 people; infomuch that Thucydides the hidorian is of
men, entered the fenate-houfe, diffolvfed the old fenate,
and without ceremony turned them out; after which
the commons, not knowing whom to fubmit to, or to
whom to apply, made no oppofition.
The fird dep of the new governors was to dedroy
opinion, that the republic never enjoyed fo much quiet
as at this time.
Alcibiades now (hewed his abilities and inclination Exploits of
to ferve his country in an eminent manner. By his Alcibiadet
‘ntrigues he fo effehlually embroiled the Perfians and
all their enemies ; who, however, were not very nume- Peloponnelians with each other, that neither party
rous, fo that little blood was (bed. They next fent knew whom to trud. Thrafybulus, with 55 Ihips,
ambalfadors to Agis to fue for peace ; but he, taking gained a victory over the Peloponnefian fleet confiding
•for granted that the Athenians would never defend an of 73: after which he took 8 galleys coming from By¬
oligarchy, gave no anfwer to the ambaffadors, but im- zantium; which city had revolted from the "Athenians,
mediately marched towards the capital with a defign but was foon after taken, and the inhabitants feverely
Attica.
ATT
fined. The fleet being afterwards joined by Alcibi-
ades, nine more of the Peloponnefian galleys were ta¬
ken, the Halicarnaffians were conftrained to pay a large
fum of money, and Cos was ftrongly fortified ; which
traniadlions ended the 2Ist year of the Peloponnefian
war.
In the fucceeding years of this famous war, the A-
thenians had at firft great advantages. Thrafybulus
gained a fignal viftory at fea ; and Alcibiades gained
two victories, one by fea and another by land, in one
day. took the whole Peloponnefian fleet, and more
fpoil than his men could carry away. The Spartans
were now humbled in their turn, and fued for peace ;
,r but the Athenians were fo intoxicated with their fuc-
cefs, that they fent back the ambafladors without an an-
fwer, which they foon had fufficient reafon to repent
of. The beginning of the Athenians misfortunes was
the taking of Pylus by the Spartans. The Athenians
had fent a fleet under the command of one Anytus to
its defence : but he was driven back by contrary
winds ; upon which he was condemned to death, be-
caufe he could not caufe the wind blow from what
quarter he pleafed : this fentence, however, was re'
mitted on his paying a vaft fum of money. This mis
fortune was quickly followed by another. The Me
garians furprifed Nifaea ; which enraged the Athe
nians fo much, that they immediately lent an army in
to that country, who defeated the Megarians who op-
pofed them, with great flaughter, and committed horrid
devaftations.
Thefe misfortunes as yet, however, were overbalan¬
ced by the great aftions of Alcibiades, Thrafybulus,
and Theramenes. When Alcibiades returned, he
brought with him a fleet of aoo'fhips, and fuch a load
of fpoils as had never been feen in Athens fitice the
conclufion of the Perfian war. The people left then-
city deftitute, that they might crowd to the port, to
behold Alcibiades as he landed ; old and young blefled
him as he palled ; and next day when he made a ha¬
rangue to the affembly, they dire&ed the record of his
banilhment to be thrown into the fea, abfolved him
from the curfes he lay under, and created him general
with full power. Nor did he feem inclined to indulge
himfelf in cafe, but foon put to fea again with a fleet
of 100 Ihips. He had not been long gone, however,
before all this was forgot. Alcibiades failed to the
Hellefpont with part of his fleet, leaving the reft un¬
der the command of Antiochus his pilot, but with
ftrift orders to attempt nothing before his return. This
command the pilot paid no regard to, but provoked
Lyfander the Lacedaemonian admiral to an engage¬
ment, and in confequence of his temerity was defeated
with the lofs of 15 Ihips, himfelf being killed in the
engagement. On the news of this defeat Alcibiades
returned, and endeavoured to provoke the Lacedaemo¬
nians to a fecond battle : but this Lyfander prudently
declined ; and in the mean time the Athenians, with
unparallelled ingratitude and inconftancy, deprived Al-
[ S91 1
ATT
77 fhips. Such a vi&ory might at this time have infpi-
red the Athenians with fome kind of gratitude to-
wards the generals who gained it i but inftead of this,
on pretence of their not having afiifted the wounded
during the engagement, eight of them were recalled ;
two were wife enough not to return ; and the fix who
trufted to the juftice of their country, were all put to
death. 163
The next year Lyfander w-as appointed commander ire
of what fleet the Peloponnefians had left, with which fea'e/hy6*
lie took Thafus and Lampfacus. Conon was difpatch- Lyfander,
ed againft him with 180 (hips, which being greatly
fuperior to Lyfander’s fleet, that general refufed to
come to an engagement, and was blocked up in the
river iEgos. While the Athenians lay there, they
grew quite idle and carelefs; infomuch that Alcibiades,
who had built a caftle for himfelf in the neighbour¬
hood, intreated them to be more on their guard, as he
well knew Lyfander’s abilities. They anfwered, that
they wondered at his affurance, who was an exile and
a vagabond, to come and give laws to them ; telling
him, that if he gave them any farther trouble, they
would feize and fend him to Athens. At the fame
time they looked on victory as fo certain, that they
cortfulted what they ftiould do with their prifoners ;
which, by the advice of Philocles their general, was, to
cut off all their right hands, or, according to Plutarch,
their right thumbs ; and Adiamantus one of their of¬
ficers rendered himfelf very obnoxious by faying, that
•fuch idle difcourfe did not become Athenians. The
confequences of fuch conduct may be eafily imagined.
Lyfander fell unexpedtedly upon them, and gained a
moft complete vi&ory; Conon, with eight galleys only,
efcapingto Cyprus ; after which Lyfander returned to
Lampfacus, where he put to death Philocles with 3000
of his foldiers, and all the officers except Adiamantus.
This execution being over, he reduced all the cities
fubjeft to Athens ; and with great civility fent home
their garrifons, that fo the city might be overftocked
with inhabitants, and deftitute of proviftons, when he
came to beliege it; which he did foon after by fea,
while Agis with a great army invefted it by land.
For a long time the Athenians did not fo much as <’s
defire a peace; but at laft were forced to fend deputies
to Agis, who fent them to Sparta, where no terms
could be granted except they confented to demolifti
their walls. They next fent to Lyfander, who after a
long attendance referred them to Sparta ; and thither
Theramenes with fome other deputies was immediately
fent. On their arrival, they found the council of the
confederates fitting, who all except the Spartans gave
their votes that Athens fliould be utterly deftroyed ;
but they would not confent to the ruin of that city,
which had deferved fo well of Greece. On the return
of Theramenes, peace was concluded, on condition', Te™s
that the long walls and the fortifications of the port peace’
fliould be demoliftied; that they ftiould give up all
their Ihips but 12, receive all they had baniftied) and
cibiades of his command, naming ten new generals in follow the fortune of the Lacedaemonians. Thefe fe-
his room. vere terms were punctually executed. Lyfander caufed
This was the laft ftep the Athenians had to take for the walls to be pulled down ; all the mufic in his army
perfecting their ruin. Conon, who fucceeded to the playing* on that very day of the'year on which they
' command, was defeated by Callicratidas Lyfander’s fuc- ^J c .i._  . i-i •<- n
f ceffor; but being afterwards ftrongly reinforced, the
Athe-
gain
and put
>f their . w . ^ _
:ra!s to Lacedtemonians were entirely defeated with the lofs of people
had beat the Perfians at Salamine. He likewife efta-
bliftied an oligarchy exprefsly againft the will of the
and thus the ruin of Athens ended the 27th
year-
Attica.
If><5
The thirty
tyrants.
167
Crittas and
Therame-
nes, their
oppofite
charatterS.
1S8
Thera-
menes put
to death.
ATT [ 892 ]
A T T
year of the Pdoponnefian war, and the 404th before
Chrift.
As foon as Lyfander had demolKhed the long walls,
and the fortifications of the Piraeum, he conftituted a
council of thirty, with power, as was pretended, to
make laws, but in truth to fubjugate the ftate. Thefe
are the perfons fo famous in hiftory, under the title of
the thirty tyrants'. They were all the creatures of Ly¬
fander: who, as they derived their rife from conqueft
and the law of the fword, exercifed their offices in a
fuitable manner; that is, with the higheft teftimonies
of pride, infolence, and cruelty. Inflead of making
laws, they governed without them; appointed a fenate,
and magiilrates, at their will; and, that they might do
all things without danger of controul, they fent for a gar-
rifon from Lacedjemon; which was accordingly granted
them, under the command of Callidius, upon their pro-
mife to pay the foldiers regularly. One of the firft
fteps they took was to punifh all informers; which,
though fevere, was popular: but when, through flattery
and bribes, they had wholly drawn over Callidius to
their party, they fuffered bad men to live in quiet, and
turned their rage againfl: the good.
Critias and Theramenes were at the head of the
thirty, men of the greateft power and abilities, in
Athens. The former was ambitious and cruel with¬
out meafure, the latter was fomewhat more merciful:
the former pulhed on all the bloody fchemes framed by
his confederates, and carried into execution many of
his own ; the latter always oppofed them, at firit with
moderation, at lad with vehemence. He faid, that
power was given them to rule, and not to fpoil, the
commonwealth; that it became them to aft like ftiep-
herds, not like wolves; and that they ought to be¬
ware of rendering themfelves at once odious and ridi¬
culous, by attempting to domineer over all, being fuch
a handful of men as they were. The reft, dilliking much
the former part of his difcourfe, catched hold of the lat¬
ter, and immediately chofe out 3000, whom they made
the reprefentatives of the people, and to whom they
granted this notable privilege, that none of them fhould
be put to death but by judgment of the fenate, thereby
openly affuming a power of putting any other of the
Athenian citizens to death by their own authority. A
glorious ufe they made of this new-aflumed privilege;
for as many as they conjectured to be no friends to the
government in general, or to any of themfelves in par¬
ticular, they put to death, without caufe, and without
mercy. Theramenes openly oppofing this, and abfo-
lutely refufing to concur in fuch meafures, Critias ac-
cufed him to the fenate as a man of unfteady princi¬
ples, fometimes for the people, fometimes againft them,
always for new things and ftate-revolutions. Thera¬
menes owned, that he had fometimes changed his mea¬
fures, but alleged that he had'alvvays done it to ferve
the people. He faid that it was folely with this view he
made the peace with Sparta, and accepted the office of
one of the thirty: that he had never oppofed their mea¬
fures while they cut off the wicked; but, when they
began to deftroy men of fortune and family, then he
owned he had differed with them, which he conceived
to be no crime againft the ftate.
While Theramenes was fpeaking, Critias withdrew,
perceiving that the fenate were thoroughly convinced of
the truth of what Theremanes had faid: but he quickly
returned with a guard, crying out, that he had ftruck Attu
Theramenes’s name out of the lift of the 3000; that
the fenate had therefore no longer cognizance of the
caufe, which the thirty had already judged, and con¬
demned him to death. Theramenes perceiving that
they intended to feize him, fled to the altar, which was
in the midft of the fenate-houfe, and laying his hands
thereon, faid, I do not feek refuge here becaafe I expert
to ejeape death or defire it; but that, tearing me from
the altar, the impious authors of my murder may interejl
the gods in bringing them to fpeedy judgment, and thereby
ref ore freedom to my country. The guards then haled him
from the altar, and carried him to the place of execu¬
tion, where he drank the poifon with undaunted cou¬
rage, putting the people in mind with his laft breath,
that as they had ftruck his name out of the 3000, they
might alfo ftrike out any of theirs. His death was fol¬
lowed by a train of murders, fo that in a Ihort time 60
of the worthieft and moft eminent citizens of Athens
fell by the cruelty of the thirty. Amongft thefe, the
moft pitied was Niceratus, the fon of Nicias; a man
univerfally beloved for his goodnefs, and univerfally ad¬
mired for his virtues. As for the Spartans, they, lo-
fing their former generofity, were extremely pleafed
with thefe things, and by a public decree commanded
that fuch as fled from the thirty tyrants Ihould be car¬
ried back bound to Athens: which extraordinary pro¬
ceeding frightened all Greece; but the Argives and
Thebans only had courage to oppofe it: the former
received the Athenian exiles with humanity and kind-
nefs; the latter punifhed with a muldl fuch of their ci¬
tizens as did not rife and refeue the Athenian prifoners,
who in purfuance of the Lacedaemonian decree were
carried bound through their territories.
Thrafybulus, and fuch as with him had taken fheltcr
in the Theban territory, refolved to hazard every thing,
rather than remain perpetual exiles from their country;
and though he had but 30 men on whom he could de¬
pend, yet confidering the viftories he had heretofore ob¬
tained in the caufe of his country, he made an irruption
into Attica, where he feized Phyla, a caftle at a very ThraVyb
fmall diftance from Athens, where in a very fliort fpace lus feizes
his forces were augmented to 700 men; and though Phyla-
the tyrants made ufe of the Spartan garrifon in their
endeavours to reduce him and his party, yet Thrafybu¬
lus prevailed in various fleirmilhes, and at laft obliged
them to break up the blockade of Phyla, which they
had formed. The thirty and their party conceiving it
very advantageous for them to have the pofleffion of
Eleufina, marched thither, and having perfuaded the
people to go unarmed out of their city, that they
might number them, took this opportunity moft inhu¬
manly to murder them. The forces of Thrafybulus in-
creafing daily, he at length poffeffed himfelf of the Pi¬
raeum, which he fortified in the beft manner he could;
but the tyrants being determined to drive him from
thence, came down againft him with the utmoft force
they could raife. Thrafybulus defended himfelf with
great obftinacy; and in the end they were forced to
retreat, having loft before the place not only a great
number of their men, but Critias the prefident of the n
thirty, another of the fame body, and one who had been Critias k'-1'
a captain of the Piraeum.
When they came to demand the dead from Thrafy¬
bulus, in order for their interment, he caufed a crier
he
ATT [ 893 ] ATT
Atllca- he had with him, to make a (hort fpeech in a very loud
voice to the people, intreating them to coniider, that
as they were citizens of Athens without, fo thofe againft
whom they fought, and thofe who fought to preferve
themfelves within the fort, were Athenian citizens alfo;
w herefore, inftead of thinking how to ruin and deftroy
their brethren, they ought rather to confult how all
differences ought to be compofed, and efpecially ought
to rid themfelves of thofe bloody tyrants, who, in the
fhort time they had had the adminiflration in their
hands, had deflroyed more than had fallen in the Pelo-
x I7I ponntfian war. The people, though moved by thefe dif-
ie tyrants courfes, differed among themfelves ; the confequence of
i jelled. which was, that they expelled the thirty, and chofe ten
men out of each tribe to govern in their ftead, where¬
upon the tyrants retired to Eleufina. The citizens,
however, though they changed the government, made
no agreement with thofe in the Piraeum; but fent away
deputies to Sparta, as did alfo the tyrants from Elem
fina, complaining, that the Athenians had revolted,
, and defiring their affiftance to reduce them. The Spar-
re tempt of tans fent thereupon a large fum of money to encourage
w |Spartans their confederates, and appointed Lyfander commander
i ns^fe-" *n c^*e^» arld brother to be admiral; refolving to
lid time. fen(i ^ea an<i land forces to reduce Athens a fecond
time; intending, as moll of the Greek Hates fufpe&ed,
to add it now to their own dominions. It is very pro¬
bable that this defign of theirs would have taken ef¬
fect, if Paufanias king of Sparta, envying Lyfander,
had not refolved to obftruft it. With this view, he
procured another army to be raifed againft the Athe¬
nians, of which himfelf had the command, and with
which he marched immediately to befiege the Piraeum.
While he lay before the place, and pretended to attack
it, he entered into a private correfpondence with Thra-
fybulus, informing him what propofitions he fhould
make in order to force the Lacedaemonians, who were
y 173 fufpe&ed by their allies, to grant them peace.
1 "w fru- The intrigues of Paufanias had all the fuccefs he
1 ted. could wifh; the ephori who were with him in the camp
concurred in his meafures, fo that in a fhort fpace a
treaty was concluded on the following terms: That all
the citizens of Athens fhould be reftored to their houfes
and privileges, excepting the thirty, the ten which had
fucceeded them and who had a&ed no lefs tyrannically
than they, and the eleven who during the time of the
oligar^iy had been conftituted governors or keepers of
the Piraeum ; that all fhould remain quiet for the fu¬
ture in the city; and that, if any were afraid to truft to
this agreement, they fhould have free leave to retire to
Eleufina. Paufanias\hen marched away with the Spar¬
tan army, and Thrafybulus at the head of his forces
marched into Athens, where, having laid down their
arms, they facriliced with the reft of the citizens in the
temple of Minerva, after which the popular govern¬
ment was reftored. Yet quiet was not thoroughly efta-
blifhed; the exiles at Eleufina having endeavoured
by the help of money to raife an army of foreigners,
by whofe aid they might recover the authority they
I; had loft: but firft, depending on their friends in the
city, they fent fame of the principal perfons amongil
them as deputies, to treat with the citizens; but ftriilly
inftrufted them to fow jealoufies and excite difcords
among them. This the latter quickly perceiving, put
thefe perfons to death } and then, remonftrating to thofe
Vol. II.
1
at Eleufina, that thefe contentions would undoubtedly
end either in their own or the deftru&ion of their
country, they offered immediately, to pafs an adl of
oblivion, which they would confirm with an oath.
This being accepted, thofe who had withdrawm re¬
turned to the city, where all differences were adjufted,
and both parties mod religioufly obferved the agree¬
ment they had made, and thereby thoroughly refettled 174
the ftate. In this whole tranfa&ion, the virtue of Thra- Virtue of
fybulus deferves chiefly to be admired. When he fifft
feized the caftle of Phyla, the tyrants privately offered
to receive him into their number inftead of Theramenes,
and to pardon at his requeft any 1 z perfons he fhould
name: but he generoufly anfwered, That his exile was
far more honourable than any authority could be, pur-
chafed on fuch terms ; and by perfifting in his defign,
accomplifhed, as we have feen, the deliverance of his
country. A glorious deliverance it v\vas; fince, as Ifo-
crates informs us, they had put 1400 citizens to death
contrary to and without any form of lawr, and driven
5000 more into banifhment, procuring alfo the death
of Alcibiades, as many think, tho’ at a great diftance
from them.
From this time to the reign of Philip of Macedon, the
Athenians continued in a pretty profperous fituation,
though they never performed any fuch great exploits
as formerly. By that monarch, and his fon Alexander,
all Greece was in effeft fubdued; and the hiftory of all
the Grecian Hates from that time becomes much lefs
interefting. Of the hiftory of Athens from that time
to the prefent, the following elegant abridgment is gi¬
ven by Dr Chandler f. “ On the death of Alexander, f Travel*
the Athenians revolted, but were defeated by Antipa- *'« Greece,
ter, who garrifoned Munychia. They rebelled again, P' a8> &c-
but the garrifon and oligarchy were reinftated. De- jjiftory of
metrius the Phalerean, who was made governor, beau- Athens
tified the city, and they eretfted to him 360 ftatues ; from the
which, on his expulfion, they demoliftied, except one {™3enjjr^e
in the Acropolis. Demetrius Poliorcetes withdrew the Great to the
garrifon, and reftored the democracy; when they deified prefent.
him, and lodged him in the Opifthodomos or the back
part of the Parthenon, as a gueft to be entertained by
their goddefs Minerva. Afterwards they decreed, that
the Piraeus, with Munychia, flrould be at his difpofal;
and he took the Mufeum. They expelled his garrifon,
and he was perfuaded by Craterus a philofopher, to
leave them free. Antigonus Gonatas, the next king,
maintained a garrifon in Athens: but, on the death of
his fon Demetrius, the people, with the affiftance of
Aratus, r-egained their liberty; and the Piraeus, Mu¬
nychia, Salamis, and Sunium, on'paying a fum of mo¬
ney.
“ Philip, fon of Demetrius, encamping near the city,
deftroying and burning the fepulchres and temples in
the villages, and laying their territory wafte, the Athe¬
nians wrere reduced to folicit proteftion from the Ro¬
mans, and to receive a garrifon, which remained until
the war with Mithridates king of Pontus, when the
tyrant Ariftiori made them revolt. I?5
“ Archelaus, the Athenian general, unable to with- Athens be-
ftand the Roman fury, relinquilhed the long ‘walls, and feged and
retreated into the Pirteus and Munychia. Sylla laid !,:i pCn
fiege to the Piraeus, and to the city, in which Ariftion 65 a=
commanded. He was informed, that foine perfons had
been overheard talking in the Ceramicus, and blaming
5 U Ariftion
ATT [ 894 ] ATT
Attica. Ariftion for his negleft of the avenues about the Hep-
‘ tachalcos, where the wall was acceffible. Sylla refolved
to ftorm there, and about midnight entered the town at
the gate called Dipylon or the Pirtean ; having levelled
all obftacles in the way between it and the gate of the
Piraeus. Ariftion fled to the Acropolis, but was com¬
pelled to furrender by the want of water; when he was
dragged from the temple of Minerva, and put to death.
Sylla burned the Piraeus and Munychia, and defaced
the city and fuburbs, not fparing even the fepulchres.
“ In the civil war, the Athenians took the fide of
Pompey. Caefar generoufly refufed to punifh the city,
which afterwards carefied his murderers. They next
joined Antony, who gave them iEgina and Cea, with
other iflands. Auguftus was unkind to them; and they
revolted, four years before he died. Under Tiberius,
the city was declining, but free, and regarded as an ally
of the Romans. The high privilege of having a H6tor
to precede the magiftrates, was conferred on it by Ger-
manicus; but he was cenfured as treating with too
much condefcenfion a mixture of nations, inftead of ge¬
nuine Athenians, which race was then confidered as
extinft.
“ The emperor Vefpafian reduced Achaia to a pro¬
vince paying tribute and governed by a pro-conful.
Nerva was more propitious to the Athenians ; and
Pliny, under Trajan his fucceflbr, exhorts Maximus to
be mindful whither he was fent, to rule genuine Greece,
a ftate compofed of free cities. “ You will revere the
“ gods and heroes their founders. You will refpeA
“ their priftine glory, and even their age. You will
“ honour them for the famous deeds, which are truly,
“ nay for thofe which are fabuloufly, recorded of them.
“ Remember, it is Athens you approach.” This city
was now entirely dependent on Rome, and was redu¬
ced to fell Delos and the illands in its poffeffion.
“ Hadrian, who was at once emperor and an archon
of Athens, gave the city laws, compiled from Draco,
Solon, and the codes of other legiflators; and difplayed
his affection for it by unbounded liberality. Athens
redourifhed, and its beauty was renewed. Antoninus
Pius, who fucceeded, and Antoninus the Philofopher,
were both benefactors.
“ The barbarians, in the reign of Valerian, befie-
ging Theftaionica, all Greece was terrified, and the A-
thenians reftored their city-wall, which had been dif-
mantled by Sylla, and afterwards neglefted.
“ Under the next emperor, who was the archon
Gallienus, Athens was befieged; the archontic office
ceafed; and the Strategus or general, who had before
adted as overfeer of the agora or market, then became
the fupreme magiftrate. Under Claudius, his fucceflbr,
the city was taken, but foon recovered.
“ It is related, that Conftantine, when emperor,
gloried in the title of general of Athens; and rejoiced
exceedingly on obtaining from the people the honour
of a ttatue with an infcription, which he acknowledged
by a yearly gratuity of many bulhels of grain. He
conferred on the governor of Attica and Athens the
Ui\t oSgrand duke, v-iya-i That office was at firft
annual, but afterwards hereditary. His fon Conftans
beftowed feveral iflands on the city, to fupply it with
corn.
“ In the time of Theodofius the Firft, 380 years
after Chrift, the Goths laid wafte Thefialy and Epirus j.
but Theodore, general of the Achaeans, by his prudent Attici.i
conduft preferved the cities of Greece from pillage, and '
the inhabitants from being led into captivity. A ftatue
of marble was ereCted to him at Athens by order of
the city; and afterwards one of brafs, by command of
the emperor, as appears from an infcription in a church j
dedicated to a faint of the fame name, not far from the
French convent. It is on a round pedeftal, which fup-
ports a flat ftone ferving for the holy table. Eudocia
the wife of Theodofius the Second was an Athenian. 177 '
“ The fatal period now approached, and Athens By Alaric
was about to experience a conqueror more favage even t*ie GolN
than Sylla. This was Alaric, king of the Goths; who,
under the emperors Arcadius and Honorius, over-ran
Greece and Italy, lacking, pillaging, and deftroying.
Then the Peloponnefian towns were overturned, Arca¬
dia and Lacedaemon were laid wafte, the two feas by
the Ifthmus were burniihed with the flames of Corinth,
and the Athenian matrons were dragged in chains by
barbarians. The invaluable treafures of antiquity, it is
related, were removed ; the ftately and magnificent
ftruCtures converted into piles of ruin; and Athens was
ftripped of every thing fplendid or remarkable. Syne-
fius, a writer of that age, compares the city to a vi<ftim,
of which the body had been confumed, and the hide only
remained.
“ After this event, Athens became an unimportant
place, and as obfcure as it once had been famous. We
read that the cities of Hellas were put into a ftate of
defence by Juftinian, who repaired the walls, which at
Corinth had been fubverted by an earthquake, and at
Athens and in Bceotia were impaired by age; and here
we take a long farewel of this city. A chafm of near
700 years enfues in its hiftory, except that, about the
year 1130, it furniftied Roger the Firft king of Sicily
With a number of artificers, whom he fettled at Palermo,
where they introduced the culture of filk, which then
pafled into Italy. The worms had been brought from
India to Conftantinople in the reign of Juftinian.
“ Athens, as it were, re-emerges from oblivion in
the 13th century, under Baldwin, but befieged by a
general of Theodorus Lafcaris, the Greek emperor.
It was taken in 1427 by Sultan Moral. Boniface, mar¬
quis of Montferrat, poflefied it with a garrifon; after
whom it was governed by Delves, of-the houfe of Ar-
ragon. On his death, it was feized, with Macedonia,
Theflaly, Bceotia, Phocis, and the Peloponneffip, by
Bajazet; and then, with the ifland Zante, by the Spa¬
niards of Catalonia in the reign of the Greek emperor
Andronicus Palasologus the elder. Thefe were difpof-
fefled by Reinerius Acciaioli, a Florentine; who, leaving
no legitimate male iifue, bequeathed it to the ftate of Ve¬
nice. His natural fon, Antony, to whom he had given
Thebes with Boeotia, expelled the Venetians. He was
fucceeded in the dukedom by his kinfman Ncriu§, who
was difplaeed by his own brother named Antony, but
recovered the government when he died. Nerius lea¬
ving only an infant fon, was fucceeded by his wife. She ,78
was ejefted by Mahomet on a complaint from Francus By the
fon of the fecond Antony, who confined her at Me- t urks. J
ara, and made away with her; but, her fon accufing
im to Mahomet the Second, the Turkiih army under
Omar advanced, and he furrendered the citadel in 1455;
the Latins refufing to fuccour him, unlefs the Athe¬
nians would embrace their religious tenets. Mahomet,
k
li Atti
ATT
It is related, when he had finifhed the
~ defpot of the Morea, four years after, furveyed the city
and Acropolis with admiration. The janifaries informed
him of a confpiracy; and Francus Acciaioli, who re¬
mained lord of Boeotia, was put to death. In 1464 the
Venetians landed at the Piraeus, furprifed the city, and
carried off their plunder and captives to Eubcea.
“ It is remarkable, that after thefe events Athens was
again in a manner forgotten. So lately as about the
middle of the 16th century, the city was commonly be-
[ 895 1 ATT
with the irony to the Athenian people. When the republic
enjoyed peace, fays the fame Plutarch in another place,
it encouraged the adulation of its orators : but when
it had important affairs to difcufs, when the ftate was
in danger, it became ferious; and preferred, to its elo¬
quent fycophants, the honeft orators who oppofed its
follies and its vices ; fuch ingenious and bold patriots
as a Pericles, a Phocion, and a Demofthenes.
The Athenians, continues Plutarch, often make
their governors tremble, and fhew great humanity to
lieved to have been utterly deftroyed, and not to exift, their enemies. They were very attentive to the infer-
  * " c~~ -'f —— an'~—“ ^—r-”" " mation and inftruftion of thofe citizens who were moft
eminent for their policy and eloquence ; but they were
on their guard againft the fuperiority of their talents,
^ they often checked their boldncfs, and repreffed their
fity and to promote farther difeoveries. One of thefe exuberant reputation and glory. That this was their
except a few huts of poor fifhermen. Crufius, a learned
and inquifitive German, procured more authentic in¬
formation from his Greek correfpondents refiding in
Turky, which he publifhed in 1584, to awaken curio-
letters is from a native of Nauplia, a town near Argo
in the Morea. This writer fays, that he had been often
at Athens, and that it ftill contained many things \
temper, we are convinced by the oftracifm; which was
eftablifhed to reftrain the ambition of thofe who had
great talents and influence, and which fpared neither the
thy to be feen, fome of which he enumerates, and then greateft nor the beft men. The deteftation of tyranny
fubjoins, “ But why do I dwell oti this place? It is as and of tyrants, which was inherent in the Athenians,
“ the fkin of an animal, which has been long dead.”
It now remains to give fome idea of the charac¬
ter, government, and religion of this once fo famous
people.
frailer of The Athenians, fays Plutarch, are very fubjeft to
henians v'°^ent anger 5 but they are foon pacified. They are
likewife eafily imprefled with humanity and compaffion.
That this was their temper, is proved by many hiftori-
cal examples. We fhall produce a few : The fentence
of death pronounced againft the inhabitants of Mity-
dene, and revoked the next day: The condemnation
of Socrates, and that of the ten chiefs, each followed
by quick repentance and moft pungent grief.
The minds of the fame people, adds Plutarch, are
not formed for laborious refearches. They feize a fub-
je£I, as it were by intuition ; they have not patience
and phlegm enough to examine it gradually and mi¬
nutely. This part of their charafter may feem furpri-
fing and incredible. Artifans, and other people of their
rank, are in general flow of comprehenfion. But the
Athenians of every degree were endowed with an in¬
conceivable vivacity, penetration, and delicacy of tafte.
Even the Athenian foldiers could repeat the fine paf-
fages of the tragedies of Euripides. Thofe artifans
and thofe foldiers aflifted at public debates, were bred
to political affairs, and were equally acute in apprehen-
rendered them extremely jealous of their privileges,
made them zealous and a&ive in defence of their liber¬
ty, whenever they thought it was violated by men in
power.
As to their enemies, they did not treat them with
rigour. ( They did not abufe vi&ory by a brutal inhu¬
manity to the vanquifhed. The aft of amnefty, which,
they pafftd after the ufurpation of the thirty tyrants,
proves that they could eafily forgive injuries.
It was this mildnefs, this humanity of difpofition,
which made the Athenians fo attentive to the rules of
politenefs and decorum. In their war with Philip,
having feized one of his couriers, they read all the let¬
ters he bore, except one from Olympias to her hufband,
which they fent back unopened. Such was their ve¬
neration of love and conjugal fecrecy ; thofe facred
rights which no enmity, no hoftility, warrants us to
violate !
The tafte of the Athenians for all the arts andfeien-
ces is too well known to need a particular relation. The
views of conqueft cherifhed by a fmall republic, were
extenfive and aftonilhing; but this people, fo great,
fo ambitious in their projefts, were, in other refpefts,
of a different charafter. In the expences of the table,
in drefs, in furniture, in houfes, in fhort, in private
life, they were frugal, Ample, modeft, poor; but fump-
tuous and magnificent whenever the honour of the ftate
fion and in judgement. We may infer the underftand- w
ing of the hearers of Demofthenes from the genius of was concerned. Their conquefts, their viftories, their
his orations, which were laconic and poignant. riches, their conneftions with the inhabitants of Afia
As their inclination, continues Plutarch, leads them Minor, never reduced them to luxury, to riot, to pomp,
to affift and fupport people of low condition, they like to profufion. Xenophon remarks, that a citizen was
difeourfe feafoned with pleafantry, and produftive of not diftinguilhed from a flave by his drefs. The weal-
mirth. The Athenians patronize people of low de- thieft citizen, the moft renowned general, was not a-
gree ; becaufe from them their liberty is in no danger, ^ J * ei_r„ir ^ j...
and becaufe fuch patronage tends to fupport a demo-
cratical conftitution. They love pleafantry; which
turn of mind proves that they are a humane focial peo¬
ple, who have a tafte for raillery and wit, and are not
foured with that referve which marks the defpot or
the flave.
They take pleafure in hearing themfelves praifed;
fliamed to go himfelf to market.
We fliall finiih this pifture of the Athenians by the
addition of one objeft more, to which every one will
admit they have a right ; an objeft which was promi¬
nent and ftriking, in all their aftions and in all their
enterprizes: We mean their ardent love of liberty.
This was their predominant quality ; the main fpring
of their government. From the beginning of the Per-
but they can likewife patiently bear raillery and cen- fian war, they facrificed every thing to the liberty of
fure. We know with what art and fuccefs Arifto- Greece. They left, without hefitation, their cities,
phanes and Demofthenes applied their praife and their their houfes, to fight at fea the common enemy, from
5 U 2 whom
Attica.
Religion
i8t
Crimes a-
gainlt reli¬
gion why
fometimes
punifhed
with feve-
rily.
ATT [ 896 ] ATT
whom they were in danger of fervitude. What a glo-
' rious day was it for Athens, when all her allies, grow¬
ing flexible to the advantageous offers which were made
to them by the king of Perha, fhe replied by Arifti-
des, to the ambaffadors of that monarch,—“ That it
was impoflible for all the gold in the world to tempt
the republic of Athens : to prevail with her to fell her
liberty, and that of Greece.” It was by thefe gene¬
rous fentiments that the Athenians not only became
the bulwark of Greece, but likewife guarded the reft
of Europe from a Perfian invafion.
Thefe great qualities were blended with great fail¬
ings, feemingly incompatible with patriotifm. For
the Athenians, notwithftanding their tenacious jealoufy
of the rights of their country, were a volatile, incon-
ftant, capricious people.
There never was a people more attentive to the wor-
fhip of the gods than the Athenians. The worfhip of
their principal deities was diffufed over all Greece, and
even beyond its limits.
Each temple had its particular religious rites: the
pomp, the ceremonies, the duration, and the fuccef-
fion of the folemn feafts, were all appointed by fixed
rules. The worfhip paid to each divinity, whether
public or private, was founded on traditions, or on laws
conftantly obeyed. The feafl of Bacchus, the Pana-
thenasa, the feafl: of the myfteries of Eleufis, were ce¬
lebrated according to eftablifhed rules, moft of which
were as ancient as the feafts themfelves. The old cu-
ftoms, of which the priefts were the guardians, were
obferved, in the temples. It is probable that the priefts
were confulted on affairs in which the worfhip of a
deity was interefted, and that their anfwer was decifive.
We are certain that the Eumolpidse had this authority.
They were the interpreters of the ancient laws on which
the worfhip of Geres was founded, its magnificence,
and its mode—laws which were not written, as Lyfias
informs us, but were perpetuated by a conftaut obferva-
tion. The abufes which had gradually crept into the
celebration of thofe feafts, had given rife to feveraj new
regulations; tothat of the orator Lycurgus, for ex¬
ample, and to the law of Solon, which enjoined the
fenate to repair to Eleufis on the fecond -day of the
feaft : but neither thefe nor the other particular regu¬
lations which we find in Samuel Petit’s colleftion of
Attic laws, could make a religious code. There was no
general fyftem which comprehended all the branches
of their religion, which, by combining all its- articles,
might regulate their belief and condudt, and diredt the
judges in their decifions.
Crimes againft religion were only punifhed as they
affedfed the ftate; and confequently they were tried by
the magiftrate. Mere raillery, though fomewhat pro¬
fane, was thought productive of no worfe confequence
than offending the minifters of the gods. The Athe¬
nians acknowledged no other religion than the heredi¬
tary public worfhip ; no other gods than thofe they
had received from their anceftors ; no other ceremonies
than thofe which had been eftablifhed by the laws of
the flate, and praftifed by their country from time im¬
memorial. They were only folicitous to preferve this
worfhip, which was clofely interwoven with their go¬
vernment, and made a part of its policy. They were
likewife attentive to the ceremonial pomp: becaufe or¬
der, the regular vigour of legillation, depends greatly
on the awe impreffed by externals. But as to the in- Attica. |
confiftent and monftrous romance of fables, foreign o- \
pinions, popular traditions, and poetical fictions, which
formed a religion quite different from that of the ftate
—in it they were very little interefted, and allowed every
one to think of it as he pleafed.
This explanation will reconcile a feeming contradic- \
tion in the conduCt of the Athenians, who gave great
licence to their poets, and feverely punifhed the ci¬
tizens who were guilty of impiety. Ariftophanes,
who made as free with the gods as with the great, was
applauded by the Athenians. They condemned So¬
crates to death, who revered the deity, but difapproved
the public manner of worfhipping him. The life of
JEfchylus was in danger from a fufpicion that he had
revealed fome of the fecrets of Eleufis in one of hi#
pieces. The wit of Ariftophanes’s drama was unpu-
nifhed. ,8* j
The priefts were not confined to the care of the al- Priefts tha<
tars ; they who were veiled with the facerdotal digni- 1
ty, which was only incompatible with profefiions
merely ufeful and lucrative, might likewife hold the
moft important offices of the commonwealth. This
we could prove by a great number of examples; we
fhall cite that of Xenophon, the illuftrious hiftorian and
philofopher : he was likewife a famous general, and he
was a prieft. He was performing the facerdotal func¬
tion when he received the news of his fon’s death, who
was killed at the battle of Mantinea.
The facred miniftry was not only compatible with
civil offices, but likewife with the profeffion pf arms..
The prieft and the foldier were often blended. Cal
lias, the prieft of Ceres, fought at Platasa. This cu-
ftom was not peculiar to the Athenians. The La- j
cedasmonians, after the battle which we have juft men¬
tioned, made three graves for their flain ; one for the
priefts, one for the other Spartans, and one for the
Helots. 183 fj
As every mean employment was incompatible with Sacred re-
the facerdotal dignity, the priefts had a revenue fixed venu3S’ ,
to their office. We know that a part of the victims
was their right, and that apartments were affigned
them near the temples. But, befide thefe advantages,
they had a falary proportioned to the dignity of their
fundlions and to the rank of the deities whom they-
ferved. Their falary was probably paid from the re¬
venue of the temples. Thofe revenues, which kept the
temples in repair, and defrayed the facrificial expences,.
were very confiderable. They were of many different
kinds.
A great part of the facred revenues arofe from fines,
which individuals were condemned to pay for various:
offences ; fines, of which the tenth part was appro¬
priated to Minerva Polias, and the fiftieth to the others
gods and to the heroes whofe names their tribes bore.
Befides, if the Prytanes did not hold the affemblies
conformably with the laws, they were obliged to pay
a fine of 1000 drachms to the goddefs. If the Proe-
dri, /. e. the fenators whofe office it was to lay before
the affembly the matters-on which they were to delibe¬
rate, did not difcharge that duty according to the
rules prefcribed to them, they were likewife condemned
to pay a fine, which, as the former, was applied to the
ufe of Minerva. By thefc fines her temple muft have-
been greatly enriched.
Befides,
ATT [ 897 ] ATT
Befides this revenue, which was the common pro¬
perty of the gods, and which varied according to the
number and degrees of the mifdemeanors, the temples
had their permanent revenues : We mean the produce
of the lands which were confecrated to the deities.
We do not here allude to the lands confecrated to the
gods, which were never to be cultivated ; fuch as the
territory of Cirrha, profcribed by a folemn decree of
the Amphiftyons ; the land betwixt Megara and At¬
tica, which was confecrated to the goddeffes of Eleu-
fis, and many others. We would fpeak only of thofe
which were cultivated, the fruits of which enriched the
temples.
There were likewife lands belonging to the ftate, the
produce of which was deftined to defray the expence of
the facrifices. which were offered in the name of the re¬
public. There were likewife firli-fruits which the pu¬
blic officers levied on all lands, for theufe of the gods.
All thefe emoluments made a part of the revenue of the
temples.
The gods, befide the revenues immediately apper¬
taining to their temples, had certain rights which were
granted them by particular compadt. The Lepreatae,
tor in (lance, were obliged to pay every year a talent to
Olympian Jupiter, on account of a treaty of alliance
which they made with the Eleans in one of their wars;
The inhabitants of Epidaurus, to obtain leave from
the Athenians to cut down olive-trees for Hatties*
which the Pythian prieftefs had commanded them to
make, engaged to fend deputies every year to Athens,
to offer facrifices in their name to Minerva and. to Nep¬
tune-, But this prerogative was rather honorary than
lucrative.
The tenth part of the fpoils taken in war was like¬
wife the property of Minerva., Sacred veffels were
bought with the effedle of the 30 tyrants. In (hort,
the gods were profited by almolt every public accident.
But what contributed moft to enrich the famous tem¬
ples of Greece, was the money which was couflantly
brought to them by individuals, in. confequence of vows
they had made, or topay for facrifices which wereoffered
in their names. The credulity of the people was an
inexhauftible fund. That credulity enriched the tem¬
ples of Deli and Eleufis, and fupported the magni¬
ficence of Delphi.. And thofe immenfe treafures which
were the fruit, of fuperltition, were often a prey to
avarice.
Thefe revenues were nofc depofited with the priefts ;
nor did they expend them. A moderate falary was all
their gain ; and to offer facrifices to the deities whofe
minifters they were, was all their employment.
It is very probable that all the facred revenues were
paid into the hands of officers who were appointed to
receive them, and who were to give an account of the
difcharge of their truft. Nay, we cannot doubt of
this, after reading a paffage in Ariflotle, who/fpeak-
ing of the officers of the temples* exprefsly mentions
thoie who were entrutled with the money appertaining
to the gods. Citizens, without, doubt, of approved
integrity^ were cbofen to this office ; and their duty
mull have been, to keep the temples in repair and or¬
der, and to difburfe and keep an account of the ordi¬
nary facred expences.
As to the folemn feafts, which were incredibly mag¬
nificent,. fuch as the feaft of Bacchus, and the Pana-
thenasa, they were celebrated at the expence of the Attica.
Choregus ; /. e. of the chief of the choir of each tribe :
for each tribe had its poet and its muficians, who fung,
emulating each other, hymns in honour of the deity.
The richeft citizens were appointed chiefs of the dif¬
ferent choirs; and as their office was very expenfive,
to indemnify them in fome degree, the Choregus of
the victorious tribe had the privilege of engraving his
name on the tripod which that tribe fufpended to the
roof of the temple. This office, though ruinous, was
eagerly folicited ; and naturally, in a republican date.
It led to honours, like the Curule dignity at Rome ;
and it greatly tended to ingratiate its podeffor with a
people who were more affeCled with pleafures than
with effential fervices, and who, confequently, would
more highly edeem a profufe Choregus than a victo¬
rious general.
With regard to the fines, which were in the whole,
or in. part, the property of Minerva and of the other
deities, there were at Athens public treafurers ap¬
pointed to receive them. They were ten in number,
and they were nominated by lot. They were called
Treafurers of the Goddcfs, or Receivers of the facred
money. That money they received- in the prefence of
the fenate ; and they were empowered to diminiffi or to
annihilate the fine, if they thought it unjud. Theda-
tue of Minerva, that of the victories, and the other in¬
valuable pledges of the duration of the date, were de¬
pofited with them.
Thetreafury in which the money confecrated to the
gods was kept, was; in the citadel, behind the temple
of Minerva Pbliasand. from its fituation it was termed
Opiflodomus. It was furrounded with a double wall.
It had but one door, the key of which was kept by the
Epidates, or chief of die Prytanes : his dignity was
very confiderable ; but it laded only one day. In this
treafury a regider was kept,, in which were written
the names of all thofe who were indebted to the date:
he who owed the fmalled fine was not omitted. If the
debtors proved infolvent, they were profecuted with ex¬
treme rigour, and often punidied with a cruelty which
religion could not excufe ; though the intered- of the
gods was the motive, or rather the pretext. The fa¬
cred treafurers held a confiderable rank among the ma-
gillra*es, who received the public dnances. Of thefe
magidrates there were many kinds, as there were many
forts of revenues.
The Athenian prieds did not compofe an order di-
dinCt. and feparate from the other orders of the date.
They did not form a body united by particular hws*
under a chief whbfe anthority extended to all his infe¬
riors. The dignity of fovereign pontiff was unknown
at Athens ; and each of the prieds ferved his particular
temple, unconnected with his brethren.. The temples,
indeed, of the principal deities ; thofe of Minerva, for
indance, of Neptune, of Ceres, and of Proferpine, had
many miniders ; and in each of them a chief prefided,
who had the title of High-prieji. The number of fub-
altern miniders was in proportion to the rank of the
deity ; but the prieds of one temple were altogether a
ftparate foeiety from thofe of another. Thus at A-
thens there was a great number of high-prieds, be-.
caufe many deities were worfhipped there, whofe fer-
vice required many miniders. The power of each
pried was confined to his temple; and there was no fo¬
vereign;
ATT [ 898 ] ATT
•Attica, vereign pontiff, the minifter-geneval of the gods, and
' the preiident at all the featts.
It naturally follows from this account, that the mi-
nifters of the gods at Athens were not judges in matters
of religion. They were neither authorifed to take cog-
nifance of crimes committed againft the deity, nor to
punifh them. Their fundtion was to offer facrifices to
the gods, and to intreat their acceptance of the adora¬
tions of the people. But the punifhment of impiety;
of facrilege, of the profanation of myfteries, and of
other irreligious crimes, was not entrufted to their zeal.
The priefts were not only incapable of avenging
crimes again ft religion by a temporal procefs ; they
even could not, without an exprefs order either from
the fenate or the people, exercife their right of de¬
voting criminals to the infernal gods. It was in con-
fequence of a civil fentence pronounced againft Alci-
biades, that the Eumolpidse lanched their anathema
againft him. It was in virtue of another decree that
they revoked their imprecations, when his countrymen
wanted his fervice, and therefore reftored him to their
favour.
Religious caufes, according to M. de Bougainville,
fell under the jurifdidtion of the Heliaftae.
The government, though often altered, continued
184 pretty much on the plan eftablifhed by Solon.
People di- 'phe people of Athens were freemen, fojourners, or
different10 ^aves* citizens, called in Greek Politai, were very
tribes &c. numerous; but, what may feem ftrange, were as many
in the time of Cecrcps, as in the moft flourifhing ftate
of the commonwealth, hardly ever exceeding 20,000.
It was Solon who decreed that none fhould be accounted
free but fuch as were Athenians both by father and
mother. After his time it fell into defuetude, till re¬
vived by Pericles, and again at his inftance repealed.
After the expulfion of the 30 tyrants, Solon’s law was
reftored. A. perfon born of a ftranger was ftyledAWw,
a baftard; whereas the fon of a free woman was called
Cnejios, i. e. legitimate. There was in Cynofarges a
court of judicature, to which caufes of illegitimacy
properly belonged; and the utmoft care was taken to
prevent any from being inrolled Athenian citizens,
who had not a clear title thereto. The citizens were
divided by Cecrops into four tribes : the firft called
Cecropes, from Cecrops; the fecond, Autochthon, from a
king of that name; the third, Aflai, from Adieus ano¬
ther king of Athens, or rather from A fie which fig-
nifies a jhore ; the fourth, Pur alia : thefe names were
altered by Cranaus, and again by Eridfhonius. In
the reign of Eridlheus, they were again changed ; the
foldiers were called Oplitai, the craftfmen Ergatai, the
farmers Georgoi, the graziers and Ihepherds Aigicorai :
in this ftate they were when Solon fettled the common¬
wealth, and appointed the fenate to be compofed of
400, too out of each tribe. Clyfthenes increafed the
number of the tribes to 10; and made the fenate confift
of 500, taking 50 out of each tribe. In fucceeding
times, two other tribes were added. Each tribe was fub-
divided into its Denwi or wards; and with refpedf to
thefe it was that Solon inftituted the public feafts be¬
fore-mentioned, at which fometimes the whole tribe
aflembled, fometimes feveral wards, and fometimes only
the inhabitants of one ward.
The fecond fort of inhabitants we mentioned were
called Metoicoi, i. e. fojourners ; thefe were perfons
who lived always at Athens, yet 'were not admitted Attici
free denizens ; as for fuch as did not conftantly refide 
in Athens, they were ftyled Xenoi, i. e. Jlrangers.
The fojourners were obliged to chufe out of the citi- i
zens protestors, who were ftyled Patrons : they paid \
fervices to the ftate, and befides thefe an annual tribute
of 12 drachms for every man, and fix for every wo- ’
man ; but fuch as had fons, and paid for them, were
exempted. If people fell to poverty, and were not
able to pay the tribute, they were feized by the tax-
mafters, and actually fold for flaves; which, as Dio¬
genes Laertius tells us, was the fate of Xenocrates the
philofopher. The fojourners in Attica were under the
fame law as thofe in Athens. As to fervants, they
were freemen, who through indigency were driven to
receive wages, and while they were in this ftate had n®
vote in the affembly. As to flaves, they were abfo-
lutely the property of their mafters, and as fuch were j
ufed as they thought fit: They were forbidden to wear
clothes, or to cut their hair like their mafters; and,
which is indeed amazing, Solon prohibited them to
love boys, as if that had been honourable : They were J
like wife debarred from anointing or perfuming them- |
felves, and from worlhipping certain deities : They
were not allowed to be called by honourable names ;
and in moft other refpefts were ufed like dogs. They
ftigmatized them at their pleafure, that is, branded
them with letters in the forehead and elfewhere. How¬
ever, Thefeus’s temple was allowed them as a fanftuary,
whither, if they were exceedingly ill ufed, they might
fly, and thereby oblige their owners to let them be
transferred to another mafter. In this and many other
refpedts the Athenian flaves were in a much better con¬
dition than thofe throughout the reft of Greece : they
were permitted to get eftates for themfelves, giving a
fmall premium to their mafters, who were obliged to
make them free if they could pay their ranfom ; they
likewife obtained the fame favour from the kindnefs of
their mafters, or for having rendered military fervices
to the ftate. When they were made free, they were
obliged to choofe patrons; and had likewife the privi¬
lege of choofing a curator, who, in cafe their patrons
injured them, was bound to defend them. ,8S
The general affembly of the people, which Solon i
made the dernier refort, was called the Ecclefta ; and the people
confifted of all the freemen of Athens, excepting fuch
as were atitnoi or infamous. The meetings of thefe af-
femblies were either ordinary or extraordinary. The
ordinary were fuch as were appointed by law, the ex¬
traordinary fuch as neceffity required. Of the firft;
there were four in 35 days. In the firft affembly
they approved orreje&ed magiftrates, heard propofals
for the public good, and certain caufes. In the fecond
they received petitions, and heard every man’s judg¬
ment on the matters that were before them. In the
third they gave audience to foreign ambaffadors. The
fourth was employed altogether in affairs relating to J
the gods and their worfhip. The extraordinary meet¬
ings were appointed by the magiftrates when occafion
required, whereas to the ordinary affemblies the peo¬
ple came of their own accord. The firft were held ei¬
ther in the market-place, in the Pnyx a place near the
citadel, or in the theatre of Bacchus; as to the latter,
the magiftrates who appointed the extraordinary meet-
ing-appointed alfo the place where they ihould be held.
ATT [ 899 J AT T
ttka. If any fudden tempeft rofe, or any earthquake hap-
pened, or any fign notorioufly inaufpicious appeared,
the aflembly was immediately adjourned, to prevent the
people from apprehending unhappy confequences from
their deliberations. But if the weather was fair and
ferene, and nothing happened out of the ordinary courfe
of things, they proceeded to purify the place where
the affenibly was held, which was done by fprinkling
it round with the blood of young pigs: then the crier
made a folemn prayer for the profperity of the republic,
arid that heaven would beftow a happy iffue on their
couhfels and undertakings; he then pronounced a bit¬
ter execration againft any who fhould in that aflembly
propound what might be difadvantageous to the ftate.
Thefe ceremonies being over, they proceeded to bu-
18S finefs.
rod of There were feveral magillrates who had the overfee-
\& their ng and regulating thefe afi’emblies. Thefe were, firft,
10nS' the Epiftate, or prefident of the aflembly, who was
chofen by lot out of the Proedri : his office was to give
the fignal for the people’s voting. Next to him were
the Prytanes, /. e. a committee of the fenate, who of
courfe were prefent on this occafion : by their order a
programma, or fcheme of the bufinefs to be propofed
at the aflembly, was previoufly fet up in fome public
place, that every man might know what bulinefs to
apply his thoughts to. The Proedri were nine in num-'
ber, appointed by lots out of all the tribes to which the
Prytanes did not belong: they had the right of pro-
pofing to the people what they were to deliberate upon,
and their office ended with the aflembly; there fat with
them afleflbrs, who were to take care that nothing they
propofed was detrimental to the commonwealth. The
firlt ttep to bufinefs was the crier’s reading the decree
of the fenate whereon the aflembly was to deliberate :
when he had finilhed this, he made proclamation in
thefe words; IVfro of the men .above 50 will make an
oration ? When the old men had done fpeaking, the
crier made proclamation again that any Athenian
* might then offer his fentiments, whom the law allowed
Ifo to do; that is, all fuch as were above 30 years old,
and were not infamous. If fuch a one rofe up to fpeak,
the Prytanes interpofed, and bid him be filent; and if
he did not obey them, the H6tors pulled him down by
force. When the debates were over, the preiident per¬
mitted the people to vote; which they did by cafting
firll beans, but in after-times pebbles, into certain vef-
fels : thefe were counted, and then it was declared that
the decree of the fenate was either rejected or approved;
Tj[g7 after which, the Prytanes difmiffed the affembly.
fcoTenate. The fenate was inftituted by Solon to prevent the
dangerous confequences of leaving the fupreme power
in the people. At the time of his inftitution, it was to
confift of 400, too out of each tribe ; it was increafed
to 500, when the tribes were augmented to 10; and
when they came to 12, it was alfo fwelled to 600.
I They were elected by lots after this manner: At a day
appointed, towards the clofe of the year, the preiident
of each tribe gave in a lift of fuch perfons belonging
thereto,, as were fit for and defired to appear for this
dignijy: thefe names were engraven on tablets of brafs,
and a number of beans equal to the number of the a-
mount of them, among which were 100 white ones, put
into a veffel; and then the names of the candidates and
the beans wepe drawn one by one, and fuch as were
drawn by the white beans were received into the fenate. Attica.
After the fenate was elefted, they proceeded to ap¬
point the officers who were to prefide in the fenate;
thefe were the Prytanes before-mentioned, and they
were ele&ed thus: The names of the ten tribes were
thrown into one veffel, and nine black beans and a
white one into another veffel. Then the names of the
tribes were drawn with the beans. The tribe to which
the white bean anfwered, prefided firft; and the reft
according to the order in which they were drawn. t88
The Prytanes, while the fenate confifted of 500, Prytanes.
were 50 in number. For the farther avoiding of con-
fufion therefore, 1 o of thefe prefided a week, during
which fpace they were called Proedri; and out of thefe
an Epiftate or prefident was chofen, whofe office lafted
but one day, and by law no man could hold it more
than once : the reafon of this was, that he had in his
cuftody the public feal, the keys of the citadel, and
the charge of the exchequer. The reader muft di-
ftinguilh between the Epiftates and Proedri laft-men-
tioned, and thofe fpoken of in the former paragraph,
becaufe, though their titles were the fame, their office
were perfectly diftinft. The fenate affembled by di-
re&ion of the Prytanes once every day, excepting fe-
ftivals, andfometimesoftener, in thefenate-houfe, which
was thence called Prytaneum. 189
When a member of the fenate made a motion for a Laws how
new law, it was immediately engraven- on tablets, that ellahlilhed,
the members when they came next might be prepared c*
to fpeak to it. At the fubfequent alfembly the Epi¬
ftates opened the rqatter, after which every fenator that
pleafed delivered his fentiments ; then any of the Pry¬
tanes drew up the decree, and repeated it aloud : after
which they proceeded to vote, and if there was a ma¬
jority of white beans, then it became pfepbifina, and
was afterwards propounded to the people ; if they ap¬
proved it, it became a law ; otherwife it was of no force
longer than the fenate who decreed.it fubiift-ed. The
power of the fenate was very great: for they took the
account of magiftrates at the expiration of their offices ;
they dire&ed the provifions made for poor citizens out
of the public treafure ; they had the fuperintendancy
of public prifons, and a power of punilhing fuch as
committed a£ts morally evil, though not prohibited by
any law ; they had the care like wife of the fleet; and
befides all thefe they had many other branches of au¬
thority, which it is not neceffary for us to mention.
Before they took their feats, they were conftrained to
undergo a very ftridf examination, wherein the whole
courfe of their lives was inquired into ; and if the lead
llur on their reputation appeared, they were fet afide.
When this examination was over, they took an oath,
whereby they bound themfelves to promote in all their
councils the public good, to advife nothing contrary to
the laws, and to execute their functions exactly. The
hightft fine the fenate could impofe was 500 drachms:
if they thought the offender deferved a heavier mulct,
they then tranfmit^ed the caufe to the Thefmoth.etse,
who pnnifhed them as they thought fit. The fenators,
when their year was out, gave an account of their ma¬
nagement to the people: but that they might have the
lefs to do, they always puniihed fuch of their number
as they found had offended, by expulfion ; and in this
they were mighty exaft. Yet an expelled fenator was
notwithflanding-eligible to any other office, the moll
trivial
ATT
[ 9^0 ]
ATT
trivial omiflion being fufficient to occafion a dimifiion that is not thought enough, let him be brought before AttU
' from the fenatorial dignity ; and therefore, when the the next aflembly and fined again.”  1’
tribes chofe their fenators, they alfo chofe a certain We {hall conclude this draught of the Athenian go- Courts1
number of fubfidiaries, out of which, when a fenator vernment with an account of their courts of juftice, juftice.
Archons,
Nomophy.
laces, &c.
was expelled, another was fubflituted in his place, which, exclufive of the Areopagus, were 10 in r
Each fenator was allowed a drachm every day: for it her; four had cognizance of criminal, and fix of civil
was aconftant rule with the Athenians, that the public eaufes. Thefe 10 courts were numbered with the to
firft letters of the alphabet, and were thence ftyled,
Alpha, Beta, Gamma, &c. When an Athenian was
at leifure to hear caufes, he wrote his own name, that
of his father, and the ward to which he belonged, upon
a tablet; this he prefented to the Thefmothetse, who
returned it again to him with another tablet, with the
letter which fell to his lot; then he went to the crier
of the court, who prefented him a fceptre, and gave
him admiffion. When the caufes were over, every
ought to pay for every man’s time; and therefore fuch
of the poor Athenians as thought fit to demand it, had
three oboli for going to the affembly. If during their
adminiftration any {hips of war were built, the fenators
had crowns decreed them; but if not, they were for¬
bid to fue for them.
Next to the fenate was the court of Areopagus, for
a defeription of which fee that article.
The chief magiftrates of Athens were Arehons, and
inferior to them there were many others; of whom it judge went and delivered his fceptre to the Prytanes,
will be rteceffary to mention fome. In the firft place
they had Nomophylaces, who were alfo ftyled the eleven,
becaufe they were fo many in number, one chofen out
of each tribe, and a clerk or fecretary who made up the
and received a ftated fee for every caufe that was tried.
But as this was intended only to compenfete their lofs
of time, fo that there might be no appearance of co-
’etoufnefs, a man was forbid to fit in two courts on the
eleventh. Their duty it was to look to the execution fame day. The firft criminal court after the Areopa-
of the laws: they Bad authority to feize robbers and o- —... .u-. _r*v.- . r. —nn-j  
ther capital offenders ; and if they confeffed, to put
them to death. Dr Potter thinks they reftmbled our
gus, was that of the Epheta. It confided of 51 mem¬
bers, all upwards of 51 years old. Draco gave it a
Laws re¬
garding ora-
fheriffs. The Phylarchi were the prefidents of the A-
thenian tribes ; but in time this became a military title.
The Philobafileus was an officer in each tribe, who did
the fame things within his jurifdi&ion as the Bafileus
did with refpeft to the ftate. The Demarchi were the
principal magiftrates in wards. The Lexarchi were fix
in number, and were bound to take care that tfie peo¬
ple came duly to the affemblies ; in their cuftody was
the public regifter of the citizens names. They had
under them Toxotae, who were lidlors or bailiffs ; they
were fometimes 1000 in number : thefe m?n were ne-
ceffary; but, like moft of their fort, were in a manner in¬
famous, as may be gathered from'the comedies of Ari-
ftophanes ; they were generally Scythians, raw-boned,
brawny fellows, ready to execute any thing they were
commanded. The Nomothetae were 1000 in number ;
their bufinefs was to watch over and infpect into the
laws. There were two forts of orators in the fervice
of the ftate. Some were appointed to defend an old law,
when a motion was made to repeal it; thefe had their
fee from the ftate, but the fame man was incapable of
being ele&ed twice. Befides thefe, there were 10 fet¬
tled orators called Rhetores, ele&ed by lot; their bu¬
finefs was to plead public caufes in the fenate-houfe.
For this they had their ftated fees ; and with refpeft to
their qualifications, the laws run thus: “ Let no one be
a public orator who hath {truck his parents, denied
them maintenance, or {hut them out of his doors; who
hath refufed to ferve in the army; who hath thrown a-
way his fhield; who hath been addicted to lewd women,
notorioufly effeminate, or has run out his patrimony.
If any man who has been guilty of thefe crimes dare
to deliver an oration, let him be brought to trial upon
the fpot. Let an orator have children lawfully begot-
very extenfive jurifdidtion ; but Solon took away from
them the power of judging in any other caufes than
thofe of manflaughter, accidental killing, and lying in
wait to deftroy : the Balileus entered ail caufes in this
court. The fecond criminal court was called Delphi¬
nium, becaufe it was held in the temple of Apollo Del-
phinius; it had cognizance of fuch murders as were
confeffed by.the criminal, but at the fame time jufti-
fied under fome pretence or other. The Prytaneum
was the third criminal court. It held plea of fuch cafes
where death enfued from inanimate things: caufes were
heard here with the fame folemnity as in other courts;
and on judgment given, the thing, whatever it was,
that had occafioned the death of a man, was thrown
out of the territory of Athens. The laft criminal court
was ftiled Phreatum. It fat in a place not far from the fea-
fliore ; and fuch perfons were brought before this court,
as had committed murders in their own country and
fled to Attica : the proceedings of this court were fo
fevere, that they did not permit the criminal to come
on {bore, but obliged him to plead his caufe in his
veffel; and if he was found guilty, he was committed
to the mercy of the winds and Teas.
Of the judicatures for hearing civil caufes, the firft;
was the Parabajion, fo called, as fome think, becaufe
in it no matter could be heard if the caufe of aftion
was above one drachm. The Cainon, or new court,
was the fecond tribunal. The third was ftyled the
court of Lycus, becaufe it affembled in a temple dedi¬
cated to that hero, whofe ftatue, reprefented with the
face of a wolf, was fet up in all courts of juftice. The
Trigonon was fo called, becaufe it was triangular in it*
form. The court Metidius derived its appellation from
the architeS: who built it. The fixth and laft court
was called Heliaa ; it was by far the greateft, and is
generally conceived to have derived its name from the
ten, and an eftate within Attica ; if in his oration he ^
talks impertinently, makes idle repetitions, affefts an judges fitting in the open air expofed to the fun. All
unbecoming raillery, digreffes from the point in que- the Athenians who were free citizens were allowed by
ftion, or, after the affembly is over, abufes the pre- law to fit in thefe courts as judges; but before they
fident, let the Prcedri fine him 50 drachmas; and if took their feats were fworn by Apollo Patrius, Ceres,
and
ATT [ 9°- ] ATT
Atticus and Jupiter the king, that they would decide all things
II righteoufly and according to law, where there was any
( 0fnc}* Jaw to guide them, and by the rules of natural equity,
where there was none. The Helasaftic court confided
at lead of 50, but its ufual number was 500, judges :
when caufes of very great confequence were to be tried,
loco fat therein ; and now and then the judges were
increafed to 1500, and even to 2000. There were
many inferior courts in Athens for the decifion of tri¬
vial caufes; but of thefe there is no neceffity of fpeak-
ing, fince we defign no more than a fuccindt view of
the Athenian republic, as it was fettled by and in con¬
fequence of Solon’s laws.
ATTICUS (Titus Pomponius), one of the mod ho¬
nourable men of ancient Rome. He underdood the
art of managing himfelf with fuch addrefs, that, with¬
out leaving his date of neutrality, he preferved the e-
deem and affe&ion of all parties. His drift friendfhip
with Cicero did not hinder him from having great in¬
timacy with Hortenfius. The conteds at Rome be¬
tween Cinna’s party and that of Marius induced him
to go to Athens, where he continued for a long time.
He was very fond of polite learning, and kept at his
houfe feveral librarians and readers. He might have
obtained the mod confiderable pods in the government;
but chofe rather not to meddle, becaufe in the corrup¬
tion and faftion which then prevailed he could not dif-
charge them according to the laws. He wrote Annals.
He married his daughter to Agrippa; and attained to
the age of 77.
ATTILA, king of the Huns, furnamed the fcourge
cf God, lived in the 5th century. He may be ranked
among the greated conquerors, fince there was fcarcdy
any province in Europe which did not feel the weight
of his viftorious arms. See Huns.
ATTIRE, in hunting, fignifies the head or horns
of a deer. The attire of a dag, if perfeft, confide of
bur, pearls, beam, gutters, antler, fur-antler, royal,
fur-royal, and crotches ; of a buck, of the bur, beam,
brow-antler, advancer, palm, and fpellers.
ATTITUDE, in painting and fculpture, the gef-
ture of a figure or datue ; or it is fuch a difpofition of
their parts as ferves to exprefs the aftion and fentimepts
of the perfon reprefented.
ATTLEBURY, a town in the county of Norfolk
in England. E. Long. o. 40. N. Lat. 52. 23.
ATTOLLENS, in anatomy, an appellation given
to feveral mufcles otherwife called levatores and eleva¬
tor es. See Anatomy, Tahle of the vtufcles.
ATTORNEY at Law anfwers to the procurator, or
proftor, of the civilians and canonids. And he is one
who is put in the place, dead, or turn of another, to
manage his matters of law. Formerly every fuitor was
obliged to appear in perfon, to profecute or defend his
fuit, (according to the old Gothic conditution), unlefs
by fpecial licence under the king’s letters patent. This
is dill the law in criminal cafes. And an idiot cannot
to this day appear by attorney, but in perfon ; for he
hath not difcretioo to enable him to appoint a proper
fubditute : and upon his being brought before the court
in fo defencelefs a condition, the judges are bound to
take care of his intereds, and they lhall admit the bed
plea in his behalf that any one prefent can fugged.
But as, in the Roman law, “ cum olim in vfu fuiJJ'et, al-
terius nomine agi non pojfe, fed, quia hoc non minimum
incommoditatem halelat, coeperunt homines per procu- Attorney
ratores litigare fo, with us, on the fame principle of II
convenience, it is now permitted in general, by divers Attraaion-
ancient datutes, whereof the fird is datute Wed. 2. c.
10. that attorneys may be made to profecute or defend
any aftion in the abfence of the parties to the fuit.
Thefe attorneys are now formed into a regular corps;
they are admitted to the execution of their office by
the fuperior courts of Weminder-hall; and are in all
points officers of the refpeftive courts in which they are
admitted : and as they have many privileges on account
of their attendance there, fo they are peculiarly fubjeft
to the cenfure and animadverfion of the judges. No
man can praftife as an attorney in any of thofe courts,
but fuch as is admitted and fworn an attorney of that
particular court: an attorney of the court of king’s
bench cannot praftife in the court of common pleas ;
nor vice verfa. To praftife in the court of chancery,
it is alfo neceflary to be admitted a folicitor therein:
and by the datute 22 Geo. II. c. 46. no perfon fhall
aft as an attorney at the court of quarter-feffions, but
fuch as has been regularly admitted in fome fuperior
court of record. So early as the datute 4 Hen. IV.
c. 18. it was enafted, that attorneys fhould be exa¬
mined by the judges, and none admitted but fuch as
were virtuous, learned, and fworn to do their duty:
And many fubfequent datutes have laid them under
farther regulations.
Attorney General, is a great officer under the king,
made by letters patent. It is his place to exhibit in¬
formations, and profecute for the crown, in matters
criminal; and to file bills in the exchequer, for any
thing concerning the king in inheritance or profits;
and others may bring bills againd the king’s attorney.
His proper place in court, upon any fpecial matters of
a criminal nature, wherein his attendance is required,
is under the judges on the left hand of the clerk of the
crown : but this is only upon folemn and extraordi¬
nary occafions ; for ufually he does not fit there, but
within the bar in the face of the court.
ATTOURNMENT, or Attornment, in law, a
transfer from one lord to another of the homage and
fervice a tenant makes ; or that acknowledgment of
duty to a new lord.
ATTRACTION, in natural philofophy, a general
term ufed to denote the caufe by which bodies tend
towards each other, and cohere till feparated by fome
other power. Hence there are four different fpecies
ofattraftion mentioned by philofophers, viz. of Cohe¬
sion, Electricity, Magnetism, and Gravitation.
See thofe articles.
Concerning the caufe of attraftion there have been
many difpntes; the mod general opinion at prefent is,
that it is a property originally impreffed upon all kinds
of matter by the Creator himfelf, and confequently that
it has no natural caufe. But others ridicule this ac¬
count of the matter; affirming, that as the tendency of
the different parts of matter-towards one another is
merely a natural phenomenon, we ought to feek for a
natural caufe of that phenomenon, it being equally un-
philofophical to refolve attraftion into a quality of
matter, as to folve the phenomena of thunder, whirl¬
winds, hurricanes, &c. by faying they are qualities of
the air.
Des Cartes accounted for attraftion by his materia
& X fuhtilis ;
A V A
ATT [ 902 ]
Attraction fubtilis ; but as he was at fo little pains to accommo-
Attridon ^a,;e ^'S to t^ie phenomena of nature, it very
n lon' foon fell into difrepute, and even the exiftence of any
kind of matter more fubtile than the common air we
breathe has been pofitively denied. This was running
to the oppofite extreme, and fuch an diypothefis was
no. lefs obvioufly falfe than that of Des Cartes. Hence
Sir Ifaac Newton himfelf was obliged to have recourfc
to the very fame hypothefis with DesCartes, and to fup-
pofe that there might be in nature a very fubtile and
* See Ether, invifible kind of fluid which he called Ether *, that per¬
vaded the whole creation, and was the caufe of the dif¬
ferent kinds of attraction we obferve.
This fuppofition of Sir Ifaac’s hath fubjeCted him
to no little cenfure from inferior geniufes ; who with¬
out his abilities, or attention to the phenomena of na¬
ture, have determined that his admitting the exiftence
of an etherial fluid was only out of complaifance to the
age he lived in. But he himfelf fays no fuch thing,
nor by his manner of exprefling himfelf does he give
us any room to think that this fuppofition proceeded
from any thing elfe than a contemplation of nature: be-
fides, the complying in this manner with an opinion
known to be erroneous, would be unworthy of any phi-
lofopher, much more of Sir Ifaac Newton. But expe¬
rience has now made it manifeft, that there is a kind of
matter much more fubtile than the common air, and
which poflefles every quality that Sir Ifaac could wifh
for in his ether. The fluid we mean is that of eleCfri-
city. Indeed, notwithftanding the different fpecies of
attraction abovementioned, it is far from being impro¬
bable, that, fome time or other, they may be all folved
from the aCtion of the eleCtric fluid t certain it is, that
no known fubftance feems fo well calculated for being a
general caufe of attraction as this fluid, whether we con-
uder its omniprefence as furrounding and pervading the
whole earth and atmofphere, or the greatnefs of its pow¬
er in overcoming every obftacle; and fuch powers are
now allowed by philofophers in general to the eleCtric
fluid, that it appears hardly poffible to avoid either cur¬
tailing thofe already afEgned to it, or allowing it a lar-
* See jltmo- ger if not an univerfal fphere of aCtion *.
fphtre, E- Elcttive Attractions. See Chemistry, n° ic,
UBruity, 2y 64
&c' ATTRIBUTE, in a general fenfe, that which a-
grees with fome perfon or thing ; or a quality deter¬
mining fomething to be after a certain manner. Thus
underftanding is an attribute of mind, and extenfion
an attribute of body. That attribute which the mind
conceives as the foundation of all the reft, is called its
ejfential attribute : thus extenfion is by fome, and foli-
dity by others, efteemed the eflential attributes of body
or matter.
Attributes, in theology, the feveral qualities or
perfections of the Divine nature.
Attributes, in logic, are the predicates of any
fubjeCt, or what may be affirmed or denied of any
thing.
Attributes,, in painting and fculpture,-are fym-
bols added to feveral figures, to intimate their particu¬
lar office and character. Thus.the eagle is an attribute
of Jupiter; a peacock, of Juno ; a caduce, of Mer¬
cury ; a club, of Hercules; and a palm, of Victory.
ATTRITION, the rubbing or ftriking of bodies
one againft another,, fo as to_throw off fome of their
fuperficial particles. Atnrse
ATURJE, an ancient town in the diftriCt of No- II
vempopulana in Aquitania, on the river Atur.us ; now
Aire in Gafcony, on the Adour. E. Long. o. 3.
N. Lat. 43. 40.
AVA, a kingdom Afia, in the peninfula beyond
the Ganges. The king is very powerful, his domi¬
nions being bounded by Mogulftan on the weft, Siam
on the fouth, Toiiquin and Cochin-China on the eaft,
and by Tibet and China on the north. Several large
rivers run through this country, which annually over¬
flow their banks like the Nile, and thus render it ex¬
tremely fertile. Here are mines of lead and copper,
together with fome of gold and filver, belides large
quantities of the fineft oriental rubies, fapphires, eme¬
ralds, &c.
Ava, the metropolis of the kingdom of the fame,
name, is fituated in E. Long. 96. 30. N. Lat. 21. o.
It is pretty large; thehoufes built with timber or bam¬
boo canes, with thatched roofs, and floors made of
teak plank or fplit bamboo. The ftreets are very
ftraight, with rows of trees planted on each fide. The
king’s palace is an exaCt quadrangle, each fide of which
is 800 paces, and is furrounded with a brick wall; but
the palace itfelf is of ftone. It has four gates; the
golden gate, through which all ambafladors enter; the
gate of juftice, through which the people bring peti¬
tions, accufations, or complaints ; the gate of grace,
through which tbofe pafs who have received any fa¬
vours, or have been acquitted of crimes laid to their
charge; and the gate of ftate, through which his
majefty himfelf pafles when he ftiews himfelf to the
people.
AVADOUTAS, a fe& of Indian bramins, who
in aufterity furpafs all the reft. The other lefts retain
earthen veflels for holding their provifions, and a ftick
to lean on; but none of thefe are ufed by the Avadou-
tas: they only cover their nakednefs with a piece of
cloth ; and fome of them lay even that afide, and go
ftark naked, befmearing their bodies with cow-dung.
When hungry, fome go into houfes, and, without
fpeaking, hold out their hand ; eating on the fpot
whatever is given them. Others retire to the fides of
holy rivers, and there expeft the peafants to bring
them provifions, which they generally do very libe¬
rally.
AVAIL of Marriage, in Scots law, that cafualty
in ward-holding, by which the fuperior was intitled to
a certain fum from his vaffal, upon his attaining the age;
of puberty, as the value or avail of his tocher.
AVALON, a fmall but ancient city of Burgundy
in France, about 500 paces long, and 300 broad.
E. Long. 3. 5. N. Lat. 47. 38.
AVANIA, in the Turkifh legiflature, a fine for
crimes, and, on deaths, paid to the governor of the
place. In the places wherein feveral nations live to¬
gether under a Turkifti governor, he takes this pro¬
fitable method of puniftiing all crimes among the Chrif-
tians, or Jews, unlefs it be the murder of a Turk.
AVARICUM, an ancient town of the Bituriges-
in Gallia Celtica, fituated on the rivulet Avara, in a very
fertile foil, (Caefar). Now Bourgesin Berry. E. Long.,
4. 30.. N. Lat. 47. 10.
AVAST, in the fea-language, a term requiring to
A U B [ 903 ] A U D
(Ivaiinchers AVAUNCHERS, among hunters, the fecond
I branches of a deer’s horns.
° ’rey' AUBAGNE, a town of Provence in France, fitu-
ated on the river Veaune, on the road from Marfeilles
to Toulon. The ftates fometimes hold their feffions at
this place. E. Long. 5. 52. N. Lat. 43. 17.
IAUBANE, in the cuftoms of France, a right veiled
in the king of being heir to a foreigner that dies within
his dominions.
By this right the French king claims the inheritance
of all foreigners that die within his dominions, not-
withftanding of any teftament the deceafed could make.
An ambaflador is not fubjeft to the right of aubane ;
and the Swifs, Savoyards, Scots, and Portuguefe, are
ialfo exempted, being deemed natives and regnicoles.
AUBENAS, a town of Languedoc in France,
fituated on the river Ardefche, at the foot of the
mountains called the Cevennes. E. Long. 4. 32. N. Lat.
44. 40.
AUBENTON, a town of Picardy in France, litu*
ated on the river Aube. E. Long. 4. 25. N. Lat.
| 49- 51*
AUBETERRE, a town of France in the Angu-
mois, on the river Dronne. E. Long. o. 10. N. Lat.
I 45- I5*
AUBIGNE, a town of Berry in France, fituated
)! on the river Verre, in a flat agreeable country. It is
furrounded with high ftrong walls, wide ditches, and
high eounterfcarps. The cadle is within the town,
and is very handfome. E. Long. 2. 20. N. Lat. 47. 29.
AUBIN du Comier, a town of Brittany in France.
W. Long. 1. 15. N. Lat. 48. 15.
Aubin, in horfemanfhip, a broken kind of gate,
between an amble and a gallop, accounted a defeft.
AUBONNE, a town of Switzerland, in the can¬
ton of Bern. E. Long. 5. 54. N. Lat. 48. 30. It is
fituated near a river of the fame name, feven miles
north of the lake of Geneva, upon an eminence which
' has a gentle declivity, at the foot of which runs the
river with an impetuous torrent. The town is built in
the form of an amphitheatre ; on the upper part of
jl which Hands a very handfome caflle with a fine court,
and a portico fupported by pillars of a Angle Hone
each ; above there is a covered gallery that runs round
the court; and as the caftle Hands high, there is a moll
delightful profpedt, not only of the town and neighbour¬
ing fields, but of the whole lake of Geneva and the land
that furrounds it. At Thonen, in Savoy on the other
fide of the lake, is a towercovered with tin, which makes
a glittering appearance when the fun is in a certain po-
fition ; and the caflle of Aubonne has likewife a tower
of the fame kind, which at certain hours makes a fi-
niilar appearance to the Savoyards. The balliage of
Aubonne contains feveral villages, which are moflly at
the foot of the mountain Jura. In one part of this
mountain there is a very deep cave, wherein thofe that
go down find a natural and perpetual ice-houfe. At
the bottom is heard a great noife like that of a fubter-
raneous river, which is fuppofed to be that of the river
Aubonne, becaufe it firft appears, with feveral fources,
about 100 paces from the foot of that mountain.
AUBREY, (John), a famous Englifh antiquary,
defcended from an ancient family in Wiltlhirc, was
born in 1626. He made the hiflory and antiquities
of .England his peculiar lludy and delight; and con¬
tributed confiderable afliflance to the famous MonqJU ■ Auburn
con Anglicanum. He fucceeded to feveral good eflates; II
but law-fuits and other misfortunes confumed them all, Audknee.
fo that he was reduced to abfolute want. In this ex¬
tremity he found a valuable benefa&refs in the lady
Long of Draycot in Wilts, who gave him an apart¬
ment in her houfe, and fupported him to his death,
which happened about the year 1700. He was a man
of capacity, learning, and application, a good Latin
poet, an excellent naturalifl, but fomewhat credulous,
and tinftured with fuperflition. He left many works
behind him. He wrote, t. Mifcellanies. 2. A Per¬
ambulation of the county of Surry, in five volumes,
odtavo. 3. The Life of Mr Hobbes of Malmfbury.
4. Monumcnta Britannica, or a Difcourfe concerning
Stonehenge, and Roll-Rich Hones in Oxfordfhire.
5. Ar chits (Ionica Sacra ; and feveral other works Hill
in manufcript.
AUBURN, a market-town in Wiltfliire in Eng¬
land. W. Long. 1. 20. N. Lat. 53. 20.
AUBUSSON, a fmall town of France, in the pro¬
vince of La Marche, and the government of the Ly-
onnis. Its fituation is very irregular, on the river
Creufe, in a bottom furrounded with rocks and moun¬
tains. A manufacture of tapeflry is carried on here,
by which the town is rendered very populous. E.Long.
2. 15. N. Lat. 45. 58.
AUCAUGREL, the capital of the kingdom of
Adel in Africa, feated on a mountain. E. Long. 44.
25. N. Lat. 9. 10.
AUCH, a city of France, the capital of the coun¬
ty of Armagnac, and the metropolis of all Gafcony.
The archbifliop aflumes the title of primate of Aqni-
tain, and the cathedral is one of the finefl in all
France. The city Hands on the declivity of a moun¬
tain near the river Gors. E. Long. o. 40. N. Lat.
43. 40.
AUCTION, a kind of public fale, very much in
ufe for houfehold goods, books, plate, &c. By this
method of fale the highefi bidder is always the buyer.
This was originally a kind of fale among the ancient
Romans, performed by the public crier fnb hajia, i. e.
under a fpear fluck up on that occafion, and by fome
magiflrate, who made good the fale by delivery of the
goods.
AUDEUS, the chief of the Audeans, obtained the
name of an heretic, and the punifliment of banifliment,
for celebrating Eafler in the manner of the Jews, and
attributing an human form to the Deity. He died in
the country of the Goths, about the year 370.
AUDEANISM, the fame with antbropomorphifm.
See Anthropomorphites.
AUDIENCE given to ambafladors, a ceremony
obferved in courts at the admiflion of ambafiadors or
public miniflers to a hearing.
In England, audience is given to ambafladors in the
prefence-chamber; to envoys and refidents, in a gal¬
lery, clofet, or in any place where the king happens to
be. Upon being admitted, as is the cuflom of all
courts, they make three bows, after which they cover
and fit down ; but not before the king is covered and
fat down, and has given them the fign to put on their
hats. When the king does not care to have them co¬
vered, and fit, he himfelf Hands uncovered ; which is
taken as a flight. At Conflaatinople, miniflers ufually
5X2 have
A U D [
Audience have audience of the prime vizier.
J Audience is alfo the name of a court of juftice e-
11. ’tcry‘ ftablifhed in the Weft-Indies by the Spaniards, anfwer-
ing in effcdt to the parliament in France. Thefe courts
take in feveral provinces, called alfo audiences from the
names of the tribunal to which they belong.
Audience is alfo the name of an ecclefiaftical court
held by the archbifhop of Canteibury, wherein differ¬
ences upon eledfions, confecrations, inftitutions, mar¬
riages, &c. are heard.
AUDIENDO & terminando, a writ, or rather a
commiflion to certain perfons, when any infurre&ion
or great riot is committed in any place, for the ap¬
pealing and punilhment thereof.
AUDIENTES, or Auditor.es, in church-hiftory,
an order of catechumens ; confifting of thofe newly in-
ftrufted in the myfteries of the Chriftian religion, and
not yet admitted to baptifm.
AUDIT, a regular hearing and examination of an
account by fome proper officers, appointed for that
purpofe.
AUDITOR, in a general fenfe, a hearer, or one
wholiftens and attends to any thing.
Auditor, according to our law, is an officer of the
king, or fome other great perfon, who, by examining
yearly the accounts of the under-officers, makes up a
general book, with the difference between their receipts
and charges, and their allowances to allocations.
Auditor of the Receipts, is an officer of the ex¬
chequer who files the tellers bills, makes an entry of
them, and gives the lord-treafurer a certificate of the
money received the week before. He alfo makes de¬
bentures to every teller, before they receive any money,
and takes their accounts. He keeps the black book
of receipts, and the treafurer’s key of the treafury,
and fees every teller’s money locked up in the new trea¬
fury.
Auditors of the Revenue, or of the exchequer, of¬
ficers who take the accounts of thofe who colleft the
revenues and taxes raifed by parliament, and take the
accounts of the Iheriffs, efeheators, colle&ors, tenants,
*and cuftomers, and fet them down in a book, and per¬
fect them.
904 ] AYE
giftrate or judge hears caufes.
Auditory, in ancient churches. See Audito¬
rium. —
Auditory Pajfage, (meatus auditorius), in anato¬
my ; the entrance of the ear *.
Auditory weruer. See Anatomy, n^qoo, b.
AVEIRO, a confiderable city of Portugal, feated "
near the head of a fmall gulf formed by the tide at -the
mouth of the river Vouga. This river forms a fmall
haven with a bar, over which veflels may pafs that do
not draw above eight or nine feet water. The city
ftands in a long plain, well watered, and very fertile.
This plain is nine miles broad, from Porto to Coimbro;
and is bounded on the eaft by a chain of mountains
called Sara d‘Jllcola, which reach from the one town
to the other. Near this city there is fait made in fuf-
ficient quantity to ferve two or three provinces. Here
is a remarkable nunnery, where none are received but
the daughters of the ancient nobility. The inhabitants
of Aveiro have the Angular privilege, that no ftranger
whatever can pafs a night there without leave of the
magiftrate. W. Long. 9. 8. N. Lat. 40. 30.
AVELLANE, in heraldry, a crofs, the quarters
of which fomewhat referable a filbert-nut. Sylvanus
Morgan fays, that it is the crofs which enfigns the
mound of authority, or the fovereign’s globe.
AVELLINO, a city of Italy, in the kingdom of
Naples, with a bilhop’s fee. It was almoft ruined by
an earthquake in 1694. E. Long. 15. 13. N. Lat.
4°- 53-
AVE-MARIA, the angel Gabriel’s falutation of
the Virgin Mary, when he brought her the tidings of
the incarnation.—It is become a prayer or form of de¬
votion in the Romifti church. Their chaplets and rofa-
ries are divided into fo many ave-marias, and fo many
pater-nofters, to which the Papifts aferibe a wonderful
efficacy.
AVENA, oats; a genus of the digynia order, be¬
longing to the triandria clafs of plants. Of this genus
Linnaeus enumerates 16 fpecies, of which none deferve
notice, except that which is commonly known and cul¬
tivated for grain; for a particular account of the cul¬
ture of which, fee Agriculture, n° 116, 117.— Oats
Auditors of the Preji and Impreji, are officers of are an article of the Materia Medica. Gruels made
the exchequer, who take and make up the accounts of from them have a kind of foft mucilaginous quality; by
Ireland, Berwick, the mint, and of any money im-
prefied to any man for the king’s fervice.
Auditors Collegiate, Conventual, &c. officers for¬
merly appointed in colleges, &c. to examine and pafs
their accounts.
AUDITORES. See Audientes.
AUDITORIUM, in the ancient churches, was that
part of the church where the audientes ftood to hear
and be inftru&ed.
The auditorium was that part now called navis ee*
f See Nave, clefix f. In the primitive times, the church was fo
ftrift in ke'eping the people together in that place, that
the perfon who went from thence in fermon-time was
ordered by the council of Carthage to be excommuni¬
cated.
which they obtund acrimonious humours, and prove
ufeful in inflammatory difeafes, coughs, hoarfenefs, and
exulcerations of the fauces.
AVENACEOUS, fomething belonging to or par¬
taking of the nature of oats.
AVENAGE, in law, a certain quantity of oats paid
by a tenant to a landlord, inftead. of rent or fome other
duties.
AVENCHE, an ancient city of Switzerland, in the
canton of Bern, formerly the capital of all Switzerland,
but now ftiews its former greatnefs only by its ruins.
E. Long. 7. 7. N. Lat. 46. 50.
AVENES, a fmall but ftrong town in French Flan¬
ders, in the county of Hainalt, feated on the river
Thefpes. It contains about 2500 inhabitants; but the
AUDITORY, fomething relating to the fenfe of houfes are wretchedly built, and the ftreets irregular.
hearing.
Auditory, or Audience, an aflembly of people
who attend to hear a perfon that fpeaks in public.
Auditory is alfo ufed for the bench whereon a ma¬
lt was fortified by M. Vauban in a ftrong regular man¬
ner. About this place are a prodigious number of
white ftones proper for building, and ufed by fculptors
for ftatues; they are known by the name of Stosses of
Avenes*.
AYE [ 905 J A V E
Averins. E. Long. 3. 40. N. Lat. 50. 10.
AVENIO, an ancient town of the Cavares, and one
of the moil opulent in Gallia Narbonenlis; now
non, in Provence. See Avignon.
AVENOR, an officer belonging to the king’s ftables,
who provides oats for the horfes. He afts by warrant
from the mafter of the horfe.
AVENS, in botany. See Cariophillus.
AVENTINE (John), author of the Annals of
Bavaria, was born of mean parentage, in the year 1466,
at Abenfperg in the country jull named. He fludied
firll at Ingolftad, and afterwards in the univerfity of
Paris. In 1503, he privately taught eloquence and
poetry at Vienna; and in 1507, he publicly taught
Greek at Cracow in Poland. In 1509, he read le&ures
on fome of Cicero’s pieces at Ingolftadt; and in 1512,
was appointed to be preceptor to prince Lewis and
prince Erneft, fons of Albert the Wife, duke of Ba¬
varia ; and travelled with the latter of thofe two princes.
After this he undertook to write the Annals of Bava¬
ria, being encouraged by the dukes of that name, who
fettled a penfion upon him, and gave him hopes that
they would defray the charges of the book. This work,
which gained its author great reputation, was firft pu-
blifhed in 1554, by Jerome Zieglerus, profefibr of
poetry in the univeriity of Ingolftadt ; and afterwards
at Bafil in 1580, by Nicholas Cifner. An affront which
Aventine received in the year 1529, ftuck by him all
the reft of his life: he was forcibly taken out of his
filler’s houfe at Abenfperg, and hurried to a jail; the
true caufe of which violence was never known : but it
would probably have been carried to a much greater
length, had not the Duke of Bavaria interpofed, and
taken this learned man into his proteflion. Mr Bayle
remarks, that the incurable melancholy which from this
time poffeffed Aventine, was fo far from determining
him to lead a life of celibacy, as he had done till he was
64, that it induced him perhaps to think of marrying.
The violence of his new paffion was not however fo
great, but that it fiiffered him to advife with two of his
friends, and confult certain paffages of the Bible rela¬
tive to marriage. The refult was, that it was beft for
him to marry; and having already loft too much time,
confidering hia age, he took the firft woman he met
with, who happened to be his own maid, ill-tempered,
ugly, and extremely poor. He died the 9th of January,
1534, aged 68; leaving one daughter, who was then
but two months old. He had a fon, who died before.
AVENTINUS mons, one of the feven hills on
which ancient Rome ftood. The origin of the name
Aventinus is uncertain : but this hill was alfo called
Murchts, from Murcia the goddcfs of floth, who had
a little chapel there; and Collis Dianne, from the temple,
of Diana; likewife Remotiiut, from Remus who wanted
to build the city and who was buried there. It was ta¬
ken within the compafs of the city by Ancus Marcius.
To the eaft it had the city walls; to the fouth, the Cam¬
pus Figulinus; to the weft,.the Tiber; and to the north,
Mons Palatinus, in circuit two miles and a quarter.
AVENTURE, in law-books, means a mifchance
caufing the death of a perfon without felony.
AVENUE, in gardening, a walk planted on each
fide w ith trees, and leading to an houfe, garden-gate,
wood, &c. and generally terminated by Tome diilant
objeft.
All avenues that lead to a houfe ought to be at
lead as wide as the whole front of the houfe, if wider
they are better ftill; and avenues to woods and pro-
fpeds ought not to be lefs than 60 feet wide. The
trees fhould not be planted nearer to one another than
35 feet, efpecially if they are trees of a fpreadinp
kind; and the fame ought to be the diftance, if they
are for a regular grove.
The trees moft proper for avenues with us, are the
Englifti elm, the lime, the horfe-chefnut, the common
chefnut, the beech, and the abele. The Englilh elm
will do in all grounds, except fuch as are very wet and
(hallow; and this is preferred to all other trees, be-
caufe it will bear cutting, heading, or lopping in any
manner, better than moft others. The rough or fmooth
Dutch elm is approved by fome, becaufe of its quick
growth ; this is a tree which will bear removing very
w'ell, it is alfo green almoft as foon as any plant what¬
ever in fpring, and continues fo as long as any, and it
makes an incomparable hedge, and is preferable to all
other trees for lofty efpaliers. The lime is valued for
its natural growth, and fine (hade. The horfe chefnut
is proper for all places that are not too much expofed
to rough winds. The common chefnut will do very
well in a good foil ; and rifes to a confiderable height,
when planted fomewhat clofe; though, when it (lands
fingle, it is rather inclined to fpread than to grow tall.
The beech is a beautiful tree, and naturally grows well
with us in its wild date ; but it is lefs to be chofen for
avenues than the before-mentioned, becaufe it does not
bear tranfplanting well, but is very fubjeft to mifearry.
Laftly, the abele is fit for any foil, and is thequickeft
grower of any foreft-tree. It ftidom fails in tranf-
planting; and fucceeds very well in wet foils, in which
the others are apt to fail. The oak is but little ufed
for avenues, becaufe of its flow growth.
The old method of planting avenues was with re¬
gular rows of trees, and this has been always kept to
till of late : but we have now a much more magnifi¬
cent way of planting avenues ; this is by fetting the
trees in clumps, or plattoons, making the opening
much wider than before, and placing the clumps of
trees at about 300 feet diftant from one another. In
each of thefe clumps there (hbuld be planted either fe¬
ven or nine trees ; but it is to be obferved, that this is
only to be pradlifed where the avenue is to be of fome
confiderable length, for in (hort walks this will not ap¬
pear fo fightly as fingle rows of trees. The avenues
made by clumps are fitted of all for parks. The trees
in each clump (hould be planted about 30 feet afunder ;
and a trench (hould be thrown up round the whole-
clump, to prevent the deer from coming to the trees
to bark them.
AVENZOAR, abu merwan abdalmaeec ebn
zohr, an eminent Arabian phyfician, flourilhed about
the end of the eleventh or the beginning of the twelfth
century. He was of noble defeent, and born at Se-
vil, the capital of Andalufia, where he exercifed his
profeflion with great reputation. His grandfather
and father were both phyficians. The large eftate
he inherited from his anceftors, fet him above prac-
tifing altogether for gain : he therefore took no fees
from the poor, or from artificers, though he refufed
not the prefents of princes and great men. His li¬
berality was extended even to his enemies ; for which
re.afo%
Avenzoar.
Avenxoar,
Average.
A V E [ 906 ] AYE
reafon he ufed to fay, that they hated him not for any fuftained, for the common good and fecurity both of Averaj
fault of his, but rather oat of envy. Dr Freind writes, the merchandizes and veffels, confequently to be borne II
that he lived to the age of 135; that he began toprac- by the ihip and cargo, and to be regulated upon the Avernui
tife at 40, or (as others fay) at 20 ; and had the ad- whole. Of this number are the goods or money gi-
vantage of a longer experience than almoft any one ven for the ranfom of the ihip and cargo, things
ever had, for he enjoyed perfeft health to his laft hour, thrown overboard for the fafety of the flop, the ex-
He left a fon, known alfo by the name of Ebn 7johry penfes of unloading for entering into a river or har-
who followed his father’s profeffion, was in great fa- hour, and the provilions and hire of the failors when
vour with A1 Manzur emperor of Morocco, and wrote the (hip is put under an embargo. 3. The fmall aver-
feveral treatifes of phyfic. ages, which are the expences for towing and piloting
Avenzoar was cotemporary with Averroes, who, ac- the (hip out of or into harbours, creeks, or rivers, one
cording to Leo Africanus, heard the ledtures of the third of which muft be charged to the drip, and two
former, and learned phyfic of him; this feems the thirds to the cargo.
more probable, becaufe Averroes more than once gives Average is more particularly ufed for a certain con-
Avenzoar a very high and deferred encomium, calling tribution that merchants make proportionably to their
him admirable, glorious, the treafure of all knowledge, lodes, who have had their goods caft into the fea in
and the nwjl fuprerne in phyftc from the time of Galen to the time of a tempeft. It alfo fignifies a fmall duty
bis own. Avenzoar, notwithftanding, is by the genera- which thofe merchants, who fend goods in another
lity of writers reckoned an empiric : But Dr Freind man’s Ihip, pay to the mafter for his care of them over
obferves, that this chwadler fuits him lefs than any of and above the freight. Hence it is expreffed in the bills
the reft of the Arabians. “ He was bred,” continues of lading, paying fo much freight for the faid goods,
that author, “ in a phyfical family, his father and with primage and accuftomed.
“ grandfather being both pra&itioners, whom he al- AVERDUPOIS. See Avoirdupois.
“ ways remembers with great gratitude and honour. AVFRNUS, a lake of Campania in Italy, near
“ We have his own teftimony that he had a regular e- Baias, famous among the ancients for its poifonous
“ ducation; and that he not only learned what pro- qualities. The following is the defeription given
“ perly belongs to a phyfician, but, out of a great of it by Strabo. “ Next to Baiae lies the Lucrine bay,
“ defire of knowledge, every thing befides which re- and within it the lake Avernus. It was here that Ho-
“ lates to pharmacy or furgery.” Dr Freind afterwards mer had deferibed Ulyfles as converfing with Tirefias’s
obferves, “ that he was averfe to quackery, and rejefts ghoft ; for here they faid was the oracle facred to the
“ the idle fuperftitions of aftrologers ; and throughout lhades, which Ulyffes came and confulted concerning
“ all his woi-k profeffes himfelf fo much of the dog- his return. The Avernus is a deep darkfome lake,
<£ matical or rational fedl, which was dire&ly oppo- with a narrow entry from the outer bay : it is fur-
“ fite to the empirical, that he has a great deal of rounded with fteep banks that hang threatening over
“ reafoning about the caufes and fymptoms of diftem- it; and is only acceffible by the narrow pafiage thro*
“ pers ; and as in his theory he chiefly, if not only, which you fail in. Thefe banks were anciently quite
“ follows Galen, fo he quotes him upon all occafions, overgrown with a wild wood, impenetrable to the hu-
“ oftener than the reft of the Arabians do. Notwith- man foot. Its gloomy (hade imprdfed an awful fuper-
“ Handing he is fo Galenical, there are feveral parti- ftition upon the minds of the beholders ; whence it was
“ culars in him which feldom or never occur in other reputed the habitation of the Cimmerians who dwelt
“ authors ; and there are fome cafes which he relates in perpetual night. Whoever failed thither, firft did
“ from his own experience, which are worth perufing.” facrifice ; and endeavoured to propitiate the infernal
He wrote a book intitled, f ayajfir jPlmaddwat nu'al- powers, with the affiftance of fome priefts who attended
tadbfr, i. e. “ The method of preparing medicines and upon the place, and diredted the myftic perform-
dietwhich is much efteemed. This work was tranf- ance. Within, a fountain of pure water broke out
lated into Hebrew, in the year of Chrift 1280, and juft over the fea; but nobody ever believed it, ftating
thence into Latin by Paravicius, whofe verfion has had it to be a vein of the river Styx : fomewhere near this
feveral editions. The author added a fupplement to fountain was the oracle; and the hot waters frequent
it, under the title of Jdme, or a Colletlion. He alfo in thofe parts made them think they were branches of
wrote a treatife Fi' ladwiyat wa'> laughdiyat, i. e. “Of the burning Phlegethon.” The communication vn’th the
Medicines and Food wherein he treats of their qua- Lucrine lake is ftill to be diftinguiihed, altho’ filled up
Jities. with earth ; the diftance between the two is but a few
AVERAGE, in commerce, fignifies the accidents paces. The poifonous effluvia from this lake were faid
and misfortunes which happen to (hips and their car- to be fo ftrong, that they proved fatal to birds endea-
goes, from the time of their loading and failing, to vouring to fly overit; but after grubbing up thewood,
their return and unloading; and is divided into three and building round it, no noxious effects were felt,
kinds. 1. The fimple or particular average, which Virgil aferibes the poifonous exhalation not to the lake
confifts in the extraordinary expences incurred for the itfelf, but to the cavern near it, which was called
fhip alone, or for the merchandizes alone. Such is the vernus, or Cave of the Sibyl, and through which the
lofs of anchors, mafts, and rigging, occafioned by the poets feigned a defeent to hell. Hence the proper name
common accidents at fea ; the damages which happen of the lake is Lacus Averni, the lake near the cavern,
to merchants by ftorm, prize, ffiipwreck, wet, or rot- as it; is called by fome ancient authors. It is now called
ting; all which muft be borne and paid by the thing Averno; is about two miles long, and one broad; and
which fufteredthe damage. 2. The large and common and fo far is it now from having any qualities noxious
average, being thofe expences incurred, and damages to birds, that many fwim upon it. A little to the weft
A V E [ 907 ] AUG
?-errhoa is the cave of the fibyl; but its noxious qualities feem
li alfo to be loft. There are alfo fome old walls Handing,
il! e.r. .°-n- which fome fuppofe to have been a temple of Apollo,
and others of Pluto. Among the ancients all the pla¬
ces which emitted poifonous exhalations were called
Averni.
AVERRHOA, in botany, a genus of the decan-
dria order, belonging to the pentagynia clafs of plants.
Of this genus there are three fpecies, all natives of In¬
dia, but pofleffing no remarkable quality.
AVERROES, one of the moft fubtile philofophers
that ever appeared among the Arabians, flouritbed at
the end of the x irh and beginning of the i2'h century.
B e was the fon of the high-prieft and chief judge of
Corduba in Spain : he was educated in the univerfity
of Morocco; and ftudied natural philofophy, medicine,
mathematics, law, and divinity. After the death of
his father, he enjoyed his pofts ; but, notwithftanding
his being exceeding rich, his liberality to men of let¬
ters in neceffity, whether they were his friends or his
enemies, made him always in debt. He was afterwards
ftripped of all his pofts, and thrown intoprifon, for he-
refy; but the oppreffionsof the judge who fucceeded him,
caufed him to be reftored to his former employments.
He^ died at Morocco in the year 1206. He was
exceffively fat, though he eat but once a-day. He fpent
all his nights in the ftudy of philofophy ; and when he
was fatigued, amufed himfelf with reading poetry or
hiftory. He was never feen to play at any game, or
to partake in any diverfion. He was extremely fond
of Ariftotle’s works, and wrote commentaries on them;
whence he was ftyled The commentator> by way of emi¬
nence. He likewife wrote a work on the whole art of
phylic, and many amorous verfes ; but when he grew
old, he threw thefe laft into the fire. His other poems
are loft, except a fmall piece, in which he fays, “ that
when he was young, he afted againft his reafon ; but
that, when he was in years, he followed its dictates
upon which he utters this wifh ; “ Would to God I
had been born old, and that in my youth I had been
in a ftate of perfection!” As to religion, his opinions
were, that Chriftianity is abfurd ; Judaifm, the religion
of children ; Mahometanifm, the religion of fwine.
AVERROISTS, a fe£t of peripatetic philofophers,
who appeared in Italy fome time before the reftoration
of learning, and attacked the immortality of the foul.
They took their denomination from Averroes, the ce-
gJL tjjg lebrated interpreter of Ariftotle *, from whom they
"j ding borrowed their diftinguiftiing doCtrine.
le. The Averroifts, who held the foul was mortal, ac¬
cording to reafon or philofophy, yet pretended to fub-
mit to the Chriftian theology, which declares it im¬
mortal. But the diftinCtion was held fufpicious ; and
this divorce of faith from reafon was rejeCted by the
do&ors of that time, and condemned by the laft coun¬
cil of the Lateran under l.eo X.
AVERRUNCI (dei); certain gods, whofebufinefs
it was, according to the Pagan theology, to avert mif-
fortunes. Apollo and Hercules were of the number of
thefe gods, among the Greeks ; and Caftor and Pollux,
among the Romans.
AVERSA, a town of Italy in the kingdom of
Naples, with a bilhop’s fee. It is fituated in a very
fine plain, in E. Long. 14. 20. N. Lat. 41. o.
AVERSION, according to Lord Kaims, is oppofed
to affeftion *, and not to dejire, as it commonly is.
We have an affeClion to one perfon ; we have an aver- . H
fion to another: the former difpofes us to do good to its f;on> 1
obje&, the latter to do ill. ————
AVES, one of the Carribee ifiands, 451 miles fouth
of Porto Rico, with a good harbour for careening of ^
fhips. It is fo called from the great number of birds
that frequent it. There is another of the fame name
lying to the northward of this, in N. Lat. 15. o.; and a
third near the eaftern coaft of Newfoundland, in N. Lat.
5°. 5.
Aves, the name of Linnaeus’s fecond clafs of ani¬
mals. See Zoology, n° 8.
AVESBURY, (Robert), an Englifti hiftorian, of
whom little more is known, than that he was keeper
of the regiftry of the court of Canterbury in the reign
of Edward III. and confequently that he lived in the
14th century. He wrote, Memorabilia gefta magnifci
regis Anglia domini Edivardi tertii pojl conquejlum, pro-
cerumque ; tattis primitus quibufdam gefiis de tempore
patris fui domini Ednuardi fecundi, qua in regnis An¬
glia, Scotia, et Francia, ac in Aquitannia et Britannia,
non humana fed Dei potentia, contigerunt, per Kobertum
de Avejbury. This hiftory ends with the battle of Poic-
tiers, about the year 1356. It continued in manu-
fcript till the year 1720, when it was printed by the
induftrious Thomas Hearne at Oxford, from a manu-
fcript belonging to Sir Thomas Seabright. It is now
become very fcarce.
AUGE, a territory of Normandy in France, which
gives title to a vifcount. It extends from Falaife and
Argenton as far as the fea, between the rivers Dives,
Vie, and Tougues. The arable land is ftiff, and pro¬
duces but little good corn: but they fow fainfoin ;
which fucceeds fo well that they have five good crops
fucceffively: they likewife fow flax and hemp; and have
a vaft quantity of apples, with which they made cy¬
der. fiorfes are bred here in great numbers ; and
the inhabitants fatten the oxen which come from Poic-
tou and Brittany.
AUGEAS, in fabulous hiftory, was king of Elis,,
and particularly famed for his ftable, which contained
3000 oxen, and had not been cleaned for 30 years.
Hercules was defired to clear away the filth from this
ftable in one day ; and Augeas promifed, if he per¬
formed it, to give him a tenth part of the cattle. This
talk Hercules is faid to have performed by turning the
courfe of the river Alpheus through the ftable ; when
Augeas refufing to ftand by his engagement, Hercules
flew him with his arrows, and gave his kingdom to
Phyleus his fon, who had ftiewn an abhorrence of his
father’s infincerity.
AUGMENT, in grammar, an accident of certain
tenfes of Greek verbs, being either the prefixing of a
fyllable, or an increafe of the quantity of the initial
vowels.
AUGMENTATION, in a general fenfe, is the aft
of adding or joining fomething to another with a defign
to render it large.
Augmentation is alfo ufed for the additament or
thing added.
Augmentation was alfo the name of a court erefted
27 Hen. VIII. fo called from the augmentation of the
revenues of the crown, by the fupprefiion of religious•
houfes j and the office ftill remains, wherein there are
many
AUG [ 908 ] AUG
A'lgrnenta* many curious records, tho’ the court has been diflblved
long fince.
Augfbiirgh Augmentation, in heraldry, are additional charges
 to a coat-armour, frequently given as particular marks
of honour, and generally borne either in the efcutch-
eoD or a conton ; as have all the baronets of England,
who have borne the arms of the Province of Ulfter in
Ireland.
AUGRE, or Awgre, an inftrument ufed by car¬
penters and joiners to bore large round holes; and con-
lifting of a wooden handle, and an iron blade terminated
at bottom with a fteel bit.
AUGSBURG, a city of Germany, capital of the
circle of Suabia, feated near the confluence of the
Ardech and Lech, in one of the moft beautiful plains
that can be imagined. It is one of the largeft and
handfomeft cities of the empire ; but the fortifications
are After the old manner, and very irregular ; the ftreets
are broad and ftraight; the houfes moftly of timber,
plaftered and whitened without, or adorned with paint¬
ings; the reft are of free-ftone; the churches and foun¬
tains are generally ornamented with fine figures of brafs.
Many of the churches are ftately, and adorned within
with curious workmanlhip and paintings. That part
of the city etefted by the noble family of theFuggers,
wTho are lords of the adjacent country, confifts of feve-
ral ftreets crofs-wife, containing 106 houfes : the poor
-people that inhabit them are maintained by an annual
penfion. Its magnificent town-houfe is little inferior
to that of Amfterdam, it being a vaft fquare ftone-
building, with a marble portico; at the top of the
front, within the pediment, is a large fpread eagle,
holding a fceptre and globe in its talons, of brafs
gilt, faidto weigh 2200 weight; the great portal is of
a very beautiful reddifti marble, over which is a balcony
of the fame colour, fupported by two pillars of w-hite
marble; over the gate there are two large griffins of
brafs; moft of the rooms are wainfcotted and ceiled
with very fine timber: the great hall-is very magnifi¬
cent, and paved with marble ; it is no feet long, 58
broad, and 52 high, and its roof is fupported by eight
columns of red marble; the ceiling of the upper wall is
ef very curious workmanlhip of polilhed afh, confifting
of compartments, the fquares and pannels of .which are
enriched with gilded fculptures, and filled with pic¬
tures and other ornaments ; this is likewife fupported
by eight pillars with bafes and chapiters of brafs : the
other rooms are handfomely adorned with very fine
paintings.
In the fquare, near the town-houfe, is the fountain
of Auguftus, which is a marble bafon, furrounded with
^iron balluftrados finely wrought: at the four corners are
four brafs ftatues as big as the life, two of which are wo¬
men and two men ; in the middle of the bafon is a pede-
ftal, at the foot of which are four large fphinxes fquirt-
ing water out of their breads ; a little above thefe are
four infants holding four dolphins in their arms, which
pour water out of their mouths ; and over thefe infants
are fettoons and pine-apples all of brafs ; upon the pe-
deftal is the ftatue of Auguftus as large as the life.
The fountain moft remarkable next to this is that of
Hercules, which is a hexagon bafon with feveral brafs
figures, particularly Hercules engaging the hydra.
Another curiofity is the fecret gate, which was contri¬
ved to let in perfons fafely m time of war: it has fo
many engines and divifions with gates and keys, and Angftnyi
apartments for guards at fome diftance from each o-
ther, where paflengers are examined, that it is impof-
fible for the town to be furprifed this way ; the gates
are bolted and unbolted, opened and (hut, by unfeen
operators, infomuch that it looks like inchantment.
The water-towers are alfo very curious, of which there
are three feated on a branch of the river Lech, which
runs thro’ the city in fuch a torrent as to drive many
mills, which work a number of pumps that raife the wa¬
ter in large leaden pipes to the top of the towers ; one
of thefe lends water to the public fountains, and the reft j
to near 1000 houfes in the city.
The Lutherans have a college here, which is a vaft
fquare building, with a fine clock on the top of the \
front. In this there arex feven different claffes, a hall
for public deputations, and a theatre for dramatic re-
prefentations. The cathedral is a large, gloomy, Go- \
thic building, with two fpire-fteeples; it is adorned
with paintings upon whimfical fubje&s, and has a
great gate all of brafs, over which are feveral fcripture
paffages well reprefented in haffo relievo. The Jefuits J
have a fplendid college here, which, with their church, i
is full of gilding, painting, and carving; they have |
likewife a fine library. Though half the inhabi¬
tants are Lutherans, there are a great many Popilh
proceffions. There are no Jews in the town, nor are
they fuffered to lie there; but they inhabit a village at
about a league diftance, and pay fo much an hour for
the liberty of trading in the day-time. The Benedic¬
tine abbey is a vaft Gothic building, the ceiling of |
which is faid to be the higheft in Germany, and over¬
looks all the reft of the churches ; it is adorned with
feveral ftatues, and has one very grand altar. The
church of St Croix is one of the handfomeft in Augf-
burg for architecture, painting, fculpture, gilding, and
a fine fpire.
The inhabitants look upon Auguftus Caefar as the
founder of the town: it is true, that that emperor fent
a colony there; but the town was already founded,
though he gave it the name of Augufla Vindelicorum.
But that which will eternife the memory of this town
is the confeffion of faith which the Proteftant princes
prefented to Charles V. in 1530. Though the Prote-
ftants were very powerful at Augfburg, they Could I
not keep their ground; for the Bavarians drove them
from thence: but Guftavus Adolphus reftored them
again in 1632 ; fince which time they have continued
there, and fhare the government with the Papifts. In
1703, the ele&or of Bavaria took the city after a fiege
of feven days, and demoliftied the fortifications: how¬
ever, the battle of Hochfted reftored their liberty, which
they yet enjoy under the government of their own ma-
giftrates, the bifhop having no temporal dominion in
the city. The chapter is compofed of perfons of qua¬
lity, who are to bring proofs of their nobility. The
canons have a right of electing their own biffiop, who is
a fovereign, in the fame manner as feveral other of the
German bifhops. E. Long. 10. 58. N. Lat. 48.24.
AUGUR, an officer among the Romans appointed
to foretel future events, by the chattering, flight, and
feeding, of birds. There was a college or community
of them, confifting originally of three members with
refpeCt to the three Luceres, Rhamnenfes, and Tatien-
fes : afterwards the number was increafed to nine, four ;
of
iiignral
Uglry
}r lling-
t’s Caltn-
•/fw
AUG [ 9°9 ] AUG
of whom were patricians, and five plebeians. They bore fervations. In the comedy of the Birds, he makes one Auguiy
an augural fiaff or wand, as the enfign of their autho- of them fay thus: ‘ The greateft bleflings which can
.rity; and their dignity was fo much refpefted, that happen to you, mortals, are derived from us ; firft, we   L
they were never depofed, nor any fubftituted in their fiiew you the feafons, viz. Spring, Winter, Autumn,
place, tho’ they ihould be conviaed of the moft enor- The crane points out the time for fowing, when ihe
mous crimes. See Augury. flies with her warning notes into Egypt; flic bids the
AUGURAL, fomething relating to the augurs.— failor hang up his rudder and take his reft, and eveiy
The augural inftruments are feprefented on feveral an- prudent man provide himfelf with winter-garments,
cieht medals. Next the kite appearing, proclaims another feafon, viz.
Augural Supper, that given by a prieft on his firft when it is time to fliear his flieep. After that the fwal-
admilfion into the order, called alfo by Varro Adji- low informs you when it is time to put on fummer
cialii. clothes. We are to you, (adds the chorus), Ammon,
Augural Books, thofe wherein the difcipline and Dodona, Apollo: for, after confulting us, you under-
rules of augury were laid down. take every thing ; merchandife, purchafes, marriages,
AUGURALE, the place in a camp where the ge- &c.’ Now, it feems not improbable, that the fame
neral took aufpicia. This anfwered to the Augurato- tranfition was made in the fpeculations of men, which
rium in the city. appears in the poet’s words ; and that they were eafily
Augurale is alfo ufed in Seneca, for the enfign or induced to think, that the furprifing forefight of birds,
badge of an augur, as the lituus. " as to the time of migration, indicated fomething of a
AUGURATORIUM, a building on the Palatine divine nature in them ; which opinion Virgil, as an E-
mount, where public auguries were taken. picurean, thinks fit to enter his proteft againtt, when
AUGURY, in its proper fenfe, the art of foretell- he fays,
ing future events by obfervations taken from the chat- Haud eqtndcm credo, quia fit divinitns Utis
tering, finging, feeding, and flight, of birds ; though Ingenium.
it is ufed by fome writers in a more general fignifiea- But to return to Ariftophanes. The firft part of the
tion, as comprifing all the different kinds of divination*, chorus, from whence the afore-cited paffage is taken.
Augury was a very ancient fuperftition. We know feems, with all its wildnefs, to contain the fabulous
from Hefiod, that huihandry was in part regulated by cant, which the augurs made ufe of in order to account
the coming or going of birds ; and moft probably it for their impudent impofitions on mankind. It fets out
had been in ufe long before his time, as aftronomy was with a cofmogony ; and fays, That in the beginning
then in its infancy. In procefs of time, thefe animals were Chaos and Night, and Erebus and Tartarus:
feem to have gained a greater and very wonderful au- That there was neither waiter, nor air, nor fky : That
thority, till at laft no affair of confequence, either of Night laid an egg, from whence, after a time, Love
private or public concern, was undertaken without con- arofe : That Love, in conjun&ion with Erebus, pro¬
fiting them. They were looked upon as the interpre- duced a third kind ; and that they were the firft of the
• ters of the gods ; and thofe who were qualified to un- immortal race, &c.
derftand their oracles were held among the chief men AUGUST, in chronology, the eighth month of our
in the Greek and Roman ftates, and became the affef- year, containing 31 days. Auguft was dedicated to
fors of kings, and even of Jupiter himfelf. However the honour of Auguft us Casfar, becaufe, in the fame
abfurd fuch an inftitufion as a college of Augurs may month, he was created conful, thrice triumphed in
appear in our eyes, yet, like all other extravagant infti- Rome, fubdued Egypt to the Roman empire, and made
tutions, it had in part its origin from nature. When an end of civil wars ; being before called Sexatilis, or
men confidered the wonderful migration of birds, how the fixth from March.
they difappeared at once, and appeared again at fta- AUGUSTA, or Austa, an ifland in the Adriatc
ted times, and could give no guefs where they went, it fea, on the coaft of Dalmatia, near Ragufa, fubjedl
was almoft natural to fuppofe, that they retired fome- to Venice. E. Long. 17. 50. N. Lat. 42. 35.
w'jere out of the fphere of this earth, and perhaps ap- Augusta Aufciorum, a town of Aquitania, fo na-
proached the ethereal regions, where they might con- medout of compliment to Auguftus, being originally
verfewith the gods, and thence be enabled to predift called Climberrurn, which name it afterwards refumed.
events. It was almoft natural for a fnperftitious peo- In the middle age, it took the name of the people, Ait-
ple to imagine this ; at leaft to believe it, as foon as fei ; and is now ctsWA Auch, the capital of Qafcony*. * See Audi.
fome impoftor was impudent enough to affert it. Add Augusta Emerita, a town of Lufitania on the ri-
to this, that the difpofition in fome birds to imitate the ver Anas, the capital of the province ; a colony of the
human voice mult contribute much to the confirmation Emeriti, or fuch foldiers as had ferved out their legal
of fuch a doctrine. This inftitution of augury feems time, were men of experience, or had received marks
to have been much more ancient than that of aru- of favour. The colony was founded by Auguftus;
fpicy ; for we find many inftances of the former in Ho- and is now called Merida, a city of Spain, in Eftre-
mer, but not a Angle one of the latter, though fre- madura, on the river Guadiana. See Meridan
quent mention is made pf facrifices in that author. Augusta Prcetoria, a town and colony of Gallia
From the whole of what has been obferved, it feems Gifalpina, and capital of the Salaffii; feated at the
probable that natural augury gave rife to religious foot of the Alps Graiae on the Duria. Now Aoufle in
augury, and this to arufpicy, as the mind of man Piedmont. See Aouste.
makes a very eafy tranfition from a little truth to a Augusta Rauracorut/i, a town of Gallia Belgica :
great deal of error. now a fmall village called Augnji, at the bend of the
A paffage in Ariftophanes gave the hint for thefe ob- Rtiinc northwards, but from the ruins, which are ftill
Vol. II. 5 Y to
Augu ft a
ft".
Auguftin.
* See Turin.
f See Trevi.
\ SccTrcves.
* See Augf-
forg.
AUG [ 9i
to be feen, appears to have been a confiderable colony,
at the diftance of fix miles from Bafi] to the eaft.
Augusta SueJ/bnuru, a town of Gallia Belgica on
the Axona ; fo called from Auguftus, and with great
probability fuppofed to be the Noviodunum Sueffonum
of Csefar. Now SoiJ/bns, on the river Aifne, in the Ille
of France. See Soissons.
Augusta Taurinoruni, a town of the Tanrini at
the foot of the Alps where the Dnria Minor falls into
the Po; now Turin, the capital of Piedmont *.
Augusta Treba, a town of the iEqui, near the
fpringsof the river Anio in Italy ; now Trevi, in Um¬
bria, or in the eaft of the Campagna di Roma f.
Augusta Trevirorum, a town of the Treviri, a
people inhabiting between the Rhine and the Meufe,
bute fpecially about the Mofelle; now Triers, or Treves,
in the circle of the Lower Rhine on the Mofelle
Augusta Vindelicorum, a town of the Licates on
the Liens ; called by Tacitus a noble colony of Rba-
tia ; now Augfburg, capital of Suabia *.
AUGUSTALES, in Roman antiquity, an epithet
given to the flamens or priefts appointed to facrifice to
Auguftus after his deification ; and alfo to the ludi or
games celebrated in honour of the fame prince on the
fourth of the ides of October.
AUGUSTALIA, a feftival inftituted by the Ro¬
mans in honour of Auguftus Caefar, on his return to
Rome, after having fettled peace in Sicily, Greece,
Syria, Afia, and Parthia ; on which occafion they like-
wife built an altar to him, inferibed Fortune recJuci.
AUGUSTALIS Pra:fectus, a title peculiar to a
Roman magiftrate who governed Egypt, with a power
much like that of a proconful in other provinces.
AUGUSTIN, or Austin, (St), the firft archbifhop
of Canterbury, was originally a monk in the convent
of St Andrew at Rome, and educated under St Gre¬
gory, afterwards pope Gregory I. by whom he was
difpatched into Britain with 40 other monks of the
fame order, about the year 596, to convert the Eogliih
Saxons to Chriftianity. They landed in the ifle of
Thanet; and having fent fome French interpreters to
king Ethelbert with an account of their errand, the
king gave them leave to convert as many of his fub-
jeifts as they could, and affigned their place of reii-
dence at Dorovernum, fince called Canterbury ; to
which they were confined till the king himfelf was con¬
verted, whofe example had a powerful influence in pro¬
moting the converfion of his fubjefts ; but though he
was extremely pleafed at their becoming Chriftians, he
never attempted to compel them. He difpatched a
prieft and a monk to Rome, to acquaint the pope with
the fuccefs of his million, and to defire his refolution
of certain queftions. Thefe men brought back with
them a pall, and feveral books, veftments, utenfils, and
ornaments for the churches. His holinefs, by the fame
meflengers, gave Auguftin dire&ions concerning the
fettling of epifcopal fees in Britain; and ordered him
not to pull down the idol-temples, but to convert them
into Chriftian churches; only deftroyingthe idols, and
fprinkling the place with holy water, that the natives,
by frequenting the temples they had been always ac-
cuftomed to, might be the lefs Ihocked at their entrance
into Chriftianity. Auguftin refided principally at Can¬
terbury, which thus became the metropolitan church
©f England j and having eftablilhed bilhops in feveral
o ] AUG
of the cities, he died on the 26th of May, 607. The Auga
Popilh writers aferibe feveral miracles to him. The
obi'ervation of the feftival of St Auguftin was firft in-
joined in a fynod held under Cuthbert archbilhop of
Canterbury, and afterwards by the pope’s bull in the
reign of king Edward III.
AUGUSTINE (St), an illuftrious father of the
church, was born at Thagafte, a city of Numidia, on
the 13th of November, 354. His father, a burgefs
of that city, was called Patricias ; and his mother,
Monica, who being a woman of great virtue, inftrudted
him in the principles of the Chriftian religion. In
his early youth he was in the rank of the catechumens;
and falling dangeroufly ill, earneftly defired to be bap'-
tized; but the violence of the diftemper ceafing, his
baptifm was delayed. His father, who was not yet
baptized, made himftudy at Thagafte, Madaura, and
afterwards at Carthage. Auguftine, having read Ci¬
cero’s books of philofophy, began to entertain a love
for wifdom, and applied himfelf to the ftudy of the
holy feriptures ; neverthelefs, he fuffered himfelf to
be feduced by the Manicheans. At the age of 19,
he returned to Thagafte, and taught grammar, and
alfo frequented the bar: he afterwards taught rhetoric
at Carthage with applaule. The infolence of the
fcholars at Carthage made him take a refolution to go
to Rome, tho’ againft his mother’s will. Here alfo he
had many fcholars ; but difliking them, he quitted
Rome, and fettled at Milan, and was chofen public
profefibr of rhetoric in that city. Here he had oppor¬
tunities of hearing the fermons of St Ambrofe, which,
together with the ftudy of St Paul’s epiftles, and the
converfion of two of his friends, determined him to
retradl his errors, and quit the fe£tof the Manicheans:
this was in the 32d year of his age. In the vacation of
the year 386, he retired to the houfe of a friend of his,
named Verecundus, where he ferioufly applied himfelf
to the ftudy of the Chriftian religion, in order to pre¬
pare himfelf for baptifm, which he received at Ealter,
in the year 387. Soon after this, his mother came to
fee him at Milan, and invite him back to Carthage ; but
at Oftia, whither he went to embark in order to his
return, Ihe died. He arrived in Africa about the end
of the year 388 ; and having obtained a garden-plot
without the walls of the city of Hippo, he affbeiated
himfelf with 11 other perfons of eminent fan&ity, who
diftinguiflied themfelves by wearing leathern girdles,
and lived there in a monadic way for the fpace of three
years, exercifing themfelves in falling, prayer, ftudy,
and meditation, day and night: from hence fprung
up the Auguftine friars, or eremites of St Auguftine,
being the firft order of mendicants ; thofe of St Jerome,
the Carmelites, and others, being but branches of this
of St Auguftine. About this time, or before, Vale¬
rius bilhop of Hippo, againft his will, ordained him
prieft : neverthelefs, he continued to refide in his little
monaftery, with his brethren, who, renouncing all
property, poflefled their goods in common. Valerius,
who had appointed St Auguftine to preach in his place,,
allowed him to do it in his prefence, contrary to the
cuftom of the churches in Africa. He explained the
creed, in a general council of Africa, held in 393.
Two years after, Valerius, fearing he might be pre¬
ferred to be bilhop of another church, appointed him
his coadjutor or colleague, and caufed him to be or¬
dained
MotufHne
W I!
fiHiguftu;.
AUG [9
dalned bifhop of Hippo, by Megalus bifliop of Ca-
lame, then primate of Numidia. St Auguftine died
. the 28th day of Auguft, 430, aged 76 years, having
had the misfortune to fee his country invaded by the
Vandals, and the city where he was bifliop befieged
for feven months.
The works of St Auguftine make ten tomes; the
beft edition of them is that of. Maurin, printed at
Antwerp, in 1700. They are but little read at this
time, except by the clergy of the Greek church and
in the Spanifti univerfities. The bookfellers of Lon¬
don receive frequent conimifiions for them, and indeed
for the moft of the fathers, from Ruffia, and alfo from
Spain.
Augustine (St), a fort of North America, on the
eaft coaft of Cape Florida, fituated in W. Long. 81.
10. N. Lat. 30. o. This fort was built by the Spa¬
niards ; who were fcarcewelleftabliftied there, when they
were attacked by Sir Francis Drake in 1586, who re¬
duced and pillaged the fort and town adjacent. In
1665, it underwent a fimilar fate, being attacked by
Captain Davis at the head of a confiderable company
of bucaneers. In 1702, an attempt was made by
Colonel More to annex St Auguftine to the Britifti do¬
minions. He inverted it with only 500 Englifli and
700 Indians; which fmall force, however, would have
been fufficient to reduce the place, had not fuccours
arrived when it was on the point of furrendering.
Even then, it is thought that he might have defeated
the reinforcement which arrived ; but he chofe to raife
the fiege, and retire with precipitation. In 1740, ano¬
ther unfuccefsful attempt was made on this fort by ge¬
neral Oglethorpe: it was, however, together with the
whole country of Florida, ceded to Great Britain by
the treaty of Paris in 1763.
Augustine, acapeof South America. W. Long.
35. 4. S. Lat. 8. 30.
AUGUSTINES, a religious order in the church of
Rome, who follow the rule of St Auguftine, prefcribed
them by pope Alexander IV. Among other things,
this rule enjoins to have all things in common, to re¬
ceive nothing without the leave of their fuperior; and
feveral other precepts relating to charity, modefty, and
chaftity. There are likewife nuns of this order. The
Auguftines are clothed in black, and at Paris are known
under the name of the religious of St Genevieve, that
abbey being the chief of the order.
AUGUSTOBONA, a city of the Tricafters in
ancient Gaul, from whom it was afterwards called Tri-
cajfes, and Trecajfe ; and ftill farther corrupted to Tracee,
or Treci ; whence the modern name Troyes, in Cham-
paigne on the Seyne. See Troyes.
AUGUSTODUNUM, the capital of the ^Edui,
where there was a famous academy or fchool for the
education of youth; novv Auftun, or Autun, in the
duchy of Burgundy, on the Arroux. See Autun.
AUGUSTOMAGUS, an ancient town of Gallia
Belgica ; now Sentis, in the Ifle of France. E. Long.
2. 30. N. Lat. 49. to.
AUGUSTOW, a fmall but ftrong town of Poland,
in the duchy and palatinate of Polakia, feated on the
river Narieu. E. Long. 24. 2. N. Lat. 53. 25.
AUGUSTUS (Fort), a fmall fortrefs feated on a
plain at the head of Lochnefs in Scotland, between
the rivers. Taarf and Oich; the laft is a confiderable
1
A V I
ftream, and has over it a ftone bridge of three arches.
The fort confifts of four baftions ; within is the go¬
vernor’s houfe, and barracks for 400 men : it was ta¬
ken by the rebels in 1746, who immediately deferted
it, after demoliftiing what they could. The name of
this fort in Erie is Kill-ckuimin, or the burial place of
the Cummins. It lies on the road to the Ifle of Sky,
which is about 52 miles off; but on the whole way
there is not a place fit for the reception of man or
horfe.
AUGUSTUS (Caius Julius Casfar Oftavianus), the
nephew of Julius Csefar, was born at Rome 63 years
before Jefus Chrift. When he underftood that his uncle
had adopted him for his heir, he went to Italy and
attached himfelf to his party. He quarrelled with M.
Antonius ; but afterward entering into a treaty with
him and Lepidus, thefe three formed the fecond trium¬
virate, agreed to a profcription of their refpeclive ene¬
mies, and divided the empire among them. Lepidus
being abandoned by his army, wasfent into exile; and
Antonius being reduced to deftroy himfelf, O&avius
aflumed the title of Emperor, and the appellation of
Augujlus. He was cruel in his triumvirate, but feemed
to have adopted new virtues with his imperial dignity;
fince he now appeared juft, affable, moderate, and
liberal: he maintained peace ; advanced men of me¬
rit ; and patronifed arts and fciences, which under his
reign were brought to the greateft perfection. He
died at the age of 75. See Rome.
AVIARY, a place fet apart for feeding and propa¬
gating birds. It fhould be fo large, as to give the
birds fome freedom of flight; and turfed, to avoid the
appearance of foulnefs oh the floor.
AVICENA, or Avicenes, the prince of Ara¬
bian philofophers and phyficians, was born at Aflena,
a village in the neighbourhood of Bokhara. His fa¬
ther was from Balkh in Perfia, and had married at
Bokhara. The firfl. years of Avicenes were devoted
to the ftudy of the Koran, and the Belles Lettres. He
foon ftiewed what he was likely to become afterwards;
and the progrefs he made was fo rapid, that, when he
was but ten years old, he was perfedly intelligent in
the moll hidden fenfes of the Koran.
Abou-Abdoullah, a native of Napoulous in Syria,
at that time profefled philofophy at Bokhara with the
greateft reputation. Avicenes ftudied under him the
principles of logic ; but, foon difgufted with the flow
manner of the fchools, he fet about ftudying alone,
and read all the authors that had written on philofophy,
without any other help than that of their commenta¬
tors. Mathematics had no fewer charms for him ; and,
after reading the firfl; fix propolitions of Euclid, he
got alone to the laft, having made himfelf perfeft ma¬
iler of them, and treafured up all of them equally in
his memory.
Pofieffed with an extreme avidity to be acquainted
with all forts of fciences, he likewife devoted himfelf
to the ftudy of medicine. Perfuaded that this divine
art confills as much in pra&ice as in theory, he fought
all opportunities of feeing the Tick; and afterwards
confefled, that he had learned more from experience
than from all the books he had read. He was now in
his 16th year, and already was celebrated for being
the light of his age. He refolvedat this age to refume
his ftudies of philofophy, which medicine had made
5 Y 2 him
Auguftus
Aviccna.
AVI [9;
Avicena. him ncgleft ; and he fpent a year and a half in this
painful labour, without ever fleeping all this time a
whole night together. If he felt himfelf opprefled
by deep, or exhaufted by ftudy, a glafs of wine re-
frefhed his wafted fpirits, and gave him new vigour for
ftudy; if in fpite -of him his eyes for a few minutes
fliut out the light, it then happened to him to recoi¬
led! and meditate upon all the things that had occupied
his thoughts before fleep. At the age of 21, he con¬
ceived the bold defign of incorporating, in one .work,
all the abjedls of human knowledge ; and carried it in¬
to execution in an Encyclopedic of 20 volumes, to
which he gave the title of the “ Utility of Utilities.”
Several great princes had been taken dangeroufly ill,
and Avicenes was the only one that could know their
ailments and cure them. His reputation increafed daily,
and all the kings of Afia ddired to retain him in their
families.
Mahmud, the fon of Sabektekin, the firft fultan
of the Dynafty of the Samanides, was then the moft
powerful prince of the eUft. Imagining that an im¬
plicit obedience Utould be paid by all manner of per-
fons to the injunftions of his will, he wrote a haughty
letter to Mamun fultan of Kharazm, ordering him to
fend Avicenes to him, who was at his court, with fe-
veral other learned men. Philofophy, the friend of li¬
berty andindependance, looks down with fcorn on the
fhacklee of compullion and reftraint. Avicenes, ac-
cuftomed to the moft flattering diftindftions among the
great, could not endure the imperious manner of Mah¬
mud’s inviting him to his court, and refufed to go
there. But the Sultan of Kharazm, who dreaded his
refentment, obliged the philofopher to depart with o-
thers whom that princehad demanded to be fent to him.
Avicenes pretended to obey ; but, inltead of repair¬
ing to Gazna, he took the rout of Giorgian. Mah¬
mud, who had gloried in the thoughts of keeping him
at his palace, was greatly irritated at his flight. He
difpatched portraits done in crayons of this philofo¬
pher to all the princes of Afia, with orders to have
him condufted to Gazna* if he appeared in their
courts. But Avicenes had fortunately efcaped the moft
diligent fearch after him. He arrived in the capital of
Giorgian, where, under a difguifed name; he performed
many admirable cures.
Cabous then reigned in that country. A nephew,
whom be was extremely fond of, being fallen fick, the
ntoft able pbyficians were called in, and none of them
were able to know his ailment, or give him any eafe.
Avicenes was at laft confuhed. So foon as he had felt
the young prince’s pulfe, he was confident with him¬
felf, that his illnefs proceeded from a violent love,
which he dared not to declare. Avicenes commanded
the perfon, who had the care of the different apart¬
ments in the palace, to name them all in their refpe&ive
order. A more lively motion in the prince’s pulfe, at
hearing mentioned one of thefe apartments, betrayed
a part of his fecret. The keeper then had orders to
name all the flaves that inhabited that apartment. At
the name of one of thefe beauties, the young Gabous
could not contain himfelf; an extraordinary beating of
his pulfe completed the difeovery of what he in vain
defired to keep concealed. Avicenes, now fully af-
fured that this flave was the caufe of this prince’s ill¬
nefs* declared that fhe alone had the power to cure him.
2 ] AVI
The Sultan’s confent was neceffary, and he of courfe Aviceos.j
was curious to fee his nephew’s phyfician. He had  i
fcarce looked at him, when he knew in his features
thofe of the crayoned portrait fent him by Mahmud ;
but Cabous, far from forcing Avicenes to repair to
Gazna, retained him for fome time with him, and
heaped honours and prefents on him.
This philofopber paffed afterwards into the court of
Nedjmeddevle, Sultan of the race of the Bouides.
Being appointed firft phyfician to that prince, he found
means to gain his confidence to fo great a degree, that
he railed him to the poll of Grand Viiir. But he did
not long enjoy that illuftrious dignity. Too great
an attachment for pleafures, eTpecialiy thofe of love
and the table, made him lofe at the fame time his
poll and his matter s favour. From that time Avi¬
cenes felt all the rigours of adverfity, which he had
brought upon himfelf by his ill conduft. He wandered
about as a fugitive, and was often obliged to (hift
the place of his habitation to fecure his life from dan¬
ger. He died at Hamadan, aged 58 years, in the
428th year of the Hegira, and of Chrift 1036.
The perfeft knowledge he had of phyfic did not fe¬
cure him from the ailments that afflidt human nature.
He was attacked by feveral maladies in the courfe of
his life, and particularly was very fubjeA to the co¬
lic. His exceffes in pleafures, and his infirmities*
made a poet fay, who wrote his epitaph, that the pro¬
found ftudy of philofophy had not taught him good
morals, nor that of medicine the art of preferving his
own health.
No one compofed with greater facility than Avice¬
nes, writing, when he fat down to it, 50 pages gene¬
rally in a day, without fatiguing himfelf. The doc¬
tors of Chiras, having made a colk&ion of objeftions
againft one of his metaphyfical works, fent it to him
at Ifpahan by Cafem. This learned man, not arriving
till towards evening, came to Avicenes’s l^oufe, with
whom he fat difeourfing till midnight. When Cafem
was retired, he wrote an anfwer to the objections of the
Chirazians, and finiflied it before fun-rife. He imme¬
diately delivered it to Cafem, telling him, that he had
made all poflible difpatch in order not to detain him
any longer at Ifpahan.
Avicenes, after his death, enjoyed fo great a repu- I
tation, that, till the 12th century, he was preferred for
the ftudy of philofophy and medicine to all his prede-
ceffors. His works were the only writings in vogue in . I
fchools, even in Europe. The following are the titles.
1. Of the Utility and Advantage of Sciences, XX
books. 2. Of Innocence and Criminality, II books.
3. Of Health and Remedies, XVIII books. 4. On
the means of preferving Health, III books. 5. Ca¬
nons of Phyfic, XIV books. 6. On Aftronomical
Obfervations, I book. 7. On Mathematical Sciences.
8. Of Theorems, or Mathematical and Theological
Demonftrations, I book. 9. On the Arabic Lan- ||l
guage, and its Proprieties, X books. 10. On the
JLaft Judgment, x 1. On the Origin of the Soul, and
the RefurreCIion of Bodies. 12. Of the end we
ftiould propofe to ourfelves in Harangues and Philo-
fophical Argumentations. 13. Demonftration of the
collateral Lines in the Sphere. 14. Abridgment of
Euclid. 15. On Finity and Infinity. 16. On Phy-
fics and Metaphyfics. 17. On Animals and Vegeta-
AVI [9:
isticena bles, &c. 18, Encyclopedic, 20 volumes.—Some,
" however, charge him with having llolen what he pu-
bliihed from a celebrated phyfician who had been his
mafter. This man had acquired fo much honour and
wealth, that he was folicited by many to take their
fons to be his fcholars, or even his fervants ; but be¬
ing refolved not to difcover the fecrets of his art, he
would receive none of them. Avicene’s mother formed
the following ftratagem: (he offered him her fon as
a fervant, pretending he was naturally deaf and dumb;
and the youth, by his mother’s inftruftions, counter¬
feited thefe defedfs fa well, that the phyfician, after
making feveral trials to difcover the reality of them,
took the boy into his fervice, and by degrees trufted
him fo far as to leave his writings open in his room
when he went abroad : Avicene took that opportunity
to tranfcribe them, and carried the copies to his mo¬
ther ; and after the death of his mafter he publifhed
them under his own name. Indeed if we refledl that
he lived but 58 years, that he was a wanderer and a
fugitive, and that he was much addidled to hk plca-
fures, we fhall have fome difficulty to conceive how he
could find time to compofe fo many works. Phyfic,
however, is indebted to him for the difcovery of caffia,
rhubarb, mtrabolans, tamarinds; and from him alfo, it
is faid, came to us the art of making fugar.
AVICENIA, in botany, a genus of the angiofper-
mia order, belonging to the didynamia clafs of plants;
of which there are two fpecies, but pofTeffed of no re¬
markable properties.
AVIGLIANO, a fmall town of Piedmont in Italy.
E. Long. 7. 5. N. Lat. 44. 40.
AVIGNON, a city of Provence in France, the ca¬
pital of the county of Venaiffin, and feared on the
banks of the Rhone. It is an archbifhop’s fee, and
the refidence of feveral popes at this place for 70 years
has rendered it confiderable. Its walls are built with
free ftone, with feveral fqoare towers, adorned with
pinnacles. The ditches are not large, but are in pro¬
portion to the height of the walls, and are in fome pla¬
ces full of water. This city belongs to the pope, who
fends a vice-legate every three years, who in fome fenfe
is the governor. Near the Rhone there is a large rock,
within the circumference of the walls, upon which is
ar platform, from whence may be had a profpedl of
the whole city and the places about it. This city is
embellifhed with magnificent churches, a large fquare,
beautiful buildings, and very agreeable gardens. The
palace of the vice-legate is compofed of feveral large
fquare towers, and he gives audience in a great hall
which is full of fine paintings, as is alfo the chapel
and the apartments. The arfenal is near the palace.
The church of Notre Dame is ancient, but not large,
and is one of the beft adorned in the city. After ha¬
ving afcended about 50 fteps, you come to a very an¬
cient portico, which fuftains a great tower ; as you en¬
ter the church on the left hand, you fee paintings
which equal the fineft in Italy. The great altar is very
magnificent, and is adorned with a fhrine that contains
the relics of we know not how many faints. The trea-
fore of the facrifty is worthy of the curiofity of the
traveller. The little palace where the archbifhop re-
fides is formed of three bodies of lodgings, accompa¬
nied with courts and fmall pavilions. It overlooks the
Rhone, the city, and the fields. Thefe buildings and
3 ] AVI
the mint adorn a large fquare, which is the common Avignon
walk of the inhabitants. J|
In Avignon they reckon feven gates, feven palaces, Avii‘)n*
feven colleges, feven hofpitals, feven monafteries, fe¬
ven nunneries, and feven popeS who have lived there
in 70 years. The church of the Cekftines is very mag¬
nificent, and full of fine monuments, and the reft are
not without their curioiities. The univerfity has four
colleges ; and the place where the Jews live is a dif-
tinft quarter, from whence the Jews who pay tribute
dare not ftir out without yellow hats, and the women
muft: have fomething yellow about their heads, to dif-
tinguifh them from the Chriftians. Their number is
very confiderable in a very confined place, where the
only way of enlarging their abodes is by building their
houfes higher. Their fynagogue is fo dark, that they
are obliged to light lamps. However, they are forced
to hear a monk preach a fermon every week. There
was a ftone bridge over the Rhone, which is here very
rapid; but the greateft part is carried away, and the va¬
cancy fupplied with wood. It had 2d arches, but it
was narrow, though above a quarter of a mile long.
The curious that travel this way go to fee the fountain
of Vauclofe, where the river Sorgues, which pafles
through this city, has its fource. Below the bridge
there is an ifland where the Sorgues joins the Rhone,
in which are feveral houfes of pleafure. E. Long. 4.
59. N. Lat. 43. 57.
AVILA, a city of Old Caftile, in Spain, feateci
on an eminence on the banks of the river Adaja, and
in fight of the mountains of Pico. It is fortified both
by nature and art, having a wall 9075 feet in circum¬
ference, adorned with 26 lofty towers, and 10 hand-
fome gates. There are 17 principal ftreets, the houfes
in which arc generally good, and fome of them {lately.
It hath nine fquares, 2000 houfes, nine parifties, as many
monafteries, feven nunneries, two colleges, nine hof¬
pitals, 18 chapels, and an allowance of 10,000 ducats
yearly for the maintenance of orphans and other poor
people. It has an univerfity, and a confiderable bi-
Ihopric; befides a noble cathedral, which has eight dig¬
nitaries, 20 canons, and the fame number of minor
canons. It {lands in the middle of a fine large plain,
furronrtded with mountains, and covered with fruit-
trees and vineyards. There is likewife a manufaiSlure
of cloth. W. Long. 4. 13. N. Lat. 40. 33.
AVIS, a fmall town of Alentijo in Portugal, feated
on an eminence with a caftle near the river Avis. Hence
the military order of the knights of Avis have their
name. W. Long. 7. o. N. Lat. 38. 40.
AVISO, a term chiefly ufed in matters of commerce
to denote an advertifement, an advice, or piece of in¬
telligence.
AVISON, (Charles), organift of Newcaftle, and a
difciple of Geminiani, was the author of an efiay on
mufical expreffion, publiftied in the year 1752, in which
are fome judicious refle&ions on mufic in general, but
his divifion of the modern authors into clafles is rather
fanciful than juft. Throughout his book he celebrates
Marcello and Geminiani ; the latter frequently in pre¬
judice to Mr Handel. In the year 1753 camc out re¬
marks on Mr Avifon’s effay on mufical expreffion, the
author whereof firft points out fundry errors againft
the rules of compofition in the works of Avifon. In
the fame year Avifoa republiihed his efiay, with a re-
A U N [9
Auk ply to the author of the remarks; and a letter, con-
li taining a number of loofe particulars relating to mufic
collected in a courfe of various reading, unqueftionably
‘ written by Dr Jortin. Avifon promoted and affifted
in the publication of Marcello’s mufic to the pfalms ad¬
apted to Englifh words. Of his own compofition there
are extant five colledtions of concertos for violins, 44
in number; and two fets of fonatas for the harpfichord
and two violins, a fpecies of compofition little known
in England till his time. Themufic of Avifon is light
and elegant, but it wants originality ; a neceflary con-
fequence of his too clofe attachment to the ftyle of
Geminiani, whi,ch in a few particulars only he was
able to imitate. Hawkins's Hiji. of Muftc.
AUK, in ornithology. See Alca.
AUKLAND, a town in the bifiiopric of Durham
in England, fituated on the river Were. W. Long,
o. 57. N. Lat. 54. 44.
AULA is ufed for a court baron, by Spelman ; by
fome old ecclefiaitical writers, for the nave of a church,
and fometimes for a court-yard.
AULCESTER, a town of Warwickfiiire in Eng¬
land. W. Long. 1. 47. N. Lat. 52. 15.
AULETES, in antiquity, denotes a flute-player.
One of the Ptolemies, kings of Egypt, father of Cleo¬
patra, bore the furname or denomination of Auletes.
AULIC, an epithet given to certain officers of the
; empire, who compofe a court which decides, without
Appeal, in all procefles entered in it. Thus we fay,
nulic council, aulic chamber, aulic counfellor.
The aulic council is compofed of a prefident, who
is a catholic ; of a vice-chancellor, prefented by the
archbiihop of Mentz ; and of 18 counfellors, nine of
whom are proteflants, and nine catholics. They are
divided into a bench of lawyers, and always follow the
emperor’s court ; for which reafon they are called ju-
Jlitium imperatoris, the emperor’s juftice, and aulic coun¬
cil. The aulic court ceafes at the death of the empe¬
ror ; whereas the imperial chamber of Spire is perpe¬
tual, reprefenting not only the deceafed emperor, but
the whole Germanic body, which is reputed never todie.
Aulic, in the Sorbonne and foreign univerfities, is
an acl which a young divine maintains upon being ad¬
mitted a doftor in divinity. It begins by an harangue
of the chancellor, addreffed to the young dodlor, after
which he receives the cap, and prcfides at the aulic,
or deputation.
AtJLON, anciently a town and dock or ftation for
{hips in Illyricum, on the Adriatic; now Valona, or
Volana, a port-town in the duchy of Ferara on one of
the mouths of the Po. See Valona.
AULOS, a Grecian long meafure, the fame with
ftadium.
AULPS, a town of Provence in France, in the
diocefe of Trejus, with the title of a Vigueria. E.
Long. 6. 25. N. Lat. 43. 40.
AULUS gellius. See Gellius.
AUMBRY, a country-word denoting a cup-board.
AUME, a Dutch meafure for Rhenifli wine, con¬
taining 40 Englifh gallons.
AUNCEL-weight, an ancient kind of balance
now out of ufe, being prohibited by feveral ftatutes,
on account of the many deceits pra&ifed by it. It
eonfifted of fcales hanging on hooks, fattened at each
end of a beam, which a man lifted up on his hand. In
14 ] A V O
many parts of England, auncel-weight fignifies meat
fold by the hand, without fcales.
AUNE, a long meafure ufed in France to meafure
cloths, fluffs, ribbons, &c. At Rouen, it is equal to
one Englifh ell; at Calais, to 1.52; at Lyons, to 1.061;
and at Paris, to 0.95.
AUNGERVYLE (Richard), commonly known by
the name of Richard de Bury, was born in 1281, at
St Edmund’s Bury, in Suffolk, and educated at the
univerfity of Oxford. After which he entered into the
order of Benedi6line monks, and became tutor to Ed¬
ward prince of Wales, afterwards king Edward III.
Upon the acceffion of his royal pupil to the throne
he was appointed cofferer, then treafurer of the ward¬
robe, archdeacon of Northampton, prebendary of Lin¬
coln, Sarum, and Litchfield, keeper of the privy feal,
dean of Wells, and laft of all was promoted to the bi-
(hoprick of Durham. He likewife enjoyed the office*
of lord high chancellor, and treafurer of England ; and
difcharged two important embaffies at the court of
France. Learned himfelf, and a patron of the learn¬
ed, he maintained a correfpondence with fome of the
greateft geniufes of the age, particularly with the ce¬
lebrated Italian poet Petrarch. He was alfo of a mofl:
humane and benevolent temper, and performed many
fignal a&s of charity. Every week he made eight
quarters of wheat into bread, and gave it to the poor.
Whenever he travelled between Durham and Newcaftle,
he dittributed eight pounds fterling in alms ; between
Durham and Stockton five pounds, between Durham
and Aukland five marks, and between Durham and
Middleham five pounds. He founded a public library
at Oxford, for the ufe of the ftudents, which he fur-
nittied with the beft colle&ion of books then in England;
and appointed five keepers, to whom he granted yearly
falaries. At the diflblution of religious houfes in the
reign of Henry VIII. Durham college, where he fixed
the library, being diflblved among the reft, fome of the
books were removed to the public library, fome to
Baliol college, and fome came into the hands of Dr
George Owen, a phyfician of Godftow, who bought
that college of king Edward VI. Bifhop Aungervyle
died at his manor of Aukland, April 24. 1345, and
was buried in the fouth part of the crofs ifle of the ca¬
thedral church of Durham, to which he had been a bene-
fa&or. He wrote, 1. Philobiblos, containing directions
for the management of his library at Oxford, and a
great deal in praife of learning, in bad Latin. 2. E-
piftolte faniiliarium; fome of which are written to the
famous Petrarch. 3. Orationes adprincipes; mentioned
by Bale and Pitts.
AUNIS, the fmalleft province in France, bounded
on the north by Poiftou, on the weft by the ocean, on
the eaft and fouth by Saintogne, of which it was for¬
merly a part. It is watered by the rivers Seure and
Sarente, the former of which has its fource at Seure
in Poi&ou. The coaft of this fmall diftrift has the ad¬
vantage of feveral ports, the moft remarkable of which
are Rochefort, Rochelle, Brouge, St Martin de Re,
Tremblade, Tonnai, and Charente. The foil of this
country is dry, yet produces good corn and plenty of
wine. The marfhes feed a great number of cattle, and
the fait marfhes yield the beft fait in Europe.
AVOCATORIA, a mandate of the emperor of
Germany, addreffed to fome prince, in order to flop
his
Avocatda
A U R [ 9
j^idance his unlawful proceedings in any caufe appealed to him.
JO AVOIDANCE, in the canon law, is when a bene-
rfijhanus. ^ce {jecomes voi(j 0f an i*ncurnbent; which happens ei¬
ther in fa£t, as by the death of the perfon ; or in law,
as by ceffion, deprivation, refignation, &c. In the
lirft of thefe cafes, the patron muft take notice of the
avoidance, at his peril ; but in avoidance by law, the
ordinary is obliged to give notice to the patron, in or-
I der to prevent a lapfe.
AVOIRDUPOIS. This is the weight for the
I - larger and coarfer commodities, fuch as groceries,
cheefe, wool, lead, &c. Bakers, who live not in cor¬
poration towns, are to make their bread by avoirdupois-
weight, thofe in corporations by troy-weight. Apo¬
thecaries buy by avoirdupois-weight, but fell by troy.
The proportion of a pound avoirdupois to a pound troy
is as 17 to 14.
AVOSETTA, in ornithology. See Recurviro-
STRA.
AVOWEE, one who has a right to prefent to a
benefice. He is thus called in contradiftinftion to
thofe who only have the lands to which the advowfon
1 belongs for a term of years, or by virtue of intrufion
or diffeifin.
AVOWRY, in law, is where a perfon diftrained
fues out a replevin ; for then the diftrainer muft vow,
and juftify his plea, which is called his avowry.
AURA, among phyfiologiils, an airy exhalation
or vapour. The word is Latin, derived from the Greek,
gentle wind.
AURACH, a town of Germany with a good caftle,
in the fouth part of Suabia, in the duchy of Wirtem-
berg. It is the ufual refidence of the youngeft fons.of
the houfe of Wirtemberg, and is feated at the foot of
a mountain on the rivulet Ermft. E. Long. 9. 20.
N. Lat. 48. 25.
AU RANCHES, the capital of a territory called
AuraHchin, about 30 miles in length, in Lower Nor¬
mandy in France. The air is mild and temperate, and
4 the bell cyder in Normandy is produced here.
The city ftands on an hill, near which the river See
runs, and is about a mile and a half from the ocean.
W. Long. 1. 20. N. Lat. 48. 51.
AURANTIUM, in botany. See Citrus.
AURAY, a fmall feaport town of Lower Brittany
in France, fituated in the gulph called Morbian. It
is nothing, properly fpeaking, but a large quay, and
a handfome ftreet, being chiefly known for its trade.
W. Long. 2. 25. N. Lat. 47. 48.
AURELIA, in natural hiftory, the fame with what
v>3 Chry- is more ufually called chryfalls, and fometimes nymph*.
AURELIANUS (Lucius Domitius), emperor of
Rome, was one of the greateft generals of antiquity,
and commanded the armies of the emperor Claudius
with fuch glory, that after the death of that emperor
all the legions agreed to place him on the throne ; this
happened in the year 270. He carried the war from
the eaft to the weft, with as much facility, fays a
modern writer, as a body of troops marches from Al-
face into Flanders. He defeated the Goths, Sarma-
tians, Marcomanni, the Perfians, Egyptians, and Van¬
dals ; conquered Zenobia queen of the Palmyrenians,
and Tetricus general of the Gauls; both of whom
were made to grace his triumph, in the year 274. He
was killed by one of his generals in Thrace in the year
IS ] A U R
275, when h& was preparing to enter Perfiawith a -Aurelius
great army. See Rome. I1
AURELIUS victor. See Victor. Aurora-
AURENGABAD, a city in the Eaft Indies, ca¬
pital of the province of Balagate, in the dominions of
the Great Mogul. It is furnilhed with handfome
mofques and caravanferas. The buildings are chiefly
of free-ftone, and pretty high, and the ftreets planted
on each fide with trees. They have large gardens well
flocked with fruit-trees and vines. The foil about it is
alfo very fertile, and the fheep fed in its neighbourhood
are remarkably large and ftrong. E. Long. 75. 30.
N. Lat. 19. 10.
AURENG-ZEBE, the Great Mogul. See Indo-
stan.
AUREOLA, in its original fignification, fignifies
a jewel, which is propofed as a reward of victory in
fome public difpute. Hence, the Roman fchoolmen
applied it to denote the reward bellowed on martyrs,
virgins, and dodtors, on account of their works of fu-
pererogation ; and painters ufe it to fignify the crown
of glory, with which they adorn the heads of faints,
confeflbrs, &c.
AUREUS, a Roman gold coin, equal in value to
25 denarii.—According to Ainfworth, the aureus of
the higher empire weighed near five penny-weights;
and in the lower empire, little more than half that
weight. We learn from-Suetonius, that it was cufto-
mary to give aurei to the vidlors in the chariot-races.
AURICK, a city of Germany, in Eaft Friefland,
in the circle of V/eftphalia; to which the king of
Pruffia claims a right. It is fituated in a plain fur-
rounded with forefts full of game. E. Long. 6. 50.
N. Lat. 53. 28.
AURICLE, in anatomy, that part of the ear which
is prominent from the head, called by many authors
auris externa.
Auricles, are likewife two mufcular bags fituated
at the balls of the heart, and intended as diverticula for
the blood during the diaftole * See Axat*-
AURICULAR, whatever belongs or relates to the. ,HV» n° 3'*’
ear.
Auricular Tube, an inftrument to facilitate hear¬
ing. See Acoustics, n° 2d 26.
AURIGA, the Waggoner, in aftronomy, a con-
ftellation of the northern hemifphere, coniifting.of 23
liars, according to Tycho ; 40, according to Heve-
lius; and 68, in the Britannic catalogue.
AURILLAC, a town of France in the Lower Au¬
vergne, feated. on a fmall river called Jordane. It is
one the moll conliderable towns of the province, has
fix gates, is very populous, and yet has but one parilh.
The caftle is very high, and commands the town. The
abbot is lord of Aiirillac, and has epifcopal jurifdic-
tion; he is alfo chief juftice of the town. This place
is remarkable for having produced feveral great men.
E. Long. 2. 33. N. Lat. 44. 55.
AURIP1GMENTUM, orpiment, in natural hi¬
ftory. See Orpiment.
AURISCALPIUM, an inftrument to clean the
cars, and ferving alfo for other operations in diforders
of that part.
AURORA, the morning twilight, or that faint
light which appears in the morning when the fun i»
within 18 degrees of the horizon.
Aurora*
A U R
Aurora Aurora, the goddefs of the morning, according
borealis. ^ pagan rnythology. She was the daughter of Hy¬
perion and Theia, according to Hefiod; but of Titan
and Terra, according to others. It was under this name
that the ancients deified the light which foreruns the
riling of the fun above our hemifphere. The poets re-
prefent her as riling out of the ocean, in a chariot,
with rofy fingers dropping gentle dew. Virgil deferibes
her afeending in a flame-coloured chariot with four
horfes.
AURORA BOREALIS, northern twilight,
or Streamers ; a kind of meteor appearing in the nor¬
thern part of the heavens, moftly in the winter-time,
and in frofty weather. It is now fo generally known,
that no defeription is requifite; and indeed the variety
of its appearances is fo great, as to render a particular
i defeription almoft impoffible.
This meteor The aurora borealis, though now fo common, feems
formerly formerly to have been very rare : and indeed we,can
very rare. fcarce avoJd attributing to this meteor many of the
prodigies that are mentioned by ancient hiftorians, as
the flame that appeared over the city of Conftantinople,
thofe before the fiege of Jerufalem, &c. and its ap¬
pearances being accounted ominous, Ihews that it hath
in thofe ages been feen very feldom, in comparifon to
what it is now. This we are affured of by Dr Halley,
who tells us, that when he faw a great aurora borealis
in 17x6, be had begun to defpair of everrfeeing one at
all; none having appeared, at leafl: in any conliderable
degree, from the time he was born till then. Notwith-
ftaiiding this long interval, however, it feems that in
fome periods the aurora borealis had been feen much
more frequently; and perhaps this, as well as other na¬
tural phenomena, may have fome ftated times of return-
1 ing.
The only thing that refembles a dillinft- hiftcry of
r 4 e*‘ this phenomenon, is what we have from the learned Dr
Halley, Phil. Tranf. n° 347. The firft account he
gives, is of the appearance of what is called by the
author, burning fpears, and was feen at London on Ja¬
nuary 30th, 1560. This account is taken from a book
intitled 'itf defeription of Meteors by W. F. D. D. and
reprinted at London in 1654. The next appearance,
on the tfcftimony of Stows, was on Oftober 7th, 1564.
In 1574 alfo, according to Camden, and Stows above-
mentioned, an aurora borealis was cbferved two nights
fucceflively, viz. on the 14th and 15th of November,
with much the fame appearances as deferibed by Dr
Halley in 1716, and which we now fo frequently ob-
ferve. Again, the fame was twice feen in Brabant, in
the year 1575; viz. on the 13th of February, and 28th
of September. Its appearances at both thefe times were
deferibed by Cornelius Gemma, profefibr of medicine
in the univerfity of Lovain, who feems to have been
ftruck with the utmofl: horror at the fight ; and com¬
pares them to fpears, fortified cities, and armies fight¬
ing in the air. Concerning thefe four appearances,
Dr Halley remarks that they all happened at the fame
age of the moon, viz. two days after the change. Af¬
ter this, Michael Mteftlin, tutor to the great Kepler,
affures us, that at Baknang in the county of Wurtem-
berg in Germany, thefe phenomena, which he ftyles
ebafnata, were feen byhimfelf no lefs than feven times
in 1580. In 1581, they again appeared in an extra¬
ordinary manner in April and September, and in a lefs
A U R
degree at fome other times of the fame year. In 1621, Aw-ii
September 2d, this phenomenon was obferved all over ®oreaiM
France, and deferibed by Gaffendus, who gave it the $ |
name of aurora borealis : yet neither this,- nor any fi- iil
milar-appearances potterior to 1574, are deferibed by JJ
Englifh writers, till the year 1707; which, as Dr Hal¬
ley obferves, fhews the prodigious negleA of curious -f\ I
matters which at that time prevailed. From 1621 to
1707, indeed, there is no mention made of an aurora j
borealis being feen by any body; and confidering the
number of aftronomers who during that period were in
a manner continually poring on the heavens, we rtxay \
very reafonably conclude that no fuch thing did make t
its appearance till after an interval of 86 years. In - !
1707, a final! one was feen in November; and during
that year and the next, the fame appearances were re¬
peated five times. The next on record, is that men¬
tioned by Dr Hailey in March 1716; fince which time
they have been fo common, that no accounts have been
kept of them. % fl I
It was for a long time a matter of doubt whether Mr Forfl|
this meteor made its appearance only in the northern accounia
hemifphere, or whether it was alfo to be obferved near fim’lar
the fouth pole. This is now afeertained by Mr For-
fter ; who, in his late voyage round the world tilong ern hemi
with captain Cook, affures us, that he obferved them fphere.1
in the high fouthem latitudes, though with phenome- 1
na fomewhat different from thofe which are feen here.
On Feb. 17. 1773, as they were in Lat. 58° fouth,
“ A beautiful phenomenon (fays he) was obferved du¬
ring the preceding night, which appeared again this
and feveral following nights. It confided of long co¬
lumns of a clear white light, {hooting up from the ho¬
rizon to the eafhvard, almoft to the^ zenith, and gra¬
dually fpreading on the whole fouthern part of the
fley. Thefe columns were fometimes bent fidewife at
their upper extremities ; and though in moft refpe&s J
fimilar to the northern lights (aurora borealis) of our
hemifphere, yet differed from them in being always of
a whitifh colour, whereas ours affume various tints, e-
fpecially thofe of a fiery and purple hue. The liars
were femetimes^id by, and fometimes faintly to be
feen through, the fubftance of thefe-.fouthern lights
(aurora cruf rafis), which have hitherto, as far as lean
find, efcaped the notice of voyagers. The fky was ge¬
nerally clear when they appeared, and the air fharp and
cold, the thermometer Handing at the freezing point.”
On the 16th and 19th of March the fame year, the au¬
rora auftralis was again obferved, and the laft time
rather brighter than before, and the columns formed an
arch acrofs the fky.
Dr Halley obferved that the aurora borealis deferi- Rjfes^vqryl
bed by him arofe to a prodigious height, it being feen high. ;
from the weft of Ireland to the confines of Rufiia and
Poland on the eaft; nor did he know how much further
it might have been vifible : fo that it extended at leafl:
30 degrees in longitude; and, from lat. 50 north, it was
feen over all the northern part of Europe; and what
was very furprifing, in all thofe places where it was vi¬
fible, the fame appearances were exhibited which Dr
Halley obferved at London. He obferves, with feem-
ing regret, that he could by no means determine its
height, for want of obfervations made at different pla¬
ces ; otherwife he might as eafily have calculated- the
height of this aurora borealis, as he did of the fiery
, globe
[ 916 ]
A U R
lAurora globe In 1719 *. To other phllofopherg, however, be
rea''s‘ gives the following exhortation. “ When therefore
■be Atrnrj- for the future any fuch thing {hall happen, all thofe
ya’re, that are curious in aftronomical matters are hereby
'IS’ admonifhtd and intreated to fet their clocks to the
apparent time at London, for example, by allowing fo
many minutes as is the difference of meridians ; and
I then to note, at the end of every half hour precifely, the
exaft fituation of what at that time appears remarkable
in the fky; and particularly the azimuths of thofe very
tall pyramids fo eminent above the reft, and there¬
fore likely to be feen furtheft : to the intent that, by
a comparing thefe obfervations taken at the fame mo¬
ment in diftant places, the difference of their azimuths
may ferve to determine how far thefe pyramids are di¬
ftant from us.”—With this pathetic advice no two phi-
lofophers have yet thought proper to comply, notwith-
ftanding the multitude of opportunities that have fince
occurred; a fhameful inftance of.philofophic indolence!
The only faint attempt towards afcertaining this mat¬
ter we tind in the Philofoph. Tranfa&ions, Vol. LXIV.
where a correfpondent in North America acquaints Dr
Franklin then at London, that an aurora borealis had
been feen in America, and aftcs whether on the fame
night there had been any fuch appearance at London.
The Do&or replies, that there had indeed been an au¬
rora borealis that night; and that, if it had likewife been
J j feen in America, it muft have been very high,
i ijeftures With regard to the eaufe of the aurora borealis, many
n :ernuig conjectures have been formed. The firft which natu-
d Cmetc °f ra^y occurred, was, that it was occaiioned by the a-
me cor. fcent 0£ !aflarnmable fulphureous vapours from the
earth, which taking fire in the rarer regions of the at-
mofphere, exhibited, by its flafhing in different direc¬
tions, the beautiful appearances we often obferve in
the aurora borealis. To this fuppofition Dr Halley
objedfs the immenfe extent of fuch phenomena, and
that they are conftantly obferved to proceed from north
to foiith, but never from fouth to north. This made
him very reafonably conclude, that there wasfomecon-
Inetfion between the poles of the earth and the aurora
borealis. The Doffor was in a great meafure unac¬
quainted with the eleftric power, though he well knew
that of magnctifm : he fuppofed therefore, that this
earth was hollow, having within it a magnetical fphere,
which correfponded in virtue with all the natural and
artificial magnets on the furface; the poles of the cen¬
tral magnet not correfponding exactly with thofe of the
outer ftiell of earth, he thought might be the reafon
why the magnetic needle did not always point due
north ; and the magnetic effluvia paffing through the
earth, from one pole of the central magnet to another,
might fometimes become vifible, in their courfe, which
he thought was from north to fouth, and thus exhibit
the beautiful corufcations of the aurora borealis. This
conjefture, for it could be no more, has commonly
I been looked upon as an extravagant flight of fancy;
but if we confider the matter thoroughly, we fhall find
it an undoubted proof of a mod profound and folid
genius. Dr Halley, as already obferved, was in a
manner totally ignorant of the powers of eleCtricity,
and therefore was obliged to work with fuch materials
as he had. Had he known that a ftroke of eleCirieity
would give polarity to a needle that had it not, or re-
yerfe the poles of one that had it before, he would un-
Vol. II.
A U R
doubtedly have concluded the eleClric and magnetic Aurora
effluvia to be the fame, and that the aurora borealis Borgaiis'
was this fluid performing its circulation from one pole
of the earth to the other. In faCt, this very hypothe-
fis is adopted by S. Becaria ; and by the fuppofed cir¬
culation of the eleClric fluid he accounts for the pheno¬
mena of magnetifm and the aurora borealis in a manner
perfectly fimilar to that of Dr Halley, only changing
the phrafe magnetic effluvia for elcftric fluid. The fol¬
lowing is the account given us by Dr Prieftley, of Bee-
caria’s fentiments on this matter.
“ Since a fudden ftroke of lightning gives polarity
to magnets, he conjectures, that a regular and conftant
circulation of the whole mafs of the fluid from north to
fouth may be the original caufe of magnetifm in gene¬
ral. This is truly a great thought; and, if juft, will
introduce greater fimplicity into our conceptions of the
laws of nature.
“ That this ethereal current is infenfible to us is no
proof of its non-exiftence, fince we ourfelves are involved
in it. He had feen birds fly fo near a thunder-cloud,
as he was fure they would not have done had they been
affeCted by its atmofphere.
“ This current he would not fuppofe to arife from
one fource, but from feveral, in the northern hemi-
fphere of the earth. The aberration of the common
centre of all thefe currents from the north point may
be the period of the variation, and the obliquity with
which the currents ftrike into the earth may be the
caufe of the dipping, of the needle, and alfo why bars
of iron more ealily receive the magnetic virtue in one
particular direction.
“ He thinks that the aurora borealis may be this
eleClric matter performing its circulation in fuch a ftate
of the atmofphere as renders it vifible, or approaching
the earth nearer than ufual. Accordingly very vivid
appearances of this kind have been obferved to occafion
a fluCluation in the magnetic needle.”
Here we muft firft remark, that, if this thought, as
Dr Prieftley fays, is truly greaty its greatnefs is juftly
due to Dr Halley : we cannot fuppofe S. Beccaria to
have been ignorant of Dr Halley’s magnetic hypothe-
fis; and if he was not ignorant of it, it is impoffible to
avoid believing him to be tacitly obliged to it. On the
thought itfelf, however, we mull obferve, that a circu¬
lation of an immenfe quantity of eleClric fluid round
the earth bears a ftriking fimilitude to one of Des Car¬
tes’s vortices; and as fuch a circulation hath by no
means been proved, this very circumftance ought to
make us cautious of receiving it. But befides this,
Mr Forfter, in the paffage above quoted, furnilhes us
with a direCt difproof of this circulation ; with which,
though neither Dr Halley nor S. Beccaria could be
acquainted, they might have thought of it as a final
proof either of the truth or falfehood of their hypothe-
fis.—If the aurora borealis is no other than the elec¬
tric fluid performing the abovementioned circulation,
it ought to dart from the horizon towards the zenith
in the northern hemifphere, and from the zenith to the
horizon in the fouthern one: but Mr Forfter plainly
tells us, that the columns (hot up from the horizon to¬
wards the zenith as well in the fouthern hemifphere as
in the northern ; fo that if the aurora borealis is to be
reckoned the flalhings of eleClric matter, its courfe is
plainly directed from both poles towards the equator,
5 Z and
[ 917 1
A U R [ 918 ] A U R
and not from one pole to the other.
Concerning the caufe of this phenomenon Mr Can¬
ton has the following query : “ Is not the aurora bo¬
realis the flaftiing of eleftrical fire from pofitive towards
negative clouds at a great diftance, through the upper
part of the atmofphere where the refiftance is leait?”
But to this we mull reply in the negative ; for in this
cafe it would fiafh in every diredtion according to the
pofition of the clouds, as well as from north to fouth.
Befides this query, he conjectures, that when the needle
is dillurbed by the aurora borealis, that phenomenon
proceeds from the eledlricity of the heated air; and fup-
pofes the air to have the property of becoming electric
by heat, like the tourmalin. But neither does this hy-
pothefis appear at all probable; becaufe, in fuch a cafe,
the aurora borealis' ought to be moft frequent in fum-
mer when the air is molt heated, whereas it is found to
be the reverfe. Laltly, with thefe eledlrical hypo-
thefes we lhall contrail that of Mr Mairan, who ima¬
gined this phenomenon to proceed from the atmofphere
of the fun, particles of which were thrown off by its
centrifugal force acquired by his rotation on his axis;
and that thefe particles falling upon the atmofphefe of
the earth near its equatorial parts, were from thence
propelled by the, diurnal motion of the earth towards
the polar regions, where they formed the aurora borea¬
lis. This hypothelis, befides its being a mere fuppo-
fition unfupported by one fingle appearance in nature,
is liable to the objection already mentioned; for in this
cafe the light Ihould dart from the equator to the poles,
and not from the poles to the equator : or if we Ihould
fuppofe this matter to.be gradually accumulated at
each of the poles, we mull then make other fuppofitions,
equally vague and ill founded, concerning its getting
back with fuch furprifing rapidity in direCt oppofition
to the power which once brought it thither.
The firll perfon that feemsto have endeavoured to find
any pofitive proof for the eleClrical quality of the aurora
borealis, is Dr Hamilton of Dublin. He obferves,
that though this phenomenon is commonly fuppofed
to be eleClrical, yet he had not feen any attempt to prove
that it is fo : but the only proof he himfelf brings is
an experiment of Mr Hawklbee, by which the eleCtric
fluid is Ihown to put on appearances fomewhat like the
aurora borealis, when it palfes through a vacuum. He
obferved, that when the air was moll perfedly exhauftcd,
the ftreams of eleClric matter were then quite white ;
but when a fmall quantity of air was let in, the light
affumed more of a purple colour. The flalhing of
this, light therefore from the denfe regions of the at¬
mofphere into fuch as are more rare, and thetranfitions
through mediums of different denfity, he reckons the
caufe of the aurora borealis, and of the different co¬
lours it affumes.
Dr Hamilton’s proof, then, of the eleClricity of the
aurora borealis, confills entirely in the refemblance the
two lights bear to one another; and if to this we
add, that, during the time of an aurora borealis, the
magnetic needle hath been dillurbed, eleClric fire ob¬
tained from the atmofphere in plenty, and at fome
times different kinds of rumbling and hilling founds
heard,, we have the fum of all the pofitivc evidence in
favour of the eleClric hypothefis.
Was the aurora borealis the firfl natural phenome-
aon the folution of which had been attempted by elec¬
tricity, no doubt the proofs jull now adduced would .
be very infufficient: but when it is confidered, that we
have indifputable evidence of the identity of the phe¬
nomena of thunder and of eleClricity ; when we alfo
confider, that the higher parts of our atmofphere are
continually in a ftrongly eleCtrified Hate; the analogy
becomes fo ftrong, that we can fcarce doubt of the au¬
rora borealis ariiing from the fame caufe. The only
difficulty is, to give a good reafon why the eleClrieify
of the atmofphere fhould be conllantly found to direCt
its courfe from the poles towards the equator, and not
from the equator to the poles; and this we think may
be done in the following manner. -
1. It is found that all eleClric bodies, when confide- See Eke+L ■
rably heated, become conduClors of eleClricity ; thus /wi/y paf-i
hot air, hot glafs, melted rolin, fealing wax, &c. are
all conduClors, till their heat is diffipated, and then
they again become eleClrics.
2. As the converfe of every true propofition ought
alfo to be true, it follows from the above one, that if
eleClrics when heated become conduClors, then non-
eledrics when fubjeCled to violent degrees of cold
ought to become eleClric. In one initance this has
been verified by experience; water, which is a conduc¬
tor when warm or not violently cooled, is found to be*
come eleCtric when cooled to 20° below o of Fahren¬
heit’s thermometer. With regard to metallic fub-
flances, indeed, no experiments have as yet been made
to determine whether their conducting power is affeCted
by cold or not. Very probably we might not be able
to produce fuch a degree of cold as fenfibly to leflen
their conducting power; but Hill the analogy will hold;
and, as we are by no means able to produce the great-
ell degree of cold poffible, reafon will always fuggell
to us, that if a certain degree of cold changes qne con¬
ductor into an eleClric, a fufficient degree of it will
alfo change all others into eleClrics.
3. If cold is fufficient to change conducting fub-
llances into eleClrics, it mull alfo increafe the eleCtric
power of fuch fubllances as are already eleClric; that
is to fay, very cold air, glafs, rofin, &c. provided they
are dry, will be more eleClric than when they are warm¬
er. With regard to air, which is moll to our prefent
purpofe, this is rendered extremely probable, by con-
fidering that clear frolty weather is of all others the
moll favourable, for eleClric experiments. They may be
made indeed to equal advantage almoll in any Hate of
the atmofphere, provided fufficient pains is ufed, but
in dry hard frofts they will fucceed much more eafily
than at any other time.
Thefe three axioms being allowed, the caufe of the
aurora borealis is eafily deduced from them. The air,
all round the globe, at a certain height above its fur-
face, is found to be exceedingly cold, and, as far as ex¬
periments have yet determined, exceedingly eltClrical
alfo. The inferior parts of the atmofphere between the
tropics, are violently heated during the day-time by
the reflection of the fun’s rays from the earth. Such air
will therefore be a kind of conduClor, and much more
readily part with its eleClricity to the clouds and va¬
pours floating in it, than the colder air towards the north
and fouth poles. Hence the prodigious appearances of
eleClricity in thefe regions, fhewing itfelf in thunder
and other tempefls of the moll terrible kind. Im-
menfe quantities of the eleCtric fluid are thus commu¬
nicated.
A U R [9
Aurora nicated to the earth, and the inferior warm atmofphere
»ftorealis. ijaving once exhaufted itfelf muft neceffarily be recruited
from the upper and colder region. This becomes
very probable from what the French mathematicians
obferved when on the top of one of the Andes. They
were often involved in clouds, which, finking down into
.J , the warmer air, appeared there to be highly electrified,
and difcharged themfelves in violent tempefts of thun¬
der and lightning; while in the mean time, on the top
of the mountain, they enjoyed a calm and ferene fky.
In the temperate and frigid zones, the inferior parts of
the atmofphere never being fo ftrongly heated, do not
part with their eleCtricity fo eafily as in the torrid zone,
and confequently do not require fuch recruits from the
upper regions; but notwithftanding the difference of
heat obferved in different parts of the earth near the
furface, it is very probable that at confiderable heights
the degree of cold is nearly equal all round it. Were
there a like equality in the heat of the under part,
there could never be any confiderable lofs of equili¬
brium in the eleCtricity of the atmofphere: but as the
hot air of the torrid zone is perpetually bringing down
vaft quantities of eleftric matter from the cold air that
lies diredly above it; and as the inferior parts of the
atmofphere lying towards the north and fouth poles do
not conduCt in any great degree; it thence follows,
that the upper parts of the atmofphere lying over the
torrid zone will continually require a fupply from the
northern and fouthern regions. This,eafily fhews the
I neceffity of an eleCtric current in the upper parts of the
atmofphere from each pole towards the equator: and
thus we are alfo furnifhed with a reafon why the au¬
rora borealis appears more frequently in winter than
in fumfner; namely, becaufe at that time the eleCtric
power of the inferior atmofphere is greater on account
of the cold than in fummer; and confequently the a-
bundant eleCtricity of the upper regions muft go al-
moft wholly off to the equatorial parts, it being im-
polfible for it to get down to the earth: hence alfo the
aurora borealis appears very frequent and bright in the
I frigid zones, the degree of cold in the upper and under
I regions of the atmofphere being much more nearly e-
;| qual in thefe parts than in any other. In fome1 parts
of Siberia, particularly, this meteor appears conftantly
from OCtober to Chriftmas, and its corufcations are faid
to be very terrifying. Travellers agree, that here the
aurora borealis appears in greateft perfection; and it is
to be remarked, that Siberia is the coldeft country on
earth. In confirmation of this, it may alfo be obfer¬
ved, that, from the experiments hitherto made with
the eleCtrical kite, the air appears confiderably more
eleCtrical in winter than in fummer, though the clouds
I are known to be often mo ft violently eleCtrified in the
fummer time; a proof, that the eleCtricity naturally
belonging to the air is in fummer much more power¬
fully drawn off by the clouds than in the winter, owing
to the excefs of heat in fummer, as already obferved.
A confiderable difficulty, however, ftill remains, from
the upright pofition which the ftreams of the aurora
borealis are generally obferved to have; whereas, ac¬
cording to the hypothefis above mentioned, they ought
rather to run direCtly from north to fouth. This dif¬
ficulty occurred to Dr Halley: but he anfwers it by
fuppofing his magnetic effluvia'to pafs from one pole
to another in arches of great circles, arifing to a vaft
19 ] A U R
height above the earth, and confequently darting from Aurora
the places whence they arofe almoft like the radii of a Borealis-
circle; in which cafe, being fent off in a direction nearly
perpendicular to the furface of the earth, they muft
neceffarily appear ereCt to thofe who fee them from any
part of the furface, as is demonftrated by mathemati¬
cians. It is alfo reafonable to think that they will take
this direction rather than any other, on account of their
meeting with lefs refiftance in the very high regions of
the air than in fuch as are lower.
But the greateft difficulty ftill remains: for we have
fuppofed the equilibrium of the atmofphere to be broken
in the day-time, and reftored only in the night; where¬
as, confidering the immenfe velocity with which the
eleCtric fluid moves, the equilibrium ought to be refto¬
red in all parts almoft inftantaneoufly; yet the aurora
borealis never appears except in the night, although its
brightnefs is fuch as muft fometimes make, it vilible to
us did it really exift in the day-time.
In anfwer to this it muft be obferved, that though
the paffage of eleCtricity through a good conductor is
inftantaneous, yet through a bad eonduCtor it is ob¬
ferved to take fome time in palling. As our atmo¬
fphere therefore, unlefs very violently heated, is but a
bad conductor of eleCtricity; though the equilibrium in
it is broken, it can by no means be inftantaneoufly re¬
ftored. Add to this, that as it is the aCtion of the fun
which breaks the equilibrium, fo the fame aCtion, ex¬
tending over half the globe, prevents almoft any attempt
to reftore it till night; when flalhes arife from various
parts of the atmofphere, gradually extending themfelves
with a variety of undulations towards the equator.
It now remains to explain only one particularity of
the aurora borealis, namely, that its ftreams do not al¬
ways move with rapidity, fometimes appearing quite
ftationary for a confiderable time, and fometimes being
carried in different directions with a flow motion. To
this indeed we can give no other reply, than that weak
eleCtric lights have been fometimes obferved to put on
the fame appearance at the furface of the earth ; and
much more may we fuppofe them capable of do¬
ing fo at great heights above it, where the conduc¬
tors are both fewer in number and much more imper-
feCt. When M. de Romas was making experiments
with an eleCtric kite in Italy, a cylinder of blue light
about four or five inches diameter was obferved fur¬
rounding the firing. This was in the day-time ; but
had it been night, he imagined it muft have been four
or five feet in diameter; and as the firing was 7B0 feet
long, it would probably have feemed pyramidal, point¬
ing upwards like one of the ftreams of the aurora bo¬
realis. A ftill more remarkable appearance. Dr Prieft-
ley tells us, was obferved by Mr Hartman. He had
been making eleCtrical experiments for four or five
hours together in a very fmall room; and upon going
out of it, and returning with a light in his hand, walk¬
ing pretty quick, he perceived a fmall flame following
him at about three feet diftance. Being alarmed at this
appearance, he flopped to examine it, upon which it
vanifhed. This lafl inftance is very remarkable, and An¬
gular in- its kind: from both, however, we are fuffici-
ently warranted to conclude, that fmall portions of our
atmofphere may by various caufes be fo much eleClri-
fied as to fliine, and likewife be moved from one place
to another without parting with the electricity they
5 Z 2 have
Borealis.
6
Aurora bo¬
realis fuc-
eeedcd by
fouth-weft
winds.
donjefliire
concerning
kite rcaion,
A IT R
[
920 ] A U S
have received, for a confiderable time. laft mentioned. If this phenomenon is oceafioned Auroras
The corona, or circle, which is often formed near the by the vaft quantity of electric matter conveyed to
zenith by the aurora borealis, is eaiily accounted for in the equatorial parts of the earth, it is certain that Aufonw
the fame manner. As this corona is commonly fta- the earth cannot receive any great quantity of this
tionary for fome time, we imagine it would be a very matter at one place without emitting it at another,
proper mark whereby to determine the diitance of the The deciricity, therefore, which is conftantly re-
meteor kfelf. If an aurora borealis, for inftance, was ceived at the equator, muft be emitted nearer the
obferved by two perfons, one at London, and the other poles, in order to perform its courft, otherwife there
at Edinburgh; by noting the liars among which the could not be a conltant fupply of it for the common
corona was obferved at each place, its true altitude operations of nature. It is obferved, that dedrilied
from the furface of the earth could eafily be determi- bodies are always furrounded by a blaft of air, which
ned by trigonometry. is fent forth from them in all dire&ions ; hence, if the
Under the article Atmosphere it was fuggefted, eledtric matter find a more ready palfage through
that no good proof had been as yet brought for the one part of the earth than another, a wind will be
extreme rarity of the air ufually fuppofed to take place found to blow from that quarter. If therefore one of
at no very great heights above the earth. The bright- thefe places happens to be in the Atlantic ocean near
uefs of the meteor there mentioned at 70 miles perpen- the coaft of France, or in the bay of Bifcay, the elec-
dicuhr from the furface, as alfo its figure, feemed to trie matter which has been received at the equator du-
prove the air confiderably deafer at that diftance from ring an aurora borealis will be difeharged there fome
the earth. Though the height of the aurora borealis time after, and confequently a wind will blow from
has never been determined, we can fcarce imagine it to that quarter, which will be from the fouth-weft t»
be greater than that of this meteor, or indeed fo great: thofe ftiips which are in the Englilh channel. Itcan-
but although its itreams refembie the paffage of elec- not be imagined, however, that all the matter can be
trie light through a vacuum, it cannot be from thence difeharged from one place ; and therefore, according to
inferred, that the air is at all in a ftate fimilar to the va- the different fituations of thofe ek&rical vents, winds
cuum of an air-pump in thofe places where the aurora may blow in different directions; and thus the fame
borealis is produced;’ feeing we have inftunces of fimi- aurora borealis may produce a fouth-weft wind in the
lar appearances being produced in very denfe air. The Englifh channel, and a north-weft one in Scotland,
plate of an eledtrophoras is often fo highly eleftrified, AURUM. See Gold.
Aurum Fulminant. See Chemistry, n° 356.
Adrum Mofaictmt. See Chemistry, nD 413.
Aurum Regina, queen’s gold. See Queen.
AUSA, a town of Terraconenfis, in the middle
as to throw out fiafhes from different parts as foon as
it is lifted up, and by proper management it may be
always made to emit long and broad flaihes which fhall
fcarcely be felt by the finger, inilead of fmall, denfe,
and pungent fparks; fo that, though long flafhes may age called Aufona ; now Vicb de Ofona, a town of Ca-
be produced in rarefied air, it by no means follows that talonia in Spain. E. Long. 2. N. Lat. 41. 50.
the fame may not alfo be produced in denfer air. As AUSI, an ancient and very favage people of Li-
little can we infer any thing from the colours ; for we bya. Herodotus tells us that they were unacquainted
obferve the eledtric fpark fometimes white, fometimes with marriage, and had all their women in common,
blue, and fometimes purple, in the very fame ftate of The children were brought up by their mothers till
the atmofphere, and from the fame fubftance. they were able to walk: after which, they were intro-
We lhall conclude this article with an account of a duced to an affembly of the men, who met every three
paper prefented to the Royal Society by Mr Winn, in months ; and the man to whom any child firft fpoke,
1772, wherein he fays that the appearance of an au- acknowledged himfelf its father. They celebrated
rora borealis is a certain fign of an hard gale of wind annually a feaft in honour of Minerva, in which the
from the fouth or fouth-weft. This he never found to girls divided into two compauies, fought with fticks
fail in 23 inftances ; and even thinks, that from the and ftones, and thofe who died of their wounds were
fplendor of the meteor, fome judgment may be formed concluded not to have been virgins,
concerning the enfuing tempeft. If the aurora is very AUSIMUM, or Auximum, an ancient Roman co-
bright, the gale will come on within twenty-four hours, Jony in the Picenum ; now Ofimo or Ofmo, in the March
but will be of no long duration ; if the light is faint of Ancona in Italy. E. Long. 15. N. Lat. 43. 20.
and dull,, the gale will be lefs violent, and longer in AUSITiE, or ./Esitje, a tribe of ancient Arabs,
coming on, but will alfo laft longer. His obfervations fuppofed by Bochart to have inhabited the land of Uz
were made in the Eng-liih channel, where fuch winds mentioned in feripture. See Arabia, n0 4.
are very dangerous ; and by attending to the aurorae, AUSONIUS, (in Latin Decius, or rather Dccimus,
be lays he often got eafily out of it, when others nar- Magnus Auionius), one of the heft poets of the fourth
rowly efcaped being wrecked. This is an exceeding century, was the fon of an eminent phylician, and born
ufeful obfervation for failors: but it cannot be expected at Bourdeaux. Great care was taken of his education,
that the winds fucceeding thefe meteors fhould in the whole family interefting themfelves in it, either be-
all places blow from the fouth-weft ; though no doubt caufe his genius was very promifing, or that the fcheme
a careful obfervation of what winds fucceed the aurora of his nativity, which had been caft by his grandfather
borealis, and other meteors, in different parts of the on the mother’s fide, made them imagine that he would
world, might contribute in fome meafure to leffen the rife to great honour. He made an uncommon progref*
dangers of navigation. in clafiical learning, and at the age of 30 was chofen
That the aurora borealis ought to be fucceeded to teach grammar at Bourdeaux. He was promoted
by winds, may be eafily deduced from the hypothefis feme time after to be profeffor of rhetoric; in which
office
A U S [ 921 ] A U T
office he acquired fo great a reputation, that he was
fent for to court to be preceptor to Gratian the em-
. peror Valentinian’s fon. The rewards and honours con¬
ferred on him for the faithful difcharge of his office
prove the truth of Juvenal’s maxim, that when fortune
pleafes fhe can raife a man from a rhetorician to the
dignity of a conftil. He was actually appointed conful
by the emperor Gratian, in the year 379, after having
filled other confiderable ports ; for befides the dignity
of queftor, to which he had been nominated by Valen-
tinian, he was made prefeft of the Praetorium in Italy
and Gaul after that prince’s death. His fpeech re¬
turning thanks to Gratian on his promotion to the con-
fulfhip is highly commended. The time of his death
is uncertain ; he was ftill living in 392, and lived to a
great age. The emperor Theodofius had a great e-
iieem for Aufonius, and preffed him to publifli his
poems. There is a great inequality in his works ; and
in his manners and his ftyle there is a harlhnefs which
was perhaps rather the defefit of the times he lived in,
than of his genius. Had he lived in Auguttus’s reign,
his verfes, according to good judges, would have e-
qualled the moft finiihed of that age. He is generally
fuppofed to have been aChriftian: fome ingenious au¬
thors indeed think otherwife, but, according to Mr
Bayle, without juft reafon. The beft edition of his
poems is that of Amfterdam in 1671.
AUSTERE, rough, afiringent. Thus an auftere
tafte is fuch a one as conftringes the mouth and tongue;
as that of unripe fruits, harfli wines, &c.
AUSTERITY, among moral writers, implies feve-
rity and rigour. Thus we fey, Aujlerity of manners,
aufterities of the vionqfik life. See.
AUSTIN (St). See £/Augustin.
AUSTRAL, fomethingrelating tothefouth: thus
the fix figns on the fouth fide of the equinoftial are called
anftralftgns.
AUSTRIA, one of the principal provinces of the
empire of Germany towards the eaft ; from which fitu-
ation it takes its name Oaft-ryck, in the German lan¬
guage fignifying the Eafi Country. It is bounded on
the north by Moravia ; on the eaft by Hungary ; on
the fouth by Stiria ; and on the weft by Bavaria. It
is divided into Upper and Lower. Upper Auftria is
fituated on the fonth, and Lower Auftria on the north
fide of the Danube. Vienna the capital is in the Up¬
per Auftria, which contains feveral other very confider¬
able towns. The country is very fertile, has a great
many mines, and produces vaft quantities of fulphur.
In the ninth and tenth centuries, Auftria was the
frontier of the empire againft the barbarians. In 928,
the emperor Henry the Fowler, perceiving that it was
of great importance to fettle fome perfon in Auftria
who might oppofe thefe incurfions, inverted Leopold,
furnamed the Illuflrious, with that country. Otho I.
creeled Auftria into a marquifate in favour of his bro¬
ther-in-law Leopold, whofe defeendant Henry II. was
created duke of Auftria by the emperor Frederic Bar-
barofla. His pofterity becoming extinft in 1240, the
ftates of the country, in order to defend themfelves from
the incurfions of the Bavarians and Hungarians, refol ved
to put themfelves under the prote&ion of Henry marquis
of Mifnia ; but Othogar II. king of Bohemia, being
likewife invited by a party in the duchy, took pofieffion
ef it, alleging not only the invitation of the ftates,
but alfo the right of his wife, heirefs of Frederic the
laft duke. The emperor Rodolphus I. pretending a
right to this duchy, refufed to give Othogar the in-
veftiture of it; and afterwards killing him in a battle,
procured the right of it to his own family. From this
Rodolphus the prefent houfe of Auftria is defeended,
which fin- feveral centuries paft has rendered itfelf fi»
famous and fo powerful, having given 14 emperors to
Germany, and fix kings to Spain.
In 1477, Auftria was ere&ed into an archduchy by
the emperor Frederic the Pacific, for his fon Maximi¬
lian, with thefe privileges : That they (hall be judged
to have obtained the inveftiture of the ftates, if they
do not receive it after having demanded it three times ;
that if they receive it from the emperor, or the impe¬
rial ambafladors, they are to be on horfeback, clad in
a royal mantle, having in their hand a ftaff of command,
and upon their head a ducal crown of two points,' and
furroisnded with a crofs like that of the Imperial crown-.
The archduke is born privy-counfellor to the emperor,
and his ftates cannot be put to the ban of the empire.
AM attempts againft his perfon are puniftied as crimes
of lefemajefty, in the fame manner as thofe againft: the
king of the Romans, or Ele&ors. No one dared to
challenge him to fingle combat. It is in his choice to
sffift at the aflemblies, or to be abfent; and he has the
privilege of being exempt from contributions and pu¬
blic taxes, excepting 12 foldiers which he is obliged to
maintain againft the Turk for one month. He has
rankfimmediately after the eledtors; and exercifes juftioe
in his ftates without appeal, by virtue of a privilege
granted by Charles V. His fubje&s cannot even be
fummoned out of his province upon account of law-
fuits, to give vvitnefs, or to receive the inveftiture of
fiefs. Any of the lands of the empire may be alienated
in his favour, even thofe that are feudal; and he has a
right to create counts, barons, gentlemen-, poets, and
notaries. In the fucceffion to his ftates, the right of
birth takes place ; and, failing males, the females fuc-
ceed according to the lineal right; and if no heir be
found, they may difpofe of their lands as they pleafe.
AUTERFOITS acquit. ) c , . , rj
a . ( See the article Plea
Auterfoits Attaint. > . t j-n
A r' ■ n \ to IndtAment.
Auterfoits Convict. _)
AUTHENTIC, fomething of acknowledged and
received authority. In law, it lignifks fomething clo¬
thed in all its formalities, and attefted by perfons to
whom credit has been regularly given. Thus we fay,
authentic papers, authentic inftruments.
AUTHOR, properly fignifies one who created or
produced a ny thing. Thus God, by way of eminence,
is called the Author of .nature, the Author of the univerfe.
Author, in matters of literature, a perfon who has
compofed fome book or writing.
AUTHORITY, in a general fenfe, fignifies a right
to command, and make one’s felf obeyed. In which
fenfe, we fay, the royal authority, the epifcopal autho¬
rity, the authority of a father, &c. It denotes alfo the
teftimony of an author, fome apophthegm or fentence
of an eminent perfon quoted in a difeourfe by way of
proof.
Authority is reprefented, in painting, like a grave
matron fitting in a chair of ftate, richly clothed in a
garment embroidered with gold, holding in her right-
hand a fword, and in her left a feeptre. By her fide
Auftru
Authority.
A U T [92
Auioeh- is a double trophy of books and arms,
thones AUTOCHTHONES, an appellation affumed by
Automaton ^ome nat>ons> importing that they fprung, or were
  produced, from the fame foil which they Hill inhabi¬
ted. In this fenfe, Autochthones amounts to the fame
with Aborigines. The Athenians valued themfelves
on their being Autochthones, felf-born, or
earth-born; it being the prevailing opinion among the
ancients, that, in the beginning, the earth, by fome
prolific power, produced men, as it ftill does plants.
The proper Autochthones were thofe primitive men
who had no other parent befide the earth. But the
name was alfo affumed by the defcendents of thefe men,
provided they never changed their ancient feat, nor
fuffered other nations to mix with them. In this fenfe
it was that the Greeks, and efpecially the Athenians,
pretended to be Autochthones; and, as a badge there¬
of, wore a golden grafshopper woven in their hair, an
infeft fuppofed to have the fame origin.
AUTOCRATOR, a perfon veiled with an abfo-
lute independent power, by which he is rendered un¬
accountable to any other for his a&ions. The power
' of the Athenian generals, or commanders, was ufually
limited ; fo that, at the expiration of their office, they
were liable to render an account of their adminiftra-
tion. But, on fome extraordinary occafions, they
were exempted from this reftraint, and lent with a full
and uncontroulable authority: in which cafe they were
ftiled AvIoKpalopn. The fame people alfo applied the
name to fome of their ambaffadors, who were veiled
with a full power of determining matters according to
their own difcretion. Thefe were denominated np«o-/3e/f
Av1oKf>cchpc(, andrefembled our plenipotentiaries.
AUTO dafe, aft of faith. See Act of Faith.
AUTODIDACTUS, a perfon felf-taught, or who
has had no mailer, or affiftant of his ftudies, befides
himfelf.
AUTOGRAPH, denotes a perfon’s hand-writing,
or the original manufcript of any book, See.
AUTOLITHOTOMUS, he who cuts himfelf for
the Hone. Of this we have a very extraordinary in-
flance given by Reifelius, in the Ephemerides of the
Academy Natura Curiofor.um, dec. 1. an. j. obf. 192.
AUTOMATON, (from uv,®- ipfe, and v*' ex-
citor), a felf-moving machine, or one fo conllrufted, by
means of weights, levers, puliies, &c. as to move for
a confiderable time, as though endued with animal
life. According to this defeription, clocks, watches,
and all machines of that kind, are automata.
Under the article Androides, we obferved that the
highell perfeftion to which automata could be carried
was to imitate exaftly the motions and aftions of living
creatures, efpecially of mankind, which are more dif¬
ficultly imitated than thofe of other animals. Very
furprifing imitations, however, have been made of other
creatures. So long ago as 400 years before Chrill,
Archytas of Tarentum is faid to have made a wooden
pigeon that could fly; nor will this appear at all incre¬
dible, when we confider the flute-player made by M.
Vaucanfon, and the chefs-player by M. Kempell. Dr
Hook is alfo faid to have made the model of a flying
chariot, capable of fupporting itfelf in the air. But
M. Vaucanfon abovementioned hath diftinguilhed him¬
felf ftill more eminently. That gentleman, encour¬
aged by the favourable reception of his flute-player,
] A U T
made a duck, which was capable of eating, drinking, Automat;
and imitating exaftly the voice of a natural one. Nay, A ^
what is ftill more furprifing, the food it fwallowed was u lirn^
evacuated in a digefted ftate ; not that it was really
in the ftate of natural excrement, but only confidera-
bly altered from what it was when fwallowed; and this ;
digeftion was performed on the principles of folution,
not of trituration. The wings, vifeera, and bones,
of this artificial duck, were alfo formed fo as very
ftrongly to refemble thofe of a living animal. Even
in the aftions of eating and drinking, this refemblance
was preferved ; the artificial duck fwallowed with avi¬
dity and vaftly quick motions of the head and throat;
and likewife muddled the water with his bill, exaftly
like a natural one.
M. Le Droz of La Chaux de Fonds in th3 county
of Neufchattel, hath alfo executed fome very curious I!
pieces of mechanifm, which well deferve to be ranked [
with thofe already mentioned. One was a clock, which
was prefented to his Spanilh majefty; and had, among
other curiofities, a ffieep, which imitated the bleating
of a natural one; and a dog watching a baiket of fruit:
when any one attempted to purloin the fruit, the dog
gnaftied his teeth and barked; and if it was aftually
taken away, he never ceafed barking till it was reftored.
Befides this, he made a variety of human figures,
which exhibited motions truely furprifing ; but all in¬
ferior to Mr Kempell’s chefs-player, which may juftly
be looked upon as the greateft mafter-piece in media- 1
nics that ever.appeared. See Androides.
AUTONOMIA, a power of living or being go¬
verned by our own laws and magiftrates. The liberty
of the cities which lived under the faith and protec¬
tion of the Romans, Confifted in their autonomia,
i. e. they were allowed to make their own laws, and
cleft their own magiftrates; by whomjuftice was to be
adminiftered, and not by Roman prefidents or judges,
as was done in other places which were not indulged
the autonomia.
AUTRE-eglise, a village of Brabant, in the
Auftrian Netherlands ; to which the left wing of the
French army extended, when the confederates obtained
the viftory at Ramillies, in 1706. E. Long. 4; 50.
N. Lat. 50. 40.
AUTRICUM, the capital of the Carnutas, a peo- 1
pie of Gallia Celtica ; afterwards called Carnotena,
Carnotenus, and Civitas Carnotenum; now Chartres
in the Orleanois on the Eure. E. Long. 1. 32. N. Lat.
48. 47.
AUTUMN, the third feafon of the year, when the
harveft and fruits are gathered in. Autumn is repre-
fented, in painting, by a man at perfeft age, clothed
like the vernal, and likewife girded with a ftarry gir¬
dle ; holding in one hand a pair of feales equally poi-
fed, with a globe in each ; in the other hand, a bunch
of divers fruits and grap'es. His age denotes the per¬
feftion of this feafon ; and the balance, that fign of the
zodiac which the fun enters when our autumn begins.
Autumn begins on the day when the fun’s meridian
diftance from the zenith, being on the decreafe, is a
mean between the greateft and the leaft ; which in thefe
countries is fuppofed to happen when the fun enters
Libra. Its end coincides with the beginning of win¬
ter. ' Several nations have computed the years by
autumns; the E'nglifti Saxons, by winters. Tacitus
A U X [ 923 ] A X I
.i^tnmnal tells us, the ancient Germans were acquainted with all
t 1! . the other feafons of the year, but had no notion of
n xonne. autunlni Lidyat obferves of the beginning of the fe-
veral feafons of the year, that
Dat Clemens hyemem, dat Petrus ver cathedratus,
JEJluat Urbanus, autumnat Bartholomaus.
Autumn has always been reputed an unhealthy feafpn.
Tertullian calls it tentator valetudinum : and the fatyrift
fpeaks of it in the fame light, Autumnus Libitinee
queejlus acerb#.
AUTUMNAL point, is that part of the equinox
from which the fun begins to defcend towards the fouth
pole.
Autumnal Signs, in aftronomy, are the figns Li¬
bra, Scorpio, Sagittarius, through which the fun paifes
R during the autumn.
Autumnal Equinox, that time when the fun enters
the autumnal point.
I AUTUN, an ancient city of France in the duchy
1 of Burgundy, the capital of the Autonois, with a bi-
fhop’s fee. The length of this city is about three quar¬
ters of a mile, and its breadth nearly equal. The river
Arroux wafhes its ancient walls, whofe ruins are fo firm,
and the (tones fo clofely united, that they feem almoft to
be cut out of the folid rock. In this city are the ruins
of three ancient temples, one of which wras dedicated
to Janus, and another to Diana. Here are likewife a
theatre and a pyramid, which laft is probably a tomb;
it (lands in a place called the field of urns, becaufe fe-
veral urns had been found there. Here are alfo two
antique gates of great beauty. The city lies at the foot
of three great mountains^, in E. Long. 4. 15. N. Lat.
45* 5°-
AUVERGNE, a province of France, about 100
miles in length, and 75 in breadth. It is bounded on
the north, by the Bourbonnois; on the eaft, by Torez
and Velay; on the weft, by Limofin, Quercy, and La
Marche; and on the fouth, by Rovergne and the Ce-
vennes. It is divided into upper and lower; the latter,
otherwife called Limagne, is one of the fined countries
in the world. The mountains of Higher Auvergne
render it lefs fruitful; but they afford good pafture,
which feeds great numbers of cattle, which are the riches
of that country. Auvergne fupplies Lyons and Paris
with fat cattle, makes a Targe quantity of cheefe, and
has manufactures of feveral kinds. The capital of the
whole province is Clermont.
AUXERRE, an ancient town of France in theduchy
of Burgundy, and capital of the Auxerrois, with a
1 bhhop’s fee. The epifcopal palace is one of the fined
in France, and the churches are alfo very beautiful.
This town is advantageoufly fituated for trade with
Paris, on the river Yone. E. Long. 3. 3$. N. Lat.
47- 54-
AUXILIARY, whatever is aiding or helping to
another.
Auxiliary Verbs, in grammar, are fuch as help to
form or conjugate others ; that is, are prefixed to them,
to form or denote the moods or tenfes thereof: as, to have
and to be, in the Englifh; etre and avoir, in the French ;
ho and fono in the Italian, &c. In the Englifti language,
the auxiliary verb am fupplies the want of pafiive verbs.
AUXONNE, a fmall fortified town of France, in
the duchy of Burgundy; feated on the river Saone,
over which there is, a bridge of 23 arches, to facilitate
the running off of the waters after the overflowing of Award
the river. At the end of the bridge is a caufeway I]
2250 paces long. E. Long. 5. 22. N. Lat. 47. 11. xim'
AWARD, in law, the judgment of an arbitrator,
or of one who is not appointed by the law a judge,
but chofen by the parties themlV!ves for terminating
their difference. See Arbiter and Arbitration.
AWL, among fhoemakers, an inftrument wherewith
holes are bored through the leather, to facilitate the
Hitching or fewing the fame. The blade of the awl
is ufually a little fiat and bended, and the point ground
to an acute angle.
AWLAN, a fmall imperial town of Germany, in
the circle of Suabia, feated on the river Kochen. E.
Long. 11. 15, N. Lat. 48. 52.
AWME, or Aume, a Dutch liquid meafure con¬
taining eight fteckans, or 20 verges or verteels, equal
to the tierce in England, or to one fixth of a tun of
France.
AWN, in botany. See Arista.
AWNING, in the fea language, is the hanging a
fail, tarpawling, or the like, over any part of the (hip,
to keep off the fun, rain, or wind.
AX, among carpenters, an inftrument to hew wood.
Battle-See Celt.
AXATI, a town of ancient Baltics, in the Boetis;
now Lora, a fmall city of Andalufia, in Spain, feated
on the Guadalquivir. W. Long. 5. 20. N. Lat. 37.20.
AXBRIDGE, a town of Somerfetftiire in England,
confiding of one long narrow ftreet. W. Long. 2. 20.
N. Lat. 51. 30.
AXEL, a fmall fortified town in Dutch Flanders.
E. Long. 3. 40. N. Lat. 51. 17.
AXENUS. See Euxine Sea.
AXHOLM, an ((land in the north-weft part of Lin-
colnfhire in England. It is formed by the rivers Trent,
Idel, and Dan ; and is about ten miles long and five
broad. The lower part is marftiy, but produces an
odoriferous (hrub called gall; the middle is rich and
fruitful, yielding flax in great abundance, as alfo ala-
bafter which is ufed for making lime. The principal
town is called Axey, and is now very thinly inhabited.
AXIACE, an ancient town of Sarmatia Europea;
now Oxakoou, the capital of Budziac Tartary. E.
Long. 32. 30. N. Lat. 46. o.
AXILLA, in anatomy, the arm-pit, or the cavity
under the upper part of the arm.
AXILLARY, fomething belonging to or lying
near the axilla. Thus, axillary artery is that part of
the fubclavian branches of the afeending trunk of the
aorta which paffeth under the arm-pits; axi:’ry
glands are fituated under the arm-pits, enveloped in
fat, and lie clofe by the axillary veffels ; and axillary
vein is one of the fubclavians which paffes under the
arm-pit, dividing itfeif into fevcral branches, which,
are fpread over the arm.
AXIM, a fmall territory on the gold-coaft in Africa.
The climate here is fo exceffively moift, that it is pro¬
verbially faid to rain 11 months and 29 days of the
year. This exceffive moifture renders it very unheal¬
thy; but it produces great quantities of rice, water me¬
lons, lemons, oranges, &c. Here are alfo produced
vaft numbers of black cattle, goats, (heep, tame pi¬
geons, &c. The whole country is filled with beau iful
and populous villages, and the intermediate lands well
cultivated;
A X I [924 ] A Y L
cultivated; befides which, the natives are very wealthy,
from the conftant traffick carried on with them by the
Europeans for their gold. The capital, which is alfo
called Axim, by fome Ackombone, Hands under the can¬
non of the Dutch fort St Antonio. Behind, it is fecu-
red by a thick wood that covers over the whole declivity
of a neighbouring hill. Between the town and the fea
runs an even and fpacious fhore of beautiful white fahd.
All the houfes are feparated by groves of cocoa and
other fruit trees, planted in parallel lines, each of an
equal width, and forming an elegant villa. The little
river Axim crofles the town ; and the coaft is defended
by a number of final! pointed rocks, which projeft
from the Ihore, and render all accefs to it dangerous.
The capital is fituated in W. Long. 24. o. N. Lat. 5. o.
This canton is a kind of republic, the goverment
being divided between the Caboceroes or chief men,
and Manaeeroes or young men. It mull be obferved,
however, that in their courts there is not even a pre¬
tence of juftice: whoever makes the moft valuable pre-
i'ents to the judges is fure to gaiii his caufe, the judges
themfelves alleging the gratitude due for the bribes re¬
ceived, as a reafon ; and if both parties happen to
make prefents of nearly equal value, they abfolutely
refufe to give the caufe a hearing.
AXIOM, in philofophy, any plain, felf-evident, and
received notion, that cannot be made more plain and
evident by demonftration. It is alfo an eftabliihed
principle in fome art or fcience.
AXIOPOLIS, a town of the Triballi in Mcefia In¬
ferior ; now Axiopoli, in Bulgaria. E. Long. 34. o.
N. Lat. 45. 40.
AXIS, in geometry, the ftraight line in a plain fi¬
gure, about which it revolves, to produce or generate
a folk!; thus if a femicircle be moved round its dia¬
meter at reft, it will generate a fphere, the axis pf
which is that diameter.
Axis, in allronomy, is an. imaginary right line fup-
pofed to pafs through the centre of the earth, and the
heavenly bodies, about which they perforin their diur¬
nal revolutions.
Axis, in conic-fedlions, a right line dividing the fec-
tion into two equal parts, and cutting all its ordinates
at right angles.
Axis, in mechanics. The axis of a balance is that
line about which it moves, or rather turns about. Axis
of ofcillation is a right line parallel to the horizon,
pafling through the centre about which a pendulum
vibrates.
Axis in Peritrochiq, one of the fix mechanical powers,
confifting of a peritrochium or wheel concentric with
the bafe of a cylinder, and moveable together with it
about its axis.
Axis, in optics, is that particular ray of light co¬
ming from any objeft which falls perpendicularly on
the eye.
Axis, in archite&ure. Spiral axis, is the axis of
a twifted column drawn fpirally in order to trace the
circumvolutions without. Axis of the Ionic capital, is
a line pafling perpendicularly through the middle of
the eye of the volute.
Axis of a Vejfel, is an imaginary right line pafling
through the middle of it perpendicularly to its bafe,
and equally diftant from its fides.
Axis, in botany, is a taper column placed in the
centre of fome flowers or catkins, about which the 0-
ther parts are difpofed.
Axis, in anatomy, the name of the fecond verte¬
bra of the neck; it hath a tooth which goes into the
firft vertebra, and this tooth is by fome called the axis.
AXLE. See Axis.
AXMINSTER, a town of Devonftiire, fituatedon
the river Ax, in the great road between London and
Exeter, in W. Long. 3. 15. N. Lat. 50.40. It was
a place of fome note in the time of the Saxons, but now
contains only about 200 houfes. Here is a fmall ma-
nufa&ory of broad and narrow cloths, and fome car¬
pets are alfo manufadlured after the Turky manner.
AXUMA, formerly a large city, and capital of the
whole kingdom of Abyflinia in Africa, but now redu¬
ced to a miferable village fcarce containing 100 inhabi¬
tants. E. Long. 36. 4. N. Lat. 14. 13.
AXUNGIA, in a general fenfe, denotes old lard, or
the drieft and hardeft of any fat in the bodies of ani¬
mals i but more properly it fignifies only hogs-lard *.
AxuNGiiij Vitri, Sandiver, or Salt of Glass, a
kind of fait which feparates from the glafs while it is in
fufion. It is of an acrimonious and biting tafte. The
farriers ufe it for cleanfing the eyes of horfes. It is alfo
made ufe of for cleanfing the teeth; and it is fometimes
applied to running ulcers, the herpes, or the itch, by
way of deficcative.
AXYRIS, a genus of the triandria order, belong¬
ing to the moncecia clafs of plants; of which there are
four fpecies, but none of them merit a particular de-
fcription.
AY, a town of France in Champagne, near the ri¬
ver Marne, remarkable for its. excellent wines. E. Long.
2. 15. N. Lat. 49. 4.
AYAMONTE, a fea-port town of Andalufia in
Spain, with a ftrong caftle built on a rock; feated on
the mouth of the river Guadiana. It has a commo¬
dious harbour, fruitful vineyards, and excellent wine.
W. Long. 8. 5. N. Lat. 37. 9.
AYENIA, in botany, a genus of the pentandria
order, belonging to the gynandria clafs of plants.
There are three fpecies, all natives of the Weft Indies.
AYLMER (John), bifhop of London, in the reign
of queen Elizabeth, was born in the year 1521, at Ayl-
mer-hall in the parifh of Tilney, in the county of Nor¬
folk. Whilfta boy, he was diftinguiftied for his quick
parts by . the Marquis of Dorfet afterwards duke of
Suffolk ; who fent him to Cambridge, made him his
chaplain, and tutor to his children. One of thefe
children was the unfortunate lady Jane Gray, who
foon became perfeftly acquainted with the Latin and
Greek languages. His firft preferment was to the
archdeaconry of Stow in the diocefe of Lincoln, which
gave him a feat in the convocation held in the firft
year of Queen Mary, where he refolutely oppofed the
return to popery, to which the generality of the clergy
were inclined. He was foon after obliged to fly his
country, and take fhelter among the Proteftants in
Switzerland. On the acceffion of Queen Elizabeth, he
returned to England. In 1562, he obtained the arch¬
deaconry of Lincoln; and was a member of the famous
fynod of that year, which reformed and fettled the
do&rine and difcipline of the church of England. In
the year 1576, he was confecrated biftiop of London.
He died in the year 1594, aged 73; and was buried in
* See Mt
Medica,
n°147.
!
A Z A [ 925 ] A Z 1
/A Ayry St Paul’s. He was a learned man, a zealous father of AZAI, a town of Touraine in France, feated on the -Azai
the church, and a bitter enemy to the Puritans. He
_1_ publifhed a piece entitled, An harl'oro'we for faithful
and trenve fubjefti againft the late bldnune hlafle concern¬
ing the government of nuemen, &c. This was written,
whilft he was abroad, in anfwer to Knox, who pu¬
blifhed a book at Geneva under this title, Tke firf hlajl
againji the monflrout regiment and empire of •women.
He is, by Strype, fuppofed to have publifhed lady
Jane Gray’s letter to Harding. He alfo aflifted Fox
in trandating his Hiflory of Martyrs into Latin.
AYRY, or Aery, of Hawks, a neft or company of
hawks; fo called from the old French word aire, which
figniiied the fame.
AYSCUE (Sir George), a gallant Englifh admiral,
defcended from a good family in Lincolnfhire. He ob¬
tained the honour of knighthood from king Charles I.
which however did not withhold him from adhering to
the parliament in the civil war: he was by them con-
ftituted admiral of the Irifh feas, where he is faid to
have done great fervice fo t’he proteftant intereft, and
to have contributed much to the reduftion of the whole
ifland. In x6?) he reduced Barbadoes and Virgi¬
nia, then held for the king, to the obedience of the
parliament; and foon after the reftoration behaved with
great honour in the war with the Dutch. In the fa¬
mous engagement in the beginning of June 1666, when
Sir George was admiral of the white fq'uadron, his
fhip the Royal Prince ran upon the Gallop-fand;
where being furrounded with enemies, his men obliged
him to ftrike. Fie went no more to fea after this, but
fpent the reft of his days in retirement.
AYMOUTH, a town of Scotland in the county of
Mers, formerly fortified to curb the garrifon of Ber¬
wick, from which place it is diftant fix miles. W. Long.
1. 50. N. Lat. 55. 50.
AZAB, in the Turkifh armies, a diftindl body of
foldiery, who are great rivals of the Janizaries.
AZALEA, UrttiGHT Honeysuckle, or RosE-
bay, a genus of the monogynia order, belonging to
the pentandria clafs of plants. There are fix fpecies,
of which the moft remarkable are the following. 1. The
vifcofa, with a white flower, is a low-fhrub, arifing
with'feveral ftems to the height of two or three feet.
The leaves come out in clufters without any order at
the end of the {hoofs, and their edges are fet with very
ftiort teeth which are rough. The flowers come out
in clufters between the leaves, have much the appear¬
ance of honeyfuck-le, and are as well fcented. 2. The
nudiflora, or red American upright honeyfuckle, grows
taller than the firft; and in its native country will fome-
times arrive at the height of 12 feet, but in Britain never
rifes to above half that -height. It hath feveral ftems
with oblong fmooth leaves. The flOwer-ftalks arife
from the divifion of the branches, which are long and
naked, fupporting a clufter of red flowers; thefe are
divided at the top into five equal fegments which fpread
open. Another fpecies with bright red flowers was
found by Mr Lightfoot upon the tops of many moun¬
tains in the highlands of Scotland.—The firft two fpe¬
cies require a moift foil and a fandy (ituation, and can
only be propagated from flips, as they never produce
good feeds in Britain. The autumn is the beft time
to remove the plants, and their roots ought to be co¬
vered in winter.
VOL.' II.
river Indre. E. Long. 10. 35. N. Lat. 47. 18. . 11
AZAMOR, a fmall fea-port town of the kingdom Azimulh‘
of Morocco in Africa, formerly very confiderable, but
ruined by the Portuguefe in 1513. W. Long. 7. o.
N. Lat. 32. 50.
AZARAKITES, a fefl of Mahometan Arabs *. * Sec Am-
AZARIAH, or Uzziah, king of Judah, fucceeded ^ta' n° *43,
his father Amaziah, 810 years before Chrift. He af-
fembled an army of above 300,000 men, with which
he conquered the Philiftines, and demoliftied the walls
of Gath, Jabniel, and Aftidod; built up the walls of
Jerufalem; furniftied the city with conduits; and planted
gardens and vineyards: but at laft, being elated with
his profperity, and refolving to ufurp the office of
high prieft, he was {truck with a leprofy, which obli¬
ged him to remain {hut up in his palace for the reft of
his days. He died about 759 years before the Chriitian
asra, and was fucceeded by Jonathan his fon.—There
are ftveral other peffons of this name mentioned in the
facred Scriptures.
AZAZEL. This word relates to the ceremony of
the fcape-goat, under the Jewiih religion. Some call
the goat itfelf by this name, as St Jerom and Theodo-
doret. Dr Spencer fays, the fcape-goat was to be
fent to Azazel; by which is meant the devil. Mr le
Clerc tranflates it pracipitium, making it to be that
fteep and inacceffible place to which the goat was fent,
and where it was fuppofed to perifli.
AZEM, Asem, Assam, or Acham, a country of
Alia to the north of Ava, but which is very little
known to Europeans. It is faid to be very fertile,
and to contain mines of gold, filver, iron, and lead,
all which belong to the king, who, in coniequence of
enjoying the produce, requires no taxes from his peo¬
ple. They have alfo great quantities of gum lac, and
coarfe filk. It is alfo thought that the inhabitants of
Azem were long ago the inventors of cannon and gun¬
powder ; and that from them the invention paft to the
inhabitants of Pegu, and from thence to the Chinefe.
AZIMUTH, in aftronomy, an arch of the horizon,
intercepted between the meridian of the place and the
azimuth, or vertical circle palling through the cen¬
tre of the objedt, which is equal to the angle of the
zenith, formed by the meridian and vertical circle : or
it is found by this proportion, As the radius to the
tangent of the latitude of the place, fo is the tangent
of the fun’s or ftar’s altitude, for inftance, to the co¬
fine of the azimuth from the fouth, at the time of the
equinox.
Magnetical Azimuth, an arch of the horizon inter¬
cepted betweeri the azimuth, or vertical circle, paffing
thro’ the centre of any heavenly body, and the magne¬
tical meridian. This is found by obferving the- objedt
with an azimuth-compafs.
Az\MUTH-Compafs, an inftrument for finding either
the magnetical azimuth or amplitude of an heavenly
objedt.
The learned Dr Knight invented fome time fince a
very accurate and ufeful fea-compafs, which is at pre-
fent ufed in the navy, and will be defcribed under the
article Compass. This inftrument, with the follow¬
ing contrivance added by the ingenious Mr Smeaton,
anfwers the purpofes of an azimuth and amplitude
compafs.
6 A The
A Z 1 [926
Azimuth The cover of the wooden box being taken off, the
comnafs. compafs ;s Jn a condition to be made ufe of in the bin¬
nacle, when the weather is moderate : but if the fea runs
high, as the inner box is hung very free upon its cen¬
tre, (the better to anfwer its other purpofes), it will be
neceffary to flacken the milled nut, placed upon one of
the axes that fupport the ring, and to lighten the nut
on the outfide that correfponds to it. By this means,
the inner box and ring will be lifted up from the edges,
upon which they reft, when free; and the fri&ion will
be increafed, and that to any degree neceffary, to pre¬
vent the too great vibrations, which otherwife would
be occafioned by the motion of the {hip.
To make the compafs ufeful in taking the magnetic
azimuth or amplitude of the fun and ftars, as alfo the
bearings of headlands, (liips, and other objefts at adi-
ftance, the brafs edge, defigned at firft; to fupport the
card, and throw the weight thereof as near the circum¬
ference as poffible, is itfelf divided into degrees and
halves; which maybe eafilyeftimated into fmallerparts,
if neceffary. The divifions are determined by means of
a cat-gut line, ftretched perpendicularly with the box,
as near the brafs edge as may be, that the parallax, a-
rifing from a different pofstion of the obferver, maybe
as little as poffible.
Underneath the card are two fmall weights. Aiding
on two wires, placed at right angles to each other;
which being moved nearer to, or farther from, the
centre, counterbalance the dipping of the card in dif¬
ferent latitudes, or reftore the equilibrium of it, where
it happens by any other means to begot too much out
of level.
There is alfo added an index at the top of the inner
box, which may be put on and taken off at pleafure ;
and ferves for all altitudes of the object. It confifts of
a bar, .equal in length to the diameter of the inner box,
each end being furniftied with a perpendicular ftile,
with a Ait parallel to the Ades thereof: one of the Aits
is narrow, to which the eye is applied; and the other
is wider, with a fmal! cat-gut ftretched up the middle
of it, and from thence continued horizontally from the
top of one ftile to the top of the other. There is alfo
a line drawn along the upper furface of the bar. Thefe
four, viz. the narrow Ait, the horizontal cat-gut
thread, the perpendicular one, and the line on the
bar, are in the fame plane, which difpofes itfelf per¬
pendicular to the horizon, when the inner box is at
reft, and hangs free. This index does not move round,
but is always placed on, fo as to anfwer the fame Ade
of the box.'
When the fun’s azimuth is defired, and his rays are
ftrong enough to caft a ftiadow, turn about the wooden
box, till the fhadow of the horizontal thread, or (if
the fun be too low) till that of the perpendicular
thread, in one ftile, or the light through the Ait on
the other, falls upon the line in the index bar, or vi¬
brates to an equal diftance on each fide of it, gently
touching the box, if it vibrates too far : obferve, at the
fame time, the degree marked upon the brafs edge by
the cat-gut line. In counting the degree for the azi¬
muth, or any other angle that is reckoned from the
meridian, make ufe of the outward circle of figures up¬
on the brafs edge; and the fituation of the index bar,
with regard to the card and needle, will always direct
upon what quarter of the compafs the objeft is placed.
] A Z M
But if the fun does .not ftiine out fufliciently ftrong, Azimuthi
place the eye behind the narrow Ait in one of the ftiles, Azrncr-j
and turn the wooden box about, till fome part of the
horizontal, or perpendicular thread appears to interfecl
the centre of the fun, or vibrate to an equal diftance on
each fide of it, ufing fmoked glafs next the eye, if the
fun’s light is too ftrong. In this method, another ob¬
ferver will be generally neceffary, to note the degree
cut by the nonius, at the fame time that the firft gives
notice that the thread appears to fplit the objeft.
From what has been faid, the other obfervations will
be eafily performed : only, in cafe of the fun’s ampli¬
tude, take care to number the degree by the help of the
inner circle of figures on the card, which are the Com¬
plements of the outer to 90" ; and, confequently, (hew
the diftance from eaft to weft.
The azimuth of the ftars may alfo be obferved by
night; a proper light ferving equally for one obferver
to fee the thread, and the other the degree upon the card.
It may not be amifs to remark farther, that, in cafe
the inner box ftiould lofe its equilibrium, and, confe¬
quently, the index be out of the plane of a vertical
circle, an accurate obfervation may ftill be made, pro¬
vided the fun’s ftiadow is diftinft ; for, by obferving
firft with one end of the index towards the fun, and
then the other, a mean of the two obfervations will be
the truth.
Plate LV. fig. 3. is a perfpe&ive view of the
compafs, when in order for obfervation; the point of
view being the centre of the card, and the diftance of
the eye two feet. A B is the wooden box. C and D
are two milled nuts ; by means whereof the axis of the
inner box and ring are taken from their edges, on which
they move, and the friftion increafed, .when neceffary.
E F is the ring that fupports the inner box. G H is
the inner box ; and I is one of its axes, by which it is
fufpended on the ring E F. The magnet or needle
appears pafiing through the centre, together with a
fmall brace of ivory, that confines the cap to its place.
The card is a Angle varnilhed paper, reaching as far as
the outer circle of figures, which is a circle of thin
brafs ; the edge whereof is turned down at right angles
to the plane of the card, to make it more ftiff. O is
a cat-gut line, drawn down the infide of the box, for
determining the degree upon the brafs edge. PQRS
is the index bar, with its two ftiles and cat-gut threads;
which being taken off from the top of the box, is pla¬
ced in two pieces, T and V, notched properly to re¬
ceive it. W is a place cut out in the wood, ferving as
an handle.
Azimuth Circles, called alfo azimuths, or vertical
circles, are great circles of the fphere interfering each
other in the zenith and nadir, and cutting the horizon
at right angles.—Thefe azimuths are reprefented by
the rhumbs on common fea-charts, and on the globe
they are reprefented by the quadrant of altitude, when
fere wed in the zenith. On thefe azimuths is reckoned
the height of the ftars and of the fun when not in the
meridian.
AZMER, a town of the Eaft Indies in the domi¬
nions of the Great Mogul, capital of a province of the
fame name, with a very ftrong caftle. It is pretty
large, and is fometimes vifited by the Mogul himfelf.
It is about 62 leagues diftant from Agra. The princi¬
pal trade of this province is in falt-petre.
AZOGA
A Z U
AZOGA ships, are thofe Spanifh {hips commonly
called the quick-Jilver Jhips, from their carrying quick-
filver to the Spanifh Weft Indies, in order to extraft
the filver out of the mines of Mexico and Peru. Thefe
{hips, ftri&ly fpeaking, are not to carry any goods un-
kfs for the king of Spain’s account.
AZONI, in ancient mythology, a name applied by
the Greeks to fuch of the gods as were deities at large,
not appropriated to the vvorfltip of any particular town
or country ; but acknowledged in general by all coun¬
tries, and worfhipped by every nation. Thefe the La¬
tins called dii communes. Of this fort were the Sun,
Mars, Luna, &c.
AZORES, iHands in the Atlantic ocean, lying be¬
tween 25 and 33 degrees of weft longitude, and be¬
tween 36 and 40 degrees of north latitude. They be¬
long to the Portuguefe, and are alfo called the <wejiern
ijles, on account of their fituation. They were difco-
vered by the Flemings in the 15th century. They are
feven in number, viz. Tercera, St Michael’s, St Ma¬
ry’s, Graciofa, St George’s Ifland, Pico, and Fayal *.
AZOTH, in ancient chemiftry, the firft matter of
metals, or the mercury of a metal; more particularly
that which they call the mercury of philojbphers, which
they pretended to draw from all forts of metallic bodies.
AZOTUS, Azoth, or Ashdod, one of the five
cities of the Philiftines, and a celebrated fea-port on
the Mediterranean, fituated about 14 or 15 miles fouth
of Ekron, between that and Afcalon. It was in this
city that the idol Dagon fell down before the ark; and
fo ftrong a place it was, if we may believe Herodotus,
that it fuftained a fiege of 29 years by Pfammiticus
king of Egypt. It was, however, taken by the Macca¬
bees in a much {hortertime; who burnt both city and
temple, and with them about 8000 men.
AZURE, in a general fenfe, the blue colour of the
{ley. See Sky and Blue.
Azure, among painters. This word, which at pre-
fent fignifies in general a fine blue colour, was formerly
appropriated to Lapis Lazuli, called azure Jlone, and
to the blue prepared from it. But fince a blue has
been extrafted from cobalt, cuftom has applied to it
the name of azure, although it differs confiderably
• from the former, and is incapable of being ufed for the
fame purpofes, and particularly for painting in oil.
A Z Y
The former at prefent is called lapis lazuli, or only A
lapis; and the blue prepared from it for painting in oil, ^
is called ultramarine.—The name azure is generally ap- '
plied to the blue glafs made from the earth of cobalt
and vitrifiable matters. This glafs, which is called fmalt
when in maffes, is called azure only when it is reduced
to a fine powder. Several kinds of azure are diftin-
guifhed, according to its degrees of beauty, by the
names of fine azure, powdered azure, and azure of
four fires. In general, the more intenfe the colour,
and the finer the powder, the more beautiful and dear
it is. Azure is employed to colour ftarch ; hence it
has alfo been calledIt is ufed for painting
with colours, and for a blue enamel.
Azure, in heraldry, the blue colour in the arms of
any perfon below the rank of a baron. In the efcut-
cheon of a nobleman, it is czWcAfapphire ; and in that
of a fovereign prince, Jupiter. In engraving, this co¬
lour is expreffed by lines or ftrokes drawn horizontally.
—This colour may lignify Juftice, Perfeverance, and
Vigilance ; but according to G. Leigh, if it is com¬
pounded with
Or 1 f Cheerfulnefs.
Arg. j S' j Vigilance.
Gul. Lot5] Readinefs.
Ver. | 2.1 Enterprife.
Pur. ; % l Goodnefs.
Sab. j Mournfulnefs.
French Heralds, M. Upton, and his followers, rank
this colour before gules.
AZYGOS, in anatomy, a vein riling within the
thorax, on the right fide, having no fellow on the left j
whence it is called agygos, or vena fine pari *. * Se
AZYMITES, in church-hiftory, Chriftians who ad- ^
minifter the eucharift with unleavened bread. The
word is formed from the Greek, « priv. and ?«<“» fer¬
ment.—This appellation is given to the Latin by the
Greek church, becaufe the members of the former ufe
fermented bread in the celebration of the eucharift.
They alfo call the Armenians and Maronites by the
fame name, and for the fame reafon.
AZYMOUS, fomething unfermented,or made with¬
out leaven ; as unleavened bread. Sea-biflcet is of this
kind ; and therefore, according to Galen, lefs whole-
fome than bread that has been fermented.
[ 927 1
B.
T> THE fecond letter of the Englirtt and moft
■^5 other alphabets. It is the firft confonant, and
firft mute, and in its pronunciation is fuppofed to re¬
ferable the bleating of a Iheep; upon which account
Pierius tells us in his hieroglyphics, that the Egyptians
reprefented the found of this letter by the figure of
that animal.
B is alfo one of thofe letters which the eaftern gram¬
marians call labial, becaufe the principal organs em¬
ployed in its pronunciation are the lips. It is pronoun¬
ced by preffing the whole length of them together,
and forcing them open with a ftrong breath. It has a
near affinity with the other labials P and V, and is often
ufed for P both by the Armenians and other orien¬
tals, as in Betrus for Petrus, apfens for abfens, 8cc.;
and by the Romans for V, as in amabit for amavit,
berna for verna, &c. whence arofe that jeft of Aurelian
on the emperor Bonofus, Nonut vivatnatus ejl,fedut
bibat.
Plutarch obferves, that the Macedonians chan¬
ged * into B, and pronounced Bilip, Beronice,
&c. for Philip,' Pheronice, &c.; and thofe of Del-
6 A 2 phos
!
BAA [ 928 ] BAB
Baal. phps ufed B inftead of rij as/5«0£iv for/3i*pov for
?riapoV, &c.—The Latins faid fuppono, oppono, for fub-
pono, obpono; and pronounced optinuit, though they
wrote (jbtinuit, as Quintilian has obferved.—They al-
fo ufed B for F or PH : thus, in an ancient infcription
mentioned by Gruter, Obrendario is ufed for Ofren-
dario.
As a numeral, B was ufed by the Greeks and ue-
brevvs to denote 2 ; but among the Romans for 300,
and with a dalh over it (thus b) for 3000.
B is alfo ufed as an abbreviation. Thus B. A. ftands
for bachelor of arts ; B. L. for bachelor of laws ; and
B. D. for bachelor of divinity. B. F. in the preface
to the decrees or fenatus-confulta of the old Romans fig-
nified bonum fattum. In mufic, B ftands for the tone
above A ; as Bb, or bB, does for B flat, or thefemi-
tone major above A. B alfo ftands for bafs; and B. C.
for bajjb continuo, or thorough bafs.
BAAL, the fame as Bel, or Belus ; an idol of
the Chaldeans, and Phoenicians, or Canaanites. The
former worftiipped Mars under this name, according to
* AntiquU. Jofephus * ; who, fpeaking of Thurus the fuccefibr of
Jib. viii. Ninus, fays, “ To this Mars the Aflyri'ans ere&ed the
ca?' 7‘ firft ftatue, and worftiipped him as a god, calling him
Baal.” It is probable the Phoenicians worfhipped the
fun under the name of Baal; for Jofiah, willing to
make fome amends for the wickednefs of Manafleh, in
worlhipping Baal and all the hoft of heaven, pat to
death the idolatrous pripjls that burnt incenfe unto Baal,
to the fun, and to the moon, and to the planets, and to
all the hojl of heaven. He likenxiife took away the horfes
that the kings of Judah had given to the fun, and burnt
t Z King* the chariots of the fun with fire f.
xstm. 11. The temples confecrated to this god, are called in
the Scripture Chamanim, which fignifies places inclofed
with walls, in which was kept a perpetual fire. Maund-
rell, in his journey from Aleppo to Jerufalem, obferved
fome traces of thefe inclofures in Syria. In moft of
them were no ftatues ; in a few there were fome, but
of no uniform figure.
The word baal (in the Punic language), fignifies
lord or majler; and doubtlefs meant the fupreme Deity,
the Lord and Mafter of the univerfe. It is often joined
with the name of fome falfe god, as Baal-berith, Baal-
peor, Baal-zephon, and the like. This deity pafled
from the Phoenicians to the Carthaginians, who were
a colony of the Phoenicians ; as appears from the Car¬
thaginian names Hannibal, Afdrubal, &c. according
to the cuftom of the eaft, where kings and great men
added to their own names thofe of their gods.
This falfe deity is frequently mentioned in Scripture
in the plural number {Baalini)-. which may fignify, ei¬
ther that the name Baal was given to feveral different
gods ; or that there were many ftatues, bearing differ¬
ent appellations, confecrated to this idol. Arnobius
tells us, that Baal was of an uncertain fex; and that his
votaries, when they .called upon him, invoked him
thus: Hear us, whether thou art a god or a goddefs. .
Some learned men think, that the Baal of the Phoe¬
nicians is the Saturn of the Greeks ; which is probable
enough from the conformity there is between the hu¬
man facrifices offered to Saturn, and thofe which the
Scripture tells us were offered to Baal. Others are of
opinion, that,Baal was the Phoenician or Tyrian Her¬
cules, a god of great antiquity in Phoenicia.
Baa,l-berith, the god of the Shechemites. Bo-
chart c'oujeflures, that Berith is 'the fam.e as Beroe,
the daughter of Venus and Adonis, wdro was given in
marriage to Bacchus; and that ihe gave her name to
the city of Berith in Phoenicia, and became afterwards
the goddefs of it. Baal-berith fignifies Lord of the co¬
venant, and may be taken for the god who prefides over
alliances and oaths, in like manner as the Greeks had
their Zsuf and the Romans their Deus Fidius, or
Jupiter Piflius. The idolatrous Ifraelites, we are told,
?nade Baal-berith their god, Judg. viii. 33.
Baal-peor, Baal-phegor, or Beel-phegor, an idol of
the Moabites and Midianites. We are told, that If-
rael joined himfelf to Baal-peor ; and that Solomon e-
redfed an altar to this idol upon the mount of Olives.
Baal-peor has been fuppofed to be no other than a
Priapus, and that the worfhip of him confifted in the
moft obfeene practices. Others have thought, that,
as Baal is a general name fignifying Lord, Peor may
be the name of fome great prince deified after his
death. Mede imagines, that, Peor being the name of
a mountain in the country of Moab, on which the tem¬
ple of Baal was built, Baal-peor may be only another
name of that deity, taken from the fituation of his
temple ; in like manner as Jupiter is ftyled Olympias,
becaufe he was worftiipped in a temple built on mount
Olympus. Selden, who is of this latter opinion, eon-
jediures likewife, that Baal-peor is the fame with Pluto;
which he grounds upon thefe words of the Pfalmift *, '
They joined themjelves unto Baal-peor, and eat the of-
ferings of the dead; though by the facrifices or offerings
of the dead, in this paffage, may be meant no more than
facrifices or offerings made to idols, or falfe gods, who
are very properly called the dead, in contradiftindfion to
the true God, who is ftyled in Scripture the living God.
Baal-zebub, Beel-zebub, or Belzebub; the idol, or
god, of the Ekronites. In Scripture he is called the
Prince of Devils. His name is rendered the Lord of
Flies, or the God-fly, which fome think was a mock ap¬
pellation beftowed on him by the Jews. He had a fa¬
mous temple and oracle at Ekron. Ahaziah king of
Ifrael, having fallen from the terrafs of his houfe into
a lower room, and being dangeroufly hurt, fent to con-
fult this deity, to know if he ftiould be cured of his
wounds. The worfhip of this falfe god muft have pre¬
vailed in our Saviour’s time, fince the Jews accufed him
of driving out devils in the name of Belzebub their
prince. Scaliger derives the name of this deity from
Baalim-zebahim, which fignifies the Lord of facrifices.
BABEL, a city and tower undertaken to be built
by the whole human race foon after the flood, and re¬
markable for the miraculous fruftration of the attempt
by the confufion of languages. As to the fituation of
ancient Babel, moft authors are of opinion that it was
exactly in the place where the celebrated city of Ba¬
bylon afterwards ftood. That it was in the fame coun¬
try, appears indifputably from Scripture; but that it
was exadUy in the fame place is what cannot be proved,
nor is it a matter of any confequence.
Authors have been much divided about the motive
by which the whole race of mankind were induced to
join as one man in fuch an undertaking. Some have
imagined that it was out of fear of a fecond deluge ;
others, that they knew beforehand that they were to be
difperfed through all the different countries of the world,
and
Baal,
Babtl.
Vjalm cviJS
BAB [ 929 ] BAB
and built this tower in order to defeat the defign BABEL-MANDEL, the gate of mourning; a Babel,
of the Deity, becaufe having a tower of fuch vaft famous (trait in the Indian ocean, between the coaft of Babington«
height as they propofed, thofe who were at a diftance Arabia Felix in Afia, and that of Adel and Zeila in
could eafily find their way back again. Had either of Africa, at the entrance into the Red Sea. By fome it
thefe been their defign, however, it is probable they is alfo called the Straits of Moka. It is narrow, and
would have chofen an eminence rather than a plain for difficult to fail through, on account of the fand-banks.
the filtration of their tower, or indeed that they would At the mouth of the {trait is a fmall ifiand called alfo
have chofen fome high mountain fuch as Ararat for Babel-Mandel, which is little elfe than a barren-rock,
their mark, rather than any tower at all: for though E. Long. 44. 30. N. Lat. 12. 40.
it is faid that they defigned the top of their tower to BABENHAUSEN, a town of Germany in Suabia.
reach to heaven, we can fcarce fuppofe them to have E. Long. 9. 16. N. Lat. 48. 39.
been fo abfurd, as to imagine this poffible, in the fenfe BABIN A, (Commomuealtk of); a'fociety Judi-
we underftand it ; and muft therefore rather take it in crouily fo called, which was founded in Poland in the
the limited fenfe in which it is often ufed by Mofesand reign of Sigifmund-Auguftus, in the 16th century. It
his countrymen, where they fpeak of cities walled up took its rile from a fet of gentlemen, , inhabitants of
to heaven. Others there are- who imagine that the top Lublin, who had agreed to meet at a place called Ba-
of this tower was not to reach up to heaven, but to be bina, merely for the purpofesof mirth and jollity. In
confecrated to the heavens, i. e. to the worfliip of the time their number increafed, and they formed them-
fun, moon, and ftars ; of the fire, air, &c. and other felves into a regular government, under the prefidency
natural powers as deities ; and therefore that the true of a king, fenate, and chief magiftrates. The magi-
Deity interpofed in order to prevent a total and irreco- ftrates were ele&ed from fomething which appeared ri-
verable defedtion. Certain it is, that the fpecies of diculous in the chara&er or conduct of any of the mem-
idolatry which takes for the objects of its worfhip thofe bers. For inftance, if any perfon was meddling or of-
natural agents, as it is the moil ancient, fo it is by far ficious, he was immdiately created an archbiffiop; a
the mod rational, and the moil difficult to be difproved. blundering or difputatious member, was promoted to
It is much more difficult, for inilance, to prove that the the fpeaker’s chair; a boailer of his own courage, and
fun, which by his enlivening beams gives vigour to the vain-glorious Thrafo, was honoured with the commif-
whole creation, is not a deity, than that a log of wood fion of generaliffimo, which was prefented him with
is not one ; and hence, if fuch a fyilem of religion be- great ceremony by the fubordinate heroes. Thofe who
came univerfally eilabliffied among mankind, it would declined the office for which they were declared quali-
be impoffible ever afterwards to eradicate it. Indeed fied, were perfecuted with hillings, and abandoned by
that the fcheme at Babel, whatever it was, could have the fociety. Thus every vice and every foible was at-
been put in execution by man, feems evident from the tacked with ridicule; and Babina became, in a fhort
interpofition of the Deity on the occafion ; for we can- time, the terror, the admiration, and the reformer, of
not fuppofe that he would have worked a miracle on the Polifir nation: genius flourifhed, wit was cultiva-
purpofe to defeat that which would have defeated it- ted, and tlm abufes which had crept into government
felf if he had let it alone: and he exprefsly fays, That and fociety were corredled by the judicious applica-
now nothing coiild be reftnained from them; which in- tion of good-humoured fatire. Never did any infti-
timates very plainly, that, had this fcheme gone on, tution of this nature become fo general or fo ufeful;
the plan which God had laid for the government of but at length it degenerated into a fet of buffoons, and
the world would have been totally frufirated : and a- banterers of every thing facred or profane. For feveral
greeable to thishypothefis DrTennifon fuppofes thatthe years it was patronifed by the kings of Poland, and
tower was of a pyramidal form, in imitation of the fpires Sigifmund himfelf became a member, the ftarofta of
of flame; and that it was eredled in honour of the fun, Babina telling him jocularly, That “ His majefty had
as being the moll probable caufe of drying up the certain qualities which entitled him to the firlt dignity
flood. in the commonwealth.” Not the leall remnant of this
As to the materials made ufe of in the building of fociety now remains, though it was honoured with ex-
this tower, the feripture informs us thatthey werebricks traordinary privileges by kings and emperors,
and llime or bitumen. According to an eallern tra- BABINGTON (Gervafe), bifhop of Worcefter,
dition, three years were taken up in making the bricks, was born, according to Fuller, in Nottinghamlhire ;
each of which was 13 cubits long, ten broad, and five but in what year, is uncertain. He was fent to Tri-
thick. Oriental writers fay, that thecity was 313 fa- nity college, Cambridge, of which he was made fellow;
thorns in length, and 151 in breadth ; that the walls and, in 1578, was incorporated mailer of arts at Ox-
were 5533 fathoms high, and 33 in breadth; and that ford. He appears, however, to have made Cambridge
the tower itfelf was no lefs than 10,000 fathom, or the place of his refidence, where he became an eminent
12 miles high. Even St Jerome affirms from the tef- preacher; and, being now dodlor in divinity, was made
timony of eye-witneffes, who as he fays had examined domeltic chaplain to Henry earl of Pembroke. In this
the. remains of the tower, that it was four miles high ; llation he is fuppofed to have affilted the countefs in
but Ado makes the height to have been no lefs than her tranllation of the Pfalms. In 1588, he was inllalled
5000 miles. The only account of its dimenfions which prebend of Hereford, and, in 1591, confecrated bi¬
can be at all depended upon, (fuppofing it to have lliop of Landaff. In 1594, he was tranllated to the fee
been the fame which afterwards Hood in the midll of of Exeter, and thence to Worceller in 1597. About
the city of Babylon, and round which Nebuchadnezzar this time, or foon after, he was made queen’s counfel
built the temple of Belus), is that given under the ar- for the marlhes of Wales. He was a confiderable be¬
tide Babylon; n° 3. nefa&or to the library belonging to the cathedral of
Wor-
B.i'xion,
Babylon.
City de-
fcribed.
BAB [ 93o ] BAB
Worcefter, where he was buried, in May 1610, with¬
out a monument. The feveral hiftorians, who have
mentioned this prelate, agree in giving him the cha¬
racter of a learned and pious man. His writings, like
thofe of moft of his cotemporaries, abound with puns
and quaint expreffions. His works were printed both
in folio and quarto in 1615, and again in folio in 1637,
under this title: The 'works of the right reverend father
in God Gervafe Babington, late bijbop of Worcejler, con¬
taining comfortable notes upon the five books of Mofes,
viz. Genefis, tic. As alfo an expofttion upon the Creed,
the Ten Commandments, the Lord’s Prayer; •with a con¬
ference bet'wixt man's frailtie and faith, and three fer-
nions, tic.
BABOON, in zoology. See Si mi a.
BABYLON, the capital of the ancient kingdom of
Babylonia or Chaldaea, and fuppofed to have flood in
E. Long. 44. o. N. Lat. 32. o. Semiramisis faid by
fome, and Belus by others, to have founded, this city.
But, by whomfoever it was founded, Nebuchadnezzar
was the pei'fon who put the laft hand to it, and made
it one of the wonders of the world. The moft famous
works in and about it were the walls of the city, the
temple of Belus, Nebuchadnezzar’s palace, the hang-
ing-gardens, the banks of the river, the artificial lake,
and canals.
The city was furrounded with walls, in thicknefs 87
feet, in height 350 feet, and in compafs 480 furlongs
or 60 of our miles. Thus Herodotus, who was him-
felf at Babylon ; and though fome difagree with him in
thefe dimenfions, yet moft writers give us the fame, or
near the fame, as he does. Diodorus Siculus dimi-
nifhes the circumference of thefe walls very confidera-
bly, and takes fomewhat from the height of them, as
in Herodotus; tho’ he feems to add to their breadth, by
faying. That fix chariots might drive abreaft thereon ;
while the former writes, that one chariot only might
turn upon them ; but then he places buildings on each
fide of the top of thefe walls, which, according to him,
were but one ftory high; which may pretty well recon¬
cile them together in this refpeCt. It is obferved, that
thofe who give the height of thefe walls but at 50 cu¬
bits, fpeak of them only as they were after the time
of Darius Hyftafpis, who had caufed them to be beaten
down to that level. Thefe walls formed an exact fquare,
each fide of which was 120 furlongs, or 15 miles, in
length; and were all built of large bricks cemented to¬
gether with bitumen, which in a fhort time growsharder
than the very brick and ftone which it cements. The
city was encompafled, without the walls, with a vaft
ditch filled with water, and lined with bricks on both
fides ; and, as the earth that was dug out of it ferved
to make the bricks, we may judge of the depth and
largenefs of the ditch from the height and thicknefs of
the walls. In the whole compafs of the wall there were
100 gates, that is, 25 on each of the four fides, all
made of folid brafs. Between every two of thefe gates,
at proper diftances, were three towers, and four more
at the four corners of this great fquare, and three be •
tween each of thefe corners and the next gate on either
fide, and each of thefe towers was ten feet higher than
the walls. But this is to be underftood only of thofe
parts of the walls where towers were needful for de¬
fence. For fome parts of them being upon a morafs,
and inacceffible by an enemy, there the labour and coft
wasfpared, which, tho’ it muft have fpoiled the fym-
metry of the whole, muft be allowed to have favoured
of good oeconomy ; though that is what one would not
have expefted from a prince who had been fo deter¬
mined, as Nebuchadnezzar muft have been, to make
the city complete both for ftrength and beauty. The
whole number, then, of thefe towers amounted to no
more than 250 ; whereas a much greater number would
have been neceffary to have made the uniformity com¬
plete all round. From the 25 gates in each fide of this
fquare, there was a ftraight ftreet, extending to the cor-
refponding gate in the oppofite wall; whence the whole
number of the ftreets muft have been but 50 ; but then
they were each about 15 miles long, 25 of them crof-
fing the other 25 exadtly at right angles. Befides thefe
whole ftreets, we muft reckon four half-ftreets, which
were but rows of houfes facing the four inner fides of
the walls. Thefe four half-ftreets were properly the
four fides of the city within the walls, and were each
of them 200 feet broad, the whole ftreets being about
150 of the fame. By this interfe&ion of the 50 ftreets,
the city was divided into 676 fquares, each of four
furlongs and an half on each fide, or two miles and a
quarter in compafs. Round thefe fquares on every fide
towards the ftreets flood the houfes, all of three or four
ftories in height,' and beautified with all manner of or¬
naments ; and the fpace within each of thefe fquares
was all void, and taken up by yards, or gardens, and
the like, either for pleafure or convenience.
A branch of the Euphrates divided the city into
two, running through the midft of it, from north to
fouth ; over which, in the very middle of the city, was
a bridge, a furlong in length, or rather more, and in¬
deed much more, if we hearken to others, who fay it
was no lefs than five ftades or furlongs in length, tho*
but 30 feet broad, a difference we fhall never be able
to decide ; this bridge, however, is faid to have been
built with wonderful art, to fupply a defect in the bot¬
tom of the river, which was all fandy. At each end
of this bridge were two palaces ; the old palace on the
eaft fide, the new one on the weft fide of the river; the
former of which took up four of the fquares above-
mentioned, and the latter nine. The temple of Belus,
which flood next to the old palace, took up another of
the fame fquares.
The whole city flood in a large flat or plain, in a
very fat and deep foil; that part or half of it, on the
eaft fide of the river, was the old city ; and the other
on the weft was added by Nebuchadnezzar, both being
included within the vaft fquare bounded by the walls
aforefaid. The form of the whole was feemingly bor¬
rowed from Nineveh, which was alfo 480 furlongs;
but, though it was equal in dimenfions to this city, it
was lefs with refpedt to its form, which was a parallel¬
ogram, whereas that of Babylon was an exadt fquare.
It is fuppofed, that Nebuchadnezzar, who had deftroyed
that old feat of the Affyrian empire, propofed that
this new one (hould rather exceed it; and that it was in
order to fill it with inhabitants, that he tranfported
fuch numbers of the captives from other countries
hither; though that is what may be difputed, feeing
he therein only followed the conftant pradtice of the
kings of Affyria, who thought this the moft certain
means of affuring their conquefts either to themfelves
or their pofterity.
But
BAB [93
But it plainly appears, that it was never wholly in¬
habited ; fo that, even in the meridian of its glory,, it
may be compared with the flower of the field, which
flourilhes to-day, and to morrow is no more. It
never had time to grow up to what Nebuchadnezzar
vifibly intended to have made it; for, Cyrus removing
the feat of the empire foon after to Shufhan, Baby¬
lon fell by degrees to utter decay : yet it muft be
owned, that no country was better able to fupport fo
vaft and populous a city, had it been completed up
to its firft defign. But fo far was it from being finifli-
ed according to its original defign, that, when Alex¬
ander came to Babylon, Curtins tells us, “ No
“ more than 90 furlongs of it were then built:” which
can be no otherwife underftood than of fo much in
length; and, if we allow the breadth to be as much
as the length (which is the utmoft that can be al¬
lowed), it will follow, that no more than 8100
fquare furlongs were then built upon : but the whole
fpace within the walls contained 14,400 fquare fur¬
longs ; and therefore there muft have been 6300 fquare
furlongs remaining unbuilt, which, Curtius tells us,
were plowed and fown. And, betides this, the houfes
were not contiguous, but all built with a void fpace on
each fide, between houfe and houfe.
The next great work of Nebuchadnezzar was the
temple of Belus. The wonderful tower, however, that
flood in the middle of it, was not his work, but was
built many ages before ; that, and the famous tower
of Babel, being, as is commonly fuppofed, one and
the fame ftru&ure. This tower is faid to have been
compofed of eight pyramidal ones railed above one
another, and by Herodotus faid to have been a furlong
in height; but as there is an ambiguity in his expref-
fion, it has been difputed whether each of the towers
was a furlong in length, or the whole of them taken
together. On the latter fuppofition, which is the
moft probable, this tower muft have exceeded the higheft
of the Egyptian pyramids by 179 feet, though it fell
fliort of its breadth at the balls by 33. The way to
go up was by flairs on the outfide round it; whence it
ieems moft likely, that the whole afcent was, by the
benching in, drawn in a Doping line from the bottom
to the top eight times round it; and that this made
the appearance of eight towers, one above the other.
Till the times of Nebuchadnezzar, it is thought this
tower was all the temple of Belus; but as he did by
the other ancient buildings of the city, fo he did by
this, making great additions thereto, by vaft edifices
credited round it, in a fquare of two furlongs on every
fide, and juft a mile in circumference, which exceeded
the fquare at the temple of Jerufalem by 1800 feet.
On the outfide of thefe buildings was a wall, which in-
clofed the whole ; and, in coniideration of the regu¬
larity wherewith this city was to all appearance marked
out, it is fuppofed, that this wall was equal to the
fquare fef the city wherein it flood, and fo is concluded
to have been two miles and an half in circumference.
In this wall were feveral gates leading into the temple,
and all of foil'd brafs; which it is thought may have
been made out of the brafen fea, and brafen pillars,
and other veffels and ornaments of the kind, which
Nebuchadnezzar had tranfported from Jerufalem ; for
in this temple he is faid to have dedicated his fpoils
from that of Jerufalem,
i ] BAB
In this temple were feveral images or idols of mafiy Babylon,
gold, and one of them, as we have feen, 40 feet in 4
height ; the fame, as fuppofed, with that which Ne- idols of
buchadnezzar cpnfecrated in the plains.of Dura. For gold,
though this laft is faid to have been 60 cubits, or
90 feet high, thefe dimenfions appear fo incredible,
that it has been attempted to reconcile them into
one, by fuppofing, that in the 90 feet the height of
the pedeftal is included, and that the 40 feet arc for
the height of the ftatue without the pedeftal; and,
being faid to have weighed 1000 talents of Babylon,
it is thence computed, that it was worth three millions
and a half of our money. In a word, the whole weight
of the ftatues and decorations, in Diodorus Siculus, a-
mounting to 5000 and odd talents in gold, the whole
is eftimated at above one and twenty millions of our
money; and a fum about equal to the fame, in trea-
fure, utenfils, and ornaments, not mentioned, is allowed
for.
Next to this temple, on the eaft fide of the river,
flood the old palace of the kings of Babylon, being
four miles in circumference. Exadtly oppofite to it,
on the other fide of the river, was the new palace built
by Nebuchadnezzar, eight miles in circumference, and
confequemly four times as big as the old one. s
But nothing was more wonderful at Babylon than Hanging
the hanging-gardens, which Nebuchadnezzar made in gardens,
complaifance to his wife Amyte; who, being a Mede,
and retaining a ftroag inclination for the mountains
and forefts of her owm country, wras defirous of having
fomething like them at Babylon. They are faid to
have contained a fquare of four plethra, or 400 feet,
on each fide ; and to have confifted of terraces one a-
bove another, carried up to the height of the wall of
the city, the afcent from terrace to terrace being by
fteps ten feet wide. The whole pile confifted of fub-
ftantial arches upon arches, and was ftrengthened by
a wall furrounding it on every fide, 22 feet thick; and
the floors on each of them were laid in this order :
firft, on the tops of the arches was laid a bed or pave¬
ment of ftones 16 feet long, and four feet broad; over
this w7as a layer of reed mixed with a great quantity
of bitumen ; and over this two courfes of brick, clofely
cemented together with platter; and over all thefe
wrere thick {beets of lead, and on thefe the earth or
mould of the garden. This floorage was defigned to
retain the moifture of the mould ; which was i'o deep,
as to give root to the greateft trees which were planted
upon every terrace, together with great variety of other
vegetables pleating to the eye. Upon the uppermoft
of thefe terraces was a refervoir, fupplied by a certain
engine with water from the river, from whence the
gardens on the other terraces were fupplied. 6
The other works attributed to Nebuchadnezzar by Banks oft!
Berofus and Abydenus, were the banks of the river, river, ca-
the artificial canals, and the great artificial lakfe Lid na^' &c'
to have been funk by Semiramis. The canals were cut
out on the eaft fide of the Euphrates, to convey the
waters of that river, when it overflowed its banks, into
the Tigris, before they reached Babylon. The lake
was on the weft fide of Babylon ; and, according to
the lowed computation, 40 miles fquare, 160 in com-
pafs, and in depth 35 feet, as we read in Herodo¬
tus, or 75, as Megafthenes will have it; the former,
perhaps, jneafured from the furface of the fides, and
BAB
[ 932 ]
BAB
the latter from the tops of the banks that were call
" up upon them. This lake was dug to receive the waters
of the river, while the banks were building on each
fide of it. But both the lake, and the canal which led
to it, were preferved after that work was completed,
being found of great ufe, not only to prevent all over¬
flowings, but to keep water all the year, as in a com¬
mon refervoir, to be let out, on proper occafions, by
fluices, for the improvement of the land.
The banks were built of brick and bitumen, on
both fides of the river, to keep it within its channel ;
and extended on each fide throughout the whole length
of the city, and even farther, according to fome, who
reckon they extended 160 furlongs, or twenty miles ;
whence it is concluded they muft have begun two miles
and an half above the city, and have been continued
an equal diftance below it, the length of the city being
no more than 15 miles. Within the city they were
the hand of man to diflribute the waters of the Eu¬
phrates.
“ All thefe works, fo marvellous in the judgment of
antiquity, appear to me to have been extremely exag¬
gerated by the authors who have fpoken of them. How
can we conceive, in effeft, that the walls of Babylon
could have been 318 feet high, and 81 in thicknefs, in
a compafs of near ten leagues ?
“ I fhall fay the fame of that fquare building, known
under the name of the temple of Relus. It was com-
pofed of eight towers placed one above another, di-
minifhing always as they went up. Herodotus does
not tell us what was the height of this monument.
Diodorus fays, that it furpaued all belief. Strabo
fixes it to one ftadi , n, a meafure which anfwers nearly
to 600 of our feet. For in the time of this geogra¬
pher the ftadia were much more confiderable than in
the firft ages. The entire mafs of this building ought
built from the bottom of the river, and of the fame to have been anfwerable to its excefiive height; and this
thicknefs with the walls of the city itfelf. Oppofite is alfo the idea that the ancients defigned to give us
to each ilreet, on either fide of the river, was a brazen of it. We may judge by the following fad. Xerxes
had entirely demolifhed this temple. Alexander under¬
took to rebuild it. He defigned to begin by clearing
the place and removing the ruins. Ten thoufand work-
Berofus, Megafthenes, and Abydenus, attribute all men who were employed two months in this work, wer<
thefe works to Nebuchadnezzar; but Herodotus tells not, fay they, able to finifh it,
us, the bridge, the banks, and the lake, were the   
gate in the faid wall, with flairs leading down from it
to the river: thefe gates were open by day, and fliut
by night.
work of a queen after him, called Nitocris, who may
have finiflied what Nebuchadnezzar left i in per fed, and
thence have had the honour this hiftorian gives her <5f
the whole.
The tower or temple flood till the time of Xerxes.
But that prince, on his return from the Grecian expe¬
dition, having firft plundered it of its immenfe wealth,
demolifhed the whole, and laid it in ruins. Alexan¬
der, on his return to Babylon from his Indian expedition,
propofed to rebuild it, and accordingly fet 10,000 men
on work to clear away the rubbifh. But, his death
happening foon after, a flop was put to all further pro¬
ceedings in that delign. After the death of that con¬
queror, the city of Babylon began to decline apace ;
which was chiefly owing to the neighbourhood of Se-
“ The riches inclofed in the temple of Belus were pro¬
portioned to its immenfity. Without fpeaking of the
tables and cenfers, the cups and other facred vales, of
mafiy gold, there was a ftatue 40 feet high, which
alone weighed 1000 Babylonifh talents. In fhort, ac¬
cording to the inventory that the ancients have given
us of the riches contained in this temple, the total fum
would amount to two hundred and twenty millions and
a half of French livres. Exaggerations like thefe de-
ftroy themfelves.
“ As to the hanging gardens, according to all ap¬
pearance they never exifted. The filence of Herodotus
on a work fo lingular and fo remarkable, determines
me to place in the rank of fables all that the other
writers have delivered upon this pretended wonder.
Herodotus had carefully vifited Babylon. He enters
leucia, built by Seleucus Nicator, as is faid, out of into fuch details as prove that he has omitted none of
fpite to the Babylonians, and peopled with 500,000 the rarities of that city. Can we prefume that he
perfons drawn from Babylon, which by that means con- would have paffed over in filence fuch a worl^as the
tinned declining till the very people of the country hanging gardens ? All the authors who have fpoken of
were at a lofs to tell where it had flood. it are of much later date than this great hiftorian.
Such is the defcription we have by ancient hiftorians None of them except Berofus fpeaks on his own tefti-
of the grandeur of this city ; which, if thefe accounts mcny. It is always on the report of others. Diodorus
are not exaggerated, muft have exceeded every piece of had extra&ed from Ctefias what he fays of thefe famous
human grandeur that hath yet appeared. Many of gardens. There is alfo great appearance that Strabo
the moderns, however, are of opinion that thefe mag- had drawn from the fame fcurce. In a word, the man-
nificent defcriptions are very far from being true; al¬
though it is certain that few other arguments can be
brought againft the reality of them, than that we do
not fee things of a fimilar kind executed in our own
days. The following are the arguments ufed on this
fubjedt by the prelidcnt Goguet.
’ “ Authors have greatly extolled the public works
arguments and edifices which once rendered Babylon one of the
againft the wonders of the world. We may reduce all thefe ob-
mnh of the je&s to five principal heads : 1. the height of its walls;
relatfon'^ 2" the temple of Belus; 3. the hanging gardens; 4. the
re a ton. bridge-built over the river Euphrates, and the quays
which lined that river; 5. the lake and canals dug by
which Quintus Curtins expreffes himfelf, fuffi-
ciently (hews how much the exiftence of thefe gardens
appeared to him fufpicious. He judged they owed the
greateft part of it to the imagination of the Greeks.
“ Let us nowfpeak of the bridge of Babylon, which
the ancients have placed in the number of the moft
marvellous works of the eaft. It was near 100 fathoms
in length, and almoft four in breadth. We cannot
deny but that a great deal of art and labour was ne-
ceffary to lay the foundations,, which it could not be
eafy to fettle in the bed of an extremely deep and ra¬
pid river, which ftlfo rolls along a prodigious quantity
of miftl, and whofe bottom is entirely fandy. They had
there-
&AB [933] BAB
febylon, therefore taken many precautions to fecure the piers of
f-L0-.13'. the bridge of Babylon. They were built of ftones
joined and faitened together with cramps of iron,, and
. their joints filled with melted lead. The front of the
piers, turned towards the current of the Euphrates,
was defended by buttrefles extremely advanced, which
diminilhed the weight and force of the water, by cutting
it at a great diftance. Such was the bridge of Babylon.
“ While wedo juftice to thelkill of the Babylonians
in conducing thefe works, we cannot help remarking
the bad tafte which at all times reigned in the works
of the eaftern nations. The bridge of Babylon furnifhes
a ftriking infiance of it. This edifice was abfolutely
without grace, or any air of majefty. The breadth
of it was in no fort of proportion to its length. The
| diftance between the piers was alfo very ill contrived.
They were diftant from each other only 11 feet and a
half. Finally, this bridge was not arched. We may
judge of its effeft on the view.
“ The Babylonians, however, were not the only
people who were ignorant of the art of turning anarch.
This fecret, as far as I can find, was unknown to all the
people of remote antiquity, who, generally fpeaking,
do not appear to have been very Ikilful in ftone-cutting.
“ As for the quays which lined the Euphrates, we
! may believe that they u^ere grand and magnificent:
but I fliall not eafily believe that they furpafied thofe
which we have daily under our eyes. In this refpedl, I
believe Paris may difpUte it, for magnificence, and for the
I extent of the work, with all the cities of the univerfe.”
Baisylon, a town of Egypt near the eaftmoft branch
of the river Nile, now fuppofed to hzGrand Cairo, or this
city to ftand near its ruins. E. Lon. 31.12. N. Lat. 30.3.
BABYLONIA, or Chald^ea, a kingdom of Afia,
and the moft ancient in the world, being founded by
Nimrod the grandfon of Ham, who alfo, according to
the margin of our Bibles, founded Nineveh the capital
of the kingdom of Affyria, Indeed, thefe two king¬
doms feem to have always continued in fuch a fiate of
I friendftiip, that We can fcarce help thinking they muft
have been the fame, or perhaps Babylonia was for fome
I time a province of Affyria. Nothing certain is known
concerning either of them, except what maybe ga¬
thered from Scripture. From thence we leatn, that in
the days of Abraham there was a king of Shikar, called
Amraphel, who, under the king of Elam or Perfia,
made war upon the Canaanites. From this time we
I have nothing that can be depended upon till the days
I of Nabonalfar, the firft king of Babylon mentioned
in Ptolemy’s canon. It is' plain indeed, both from
Scripture and profane hiftory, that Babylonia fubfifted
■ as a diftinft kingdom from Affyria even when the lat¬
ter was in all its glory. The moft probable account
of the matter is tills. The empire of Affyria was
founded'by Pul, on the ruins of that of Damafcus or
Syria, in the days of Menahem king of Judah. This
king left two fons, Tiglath-Pilefer, and Nabonaffar.
To the former he bequeathed the empire of Affyria,
and to the latter that of Babylon. Tiglath-Pilefer re-
fided at Nineveh, the original feat of the Affyrian em¬
pire ; while Nabonaffar, who was the younger brother,
held his refidence at Babylon. As the two kingdoms
Were governed by princes of the fame family, we may
.well fnppofe a perfect harmony to have reigned between
them, the younger branch at Babylon acknowledging
Vol. II.
a kind of fubje&ion to the elder at Nineveh. That the Babylonia.
Babylonian empire was of Affyrian origin, we are af-
fured by the prophet Ifaiah, in the following words.
“ Behold the land of the Chaldeans: this people was
not till the Affyrian founded it for them that dwelt in
the wildernefs ; they fet up the towers thereof; they
built the palace thereof.” As to the kingdom of Af¬
fyria, the Scripture mentions only five kings, viz. Pul,
Tiglath-Pilefer, Shalmanafer, Sennacharib, and Efar-
haddon ; whofe hiftory, as related by the facred writers,
it is needlefs to mention particularly here. From the
days of Nabonaffar to Nabopolaffar, that is, from the
year before Chrift 747 to 626, the kings of Babylon
made no figure, and were therefore probably in a Hate
of dependence on the kings of Affyria; but at that
time, in the reign of Chyniladan, the Sardanapalus of
the Greeks, Nineveh was taken and deftroyed by the
Medes and Babylonians, and the feat of the empire
transferred to Babylon. This Nabopolaffar was the
father of the famous'Nebuchadnezzar, for whofe hiftory
we muft refer to the facred writers ; and from his time
to that of the Beljhazzar of Daniel, and Nabonadius
of other authors, the hiftory of Babylon is little better
than a mere blank. Of the reduftion of Babylon by
Cyrus, which happened at this time, we have the fol¬
lowing account.
War had been begun betwixt the Medes, Perfians,
and Babylonians, in the reign of Nerigliffar the father
of Nabonadius, which had been carried on with very
bad fuccefs on the fide of the Babylonians. Cyrus, who
commanded the Median and Perfian army, having fub-
dued the feveral nations inhabiting the great continent
from the iEgean fea to the Euphrates, bent his march
towards Babylon. Nabonadius, hearing of his march,
immediately advanced againft him with an army. In
the engagement which enfued, the Babylonians were
defeated; and the king, retreating to his metropolis,
was blocked up and clofely befieged by Cyrus. The
redudtion of this city was no eafy enterprife. The
walls were of a prodigious height, the number of men
to defend them very great, and the place ftored with
all forts of provifions for 20 years. Cyrus, defpairing of
being able to take fuch a city by ftorm, caufed a Tine
of circumvallation to be drawn quite rpund it, with a
large and deep ditch ; reckoning, that if all communi¬
cation with the country were cut off, the befieged
would be obliged to furrender through famine. That
his troops might not be too much fatigued, he divided
his army into twelve bodies, appointing each body its
month to guard the trenches ; but the befieged, looking
upon themfelves to be out of all danger by reafon of
their high walls and magazines, infulted him from the
ramparts, and looked upon all the trouble he gave him-
felf as fo much unprofitable labour.
After Cyrus had fpent two whole years before Baby¬
lon, without making any progrefs in the fiege, he at
laft thought of the following ftratagem, which put him
in poffeffton of it. He was informed, that a great an¬
nual folemnity was to be held at Babylon ; and that*the
inhabitants on that occafion were accuftomed to fpend
the whole night in drinking and debauchery. This he
therefore thought a proper time for furprifing them ;
and accordingly fent a ftrong detachment to the head
of the canal leading to the great lake, with orders, at
a certain time, to break down the great bank which
6 B was
BAB [ 934 ] BAB
Babylonia. was between the lake and the canal, and to turn the
whole current into the lake. At the fame time he ap¬
pointed one body of troops at the place where the river
entered the city, and another where it came out; or¬
dering them to march in by the bed of the river as foon
as they fhovjd find it fordable. Towards the evening
he opened the head of the trenches on both fides the
river above the city, that the water might difcharge
itfelf into them ; by'which means, and the breaking
down of the great dam, the river was foon drained.
Then the two abovementioned bodies of troops, ac¬
cording to their orders, entered the channel ; the one
commanded by Gobryas, and the other by Gadates :
and finding the gates all left open by reafon of the dif-
orders of that riotous night, they penetrated into the
very heart of the city without oppofition; and meeting,
according to agreement, at the palace, they furprifed
the guards, and cut them in pieces. Thofe who were in
the palace opening the gates to know the caufe of this
confufion, the Perfians rufhed in, took the palace, and
killed the king, who came out to meet them fword in
hand. Thus an end was put to the Babylonian em¬
pire ; and Cyrus took pofiefiion of Babylon for one
called in Scripture Darius the Mede, moft probably
Cyaxares II. uncle to Cyrus. From this time Baby¬
lonia never was erefted into a diftindt kingdom, but
hath always followed the fortune of thofe great con¬
querors who at different times have appeared in Afia.
It is now frequently the objedl of contention between
the Turks and Perfians.
The Affyrian and Babylonian hiftory, according to
the Greek writers, is fo dark and full of fable, that we
have not thought proper to trouble our readers with it,
efpecially as the whole is contained in the tranfadtions
of a few fovereigns, viz. Ninus, Semiratnis, Ninyas, and
Sardartapalus, kings of Affyria, and Be lefts, or Nany-
Irus, the firft king of Babylon : See thefe articles.
Concerning the nature of the country, manners, cu-
ftoms. See. of the ancient Babylonians, the following
account is colledted by M. Sabbathier.
“ As all the nations under the dominion of Cyrus,
befide the ordinary tributes, were obliged to maintain
him and his army, the monarch and his troops were
fupported by all Afia. The country of Babylon alone
was obliged to maintain him four months of the year;
its fertility, therefore, yielded a third of the produce
of Afia. The government of this country, which the
Perfians termed fatrapy, was richer, and more exten-
five, than any of the reft. It maintained for the king,
befides the war-horfes, a ftud of 800 ftallions, and
16,000 mares. So great a number of Indian dogs
were likewife bred in this province for the king, that
four of its cities kept thofe animals; and in return,
they were exempted from all taxes and tributes.
“ It rained very feldom in this country, according
to Her-odotus. The earth was watered by the river,
which was here diffufed by human induftry, as the
Nile is over Egypt by nature: for all the country of
Babylon was divided by canals, the greateft of which
was navigable, and flowed from fouth to north, from
the Euphrates to the Tigris. In Ihort, it was one of
the fineft countries for corn in the world; but for pro¬
ducing trees, the fig-tree, the vine and the olive, it was
not famous. It was fo luxuriant in grain, that it com¬
monly yielded a hundred times more than what was
fown ; and in its good years it yielded three hundred Babylon
times more than it received. The leaves of its wkeat
and barley were four inches broad. “ Tho’ 1 know,”
fays Herodotus, “ that the millet and the fefame of
“ that country grow to the fize of trees, I wall not de-
“ feribe them particularly; left thofe who have not
“ been in Babylonia fhould think my account fabu-
“ lous.”
“ They had no oil but what they made from Indian
corn. The country abounded with palm-trees, which
grew fpontaneoufly; and moft of them bore fruit, of
which the inhabitants made bread, wine, and honey.
They cultivated thefe trees and their fig-trees in the
fame manner. Some of them, as of other trees, the
Greeks called male ones. They tied the fruit of the
male to the trees which bore dates; that the mofquito,
leaving the male, might caufe the date to ripen, by pe¬
netrating it; for without that afliftance it came not to
maturity. Mofquitos bred in the male palms, as in the
wild fig-trees.
“ But we muft not here omit to give an account of
the peculiar and furprifmg conftru&ion of their boats
of fleins, in which they failed along the river to Baby¬
lon. Thefe boats were invented by the Armenians,
whofe country lay north from Babylonia. They made
them with poles of willow, which they bent, and co¬
vered with Ikins: the bare fide of the fleins they put
outwards; and they made them fo tight, that they re-
fembled boards. The boats had neither prow nor ftern,
but were of a round form, like a buckler. They put
ftraw on the bottom. Two men, each with an oar,
rowed them down the river, laden with different wares,
but chiefly with palm-wine. Of thefe boats fome were
very large, and fome very fmall. The largeft carried
the weight of 500 talents. There was room for an afs
in one of their fmall boats; they put many into a large
one. When they had unloaded, after their arrival at
Babylon, they fold the poles of their boats, and the
ftraw; and loading their afles with the Ikins, returned
to Armenia: for they could not fail up the river, its
current was fo rapid. For this reafon they made their
boats of Ikins, inftead of wood; and on their return to
Armenia with their affes, they applied the fleins to their
former ufe.
“ As to their drefs, they wore a linen fttirt, which
came down to their feet. Over it they wore a woollen
robe; their outer garment was a white veft. Their
fhoes refembled thofe of the Thebans. They let their
hair grow. On their heads they wore a turban. They
rubbed their bodies all over with fragrant liquors. Each
man had a ring on his finger; and an elegant cane in
his hand, with an apple at the top, or a rofe, a lily, or
an eagle, or fome other figure: for they were not fuf-
fered to ufe canes without devices.
“ With regard to their policy, Herodotus thinks
that their beft law Was one which the Heneti, an Il¬
lyrian people, likewife obferved in every town and vil¬
lage. When the girls were marriageable, they were or¬
dered to meet in a certain place, where the young men
likewife aflembled. They were then fold by the public
crier; but he firft fold the moft beautiful one. When
he had fold her at an immrnfe price, he put up others
to fale, according to their degrees of beauty. The rich
Babylonians were emulous to carry off the fineft wo¬
men, who were fold to the higheft bidders. But as the
young.
BAB [ 935 ] BAG
ilfatylonia. young men who'were poor could not afpire to have fine
~T women, they were content to take the uglieft with the
money which was given them: for when the crier had
fold the handfomeft, he ordered the uglieft of all the
women to be brought; and aiked, if any one was will¬
ing to take her with a fmall fum of money. Thus fhe
became the wife of him who was molt eafily fatisfied;
and thus the fineft women were fold; and from the
money which they brought, fmall fortunes were given to
the uglieft, and to thofe who had any bodily infirmity.
A father could not marry his daughter as he pleafed ;
nor was he who bought her allowed to take her home,
without giving fecuntythat he would marry her. But,
after the fale, if the parties were not agreeable to each
other, the law enjoined that the purchafe-money fhould
be reftored. The inhabitants of any of their towns were
permitted to buy wives at thefe audtions. Such were
the early cuftoms of the Babylonians.
“ But they afterwards made a law, which prohi¬
bited the inhabitants of different towns to intermarry,
and by which hufbands were punilhed for treating their
wives ill. When they had become poor by the ruin of
their metropolis, fathers ufed to proftitute their daugh¬
ters for gain. There was a fenfible cuftom among the
Babylonians, worthy to be related. They brought
their fick into the forum, to confult thofe who paffed,
on their difeafes ; for they had no phyficians. They
alked thofe who approached the fick, if they ever had
the fame diftemper? if they knew any one who had had
i it? and how he was cured? Hence, in this country,
every one who faw a fick perfon was obliged to go to
him, and inquire into his diftemper.
“ They embalmed their dead with honey; and their
mourning was like that of the Egyptians.
“ There were three Babylonian tribes, who lived only
upon fifti, and who prepared them in the following
manner: they dried them in the fun, and then beat them
in a mortar to a kind of flour, which after they had
fifted through linen, they baked it in rolls.
“ The Babylonians at firft worlhipped only the fun
and the moon ; but they foon multiplied their divini¬
ties. They deified Baal, Bel, or Belus, one of their
kings, and Merodach-Baladan. They alfo worfhipped
Venus, under the name of Mylitta. She and Belus were
the principal deities of the Babylonians. They counted
their day from fun-rife to fun-rife. They folemnized
five days of the year with great magnificence, and al¬
ii moft the fame ceremonies with which the Romans ce¬
lebrated their Saturnalia.
“ The Babylonians were very much addidted to ju¬
dicial aftrology. Their priefts, who openly profeffed
that art, were obliged to commit to writing all the
events of the lives of their illuftrious men ; and on a
i fancied conne&ion between thofe events and the mo¬
tions of the heavenly bodies, the principles of their art
were founded. They pretended that fome of their
books, in which their hiftorical tranfadtions and revo¬
lutions were accurately compared with the courfes of
the ftars, were thoufands of years old. This affertion
of their judicial aftrologerswe may reafonably difpute;
but that their aftronomers had made a long feries of ob-
| fervations, is inconteftably true. It is certain that fome
of thofe obfervations were extant in the days of Ari-
ftotle, and that they were older than the empire of the
Babylonians. See Hijiory of Astronomy.
BABYLONICS, babylonica, in literary hiftory, Bahylonics
a fragment of the ancient hiftory of the world, ending It
at 267 years before Chrift ; andcompofed by Berofus, .. acaieray-
or Beroffus, a prieft of Babylon, about the time of
Alexander. Babylonics are fometimes alfo cited in an¬
cient writers by the title of Caldaics. The babylonics
were very confonant with fcripture, as Jofephus and
the ancient Chriftian chronologers affure; whence the
author is ufually fuppofed to have confulted the Jewifh
writers. Berofus fpeaks of an univerfal deluge, an ark,
&c. He reckons ten generations between the firft
man and the deluge; and marks the duration of the fe-
veral generations by faroi, or periods of 223 lunar
months; which, reduced to years, differ not much from
the chronology of Mofes.—The babylonics confifted
of three books, including the hiftory of the ancient
Babylonians, Medes, &c. But only a few imperfedt
extracts are now remaining of the work ; preferred
chiefly by Jofephus, and Syncellus, where all the
paffages of citations of ancient authors out of Berofus
arecolle&ed with great exaftnefs. Annius of Viterbo,
to fupply the lofs, forged a complete Berofus out of
his own head. The world has hot thanked him for the
impofture.
BABYROUSSA, in zoology, a fynonime of afpe-
cies of fus. See Sus.
BAC, in navigation, is ufed for a praam, or ferry¬
boat.
Bac, in brewing, a large flat kind of tub, or veffel,
wherein the wort is put to ftand and cool before boil¬
ing. The ingredients of beer pafs through three kinds
of veffels. They are malhed in one, worked in ano¬
ther, and cooled in a third called bacs or coolers.
Bac, in diftillery, veffels into which the liquor to be
fermented is pumped from the cooler, in order to be
worked with yeft.
BACK-Tlffl^e/-, is one who makes liquor-backs,
under-backs, coolers, mafh-tuns, working-tuns, &c.
for the brewers. The workman (hip is partly carpen¬
try, in a particular manner, for it muft be tight enough
to hold liquor; and partly cooperage, viz. the mafti-
tun, or vat, which is hooped. There are not many of
this trade; and it requires chiefly ftrength, with a little
art. A fmall flock of fluff, befides tools, will fet a man
up tolerably well; but, with 200I or 3001. he will
make a good figure in bufinefs.
BACA, or. Baza, a town of Spain in the kingdom
of Granada. W. Long. 3. 6. N. Lat. 37. 18. It is
fituated in a valley called Hoya de Baza. It is encom-'
paffed with old walls, and has a caftle half ruined. It
contains about 4000 houfes, but has nothing remark¬
able except the church dedicated to the Virgin Mary.
The land about it is well cultivated for half a league
round, and is fertile in wheat, wine, honey, hemp, and
flax, being watered by the little river Guadalantin. .
BACACUM, a town of the Nervii in Gallia Bel-
gica; now Bavay, in Hainault. E. Long. 3. 40.
N. Lat. jo. 25.
BACAlSl, a handfome fea-port town of the king¬
dom of Vifapour on the Malabar coaft in Afia. It is
fubjeft to the Portuguefe; and (lands in E. Long. 73.
10. N. Lat. 19. o.
BACASERAY, a town in the peninfula of Crim
Tartary, and, as the khan ufually takes up his refidence
there, it may be confidered as the capital of the country.
6 B 2 E.
BAG [ 936 ] BAG
Bacca E. Long. 35. IO. N. Lat. 45. 30.
Bacchius BACCA, berry, in botany, is ufed to fignifyfuch
 Il_ fruits as confift of a pericarpium full of juice and feeds,
without any valves.
BACCARACH, a town of Germany in the lower
Palatinate; formerly imperial and free, but now fub-
jeft to the eledlor Palatine. It is famous for excellent
wine ; and is fituated on the Rhine, in E. Long. 7. 5.
N. Lat. 49. 57.
BACCHANALIA, feafts celebrated in honour of
Bacchus by the ancients. The two moft remarkable
were called the greater and lejfer. The latter, called
letiaa, from a word fignifying a 'ivine-prefs, were held
in the open fields about autumn ; the greater, called
T)ionyJia,y from one of the names of Bacchus, were ce¬
lebrated in the city, about the fpring-time. Both thefe
feafts were accompanied with games, fpe&acles, and
theatrical reprefentations, and it was at this time the
poets contended for the prize of poetry. Thofe who
were initiated into the celebration of thefe feafts, repre-
fented fome Silenus ; others. Pan ; others, Satyrs;
and in this manner appeared in public, night and day,
counterfeiting drunkennefs, dancing obfcenely, and
committing all kinds of licentioufnefs and debauchery.
See the article Bacchus.
BACCHARIS, ploughman’s spikenard, a ge¬
nus of the pplygamia fuperflua order, belonging to the
fyngenefia clafs of plants. Of this genus there are fe-
ven fpecies, all natives of warm climates; but none of
them merit notice except the two following. 1. The
ivcefolia, or African tree-groundfell, is a native of the
Cape of Good Hope, as alfo of Peru and other warm
parts of America. It grows to the height of five or fix
feet; and though there is little beauty in the flower,
has been long admitted into the gardens of the curious.
It is pretty hardy, and will live abroad in moderate
winters in England, but is ufually kept in green-houfes,
and placed abroad only in fummer. It may be propa¬
gated either by cuttings, or by feeds, which ripen well
in this country. 2. The halimifolia, or Virginia
groundfell-tree, is a native of Virginia and other pans
of North America. It grows about feven or eight feet
high, with a crooked ftirubby ftem ; and flowers in
O&ober : the flowers are white, and not very beauti¬
ful ; but the leaves continuing green, has occafioned
this (hrub to be admitted into many curious gardens.
It may be propagated by cuttings ; and will live very
well in the open air, though fevere froft will.fometimes
deftroy it.
BACCHINI (Benedkft), a Benedidlinemonk, and
one of the raoft learned men in his time, was born at
Borgo San I>omino, in 1651 ; and wrote a great num¬
ber of books, in Latin and Italian, the moft confide-
rable of which is a Literary Journal. He died at Bo¬
logna, in 1721, aged 70.
BACCHIUS, a follower of Ariftoxenus, fuppofed
by Fabricius to have been tutor to the emperor Marcus
Antoninus, and confequently to have lived about A. C-
140. He wrote in Greek a. very fhort introdu&ion to
mufic in dialogue, which, with a Latin tranflation
thereof, Meibomius has publifhed. It feems it was
firft publiftied in the original by Merfennus, in his
Commentary on the firft fix chapters of Genefis ; and
that afterwards he publiftied a tranflation of it in French,
which Mtibomius, in the preface to his edition of the
ancient mufical authors, cenfures as being grofsly er- Biccliiu^
roneous. BaCl-’hus'
Bacchius, in ancient poetry, a kind of foot com-
pofed of a ftiort fyllable, and two long ones; as
the word [avarIJ. It takes its name from the god
Bacchus, becaufe it frequently entered into the hymns
compofed in his honour. The Romans called it like-
wife anotnus, tripodius, faltans.
BACCHUS, in Heathen mythology, the god of
wine, with whofe fabulous adventures every fchool-boy
is acquainted. This perfonage is feldom named in
modern times but as a fepfual encourager of feaft and
jollity ; but he was regarded in a more refpe&able light-
by the ancients, who worftiipped him in different coun¬
tries under the following appellations : in Egypt, he
was called Oftris ; in Myfia, Fauaces ; in India, D:-
onyfms ; Liber, throughout the Roman dominions ; A-
doneus, in Arabia ; and Pentheus, by the Lucanians.
Mythologifts furniih reafons for all thefe different name*
given to the fame God, which may be feen in the fe-
cond volume of Banier’s Mythology.
It is natural to fuppofe that the Greeks and Romans,
as ufual, beftowed upon the one Bacchus which they^
worftiipped, the feveral actions and attributes of the
many divinities known by that name, and by other e-
quivalent denominations in different countries. How¬
ever, antiquity chiefly diftinguiftied two gods under
the title of Bacchus : that of Egypt, the fon of Am¬
mon, and the fame as Ofiris ; and that of Thebes in
Bceotia, the fon of Jupiter and Semele.
The Egyptian Bacchus was brought up at Nyfa, a
city of Arabia Felix, whence he acquired the name of
Bionyjius, or the God of Nyfa ; and this was the con¬
queror of India. Though this Bacchus of the Egyp¬
tians was one of the elder gods of Egypt, yet the fon
of Semele was the youngeft of the Grecian deities. Di¬
odorus Siculus tells us, that Orpheus firft deified the
fbn of Semele by the name of Bacchus, and appointed
his ceremonies in Greece, in order to render the family
of Cadmus, the grandfather of the Grecian Bacchus,
illuftrious.
The great Bacchus, according to Sir Ifaac Newton,
flouriftied but one generation before the Argonautic
expedition. This Bacchus, fays Hermippus, was po¬
tent at fea, conquered eaftward as far as India, re¬
turned in triumph, brought his army over the Helle-
fpont, conquered Thrace, and left mufic, dancing, and
poetry there. And, according to Diodorus Siculus,
it was the ftfn of Semele who invented farces and
theatres, and who firft eftabliftied a mufic-fchool, ex¬
empting from all military fundtions fuch muficians as
difeovered great abilities in their art ; on which ac¬
count, fays the fame author, muficians formed into
companies have fince frequently enjoyed great pri¬
vileges.
Dr Burney * obferves, that the di thy rambles which * WJi- of
gave birth to dramatic reprefentations, are as ancient Mafic,
as the worftiip of Bacchus in Greece; and there is P‘198' *
little doubt but that the ceremonies of his myfteries^
gave rife to the pomp and illufions of the theatre.
Many of the moft fplendid exhibitions upon the ftage
for the entertainment of the people of Athens and
Rome, being performed upon the feftivals of Bacchus,
gave occafion to the calling all thofe that were em¬
ployed in them, whether for linging, dancing, or re¬
citing,.
BAG I 937 J BAG
ijjjpechtfs. citing, fervanis of Bacchus.
| 1 Paufanias, in his Attics, fpeaks of a place at Athens,
confecrated to Bacchus the Jingcr; thus named, he
fays, for the fame reafon as Apollo is called the chief
and eonduttor of the mufes. Whence it (hould feem
that Bacchus was regarded by the Athenians not only
as the god of wine, but of fong; and it muft be owned,
that his followers, in their cups, have been much inclined
to finging ever fince. Indeed we are certain, that in
none of the orgies, proceffions, triumphs, and feftivals,
inftituted by the ancients to the honour and memory
qf this prince of bans vivanst mufic was forgotten, as
may be ftill gathered from ancient fculpture, where
we find not only that muficians, male and female, re¬
galed him with the lyre, the flute, and with fong; but
that he was accompanied by fawns and fatyrs playing
upon timbrels, cymbals, bagpipes, and horns : thefe
Suidas calls his minftrels ; and Strabo gives them the
| appellations of Bacchi, Silent, Satyri, Bacchus, Lena,
Thya, Mamillones, Naiades, Nympha, and Tityri.
Thefe reprefentations have furnilhed fubjefts for the
fincft remains of ancient fculpture; and the moft vo¬
luptuous paflages of ancient poetry are defcriptions of
the orgies and feftivals of Bacchus.
The orgia, or feafts and facrifices performed in ho¬
nour of this god in Greece, were chiefly celebrated on
the mountains of Thrace by wild diftra&ed women
called Bacchar. The Orgia were likewife called Or-
phica, from their founder Orpheus. However, Ser-
vius fays, that at firft Orgia was a common name for
all kinds of facrifices among the Greeks, and of the
fane import with the word cerernonix among the Ro¬
mans. Virgil calls the feafts of Bacchus Orgia trite-
rica, from their being celebrated once in three years.
They had certainly their rife in Egypt, where Ofiris
was the model of the Grecian Bacchus; from thence
they pafled into Greece, Italy, Gaul, and were adopted
almoft throughout the whole pagan world. They were
\ at firft performed with fimplicity and decorum ; but
afterwards they degenerated into fo much folly and li-
centioufnefs, that hiftorians affure us the debaucheries
pra&ifed in them during the night time were fo enor¬
mous, as to oblige the Roman fenate, in the 556th
year of the city, 186 B. C. to abolifti them entirely
throughout the Roman dominions. After their pro-
*5' XX1X‘ hibition, however, recorded at large by Livy *, fe-
iSw/ri" veral Perft)nsfec,n to have continued their ufe: Tacitusf
' gives an elegant defcription of the Bacchanalia as cele¬
brated by Meffalina. The orgies of Bacchus furnifhed
iEfchylus with a fubjeft for one of his tragedies;
from whence may be acquired a truer idea of them be¬
fore their corruption than from any other remains of
I antiquity.
The orgies being a commemoration of the march of
the elder Bacchus into India, and that prince having
had in his train muficians of both fexes, fatyrs, and
fawns, or men equipped like fawns and fatyrs, thefe
were afterwards employed in the proceffions and orgies,
and formed into bands of mufic, playing upon drums
and cymbals, and crying out Evoke Bacche !
In the Juftinian garden at Rome there is a marble
vafe of moft precious workmanfhip, upon which is a
reprefentation of thefe orgies of Bacchus. This vafe,
from the beauty of the fculpture, is fuppofed to be by
the hand of Saurus. The whole pomp of one of thefe
proceffions is there admirably reprefented; in which Bacchus
are introduced Bacchus, the Bacchanals, the Maenades, B Jj j
the players on flutes, matrons, and virgins, with the ac e °r'
Crotalum, or cymbalum, and tympanum; fawns and
fatyrs, holding in their hands vafes and cups; priefts
leading the victims deftined for facriiice, fuch as the
boar, the he-goat, and the bull ; and, laftly, old Si-
lenus, drunk, upon his afs, which he is hardly able to
guide.
With refpeft to Bacchanalian Songs, as the ancient
Greeks and modern French have at all times had the Burney,
bed wine to drink, they feem to have been the moft ibid*
happy in finging its praifes. Anacreon will authorife
this opinion with refpedt to the Greeks; and the French
have many Anacreons, among whom may be number¬
ed the abbe de Chaulieu, La Chapelle, La Fare, and
St Aulajfe.
But Bacchus is faid by Diodorus f to have invented f Lil. ir.
beer, for the ufe of mankind in fuch parts of the globe
as are unfit for the culture of the grape ; and our gluey
potations, with the black juice of Oporto, have fome-
times infpired the bards of this ifland with wit and jollity
in their drinking fongs. And indeed our catches, by
the ingenuity of the mufical compofer, are perhaps
fraught with more pleafantry, and are prodiuftive of
more genuine mirth, than the Bacchanalian hymns of
any other people on the globe.
BACCHYLIDES, a famous Greek poet, was the
nephew of Simonides, and the cotemporary and rival
of Pindar. Both fung the victories of Hiero at the pu¬
blic games. Befides odes to athletic vigors, he was
author of Love Verfes ; Profodies ; Dithyrambics; Hymns;
Pscans ; Hyporchcmes ; Parthenia, or fongs to be fung
by a chorus of virgins at feftivals. The chronology of
Eufebius places the birth of Bacchylides in the 8s’*
Olympiad, about 450 B. C.
BACCIO, or Baccius, (Andrew), a celebrated
phylician of the 16th century, born at St Elpideo. He
pradlifed phyfic at Rome with great reputation, and
was firft phyfician to pope Sixtus V. The moft fcarce
and valuable of his works are, 1. De thermis. 2. De
naturali vinorum hijloria. 3. De venenis et antidotis.
4. De gemmis ac lapidibus pretiofs.
BACHELOR, or Batchelor^ man who ftill con¬
tinues in the ftate of celibacy, or who was never mar¬
ried.
Bachelor is a word of uncertain etymology, it not
being known what was its original fenfe. Junius de¬
rives it from BaxuMgr, fooljh ; Menage, from Bas Che¬
valier, a knight of the loweft rank ; Spelman, from
Bacillus,* ftaff; Cujas, from Buccella, an allowance of
provifion. The moft probable derivation of it feems
to be from Bacca Laurus, the berry of a laurel or bay;
bachelors being young and of good hopes, like laurels
in the berry. In Latin, Baccalaureus.
Bachelor, was anciently a denomination given to
thofe who had attained to knighthood, but had not a
number of vaflals-fufficient to have their banner carried
before them in the field of battle; or if they were not
of the order of bannerets, were not of age to difplay
their own banner, but obliged to march to battle un¬
der another’s banner. It was alfo a title given to young
cavaliers, who, having made their firft campaign, re¬
ceived the military girdle accordingly. And it ferved
to denominate him who had overcome another in a tour¬
nament,,
BAG L 938 ] BAG
Bachelors nament, the firft time he ever engaged.
Knights Bachelors were fo called, as being the
„ loweft order of knights, or inferior to bannerets.
Bachelors, in an univerfity-fenfe, are perfons that
have attained to the baccalaureate, or who have taken
the firft degree in the liberal arts and fciences. Be¬
fore a perfon can be admitted to this degree at Oxford,
it is neceffary that he ftudy there four years; three
years more may entitle him to the degree of matter of
arts; and in feven years more he may commence ba¬
chelor of divinity. At Cambridge, the degrees are
ufually taken much the fame as at Oxford, excepting
in law and phyfic; in either of which the bachelor’s de¬
gree may be taken in fix years. In France, the degree
of bachelor of divinity is attained in five year’s ftudy ;
that is, in two years of philofophy, and three of di¬
vinity.
B ACHERAC, a town of the Palatine of the Rhine,
fituated on theweftern fhore of that river, in E. Long.
70. and N. Lat. 58°. It is remarkable for excellent
wine, from thence called Baeherac.
BACHIAN, one of the Molucca iflands, belong¬
ing to the Dutch ; fituated under the equator, in E.
Long. 1250.
BACHU, a city of Shirvan in Perfia, and the beft
haven in the Cafpian fea. It is defended by a double
wall, as alfo by a ditch and redoubts, made by the Ruf¬
fians when they were mafters of the place. It had a
fumptuous caftle, but it is reduced to a ruinous ftate by
the Ruffians. Formerly many merchants refided here,
and carried on a confiderable traffick in raw filk ; but
that commerce is now given up. All the country
round is much impregnated with fulphur, which ren¬
ders the water very unpleafant. The neighbourhood
of this city fupplies the countries adjacent with naph¬
tha, brimftone, and rock-falt; and is the only place
thereabouts which produces faffron. Round Bachu are
feveral very fteep craggy mountains, on which are
ftrong watch-towers. E. Long. 49. 5. N. Lat. 40. O.
BACK, in anatomy. See Back-5ok<?.
Back, in the menage, and among farriers. A horfe’s
back ftiould be ftraight, not hollow, which is called
faddle backed: horfes of this kind are generally light,
and carry their heads high, but want in ftrength and
fervice. A horfe with a weak back is apt to ftumble.
In the French riding-fchools, to mount a horfe a dos,
is to mount him bare-backed, without a faddle.
BACK-i&w, or Spine. See Anatomy, n° 29, See.
Back-G«wot3«, an ingenious game played with dice
and tables, to be learned only by obfervation and prac¬
tice.
VtA-CYL-Painting, the method of painting mezzo-
* See Mez- tinto prints, pafted on glafs, with oil-colours *.
zoiinto. The art confifts chiefly in laying the print upon a
piece of crown-glafs, of fuch a lize as fits the print.
In order to do this, take your print, and lay it in
clean water for two days and two nights, if the print
be on very ftrong, clofe, and hard gummed paper;
but if upon an open, foft, fpungy paper, two hours
willfometimes fuffice, or more, according as the paper is.
The paper or picture having been fufficiently foaked,
take it out and lay it upon two fheets of paper, and
cover it with two more ; and let it lie there a little to
fuck out the moifture.
In the mean time, take the glafs the pi&ure is to be
put upon, and fet it near the fire to warm ; take Straf- Back,“It
burg turpentine, warm it over the fire till it is grown BackingM.
fluid, then with a hog’s-hair brulh fpread the turpen- jf
tine very fmoothly and evenly on the glafs.
When this has been done, take the mezzotinto print
from between the papers, and lay it upon the glafs ;
beginning firft at one end, rubbing it down gently as
you go on, till it lie clofe, and there be no wind blad¬
ders between.
Then, with your fingers, rub or roll off the paper
from the back-fide of the print, till it looks black, i. e.
till you can fee nothing but the print, like a thin film,
left upon the glafs, and fet it by to dry.
When it is dry, varnifti it over with fome white tranf-
parent varnilh, that the print may be feen through it;
and then it is fit for painting.
The utmoft care will be neceflary in rubbing or roll¬
ing the paper of the print,- fo as not to tear it, efpe-
cially in the light parts.
You may, inftead of foaking your prints two days
and two nights, roll them up and boil them for about
two hours, more or lefs, according to the quality of
the paper, in water; and that will render it as fit for
rubbing, rolling, or peeling, as the other way.
This being done, and your oil-colours prepared,
ground very fine, and tempered up very ftiff, lay on
the back-fide of the tranfparent prints fuch colours
as each particular part requires ; letting the mafter-
lines of the print ftill guide your pencil, and fo each
particular colour will lie fair to the eye on the other
fide of the glafs, and look almoft as well as a painted
piece, if it be done neatly.
The fliadows of the print are generally fufficient for
the fhadow of every colour; but if you have a mind
to give a fhadow by your pencil, then let the fhadows
be kid on firft, and the other colours afterward.
In laying on colours in this kind of back-painting,
you need not be curious as to the laying them on
fmooth. This is riot at all requifite here, where' the
chief aim is only to have the colours appear well on the
fore fide of the print; and therefore the only care to
be ufed in this work, is to lay the colours on thick
enough, that its body may ftrike the colour of it plainly
through the glafs.
Back-5/1^ a name formerly given to a fea-qua-
diant invented by Captain Davis ; becaufe the back of
the artift is turned towards the fun at the time of ob¬
fervation. See Quadrant.
V>a.ck.-Stays, oT a fhip, are ropes belonging to the
main-maft and fore-maft, and the mafts belonging to
them; ferving to keep them from pitching forwards
or overboard.
~E)hCiz-Tack, in Scots law : When a wadfetter, in¬
ftead of poffeffing the wadfet-lands, grants a tack
thereof to the reverfor for payment of a certain fum
in name of tack-duty, that tack is called a back tack *. * See LaV' \
ftACK-IVorm. See Filanders. Porf •II*J
BACKING, in horfemanfhip. See Horsemanship. " l05’ P
Backing the Sails, in navigation; to arrange them
in a fituation that- will force the fhip to retreat, or
move backwards. This is, however, only done in nar¬
row channels, when a fhip is carried along fidewife by
the tide or current, and wants to avoid any thing that
may interrupt her progrefs, as fhoals, vefiels at anchor,
&c. or in the line of battle, when a fhip wants to be
imme-
BAG [ 939 ] BAG
acks immediately oppofite to another with which fhe is en-
II. gaged.
cor1, BACKS, among dealers in leather, denote the thick-
tft and belt-tanned hides, ufed chiefly for foies of Ihoes.
Backs, in brewing and diftilling. See Bac.
BACULARIUS, in writers of the middle age, an
eccleiialtical apparitor, or verger ; who carries a half,
baculus, in his hand, as an enlign of his office.
BACON, fwines flelh failed, and dried in the chim¬
ney.—Old hillorians and lavv-Writers fpeak of thefer-
vice of the bacon, a cuftom in the manor of Whichen-
acre in Staffordlhire, and priory of Dunmore in Efiex ;
in the former of which places, by an ancient grant of
the lord, a flitch of bacon, with half a quarter of
wheat, was to be given to every married couple who
could fwear, that, having been married a year and a
day, they would never within that time have once ex¬
changed their mate for any other perlbn on earth,
however richer, fairer, or the like. But they were
to bring two of their neighbours to fwear with them
that they believed they fwore the truth. On this the
lord of another neighbouring manor, of Rudlow, was
to find a horfe faddled, and a fack to carry the bounty
in, with drums and trumpets, as far as a day’s journey
out of the manor : all the tenants of the manor being
fummoned to attend, and pay fervice to the bacon.
The bacon of Dunmore, firlt eredted under Henry III.
was on much the fame footing; only the tenor of the
oath was, that the parties had never once repented, or
wiihed themfelves unmarried again.
BACON (Roger), a Francifcan friar of amazing
genius and learning, was born near Ilchefter in Somer-
fetlhire, in the year 12x4. He began his ftudies at
Oxford; but in what fchool, or college, is uncertain.
Thence he removed to the univerfity of Paris, which,
in thofe times, was elteemed the centre of literature.
Here, we are told, he made fo rapid a progrefs in the
fciences, that he was efleemed the glory of that uni¬
verfity, and was much careffed by feveral of his coun¬
trymen, particularly by Robert Grouthead, afterwards
bilhop of Lincoln, his lingular friend and patron.
About the year 1240, he returned to Oxford ; and
affuming the Francifcan habit, profecuted his favourite
ftudy of experimental philofophy, with unremitting
ardour and affiduity. In this purfuit, in experiments,
inftruments, and in fcarce books, he tells us, he fpent,
in the fpace of 20 years, no lefs than L. 2000 ; which,
I it feems, was given him by fome of the heads of the
univerfity, to enable him to profecute his noble in-
quiries. By fuch extraordinary talents, and aftonilhing
progrefs in fciences, which, in that ignorant age, were
I totally unknown to the reft of mankind, whilft they
raifed the admiration of the more intelligent few, could
not fail to excite the envy and malice of his illiterate
fraternity; who found no difficulty of poffeffing the vul¬
gar with the notion of Bacon’s dealing with the devil.
Under this pretence, he was reftrained from reading
ledlures; his writings were confined to his convent; and
finally, in 1278, he himfelf was imprifoned in his cell.
At this time, he was 64 years of age. Neverthelefs,
being permitted the ufe of his books, he went on in
the rational purfuit of knowledge, corre&edhis former
labours, and wrote feveral curious pieces. When he
had been 10 years in confinement, Jerom de Afcoli
being elefted pope, Bacon follicited his holinefs to be
releafed; in which, it feems, he did not immediately Bacon,
fucceed. However, towards the latter end of that
pope’s reign, he obtained his liberty, and fpent the
remainder of his life in the college of his order, where
he died in the year 1294, in the 80th year of his age,
and was buried in the Francifcan church. Such are
the few particulars which the moft diligent refearches
have been able to difcover concerning this very great
man, who, like a fingle bright ftar in a dark hemi-
fphere, fhone forth the glory of his country, and the
pride of human nature.
His works are, 1. Epijiola fratris Rogeri Baconis
de fecretis operibus artis et nature, et de nuliitate magi*.
Paris 1542, 410. Bafil, 1593, 8vo. 2. Opus majus.
Lond. 1733, fol. publilhed by Dr Jebb. 3. Thefaurus
cbemicus. Francf. 1603, 1620. This was probably
the editor’s title; but it contains feveral of our author’s
treatifes on this fubjeft. Thefe printed works of Bacon
contain a confiderable number of effays, which, in the
catalogue of his writings by Bale, Pits, &c. have been
confidered as diftinft books; but there remain in different
libraries feveral manufcripts not yet publiffied. By
an attentive perufal of his works, the reader will be
aftoniftied to find, that this great luminary of the 13th
century was a great linguift, and a Ikilful grammarian;
that he was well vevfed in the theory and praitice of
perfpe&ive ; that he underftood the ufe of convex and
concave glaffes, and the art of making them ; that the
camera obfcura, burning-glaffes, and the power of the
telefcope, were known to him; that he was well verfed
in geography and aftronomy ; that he knew the great
error in the kalendar, affigned the caufe, and propofed
the remedy; that he underftood chronology well ; that
he was an adept in chemiftry, and was really the inven¬
tor of gun-powder ; that he poffeffed great knowledge
in the medical art; that he was an able mathematician,
logician, metaphyfician, and theologift.
Bacon (Sir Nicholas), lord keeper of the great feal
in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, was born at Chifle-
hurft, in Kent, in 1510, and educated at the univerfi¬
ty of Cambridge; after which he travelled into France,
and made fome ftay at Paris. On his return, he fettled
in Gray’s-inn, and applied himfelf with fuch affiduity
to the ftudy of the law, that he quickly diftinguifhed
himfelf fo, that on the diffolution of the monaftery of
St Edmund’s Bury, in Suffolk, he had a grant from
king Henry VIII. in the 36^ year of his reign, of
feveral manors. In the 3Sth of the fame king, he was
promoted to the office of attorney in the court of
Wards, which was a place both of honour and profit.
In this office he was continued by King Edward VI ;
and in 1552 he was eledted treafurer of Gray ’s-inn. His
great moderation and cgnfummate prudence preferved
him through the dangerous reign of Queen Mary. In
the very dawn of that of Elizabeth he was knighted ;
and on the 22d of December 1558, the great feal of
England, being taken from Nicholas Heath archbilhop
of York, was delivered to him with the title of lord
keeper, and he was alfo made one of the Queen’s privy-
council. He had a confiderable fiiare in the fettling
of religion : as a ftatefmen, he was remarkable for a
clear head and deep counfels : but his great parts and
high preferment were far from railing him in his own
opinion, as appears from the modeft anfwer he gave
Queen Elizabeth, when fixe told him his houfe at Red-
BAG [ 940 ] BAG
Bacon, grave was too little for him; “ Not fo, madam, (re-
turned he), but your majefty has made me too great for
my houfe.” After having had the great feal more
than 20 years, this able ftatefman and faithful counfel-
lor was fuddenly removed from this life, as Mr Mallet
informs us, by the following accident: he was under
the hands of the barber, and thinking the weather
warm, had ordered a window before him to be thrown
open, but fell adeep as the current of frefli air was
blowing in upon him, and awaked fome time after di-
ftempered all over. He was immediately removed into
his bed chamber, where he died a few days after, on
the 26th of February 1578-9, equally lamented by the
queen and her fubjedts. He was buried in St Paul’s,
where a monument was eredted to him, which was de-
ftroyed by the fire of London in 1669. Mr Granger
obferves, that he was the firft lord keeper that ranked
as lord chancellor; and that he had much of that pe¬
netrating genius, folidity, and judgment, perfuafive
eloquence, and comprehenfive knowledge of law and
equity, which afterwards Ihone forth with fo great a
luftre in his fon, who was as much inferior to his fa¬
ther in point of prudence and integrity, as his father
was to him in literary accomplifliments.
Bacon (Francis), lord high, chancellor of England
under king James I. was fon of Sir Nicholas Bacon
lord keeper of the great feal, in the reign of queen E-
lizabeth, by Anne daughter of Sir Anthony Cook,
eminent for her Ikill in the Latin and Greek tongues.
He was born 1560 ; and fhewed fuch marks of genius,
that he was particularly taken notice of by queen E-
lizabeth when very young. He was educated at Tri¬
nity college, Cambridge ; and made fuch incredible pro-
grefs in his {Indies, that, before he was 16, he had not
only run through the whole circle of the liberal arts as
they were then taught, but began to perceive thofe im-
pcrfe&ions in the reigning philofophy, which he after¬
wards fo effe&ually expofed, and thereby not only over¬
turned that tyranny which prevented the progrefs of
true knowledge, but laid the foundation of that free
and ufeful philofophy which has fince opened a way
to fo many glorious difcoveries. On his leaving the
univerfity, his father fent him to France ; where, be¬
fore he was 19 years of age, he wrote a general view
of the ilate of Europe: but Sir Nicholas dying, he
was obliged fuddenly to return to England; when
,he applied himfelf to the ftudy of the common law, at
Gray’s-inn. At this period the famous earl of Effex,
who could diftinguifit merit, and who paffionately lo¬
ved it, entered into an intimate friendfliip with him ;
zealoufly attempted, though without fuccefs, to pro¬
cure him the office of queen’s folicitor; and, in order
to comfort his friend under the difappointment, con¬
ferred on him a prefent of land to the value of 1800I.
Bacon, notwithftanding the friendfhfp of fo great a
perfon ; notwithftanding the number and power of his
own relations; and, above all, notwithftanding the early
prepoffeffion of her majefty in his favour; met with
many obftacles to his preferment during her reign. In
particular, his enemies reprefented him as a fpeculative
man, whofe head was filled with philofophical notions,
and therefore more likely to perplex than forward pub¬
lic bufinefs. It was not without great difficulty that
lord treafurer Burleigh obtained for him the rever-
fion of regifter to the Star-chamber, worth about
1600 1. a year, which place fell to him about 20 years
after. Neither did he obtain any other preferment all
this reign ; though if obedience to a fovereign in what
muft: be the moft difagreeable of all offices, viz. the
cafting refleclions on a deceafed friend, entitled him,
he might have claimed it. The people were fo cla¬
morous even againft the queen herfelf on the death of
Eflex, that it was thought necefiary to vindicate the
conduft of the adminiftration : this was affignedto Ba¬
con, which brought on him univerfal cenfure, nay his
very life was threatened. Upon the acceffion of king
James, he was foon railed to confiderable honours; and
wrote in favour of the union of the two kingdoms of
Scotland and England, which the king fo paffionately
defined. In 1616, he was fworn of the privy-council.
He then applied himfelf to the reducing and recom-
pofing the laws of England. He diftinguiftied him¬
felf, when attorney-general, by his endeavours to reftrain
the cuftom of duels, then very frequent. In 1617, he
was appointed lord keeper of the great feal. In 1618,
he was made lord chancellor of England, and created
lord Verulam. In the midft of thefe honours and ap-
plaufes, and multiplicity of bufinefs, he forgot not his
philofophy, but in 1620 publifhed his great work in-
titled Novum Organum. We find, by feveral letters
of his, that he thought convening of parliaments was
the heft expedient for the king and people. In 1621,
he was advanced to the dignity of Vifcount St Albans,
and appeared with the greateft fplendour at the open¬
ing of the feffion of parliament. But he was'foon af¬
ter furprifed with a melancholy reverfe of fortune. For,
about the 12th of March, a committee of the houfe of
commons was appointed to infpedl the abufes of the
courts of juftice. The firft thing they fell upon was
bribery and corruption, of which the lord chancellor
was accufed. For that very year complaints being made
to the houfe of commons of his lordftiip’s having re¬
ceived bribes, thofe complaints were feht up to the
houfe of lords, and new ones being daily made of a
like nature, things foon grew too high to be got over.
The king found it was impoffible to fave both his chan¬
cellor, who was openly accufed of corruption, and
Buckingham hia favourite, who was fecretly and there¬
fore more dangeroufty attacked as the encouragcr of
whatever was deemed moft illegal and opprefiive : he
therefore forced the former to abandon his defence,
giving him pofitive advice to fubmit himfelf to his peers,
and promifing upon his princely word to fereen him in
the laft determination, or, if that could not be, to re¬
ward him afterwards with ample retribution of favour.
The chancellor, though he forefaw his approaching
ruin if he did not plead for himfelf, refolved to obey ;
and the houfe of peers, on the 3d of May 1621, gave
judgment againft him, “ That he ffiould be fined
40,000!. and remain prifoner in the tower during the
king’s pleafure ; that he fliould for ever be incapable of
any office, place, or employment, in the ftate or com¬
monwealth ; and that he ftiould never fit in parliament,
or come within the verge of the court.” The fault
which, next to his ingratitude to Eflex, thus tarniftied
the glory of this illultrious man, is laid to have princi¬
pally proceeded from his indulgence to his fervants,
who made a corrupt ufe of it. One day, during his
trial, paffing through a room where feveral of his do-
meftics were fitting, upon their rifing up to falutehim,
he
■j
BAG [ 94i ] BAG
nd^con, he faid, “ Sit down, my mafters; your rife hath been
>aj-)inhijip ray. fa]j » Stephens, p. 54. And we are told by Rufh-
vvorth in his hiftorical colledlions, “ That he treafured
up nothing for himfelf or family, but was over-indul¬
gent to his fervants, and connived at their takings,
and their ways betrayed him to that error; they were
4 profufe and expenfive, and had at their command what¬
ever he was mafter of. The gifts taken were for the
moft part for interlocutory orders; his decrees were ge¬
nerally made with fo much equity, that though gifts
rendered him fufpefted for injuftice, yet never any de¬
cree made by him was reverfed as unjuft.” It was pe¬
culiar to this great man (fay the authors of the Biogr£
Brit.) to have nothing narrow and felfilh in his compo-
fition : he gave away without concern whatever he pof-
j felled; and believing other men of the fame mould, he
received with as little confideration. He retired, af¬
ter a Ihort imprifoument, from the engagements of an
n&ive life, to which he had been called much againft
his genius, to the lhade of a contemplative one, which
he had always loved. The king remitted his fine, and
I he was fummoned to parliament in the firft year of king
Charles the firft. It appears from the works compofed
during his retirement, that his thoughts were ftill free,
vigorous, and noble. The laft five years of his life he
I devoted wholly to his ftudies. In his recefs he com¬
pofed the greateft part of his Englilh and Latin works.
He expired on the 9th of April, 1626; and was buried
in St Michael’s church at St Albans, according to the
dire&ion of his laft will, where a monument of white
marble was ere&ed to him by Sir Thomas Meautys
formerly his fecretary, and afterward clerk of the privy
council tinder two kings. A complete edition of this
great man’s works was publiftied at London in the
year 1740.—Addifon has faid of him, That he had
the found, diftinft, comprehenfive knowledge of Arif-
totle, with all the beautiful light, graces, and embel-
lifhmentSjof Cicero.—The honourable Mr Walpole calls
him the Prophet of Arts which Newton was afterwards
to reveal; and adds, that his genius and his works will
be univerfally admired as long as fcience exifts. “ As
jj long as ingratitude and adulation are defpicable, fo
long (hall we lament the depravity of this great man’s
heart. Alas! that he who could command immortal
fame, ftiould have (looped to the little ambition of
power.”
Bacon (fir Nathaniel), knight of the bath, and an
excellent painter, was a younger fon of the lord keeper,
and half brother to the great fir Francis. He travelled
into Italy, andftudiedpainting there; buthis mannerand
colouring approaches nearer to the ftyle of the Flemifh
fchool. Mr Walpole obferves, that at Culford, where
he lived, are preferved fome of his works ; and at Gor-
hambury, his father’s feat, is a large pi&ure by him
in oil, of a cook-maid with a dead fowl, admirably
painted, with great nature, neatnefs, and luftre of co¬
louring. In the fame houfe is a whole length of him,
by himfelf, drawing on a paper, his fword and pallet
hung up, and a half length of his mother by him.
I BACONTHORP (John), called the refolute dottor,
,j a learned monk, was born towards the end of the 13th
century, at Baconthorp a village in Norfolk. He fpent
the early part of his life in the convent of Blackney,
near Walfingham in the fame county; whence he remo¬
ved to Oxford, and from thence to Paris; where being
Vox.. II.
diftinguifned for his learning, he obtained degrees in Baflm
divinity and laws, and was efteemed the principal of A- ^ ^
verroifts*. In 1329 he returned to England,^and w'as p“rataj
immediately chofen twelfth provincial of the Englilh
Carmelites. In 1333 he was fent for to Rome; where, ''
we are told, he firft maintained the pope’s fovereign
authority in cafes of divorce, but that he afterwards
retracted his opinion. He died in London ia the year
1346. Leland, Bale, and Pits, unanimoufly give him
the charadter of a monk of genius and learning. He
WTOte, 1. Connnentariafeu quxflionesfuper quatuor libros
fententiaruin ; and, 2. Compendium legis Chrijii, et quod-
libeta: both which underwent feveral editions at Paris,
Milan, and Cremona. Leland, Bale, and Pits, men¬
tion a number of his works never publiftied.
BACTRIA, or Bactriana, now ChoraJJdn or Kho-
rafan, an ancient kingdom of Alia, bounded on the
weft by Margiana, on the north by the river Oxus, on
the fouth by Mount Paropifmus, and on the eaft by
the Afiatic fcJcythia and the country of the Mafiagetss.
It was a large, fruitful, and wTell-peopled country,
containing according to Ammianus Marcellinus icoo
cities, though of thefe only a few are particularly men¬
tioned by hiftorians, of which that formerly called Ma-
racanda, now Satnarcand, is the moft confiderable.
Of the hiftory of this country we know but little.
Authors $gree that it was fubdued firft by the Afly-
rians, afterwards by Cyrus, and then by Alexander the
Great. Afterwards it remained fubjedl to Seleucus Ni-
cator and his fuccefibrs till the time of Antiochus
Theos ; when Theodotus, from governor of that pro¬
vince, became king, and ftrengthened himfelf fo effec¬
tually in his kingdom, while Antiochus was engaged
in a war with Ptolemy Philadelphus king of Egypt,
that he could never afterwards difpoffefs him of his ac-
quifitions. His pofterity continued to enjoy the king¬
dom for fome time, till they were driven out by the
Scythians, who reigned in Ba&ria in the time of A-
drian, Antoninus Pius, &c. The Scythians were in
their turn driven out by the Huns or Turks, and thefe
often conquered by the Saracens and Tartars ; never-
thelefs they continued in poffefiion of this country in the
time of Ladiflaus IV. king of Hungary *. * See KU-
In early times the Ba6lrians differed little in their Tafan'
manners from the Nomades; and being near neigh¬
bours of the Scythians, who were a very warlike people,
the Baftrian foldiers were reckoned the beft in the
world. Their appearance was very favage ; being of
an enormous ftature, having a terrible afpedl, rough
beards, and long hair hanging down their ftlbulders.
Some authors affert that they kept dogs on purpofe to
devour fuch as arrived at extreme old age, or who were
exhaufted by long ficknefs. They add, that for all
their fiercenefs, the Ba&rian hufbands were fuch dupes
to their wives, that they durftnot complain of them even
for conjugal infidelity, to which it feems the latter were
very much addicted.
BACTROPERATA, an ancient appellation given
to philofophers by way of contempt, denoting a man
with a ftaff and a budget.
We fuppofe it is of the fame people that Pauchafias
Radbertus fpeaks under the corrupt name of Baccope-
ritee, or Bacchioriita, whom he deferibes as philofo¬
phers who had fo great a contempt for all earthly things,
that they kept nothing but a diftt to drink out of; and
6 C that
BAD [ 942 ] BAD
Ba'cule that one of this order feeing a peafant fcooping up the
II water in his hand, threw away his cup as a fuperfluity:
a(en' which is nothing but the old ftory of Diogenes the
Cynic.
BACULE, in fortification, a kind of portcullis, or
gate, made like a pit-fall with a counterpoife, and fup-
ported by two great Hakes. It is ufually made before
the corpade-guard, not far from the gate of a place.
BACULOMETRY, the art of meafuring acceffible
or inacceffible heights, by the help of one or more ba-
culi, Haves, or rods. See Geometry.
BACURlUS, or Baturius, king of the Iberians,
a people on the fide of the Cafpian fea. One day being
a-hunting, he loH fight of his company, through a
great Horm and Hidden darknefs; upon which he vowed
to the God of his ChriHian Have, that if he were de¬
livered he would worfhip him alone: the day breaking
up immediately, he made good his promife, and be¬
came the apoHle of his country.
B ADAGSHAN, a very ancient city of Great Buk-
haria, in the province of Balkh, fituated at the foot of
thofe high mountains which feparate Indofian from
Great Tartary. The city is exceedingly firong by its
fituation ; and belongs to the khan of proper Bukha-
ria, who ufes it as a kind of Hate-prifon to fecure thofe
he is jealous of. The town is not very big, but well
built, and very populous. It Hands on the north fide
of the river Amu, about 100 miles from its fource, and
is a great thoroughfare for the caravans defigned for
little Bukharia. The inhabitants are enriched by
mines of gold, filver, and rubies, which are in the
neighbourhood ; and thofe who live at the foot of the
mountains gather a great quantity of gold and filver
duH brought down in the fpring by torrents occalioned
by the melting of the fnow on the top.
BADAJOZ, a large and Hrong town, capital of
EHremadura in Spain. It is feated on the river Gua-
diana, over which there is a fine bridge built by the
Romans. On this bridge the Portuguefe were defeated
in 1661, by Don John of AuHria. W. Long. 7. 3.
N. Lat. 38. 35.
BADELONA, a town of Catalonia in Spain,,feated
on the Mediterranean. Lord Peterborough landed here
in 1704, when, with Charles then king of Spain, he
laid fiege to Barcelona, from which it is ten miles di-
flant. E. Long. 2. 20. N. Lat. 41. 12.
BADEN (the difiri£\of), in Swifierland, has three
cities, Baden, Keifers-Stoul, and Klingnaw, befides a
a town that pafies for a city, namely, Tjurzach. It is
one of the finefi countries in Swifierland, and is watered
with three navigable rivers, the Limmet, Rufs, and
Are. The land is fertile in corn and fruit, and there
are places on the fides of the Limmet which produce
wine. It maintains a communication between the can¬
tons of Zurich and Bern, being feated between their
north extremities. It extends on one fide to the Are,
as far as the place where it falls into the Rhine, and
on the other fide beyond the Rhine, where there are
fome villages which depend thereon. MoH of the in¬
habitants are Papifls. By the treaty of peace at the
conclufion of the war which broke out in 1712 between
the Proteflant and Popifh cantons, this country was
yielded to the ProteHant cantons of Zurich and Bern.
Before, it was the property of the eight old cantons;
however, as the canton of Claris had taken no part in
this war, by the confent of both parties its right was
Hill continued.
Baden, the capital of the above diHrift, is an agree¬
able city, moderately large, feated on the fide of the
Limmet, in a plain flanked by two high hills, between
which the river runs. Tins city owes its rife to its
baths, which were famous before the ChriHian aera.
Several monuments of antiquity have been found here
from time to time, particularly in 1420. When they
were opening the large fpring of the baths, they found
Hatues of feveral heathen gods, made of alabafier; Ro¬
man coins, made of bronze, of AuguHus, Vefpafian,
Decius, &c.; and feveral medals of the Roman em¬
perors, of gold, filver, copper, and bronze. There
are two churches in Baden; one of which is colle¬
giate, and makes a good appearance; the other is a
monaflery of the Capuchins, near the town-houfe.
This lafi building ferves not only for the aflemblies of
their own council, but alfo for thofe of the cantons.
The diet afiembles there in a handfome room made for
that purpofe; the deputies of Zurich fit at the bottom
behind a table, as the mofl honourable place ; the am-
bafladors of foreign powers are feated on one fide to
the right, and the deputies of the other cantons are
ranged on each fide the room. The bailiff of Baden
refides in a caffle at the end of a handfome wooden
bridge, which is covered in. Before this cafile there is
a Hone pillar, erefted in honour of the emperor Tra¬
jan, who paved a road in this country 85 Italian miles
in length. The inhabitants are rigid Roman-catholics,
and formerly behaved in a moff infolent manner to the
Proteflants, but they are now obliged by their maffers
to be more fubmiffive. The baths which are on each
fide the river are a quarter of a league from the city.
Joining to the fmall baths there is a village, and to the
large a town which may pafs for a fecond Baden. It
is Rated on a hill, whole afcent is ffeep. There the
baths are brought into inns and private houfes, by
means of pipes, which are about 60 in all. There are
alfo public baths in the middle of the town, from a
fpring which rifes in the ffreet, where the poor bathe
gratis, but they are expofed quite naked to all that
pafs by. All the baths are hot, and one to fo great a
degree as to fcald the hand; and they are impregnated
with a great deal of fulphur, with fome allum and nitre.
They are ufeful for drinking as well as bathing; and
are faid to cure all difeafes from a cold caufe, head-
achs, vertigos, &c. They flrengthen the fenfes, cure
difeafes of the bread and bowels, aflhmas, and obflruc-
tions. They are peculiarly excellent for womens dif¬
eafes. E. Long. 8. 25. N. Lat. 47. 27. -
Baden (the Margravate of), in the circle of Swabia,
in Germany, is bounded by the Palatinate of the Rhine,
on the. north; by the Black Forelt, on the call; by
Swifferland, on the fouth ; and by the Rhine, which di¬
vides it from Alface, on the eaH: and is about 90 miles
in length, from north to fouth; but not above 20 in
breadth, where it is widefl. It is a very populous and
fruitful country, abounding in corn and wine. Venifon
and wild fowl are fo plentiful, that they are the com¬
mon diet of the peafants. The rivers that water this
territory, are the Rhine, Ens, Wirmbs, and Phints,
which yield plenty of fifli. They feed their hogs with
chefnuts, which make the bacon excellent. They have
free-Hone for building, and marble of all colours. They
have
BAD [ <H3 ] BAG
>: Ba4en have feme agate, and great quantities of hemp and flax
'f Ji. for exportation. The chief towns are Baden, Durlach,
k xtica. stolhafen, Raftadt, Gerfbach, Pforlheim, and Hoch-
berg.
Baden, the chief city of the above margravate, has
a caftle that ftands on the top of a hill, which is the re-
fidence of a prince. The town is feated among hills,
On rocky and uneven ground, which renders the ftreets
inconvenient and crooked. It is famous for its baths,
. • the fprings of which are faid to be above 300. Some
of them are hot, and accounted to be very good in ner-
. vous cafes. They partake of fait, allum, and fulphur.
E. Long. 9. 24. N. Lat. 48. 50.
Baden, a town of Germany, in the arch-duchy of
Auftria, feated on the Little Suechat, is a neat little
walled town. Handing in a plain not far from a ridge
of hills which run out from the mountain Cetius. It
is much frequented by the people of Vienna, and the
neighbouring parts, on account of its baths. The
fprings fupply two convenient baths within the town,
five without the walls, and one beyond the river. They
are good for di{tempers of the head, the gout, drop-
fy, and moft chronic diftempers. It is obfervable that
all thefe Badens take their names from the baths. E.
Long. 17. 10. N. Lat. 48. O.
BADENOCH, the moft northerly part of Inver-
nefs-fiiire, in Scotland, extending about 33 miles in
length from eaft to weft, and 27 from north-eaft to
I fouth-weft where broadeft. It has no confiderable
town, and is very barren and hilly, but abounds with
deer, and other kinds of game.
BADEN-weiller, a town of Germany, belonging
to the lower Margravate of Baden. E. Long. 7. 50.
N. Lat. 47. 55.
BADGER, in zoology, the Englifli name of a fpe-
. cies of urfus. See Ursus.
Badger, in old law-books, one that was licehfed to
buy corn in one place, and carry it to another to fell,
without incurring the punifhment of an engroffer.
BADIA, an ancient town of Bsetica on the Anas;
g e Bada- now fuppofed to be Badajoz on the Guadiana *.
BADIANE, or Bandian, the feed of a tree which
grows in China, and fmells like anife-feed. The Chi-
nefe, and the Dutch in imitation of them, fometimes
life the badiane to give their tea an aromatic tafte.
BADIS, a fortrefs of Livonia, fubjedl to Rufua.
E. Long. 23. 10. N. Lat. 59. 15.
BADIUS (Conrad), and (Stephen Robert), his
brother; French refugees; celebrated as printers at Ge¬
neva, and Conrad as an author. The latter died in 1566.
BiETERRiE, an ancient town of the Tertofages
in Gallia Narbonenfis; now Ae/fe/v, on the eaft bank of
•? >e Befi- the Obris, now Orbis, or Orbe, in Lower Languedoc *.
BiETICA, a province of ancient Spain, fo called
from the famed river Baetis, afterwards Tartejfus, novt
j- Guadalquiver, or the great river. It was bounded on
the weft by Lufitania ; on the fouth, by the Mediterra¬
nean, and Sinus Gaditanus ; on the north, by the Can-
tabric fea, now the Bay of Bifcay. On the eaft and
north-eaft, its limits cannot be fo well afeertained, as
they are very reafonably thought to have been in a
continual ftate of ftuftuation, as each petty monarch
had an opportunity of encroaching upon his neighbour.
The province was divided in two by the river B^tis al¬
ready mentioned. On the one fide of which, towards.
the Anas, were fituated the Turdetani, from whence Bxtis
the kingdom was called Turdetania, though more H
generally known by the name of Baturia. On the a8~
other fide were fituated the Baftuli, Baftetani, and
Conteftani, along the Mediterranean coafts. The Ba¬
ftuli were fuppofed to be of Phoenician extraft, and
dwelt along the coafts of the Mediterranean, till, driven
from thence by the Moors, they fled into the moun¬
tainous parts of Galicia, which they then called from
their own name Bajlulia. The Baftetani were feated
higher up, on the fame coafts. The territories of both
thefe made part of what has fince become the kingdom
of Granada; in which there is a ridge of very high
mountains called from the abovementioned people, the
Bafietanian mountains. Mention is alfo made of their
cayitd Bajhtana; a place of fuch ftrength, that King
Ferdinand was fix months befieging it before he could
take it from the Moors.—The whole px-ovince of Bas-
tica, according to the moft probable account, con¬
tained what is now called Andalujia, part of the king¬
dom of Grenada, and the outward boundaries of E-
ftremadura.
BiETIS. See B^etica.
BjETULO, a town of ancient Spain, in the Ter-
raconenfis ; now Badelona in Catalonia *. * See Badt*
BjETYLIA, anointed ftones, worfhipped by the
Phoenicians, by the Greeks before the time of Cecrops,
and by other barbarous nations. They were commonly
of a black colour, and confecrated to fome god, as
Saturn, Jupiter, the Sun, &c.—Some are of opinion
that the true original of thefe idols is to be derived
from the pillar of (tone which Jacob erefted at Bethel,
and which was afterwards worfhipped by the Jews.
Thefe batylia were much the objecl of the veneration
of the ancient heathens. Many of their idols were no
other. In reality, no fort of idol was more common in
the eaftern countries, than that of oblong ftones eredled,
and hence termed by the Greeks, >uovsc, pillars. In
fome parts of Egypt they were planted on both fides
of the highways. In the temple of Heliogabulus, in
Syria, there was one pretended to have fallen from
heaven. There was alfo a famous black ftone in Phry¬
gia, faid to have fallen from heaven. The Romans
fent for it and the priefts belonging to it with much
ceremony, Scipio Nafica being at the head of the em-
bafly.
BiEZA, a city of Andalufia in Spain, feated on a
high hill, three miles from the Guadalquiver; it is the
fee of a bifhop, and has a kind of univerfity founded
by John D’ Avila. It was taken from the Moors
about the end of the 15th century. E. Long. 3. 15.
N. Lat. 37.45.
BAFFETAS, or Bastas, a cloth made of coarfe
white cotton-thread, which comes from the Eaft Indies.
That of Surat is the beft.
BAFFIN’S bay, a gulph of North America, run¬
ning north eaft from Cape Farewell in Weft Greenland,
from 6o° to 8o° of north latitude.
BAFFO, a confiderable town in the iflandof Cyprus,
with a fort built near ancient Paphos, of which fome
confiderable ruins yet remain, particularly fome broken
columns, which probably belonged to the temple of
Venus. E. Long. 32. 20. N. Lat. 34. 50.
BAG, in commerce, a term fignifying a certain
quantity of fome particular commodity : a bag of al-
6 C 2 monds,
Bag
II
Bagdad.
* See Ara-
bia, n° 184.
Why the
city was
built.
Ancient
city de-
fcribed.
BAG [ 944 ] BAG
monds, for inftance, is about 300 weight; of anife-
feeds, from 300 to 400, &c.
Bags are ufed in moft countries to put feveral forts
of coin in, either of gold, filver, brafs, or copper.
Bankers, and others, who deal much in current cafh,
label their bags of money, by tying a ticket or note at
the mouth of the bag, fignifying the coin therein con¬
tained, the fum total, its weight, and of whom it was
received. Tare is allowed for the bag.
Bag, among farriers, is when, in order to retrieve
a horfe’s loft appetite, they put in an ounce of afa-foe-
tida, and as much powder of fayin, into a bag, to be
tied to the bit, keeping him bridled for two hours, fe¬
veral times a-day ; as foon as the bag is taken oft’, he
will fall to eating. The fame bag will ferve a long¬
time.
BAGAMADER, or Bagamedri, a province of
the kingdom of Abyffinia in Africa. It is faidto re¬
ceive its name from the great number of fheep bred in
it; meder fignifying land or earth, and bag a ftieep.
Its length is eftimated about 60 leagues, and its breadth
20 : but formerly it was much more extenfive; feveral
of its provinces having been difmembered from it, and
joined to that of Tigre. A great- part of it, efpecially
towards the eaft, is inhabited by wandering Gallas
and Caffres.
BAGDAD, a celebrated city of Afia in Irak A-
rabi, feated on the eaftern banks of the Tigris, in
E. Long. 43. 40. N. Lat. 33. 15. By many authors
this city is very improperly called Babylon. The latter
flood on the Euphrates at a conliderable diftance.
This city, for many years the capital of the Saracen
empire, was founded by the khalif A1 Manfur, the fe-
cond of the houfe of A1 Abbas, after an attempt by the
Rawandians to affaffinate him, as already mentioned *.
The reafons afligned by the Arabian hiftorians for
building the city of Bagdad are, That the abovemen-
tioned attempt to aftaflinate the khalif had difgufted
him at his Arabian fubjefts in general, and that the
fpot where Bagdad flood was at a confiderable diftance
from the city of Cufa particularly; the inhabitants of
which were remarkable for their treachery and incon-
flancy, of which A1 Manfur himfelf had felt feveral in-
flances. Befides, the people of Irak, who had always
continued faithful to him, reprefented, that by build¬
ing his capital near the confluence of the Euphrates.and
Tigris, it would be in a great meafure fecured from the
infults and attacks of thofe who fhould have an inclina¬
tion to difpute the khalifat with him ; and that by be¬
ing lituated as it were in the middle of the tradf com¬
prehending the diftrivfls of Bafrah, Cufa, Wafet, Maw-
fel, and Swada, at no great diftance from thofe cities,
it would be plentifully fupplied with provifions by means
of the aforefaid rivers.
Concerning the origin of the name Bagdad, there
are various accounts, which, being equally uncertain
and trifling, merit no attention. The firfl city that
went by this name w-as fituated on the weftern bank of
the Tigris; from whence A1 Manfur difpatched his
fon A1 Mohdi with a body of Moflem troops, to the
oppofite bank. Here the young prince took poft, and
fortified the place on which he had encamped with a
wall, in order to cover his troops, as well as the work¬
men employed by his father on the other fide of the
river, from the incurfions of the Perfians, who feemed
to have taken umbrage at the ereflion of a ne%v metro- ®agc
polis fo near the frontiers of their dominions. Hence
that part of the city foon afterwards built on the ea¬
ftern banks of the Tigris, received the name of the
Camp, or Fortrefs, of Al Mohdi. The khalif had a fu-
perb and magnificent palace both in the eaftern and
weftern part of the town. The eaftern palace was fur-
rounded on the land-fide by a femicircular wall that
had fix gates ; the principal of which feems to have
been called the gate of prefefts, whofe entrance was
generally kifled by the princes and ambaffadors that
came to the khalif’s court. The weftern part of the
city was entirely round, with the khalif’s palace in the
centre, and having the great mofque annexed to it.
The eaftern part confifted of an interior and exterior
town, each of which was furrounded by a wall. For
fome time the building of the city went but flowly on,
owing to a fcarcity of materials for building ; for which
reafon the khalif was fometimes inclined to remove the
materials of A1 Madayen the ancient metropolis of the
Perfian empire. But, upon trial, he found the ftones
to be of fuch an immenfe fize, that the removal of
them to Bagdad would be attended with great diffi¬
culty and expence ; befides, he confidered that it would
be a refle&ion upon himfelf to have it laid that he
could not finifli his metropolis without deftroying fuch
a pile of building as perhaps could not be parallelled in
the whole world ; for which reafons he at length gave
over his defign, and ere&ed the city of Bagdad, moft
probably, out of the ruins of the ancient cities of Se-
leucia and Ctefiphon, putting an end to his undertaking
in the 149th Year t^ie Hegira, or four years after
the city was begun.
From the building the city of Bagdad, to the death
of A1 Manfur, nothing very remarkable happened, ex¬
cepting fome irruptions made into the territories of
the Greeks, and by the Arabs into fome of the kha¬
lif’s other territories. In the 157th year of the He¬
gira alfo, a grievous famine was felt in Mefopotamia,
which was quickly after followed by a plague that de-
ftroyed great numbers. This year likewife, the Chri-
ftians, who had been all along very feverely dealt with
by A1 Manfur, were treated with the utmoft rigour by
Mufa Ebn Mofaab the khalif’s governor; every one
who was unable to pay the enormous tribute exafted
of them being thrown into prifon without diftindfion.
The next year, being the 158th of the Hegira, the Deatliof
khalif fet out from Bagdad, in order to perform the Manfur
pilgrimage to Mecca: but being taken ill on the road,
he expired at Bir Maimun, whence his body was carried
to Mecca ; where, after 100 graves had been dug, that
his fepulchre might be concealed, he was interred, ha¬
ving lived, according to fome 63, according to others
68 years, and reigned 22. He is faid to have been
extremely covetous, and to have left in his treafury
600,000,000 dirhems, and 24,000,000 dinars. He
is reported to have paid his cook by affigning him the
heads and legs of the animals drefled in his kitchen,
and to have obliged him to procure at his own expence
all the fuel and veflels he had occafion for.
When A1 Manfur expired at Bir Maimun, he had guccef
only his domeftics and Rabi his freedman with him. by Al
The latter of thefe, for fome time, kept his death con- Mohdi.
cealed, and pretended to have a conference with him ;
in which, as he gave out, the khalif commanded him
BAG [ 945 ] BAG
■IjrW. to ex act an oath of allegiance to A1 Mohdi his fon,
—ti1 as his immediate fucceffor, and to Ifa Ebn Mufa his
coufin-german, as the next apparent heir to the crown.
He then difpatched a courier to Bagdad with the news
of A1 Manfur’s death; upon which A1 Mohdi was una-
himoufly proclaimed khalif. Ifa Ebn Mufa, however,
no fooner heard this news, than he began to entertain
thoughts of fetting up for himfelf at Cufa where he
then refided ; and in order to facilitate the execution
of his fcheme, fortified himftlf in that city. But A1
Mohdi, being apprized of his defection, fent a detach¬
ment of 1000 horfe to bring him to Bagdad ; which
being done, A1 Mohdi not only prevailed upon him.to
own his allegiance to him, but alfotp give up his right
to the fucceffion for 10,000 according to fome, or
according to others for 10,000,000, dinars,
trtiion From the acceffion of A1 Mohdi, to the 164th year
tbjpto- 0f (.{jg Hegira, the moft remarkable event was the re¬
bellion of A1 Mokanna. This impious impoftor, whole
true name was Hakem Ebn Hefliam, came originally
from Khorafan, and had been an under fecretary to
Abu Moflem governor of that province. He after¬
wards turned foldier, and pafled thence into Mawaral-
nahr, where he gave himfelf out for a prophet. The
name of A1 Mokanna, as alfo that of A1 Borkai, that
is, the veiled, he took from his cuftom of covering his
face with a veil or girdle malk, to conceal his deformity;
he having loft an eye in the wars, and being otherwife
of a defpicable appearance ; though his followers pre¬
tended he did this for the fame reafon that Mofes did,
viz. left the fplendor of his countenance Ihould dazzle
the eyes of his beholders. In fome places he made a
great many profelytes, deluding the people with a
number of juggling tricks which they fwallowed as
miracles, and particularly by caufing the appearance
of a moon to rife out of a well for many nights together;
whence he was alfo called, in the Perfian tongue, Sa-
zendeh mak, or the moon-maker. This wretch, not
content with being reckoned a prophet, arrogated to
I himfelf divine honours; pretending that the Deity
refided in his perfon, having proceeded to him from
Abu Moflem, in whom he had taken up his refidence
before. At laft this impoftor raifed an open rebellion
againft the khalif, and made himfelf mafter of feveral
fortified places in Khorafan, fo that A1 Mohdi was
obliged to fend one of his generals with an army
againft him. Upon the approach of the khalif’s
i troops, A1 Mokanna retired into one of his ftrong
fortrefles which he had well provided for a fiege; and *
fent his emiffaries abroad to perfuade the people that
he raifed the dead to life, and foretold future events,
njji'u! ®ut being clofely befieged by the khalif’s forces, and
is »phe feeing no poflibility of efcaping, he gave poifon in
il and wine to his whole family and all that were with him
a fa' in the caftle; when they were dead, he burnt their
bodies, together with. aH their furniture, provifions,
I and cattle ; and laftly he threw himfelf into the flames,
or, as others fay, into a tub of aqua fortis, or fome
other preparation, which confumed every part of him
except the hair. When the befiegers therefore entered
the place, they found no living creature in it, except
one of A1 Mokanna’s. concubines, who, fufpedting his
defign, had hid herfelf, and now difcovered the whole
, matter. This terrible contrivance, however, failed not
to produce the defired effect. He had promifed his
followers, that his foul fhould tranfmigrate info theform YZgC.;Z.
of an old man riding on a greyifli coloured beaft, and —-
that after fo many years he would return and give them
the earth for their pofleffion ; which ridiculous expec¬
tation kept the feci in being for feveral years. 7
All this time war had been carried on with the Hanm AI-
Greeks, but without any remarkable fuccefs on either rafiiid’s fuc-
fide. In the 164th year °f the Hegira, however, A1 cffs pgal1!^
Mohdi ordered his fon Harun Alrafchid to penetrate 1 % 1Ce **
into the Greek territories with an army of 95,000 men.
Harun, then, having entered the dominions of the em-
prefs Irene, defeated one of her commanders that ad¬
vanced againft him ; after which he laid wafte feveral
of the imperial provinces with fire and fword, and
even threatened the city of Conftantinople itfelf. By
this the emprefs was fo terrified, that Ihe purchafed a
peace with the khalif by paying him an annual tribute
of 70,000 pieces of gold; which, for the prefent at
leaft, delivered her from the depredations of thefe bar¬
barians. After thefigningof the treaty, Harun returned
home laden with fpoils and glory. This year, accord- Unaccount-
ing to fome of the oriental hiftorians, the fun one day, a able Uark-
little after his rifing, totally loft his light in a moment, nefs.
without being eclipfed, when neither any fog nor
any cloud of duft appeared to obfcure him. This
frightful darknefs continued till noon, to the great
aftonifhment of the people fettled in the countries
where ft happened *. * See Aflm-
In the 169th year of the Hegira, A1 Mohdi was »° 1*
was poifoned, tho’ undefignedly, by one of his concu- andl8<*-
bines named Hafanah.- She had defigned to deftroy Ai MoM;
one of her rivals whom ftie imagined to have too great poifoned.
an afcendant over the khalif, by giving her a poifoned
pear. This the latter, not fufpedting any thing,
gave to the khalif; who had no fooner eaten it than he
felt himfelf in exquifite torture, and foon after expired. As likewife
On the death of Al Mohdi, he was fucceeded by his fucceftotr
his eldelt fon Al Hadi ; who having formed a defign Hadi.
to deprive his younger brother Harun Alrafltid of
his right of fucceflion, and even to affinate him, was
poifoned by his vizier in the 170th year of the Hegira ;
and on his death, the celebrated khalif Harun Alrafhid
afcended the throne.
This was one of the beft and wife ft princes that rr
ever fat On the throne of Bagdad. He was alfo ex- ^fhid'khi-
tremely fortunate in all his undertakings, tho? He did Uf.
not much extend his dominions by conqueft. In his'
time the Moflem empire may be faid to have been in’
its moft flourifhing ftate, though, by the independency
of the Moflems in Spain, who had formerly fet up a-
khalif of the houfe of Ommiyah, his territories were
not quite fo extenfive as thofe of fome of his prcdecef-
fors. He poffefled the provinces of Syria, Paleftine, F ,r
Arabia, Perfia, Armenia, Natolia, Media or Ader- hU empire
bijan, Babylonia, Afiyria, Sindia, Sijiftan, Khorafan,
Tabreftan, Jotjan, Zableftan or Sablejlan, Mawar-
alnahr or Great Bukharia, Egypt, Libya, . Mauri¬
tania, &c.; fo that his empire was by far the moft
powerful of any in the world, and extended farther
than the Roman empire ever had done. ' t ?
The firft inftance of Harun’s good fortune, and He finds a
which was taken for a prcf&ge of a profperous and r>ng he hid
happy reign, was his finding a valuable ring which he [Jjro*.n
had thrown into the Tigris to avoid being deprived of e ‘S115*
it by his brother Al Hadi. He was able to give the
divers
BAG
[ 946 ]
BAG
1
_ divers no other direftion than by throwing a ftone borrow it from him ; but he not being able to perform Bagdak
from the bridge of Bagdad, about the _fame place of any thing remarkable with it, complained to Amru that 
the river in which he had thrown the ring ; notwith-
ftanding which, they found it without any great diffi¬
culty.
In the 186^ year of the Hegira, beginning Tanu-
it had not the defired effe& : upon' which that brave
man took the liberty to tell him, that he had not fent
him his arm along with his fword.
In the 188th year of the Hegira, war was renewed
Divides the
mong his aiT Ioth> 802, the khalif divided the government of with the Greeks, and Nicephorus with a great army
foils, and his evtpnfivp Hnmlnions nmnnrv Vnc lAno in f-V»4» ^ 7.u„ 1:r>_ r . n r xt
fettles the
fucceflion.
his extenfive dominions among his three fons in the
Following manner: To A1 Amin theeldeft, he affigned
the provinces of Syria, Irack, the three Arabias,
Mefopotamia, Aflyria, Media, Paleftine, Egypt, and
all that part of Africa extending from the confines of
Egypt and Ethiopia to the ftraits of Gibraltar, with
the dignity of khalif; to A1 Mamun the fecond, he
affigned Perfia, Kerman, the Indies, Khorafan, Ta-
bretlan, Cableftan and Zabieftan, together with the
vaft province of Mawaralnahr ; and to his third fon
A1 Kafem, he gave Armenia, Natolia, Jorjan, Geor¬
gia, Circaffia, and all the Moflem territories bordering
upon the Euxine fea. As to the order of fucceffion,
A1 Amin was to afcend the throne immediately after
his father’s deceafe ; after him, A1 Mamun ; and then
A1 Kafem, whom he had furnamed Al Mutaman.
attacked the khalif’s forces with the utmofi fury. He
was, however, defeated with the lofs of 40,000 men,
and received three wounds in the aftion; after which
the Modems committed terrible ravages in his territories,
and returned home laden with fpoils. The next year
Harun invaded Phrygia ; defeated an imperial army
fent to oppofe him ; and having ravaged the country,
returned without any confiderable lofs. ' In the 190th
year of the Hegira, commencing November 27th Soy,
the khalif marched into the Imperial territories with an
army of 135,000 men, befides a great number of vo¬
lunteers and others who were not inrolled among his
troops. He firft took the city of Heraclea, from
whence he is faid to have carried 16,000 prifoners;
after which he made himfelf mafter of feveral other
places; and, in the conclufion of the expedition, he made
The moft confiderable exploits performed by this a defeent on the ifland of Cyprus, which he plundered
»alif were againft the Greeks, who bv their nerfidv in n tprriKlp manner Tl>ic xt:
khalif were againft the Greeks, who by their perfidy
provoked him to make war upon them, and whom he
always overcame. In the 187th year of the Hegira,
the khalif received a letter from the Greek emperor
Nicephorus foon after he had been advanced to the im¬
perial dignity, commanding him to return all the money
he had extorted from the emprefs Irene, though that
had been fecured to him by the laft treaty concluded
with that princefs, or expeft foon to fee an imperial
army in the heart of his territories. This infolent letter
fo exafperated Harun, that he immediately aflembled
his forces and advanced to Heraclea, laying the coun¬
try through which he pafied waftewith fire and fword.
For fome time alfo he kept that city ftraitly belieged;
which fo terrified the Greek emperor, that he fubmit-
ted to pay an annual tribute. Upon this, Harun granted
him a peace, and returned with his army. But a hard
froft foon after happening in thefe parts, Nicephorus
took for granted that Al Rafhid would not pay him
another vifit, and therefore broke the treaty he had
concluded. Of this the khalif receiving advice, he in-
ftantly put himfelf in motion j and, notwitbftanding the
inclemency of the weather, forced the emperor to ac¬
cept of the terms propofed. According to a Perfian
hiftorian, before the hoftilities at this time commenced,
a terrible manner. This fuccefs fo intimidated Ni¬
cephorus, that he immediately fent the tribute due to
Harun, the withholding of which had been the caufe
of the war ; and concluded a peace upon the khalif’s
own terms; one of which was, that the city of Hera- |#
clea iliould never be rebuilt. This perhaps Harun RebelM
would not have fo readily granted, had not one Rafe in Khof3*
Ebn Al Leith revolted againft him at Samarcand, and fan* |
affembled a confiderable force to fupport him in his de¬
fection.
The next year, being the 191st of the Hegira, the
khalif removed the governor of Khorafan from his em¬
ployment, becaufe he had not been fufficiently attentive
to the motions of the rebel Rafe Ebn Al Leith. As
this governor had alfo tyrannized over his fubjedts in
the moft cruel manner, his fucceffor no fooner arrived
than he fent him in chains to the khalif; but notwith-
ftanding all Harun’s care, the rebels made this year a
great progrefs in the conqueft of Khorafan.
Next year, the khalif found it neceifary to march in
perfon againft the rebels, who were daily becoming
more formidable. The general rendezvous of his troops
was in the plains of Rakka, from whence he advanced
at the head of them to Bagdad. Having at that place
fupplied the troops with every thing neceftary, he
Nicephorus made the khalif a prefent of feveral fine tinued his march to the frontiers of Tori an/where he
fwords, giving him thereby plainly to underftand that was feized with an illnefs which grew more violent after
he was more inclinable to come to blows than to make he had entered that province. Finding himfeif there-
peace with him. All thefe fwords Harun cut afunder fore unable to nurfue his iournev. be th*
peace with him. All theie Iwords Harun cut afunder
with his famous fword Samfaniah, as if they had been
fo many radifties, after which fevere proof there did
not appear the leaft flaw in the blade ; a clear proof of
the goqdnefs of the fword, as the cutting the others
with it was of the ftrength of Harun’s arm. This
Xword had fallen into Al Ralhid’s hands among the fpoils
of Ebn Dakikan, one of the laft Hamyaritic princes
of Yaman ; but is faid to have belonged originally to
a valiant Arab named Amru Ebn Maadi Garb, by
whofe name it generally went among the Modems.
This man is faid to have performed very extraordinary
feats with his fword, which induced a certain prince to
fore unable to purfue his journey, he refigned the com¬
mand of the army to his fon Al Maraun, retiring him¬
felf to Tus in Khorafan. We are told by Khondemir, T. .’lajf
that, before the khalif departed from Rakka, he had a death pi
dream wherein he faw a hand over his head, full of red difled bl
earth, and at the fame time heard a perfon pronouncing dream, i
thefe words, “ See the earth where Harun is to be ™
buried.” Upon this he demanded where he was to be
buried; and was inftantly anfwered, “ At Tus.” This
dream greatly difeompofing him, he communicated it
to his chief phyfician, who endeavoured to divert him,
telling the khalif that the dream had been occafioned
by .the-thoughts of his expedition againft the rebels.
He
BAG [ 947 ] BAG
H ^therefore advifed^hi'm to purfue forae favourite di- juft ice had fo attrafted their efteem, that the whole pro-
" verfion that might draw his attention another way.
The khalif accordingly, by his phyfician’s advice, pre¬
pared a magnificent regale for his courtiers, which lafted
vince was entirely at his devotion; that his own conduft
was by no means reliftied by his fubje&s, whofe minds
were almoft totally alienated from him; and, therefore.
Bagdad.
fevera! days. After this, he put himfelf at the head that he had but one part to ad, which was to deprive A1
of his forces, and advanced to the confines of Jorjan, Mamun of the right of fucceffion that had been given
where he was attacked by the diftemper that proved him by his father, and transfer it to his own fon Mufa,
fatal to him. As his diforder increafed, he found him¬
felf obliged to retire to Tus; where being arrived, he
fent for his phyfician, and faid to him, “ Gabriel, do
you remember my dream at Rakka ? we are now ar¬
rived at Tus, the place, according to what was pre-
di£ed in that dream, of my interment. Send one of
my eunuchs to fetch me a handful of earth in the neigh-
■U -1 J I * >> TT * 71 jT r ^
though then but an infant. Agreeable to this perni¬
cious advice,-the khalif fent for his brother A1 Kafem
from Mefopotamia, and recalled A1 Mamun from Kho-
rafan, pretending he had occafion'for him as an aflift-
ant in his councils.
By this treatment A1 Mamun was fo much provoked, A1 Manuin
that he refolved to come to an open rupture with his takes UP
bourhood of this city.” Upon this, Mafrur, one of brother, in order if poffible to fruftrate his wicked de- armsaSainft
his favourite eunuchs, was difpatched to bring a little
of the foil of the place to the khalif. He foon returned,
figns.. In Head, therefore, of going to Bagdad aslie h,S brother-
had been commanded, he cut off all communication be-
and brought a handful of red earth, which he prefented tween his own province and that capital; pretending
to the khahf with his arm half bare. At the fight of that as his father Harun had affigned him the lieutf’
4«
this, Harun inftantly cried out, “ In truth this is the
earth, and this the very arm, that I faw in my dream.”
His fpirits immediately failing, and his malady being
greatly increafed by the perturbation of mind enfuing
upon this fight, he died three days after, and was bu¬
ried in the fame place. According to Abul Faraj, Ba-
ftiir Ebn A1 Leith the arch-rebel’s brother was brought
nancy of Khorafan, he was refponfible for all the dif-
orders that might happen there during his abfence.
He alfo coined money, and would not fuffer A1 Amin’s
name to be impreffed upon any of the dirhems or di¬
nars ftruck in that province. Not content with this, he
prevailed upon Rafe’ Ebn A1 Leith, who had been for
fome time in rebellion, to join him with a body of
in chains to the khalif, who was then at the point of troops; whofe example was foon after followed by Har-
At flip ficrht ix/Vinm T-Tornn ♦ 1, Q „ TT l. ~ A „  i_ * „ i • • ^
death. At the fight of whom Harun declared, that
if he could fpeak only two words he would fay kill him;
and immediately ordered him to be cut to pieces in his
prefence. This being done, the khalif foon after ex¬
pired, in the year of the Hegira 193, having reigned
23 years. The diftemper that put an end to his days
is faid to have been the bloody flux.
thema Ebn Aafan; which put him in poffcffion of all
the vaft territory of Khorafan. Here he governed with
an abfolute fway, officiated in the mofque as Imam,
and from the pulpit conftantly harangued the people.
The following year, being the 195th 7ear the
Hegira, beginning Oftober 4th 810, the khalif A1
Amin, finding that his brother fet him at defiance, de-
Upon the arrival of a courier from Tus, with the dared war againft him, and fent his general AH Ebn
..ews of A1 Rafhid’s death, his fon A1 Amin was im- Ifa with an army of 60,000 men to invade Khorafan
mediately proclaimed khalif; and was no fooner feated A1 Mamun, being informed that Ali was advancing a- 41 a 2 ' ’
on the throne, than he formed a defign of excluding his gainft him with fuch a powerful army, put on foot all forces de- *
brother A1 Mamun from the fucceffion. Accordingly the troops he could raife, and gave the command to fcated*
he deprived him of the furniture of the imperial palace Thaher Ebn Hofein, one of the greateft generals of his
of Khorafan ; and in open violation of his father’s will, age. Thaher being a man of undaunted refolution,
who had beftowed on A1 Mamun the perpetual go- chofe only 4000 men, whom he led againft A1 Amin’s
vernment of Khorafan, and of all the troops in that pro- army. Ali, feeing fo fmall a number of troops advan-
vince, he ordered thefe forces to march dire&ly to Bag- cing againft him, was tranfported with joy, and pro-
dad. Upon the arrival of this order, A1 Mamun expo- mifed himfelf an eafy viaory. Defpifing his enemies
ftulated with the general A1 Fadl Ebn Rabi who com- therefore, he behaved in a fecure and care I e fa manner |
manded his troops, and endeavoured to prevent his the confequence of which was, that his army was en-
marching to Bagdad; but without effea, for he punc- tirely defeated, and himfelf killed, his head being af-
tually obeyed the orders fent by the khalif. A1 Ma- terwards fent as a prefent to A1 Mamun, who amply re-
mun, however, took care not to be wanting in fidelity warded Thaher and Harthema for their fervices.
to his brother. He obliged the people of Khorafan to After this viftory, A1 Mamun affumed the title of
take an oath of fidelity to A1 Amin, and reduced fome khalif, ordered A1 Amin’s name to be omitted in the
who had adually excited a confiderable body of the public prayers, and made all neceffary preparations for
people to revolt, while the general A1 Fadl having in- carrying the war into the very heart of his brother’s
gratiated himfelf with the khalif by his ready compli- dominions. For this purpofe he divided his forces into
ance with his orders, was chofen prime vizir, and go- two bodies, and commanded them to march into Irak
verned with an abfolute fway ; A1 Amin abandoning by different routes. One of them obeyed the orders of
himfelf entirely to drunkennefs. Thaher, and the other of Harthema. The firft dire&ed
A1 Fadl was a very able minifter; though, fearing A1 his march towards Ahwaz, and the other towards HoF-
Mamun’s refentment if ever he ffiould afeend the throne, wan, both of them propofing to meet in the neighbour-
he gave A1 Amin fuch advice as proved in the end the hood of Bagdad, and after their jundion to befiege
ruin of them both. He told him that his brother had that city.
gained the affe<aion of the people of Khorafan by the In the 196th year of the Hegira, Thaher Ebn Ho- A1 Ma-
good order and police he had eilabliffied among them ; fein made a moft rapid progrefs with the troops under mun’s raPi4.
that his unwearied application to the adminiftration of his command. Having advanced towards Ahwaz, he con<lucfts*
there
Siege of
Bagdad.
BAG [ 948 ]
there defeated a body of the khalif’s forces; and though He had not been lonj
~ the victory was by no means decifive, it fo intimidated
the commander of Ahwaz, that he thought fit to fur-
render that fortrefs to him. This opened him a way to
Succeeded
by Al Ma-
imtn.
BAG
_ feated- on the throne when he
alarmed by rebellions breaking out in different '
parts of the empire. Thefe, however, were at laft hap- Khomlj
pily extinguifhed ; after which, Thaher Ebn Hofein d'fmeiT
Wafet upon the Tigris, and facilitated the conqueft of had the government of Khorafan conferred upon him
that place. After this he marched with his army to
Al Madayen; the inhabitants of which immediately
opened their gates to him. The rapidity of thefe con-
quefts, and the infamous conduit of Al Amin, excited
the people of Egypt, Syria, Hejaz, and Yaman, un-
animoufly to declare for Al Mamun; who was accord-
ingly proclaimed khalif in all thefe provinces.
The next year, Al Mamun’s forces under Thaher
and Harthema, laid fiege to Bagdad. As the khalif
was (hut up in that place, and it had a numerous gar-
rifon, the befieged made a vigorous defence, aqd de-
ftroyed a great number of their enemies. The befiegers,
however, inceffantly played upon the town with their
catapults and other engines, though they were in their
turn not a little annoyed by the garrifon with the fame
fort of military machines. The latter likewife made
continual {allies, and fought like men in defpair, tho’
they were always at laft beaten back into the town
with confiderable lofs. In fhort, the fiege continued du¬
ring the whole of this year, in which the greateft part
of the eaftern city, called the Camp of Al Mohdi, was
demplilhed or reduced to afhes. The citizens, as well
as the garrifon, were reduced to the laft extremity by
the length and violence of the fiege.
In the beginning of the 198th year of the Hegira,
Al Amin finding himfelf deferted by his troops, as
well as by the principal men of Bagdad, who had kept
a private correfpondence with Thaher, was obliged to
retire to the old town on the weft bank of the Tigris.
He did not, however, take this ftep, before the inhabi¬
tants of the new town had formally depofed him, and
proclaimed his brother Al Mamun khalif. Thaher, re¬
ceiving advice of this, caufed the old town to be im¬
mediately invefted, planted his engines againft it, and
at laft ftarved it to a furrender. Al Amin being thus
reduced to the necefiity of putting himfelf into the
hands of one of the generals, chqfe to implore the pro-
teftion of Harthema, whom he judged to be of a more
humane difpofition than Thaher. Having obtained this,
he embarked in a fmall ve{fel in order to arrive at that
part of the camp where Harthema was ported; but
Thaher being informed of his defign, which, if put in
execution, he thought would eclipfe the glory he had
acquired, laid an ambufti for him, which he had not the
good fortune to efcape. Upon his arrival in the neigh¬
bourhood of Harthema’s tent, Thaher’s foldiers ruftied
isli
rath ■ I
i Malfrt
and his defeendants with almoft abfolute and unlimited
power. This happened in the 20jth year of the He¬
gira, from which time we may date the difmemberment
of that province from the empire of the khalifs.
During the reign of this khalif nothing remarkable
happened; only the African Moflems invaded the ifland
of Sicily, where they made themfelves mafters of feveral
places. He died of a furfeit in the 218th year of the Death
Hegira, having reigned 20, and lived 48 or 49 years. Al ”
On the death of A1 Mamun, his brother Al Mota-
fem, by fome of the oriental hiftorians furnamed Billah,
was faluted khalif. He fucceeded by virtue of Al
Mamun’s exprefs nomination of him to the exclufion of
his own fon Al Abbas and his other brother Al Kafem
who had been appointed by Harun Al Rafhid. In 19,
the beginning of his reign he was obliged to employ War be/
the whole forces of his empire againft one Babec, who tween Ja
had been for a confiderable time in rebellion in Perfia ne.wJ,
and Perfian Irak. This Babec firft appeared in the
year of the Hegira 201, when he began to take upon Babec.'l
him the title of a prophet. What his particular doc¬
trine was, is now unknown; but his religion is faid to
have differed from all others then known in Afia. He
gained a great number of profelyteshn Aderbijan and
the Perfian Irak, where he foon grew powerful enough
to wage war with the khalif Al Mamun, whofe troops
he often beat, fo that he was now become extremely
formidable. The general fent by Al Motafem to re¬
duce him was Haider Ebn Kaus, furnamed Affhin, a
Turk by nation, who had been brought a flave to the
khalif’s court, and, having been employed in difcipli-
ning the Turkifti militia there, had acquired the repu¬
tation of a great captain. By him Babec was defeated Babeexl!
with prodigious flaughter, no fewer than 60,000 men feate<U| I
being killed in the firft engagement. The next year, ™
being the 220th of the Hegira, he received a ftill
greater overthrow, lofing 100,000 men either killed
or taken prifoners. By this defeat he was obli¬
ged to retire into the Gordysean mountains, where he
fortified himfelf in fuch a manner, that Affhin found
it impofiible to reduce him till the year of the Hegira
222. This commander having reduced with invincible
patience all Babec’s caftles one after another, the im¬
porter was obliged to fhut himfelf up in a ftrong for¬
trefs called Cajbabad, which was now his laft refource.
Here he defended himfelf with great bravery for feve-
■'
upon him, drowned all his attendants, and put himfelf ral months; but at laft finding he fhouldj be obliged
prifon. Here he was foon after maffacred by Tha
her’s fervants, who carried his head in triumph to their
mafter, by whofe order it was afterwards expofed to
public view in the ftreets of Bagdad. Thaher after¬
wards fent it to Al Mamun in Khorafan, together with
the ring or feal of the khalifat, the feeptre, and the im¬
perial robe. At the fight of thefe, Al Mamun fell
down on his knees, and returned thanks to God for his
fuccefs ; making the courier who brought them a pre-
fent of a million of dirhems, in value about L. 100,000
Sterling.
The fame day that Al Amin was aftafiinated, his
brother Al Mamun was proclaimed khalif at Bagdad.
to furrender, he made his efcape into a neighbouring
wood, from whence he foon after came to Affliin, upon
that general’s promifing him pardon. But Affliin no Talu3n ^
fooner had him in his power, than he firft caufed his foneran^i
hands and feet, and afterwards his head, to be cut off. pattodea'
Babec had fupported himfelf againft the power of the
khalifs for upwards of 20 years, during which time _
he had cruelly maffacred 250,000 people ; it being his He ddhf
cuftom tofpare neither man, woman, nor child, of the ed vaftl
Mahometans or their allies. Amongft the prifoners numbers^ 1
taken at Calbabad there was one Nud, who had been M0*!4®* '
one of Babec’s executioners, and who owned that in.
obedience to his mafter’s commands he had deftroyed.
BAG [ 949 J BAG
(jgdad. 20,000 Moflems with his own hands; to which he ad¬
ded, that vaft numbers had alfo been executed by his
companions, but that of thefe he could give no pre-
cife account.
In the 223d year of the Hegira, the Greek emperor
Theophilus invaded the khalif’s territories, where he
behaved with the greateft cruelty, and by deftroying
r Sozopetra the place of A1 Motafem’s nativity, notwith-
ftanding his earned intreatiesto the contrary, occafioned
the terrible deftruftion of Amorium mentioned under
that article. The red of this khalif’s reign is remark¬
able for nothing but tire execution of h flliin, who was
accufed of holding correfpondence with the khaliPs
enemies. After his death a great number of idols were
found in his houfe, which were immediately burned,
as alfo feveral books faid to contain impious and de-
35 tedable opinions.
ci Nh of In the 227th year of the Hegira died the khalif A1
ii Mota- Motafem, in the 48th or 49th year of his age. He
| ’ reigned eight years eight months and eight days, was
born in the eight month of the year, fought eight battles,
had 8000 flaves, and had 8,000,000 dinars and 80,000
dirhems in his treafury at his death, whence the oriental
| hidorians give him the name of Al Mothamen, or the
0clviary. He is faid to have been fo robud, that he
34 once carried a burden of 1000 pounds weight feveral
I >mlt the paces. As the people of Bagdad didurbed him with
,8 of S.rra frequent revolts and commotions, he took the refolution
,ray- to abandon that city, and build another for his own re-
fidence. The new city he built was fird called Samarra,
and afterwards 'Surra Manray> and dood in the Ara-
Ibian Irak. He was attached to the opinion of the
Motazalites, who maintain the creation of the Koran,
and both he and his predeceffor cruelly perfccuted thofe
35 who believed it to be eternal.
-i fuc- Al Motafem was fucceeded by Al Wathek Billah,
1 Lek^ w^° t^e f°^ow>ng year, being the 228th of the Hegira,
4 yMo- invaded and conquered Sicily. Nothing remarkable
it kkel. happened during the red of his reign ; he died in the
233d year of the Hegira, and was fucceeded by his
136 brother Al Motawakkel.
h (Irons The new khalif began his reign with an a£l of the
2 °f greated cruelty. The late khalif’s vizier having treated
I ,ej ' Al Motawakkel ill in his brother’s lifetime, and op-
pofed his ele£tion to the khalifat, was on that account
now fent to prifon.. Here the khalif ordered him to
be kept awake for feveral days and nights together:
after this, being fuffered to fall afleep, he flept a whole
day and a night; and after he awoke was thrown into
an iron furnace lined with fpikes or nails heated red
hot, where he was miferably burnt to death. During
this reign nothing remarkable happened, except wavs
with the Greeks, which were carried on with various
fuccefs. In the year 859 too, being the 245th t^lc
Hegira, violent earthquakes happened in many provin¬
ces of the Modem dominions; and the fprings at Mecca
failed to fuch a degree, that the celebrated well Zem-
zem was almod dried up, and the water fold for 100
■j dirhems a bottle.
H iaflaffi- In the 247th Year °f th6 Hegira the khalif was af-
94 ’ faffinated at the inftance of his fon Al Montafer ; who
fucceeded him, and died in fix months after. He was
fucceeded by Al Moftain, who in the year of the He¬
gira 252 was forced to abdicate the throne by his bro¬
ther Al Motazz, who afterwards caufed him to be pri-
Vtft. II.
vately murdered. He did not long enjoy the dignity Bagdad,
of which he had fo iniquitouily poffelfed himfelf; be-
ing depofed by the Turkifh militia (who now began to
fet up and depofe khalifs as they pleafed) in the 255th
year of the Hegira. After his depofition, he was fent
under an efcorte from Sarra Manray to Bagdad, where
he died of third or hunger, after a reign of four years 3g
and about feven months. The fate of this khalif was H?rd fate
peculiarly hard : the Turkiih troops had mutinied for of Al Mo*
their pay ; and Al Motazz, not having money to fatisfy cecdini,110"
their demands, applied to his mother named Kabihah khalif.
for 50,000 dinars. This file refufed, telling him that
(he had no money at all, although it afterwards appear¬
ed that (he was poffeffed of immenfe treafures. After
his deposition, however, (he was obliged to difcover
them, and even depofit them in the hands of the new
khalif Al Mokhtadi. They confided of 1,000,000 di¬
nars, a bulhel of emeralds, and another of pearls, and
three pounds and three quarters of rubies of the colour
of fire.
Al Mokhtadi, the new khalif, was the fon of one of
Al Wathek’s concubines named Korb, or Karb, who is
by fome fuppofed to have been a Chridian. The be- ^
ginning of his reign is remarkable for the irruption of Irruption of
the Zenjians, a people of Nubia, Ethiopia, and the |he Zenjians
country of Cadres, into Arabia, where they penetra- re‘SI1
ted into the neighbourhood of Bafra and Cufa. The Mokhtadi.
chief of this gang of robbers, who, according to fome
of the Arab hidorians, differed but little from wild
beads, was Ali Ebn Mohammed Ebn Abdalrahman,
who falfely gave himfelf out to be of the family of Ali
Ebn Abu Taleb. This made fuch an imprefiion upon
the Shiites in thofe parts, that they flocked to him in
great numbers ; which enabled him to feize upon the
cities of Bafra and Ramla, and even to pafs the Tigris at
the head of a formidable army. He then took the title
of Prince of the Tbenjiansy in order to ingratiate himfelf
with thofe barbarians of whom his army was principally
compofed.
In the 256th year of the Hegira, Al Mokhtadi was
barbaroufly murdered by the Turks who had raifed
him to the throne, and was fucceeded by Al Motamed 49
the fon of Al Motawakkel. This year the prince of -A' Habib’s
the Zenjians, Ali, or as he is alfo called Al Habib, fuccefs’
made incurfions to the very gates of Bagdad, doing
prodigious mifchief wherever he pafled. The khalif
therefore fent againd him one Jolan with a confiderable
army. He wa? overthrown, however, with very great
(laughter by the Zenjian, who made himfelf mader of
24 of the khalif’s larged (hips in the bay of Bafra, put
a vad number of the inhabitants of Obolla to the fword,
and feized upon the town. Not content with this, he
fet fire to it, and foon reduced it to allies, the houfe*
modly confiding of the wood of a certain plane-tree
called by the Arabians Saj. From thence'he marched
to Abadan, which likewife furrendered to him. Here
he found an immenfe treafure, which enabled him to
poflefs himfelf of the whole didrift of Ahwaz. In
(hort, his forces being now increafed to 80,000 drong,
mod of the adjacent territories, and even the khalif’s
court itfelf, were druck with terror.
In the 257th year of the Hegira, Al Habib conti¬
nued victorious, defeated feveral armies fent againd him
by the khalif, reduced the city of Bafrah, and put
20,000 of the inhabitants to the fword. The follow-
6 D ing
BAG
[ 95° 1
BAG
ing year, the khalif, fupported by his brother A1 Mo- he entered NIfabur, and releafed Mahomet the Tha- Bagdad!!
waffek, had formed a defign of circumfcribing the herian, whom Yakub had detained in prifon three
power of the Turkifh foldiery, who had for. fome time years. As for Yakub himfelf, he made his efcape with
i»w *■« i,Uoi:r„ -r.^ *t,:. great d;fEcu]ty, tho’ he and his family continued feve-
ral years in poffeflion of many of the conquefts he had
made. This war with Yakub proved a feafonable di-
verfion in favour of A1 Habib, who this year defeated
all the forces fent againtt him, and ravaged the diftrift
of Wafet.
The following year, being the 263d of the Hegira, A1 Habib J
beginning September 24lil 876, the khalif’s forces, un-
der the command of Ahmed Ebn Lebuna, gained two *
confiderable advantages over A1 Habib ; but being at
laft drawn into an ambufcade, they were almofl totally
deftroyed, their general himfelf making his efcape with
the utmoft difficulty ; nor were the khalif’s forces able,
during the courfe of the next year, to make the leaft
impreffion upon thefe rebels.
In the 265th year of the Hegira, beginning Septem- Rebellion
given law to the khalifs themfelves. But this year the
Zenjiahs made fo rapid a progrefs in Perfia, Arabia,
and Irak, that he was obliged to fufpendthe execution
of his defign, and even to employ the Turkifh troops to
affift his brother A1 Mowaffek in oppofing thefe robbers.
The firft of the khalif’s generals who encountered A1
Habib this year, was defeated in feveral engagements,
and had his army at laft entirely deftroyed. After this
A1 Mowaffek and another general named Mojleh ad¬
vanced againft him. In the firft engagement Mofleh
being killed by an arrow, the khalif’s troops retired ;
but A1 Mowaffek put them afterwards in fuch a pofture
of defence, that the enemy durft not renew the attack.
Several other fharp encounters happened this year, in
which neither party gained great advantage ; but, at
laft, fome contagious diftempers breaking out in A1
Mowaffek’s army, he was obliged to conclude a truce,
and retire to Wafet to refrefh his troops.
In the 259th year of the Hegira, commencing Novr
7th 872, the war between the khalif and A1 Habib ftill
continued. A1 Mowaffek, upon his arrival at Bag¬
dad, fent Mohammed furnamed Al Mowailed with a
khalif, and fet up for himfelf in Egypt. Having af- not 1)C fup.
fembled a confiderable force, he marched to Antioch, pr6flc<i. ®
and befieged Sima the governor of Aleppo, and all the
provinces known among the Arabs by the name of Al
AwafetH in that city. As the befieged found that he
powerful army to a& againft the Zenjians: but he could was refolved to carry the place by affault, they thought
Rebellion
in Fars, ^
Bafra. ' khalif’s governor of Fars, and afterwards made himfelf Ahmed to be publicly curfed in all the mofques belong-
not hinder them from ravaging the province of Ahwaz;
cutting off about 50,000 of the khalif’s fubjefts, and
difmantling the city of Ahwaz ; and notwithftanding
the utmoft efforts of all the khalif’s generals, no confi¬
derable advantages could be gained either this or the
following year.
In the 261st year of the Hegira, beginning October
j i6a' 874, Mohammed Ebn Wafel, who had killed the
mafter of that province, had feveral engagements with
Al Habib, but with what fuccefs is not known. The
khalif, having been apprized of the ftate of affairs on
that fide, annexed the government of Fars, Ahwaz,
and Bafra, to the prefe&ure he had given to Mufa Ebn
Boga, whom he looked upon as one of the beft gene¬
rals he had. Mufa, foon after his nomination to that
poll, fent Abdalrahman Ebn Mofleh as his deputy to
Ahwaz, giving him as a collegue and affiftant one Ti-
fam, a Turk. Mohammed Ebn Wafel, however, refu¬
ting to obey the orders of Abdalrahman and Tifam, a
fierce conflict enfued, in which the latter were defeated,
and Abdalrahman taken prifoner. After this viftory
Mohammed advanced againft Mufa Ebn Boga himfelf
fit, after a fhort defence, to fubmit, and to put Sima
into his hands. Ahmed no fooner had that officer in
his power, than he caufed him to be beheaded ; after
which he advanced to Aleppo, the gates of which were
immediately opened unto him. Soon after, he reduced
Damafcus, Hems, Hamath, Kinnifrin, and Al Rakka,
fituated upon the eaftern bank of the Euphrates; This
rebellion fo exafperated Al Motamed, that he canfed
ing to Bagdad and Irak ; and Ahmed on his part or¬
dered the fame maledi&ion to be thundered out againft
the khalif in all the mofques within his jurifdidtion.
This year alfo a detachment of Al Habib’s troops pe¬
netrated into Irak, and made themfelves mailers of
four of the khalif’s Ihips laden with corn ; then they
advanced to Al Nomanic, laid the greatell part of it
in afhes, and carried off with them feveral of the inha¬
bitants prifoners. After this they poffeffed themfelves
of Jarjaraya, where they found many prifoners more,
and deftroyed all the adjacent territory with fire and
fword. This year there were four independent powers Fom?fn<|Jj
in the Mollem dominions, befides the houfe of Om- pendent
miyah in Spain ; viz. The African Mollems, or A- P°
but that general, finding he could not take poffeffion of glabites, who had for a long time afted independently; ^
Rebels de¬
feated, but
cannot be
reduced.
his new government without a vail effufion of blood,
recalled the deputies from their provinces, and made
the beft of his way to Sarra Manray. After this, Ya¬
kub Ebn Al Left, having taken Khorafan front the
defeendants of Thaher, attacked and defeated Moham¬
med Ebn Wafel, feizing on his palace, where he
found a fum of money amounting to 40,000,000 dir¬
hems.
The next year Yakub Ebn Leit being grown formi¬
dable by the acquifition of Ahwaz and a confiderable
portion of Fars, or at leaft the Perfian Irak, declared
war againft the khalif. Againft him Al Motamed dif-
patched Al Mowaffek; who having defeated him with
prodigious flaughter, plundered his camp, and purfued
him into Khorafan; where meeting with no oppofition,
Ahmed in Syria and Egypt; Al Leit in Khorafan ; Pinions, j
and Al Habib in Arabia and Irak.
In the 266th year of the Hegira, beginning Auguft
23d 879, Al Habib reduced Ramhormoz, burnt the
{lately mofque there to the ground, put a vail number
of the inhabitants to the fword, and carried away
great numbers, as well as a vail quantity of fpoil.— 46 i
This was his laft fuccefsful campaign ; for the yearfol- Al HabiMT
lowing, Al Mowaffek, attended by his fon Abul Ab-
bas, having, attacked him with a body of 10,000 horfe, ‘ i
and a few infantry, notwithftanding the vail difparity
of numbers (Al Habib’s army amounting to 100,000
men), defeated him in feveral battles, recovered moil of
the towns he had taken, together with an immenfe
quantity of fpoil, and releafed 5000 women that had
beea
BAG [ 951 J BAG
liigdtd. been thrown into prtfon bythefe barbarians. After thefe
-1 viftork'8, A1 Mowaffek took poll before the city of A1 Ma-
biya’, built by A1 Habib, and the place of his relidence;
burnt all the fhips in the harbour; thoroughly pillaged
the town ; and then entirely difmantled it. After the
reduction of this place, in which he found irr.menfe
treafures, A1 Mowaff'ek purfued the flying Zenjians,
put feveral of their chiefs to the fword, and advanced
I to A1 Moktara, a city built by A1 Habib. As the
^lace was ftrongly fortified, and A1 Habib was polled
m its neighbourhood, with an army, according to Abu
Jaafer A1 Tabari, of 300,000 men, A1 MowafFek per-
1, ceived that the reduction of it would be a matter of
fome difficulty. He therefore built a fortrefs oppofite
to it, where he eredted a mofque, and coined money.
The new city, from its founder, was called by the Arabs
j| Al Mowaffekkia, and foon rendered confiderable by the
fettlement of feveral wealthy merchants there. The
city of Al Mokhtara being reduced to great llraits was
at lall taken by ftorm, and given up to be plundered
I by the khalif’s troops; after which Al Mowaflek de¬
feated the numerous-forces of Al Habib in fuch a man-
‘ I ner, that they could no-more be rallied during that cam-
| paign.
The following year, being the 268 h of the Hegira,
I Al MowafFek penetrated again into Al Mabiya’, and
, demoliflied the fortifications which had been raifed
fince its former reduction, though the rebels difputed
every inch of ground. Next year he again attacked Al
Habib with great bravery; and would have entirely de¬
feated him, had not he been wounded in thebreall with an
arrow, which obliged him to found a retreat. However,
as foon as he was cured of his wound, Al Mowaffek
advanced a third time to Al Mabiya’, made himfelf
mailer of that metropolis, threw down the walls that
had been raifed, put many of the inhabitants to the
fword, and carried a vail number of them into captivity.
I The 27 th year of the Hegira, commencing July 1 Ith
883, proved fatal to the rebel Al Habib. Al Mowaf-
fek made himfelf a fourth time mailer of Al Mabiya’,
burnt Al Habib’s palace, feized upon his family, and
8 fent them to Sarra Manray. As for the ufurper him-
4 felf, he liad the good fortune to efcape at this time; but
being clofely purfued by Al Mowaffek into the province
of Ahwaz, where the lhattered remains of his forces
vver£ entirely defeated, he at lall fell into the hands of
the vhftor, who ordered his head to be cut off, and car¬
ried through a great part of that region which he had
fo long-dilturbed. By this complete vi£tory Al Mowaf-
ftk obtained the title of Al Nafir Lidmilbah, that is,
the protettor of Mahometanifm. This year alfo died
Ahmed Ebn Tolun, who had feized upon Egypt and
Syria, as we have already obferved; and was fucceeded
|L by his fon Kha?7iaraiwiyah.
:d||s of The next year, a bloody engagement happened be¬
an of tween the khalif’s forces commanded by Al Movvaffek’s
fon, and thofe of Khamarawiyah, who had made an
irruption into the khalif’s territories. The battle was
fought between Al Ramla and Damafcus. In the be¬
ginning, Khamarawiyah found himfelf fo hard preffed,
that his men were obliged to give way ; upon which,
taking for granted that all was loft, he fled with great
precipitation, even to the borders of Egypt; but, in
the mean time, his troops being ignorant of the flight
of their general, returned to the charge, and gained ^
complete vi£lory. After this, Khamarawiyah, by his Bagdid.
juft and mild adminiftration, fo gained the affedlions of ~
his fubje£ls, that the khalif found it impoffible to gain
the leaft advantage over him. In the 276^ year of
the Hegira, he overthrew one of the khalif’s generals
named Abul Saj, at Al Bathnia near the city of Da¬
mafcus ; after which he advanced to Al Rakka on the
Euphrates, and made himfelf mailer of that place.
Having annexed feveral large provinces to his former
dominions, and left fome of his friends in whom he
could confide to govern them, he then returned into
Egypt, the principal part of his empire, which now-
extended from the Euphrates to the borders of Nubia
and Ethiopia. 45
The following year, being the 278th of the Hegira, AlMowaf-
was remarkable for the death of Al Mowaffek. He dies,
died of the elephantiafis or leprofy ; and, while in his
lall illnefs, could not help obferving, that of 100,000
men whom he commanded, there was not one fo mifer-
able as himfelf. This year is alfo remarkable for the firft
dilturbances raifed in the Moflem empire by the Kar- 49
matians. The origin of this fed is not certainly known; Origin of
but the moft common opinion is, that a poor fellow, theKarma-
by fome called Kannata, came from Khuzeftan to the llau*'
villages near Cufa, and there pretended great fandlity
and ftriclnefs of life, and that God had enjoined him
to pray 50 times a-day ; pretending alfo to invite peo¬
ple to the obedience of a certain Imam of the family of
Mahomet: and this way of life he continued till he had
made a very great party, out of whom he chofe twelve
as his apoftles to govern the reft, and to propagate his
do&rines. He alfo affumed the title of prince, and
obliged every one of his earlier followers to pay him a
dinar a year. But Al Haidam, the governor of that
province, finding men negledled their work, and their
hufbandry in particular, to fay thofe 50 prayers a-day,
feized the fellow, and, having put him in prifon, fwore
that he ftiould die. This being overheard by a girl
belonging to the governor, ftie, out of compaffion, took
the key of the dungeon at night from under her ma-
fter’s head, releafed the man, and reftored the key to
its place while her mafter flept. The next morning
the governor found his prifoner gone; and the accident
being publicly known, raifed great admiration ; Kar-
mata’s adherents giving out that God had taken him
into heaven. ^\fter this he appeared in another pro¬
vince, and declared to a great number of people he
got about him, that it was not in the power of any
perfon to do him hurt; notwithllanding which, his cou¬
rage failing him, he retired into Syria, and was never
heard of any more. After his difappearance, the fedl
continued and increafed ; his difciples pretending that
their mafter had manifelled himfelf to be a true pro¬
phet, apd had left them a new law wherein he had
changed the ceremonies and form of prayer ufed by'the
Moflems, &c. From this year, 278,- thefe fediaries
gave almoft continual dillurbance to the khalifs and
their fubjedls, committing great diforders in Chaldsea,
Arabia, and Mefopotamia, and at length eftabliftied a
confiderable principality. JO
In the 279th Y*131' °f ^e Hegira died the khalif Al Sultan of
Motamed; and was fucceeded by Al Motaded, fon to EgyPt>s
Al Mowaffek. The firft year of his reign, Al Motaded ^i^rto
demanded in marriage the daughter of Khamarawiyah, thelhalif
fultan, or khalif, in Egypt; which was agreed to by Al Motatl-
6 D 2 him
BAG [95
Bngtiad. }nm with the utmoft joy, and their nuptials were fo-
■" lemnized with great pomp in the z82d year of the He-
oira. He carried on a war with the Karmatians; but
very unfuccefsfully, his forces being defeated with
great daughter, and his general A1 Abbas taken pri-
foner. Th»s khalif alfo granted to Ha run, fon to
Khamarawiyah, the perpetual prefcfture of Awafam
and Kinnifrin, which he annexed to that of Egypt and
Syria, upon condition that he paid him an annual tri¬
bute of '45,poo dinars. He died in the year of the
5! Hegira 289, and was fuccceded by his fon A1 Moftafi.
Egypt, &c. This khalif proved a warlike and fuccefsful prince,
recovered p}e ga{ned feveral advantages over the Karmatians, but
lif aTmoc- wa? not a^e to re^uce them. The Turks, however,
tali. having Invaded the province of Mawaralnahr, were de-
• feated with great (laughter; after which A1 Mo&afi
carried on a fuccefsful war againfl; the Greeks, from
whom he took Seleucia. After this he invaded Syria
and Egypt, which provinces he recovered from the
jr houfe of Ahmed Ebn Tolun.
Biflreffed The reduction of Egypt happened in the 2g2d year
riat tfe t^ie Hegira, after which the war was renewed with
liisMeath.161 fuccefs againft the Greeks and Karmatians. The kha¬
lif died in the 295th year t^e Hegira, after a reign
of about fix years and a half. He was the laft of the
khalifs who made any figure by their warlike exploits.
His fucceffors A1 Moktader, A1 Kaher, and A1 Radi,
were fo diftreffed by the Karmatians and numberlefs
ufurpers who were every day darting up, that by the
S3 3J5;h year of the Hegira they had nothing left but
New office the city of Bagdad. In the 324th year of the Hegira,
of Emir Al commencing November 30th 935, the khalif A1 Radi,
tme^hv'Al Ending himfelf diftrefled on all fides by ufurpers, and
Radi. ^ having a vizir of no capacity, inftituted a new office
fuperior to that of vizir, which he intitled Emir Jl
Omra, or Cotmnandant of commandants. This great
officer was trufted with the management of all military
affairs, and had the entire management of the finances
. in a much more abfolute and unlimited manner than
any of the khalif’s vizirs ever had. Nay, he officiated
for the khalif in the great mofque at Bagdad, and had
his name mentioned in the public prayers throughout
the kingdbm. In fhort, the khalif was fo much under
the power of this officer, that he could not apply a
fmgle dinar ^o his own ufe without the leave of the E-
Divifion of mir Al Omra. In the year 325, the Modem empire,
the Modem once fo great and powerful, was (hared among the fol-
empire in lowing ufurpers.
* ear oVtffie The cities of Wafet, Bafra, and Cufa, with the reft
Jlvgira. 16 the Arabian Irak, were confidered as the property of
the Emir Al Omra, though they had been in the be¬
ginning of the year feized upon by a rebel called Al
Baridi, who could not be driven out of them.
The country of Ears, Farfeftan, or Perfia properly
fo called, was poffeffed by Amado’ddawla AH Ebn
Buiya, who refided in the city of Shiraz.
Part of the trad denominated sll Jebal, together
with Perfian Irak, which is the mountainous part of
Perfia, and the country of the ancient Parthians, obeyed
Rucno’ddawla, the brother of Amado’ddawla, who
refided at Ifpahan. The other part of that country
was poffeffed by Waffimakin the Deylamite.
Diyar Rabia, Diyar Beer, Diyar Modar, and the
city of Al Mawfel, or Moful, acknowledged for their
fovereign a race of princes called Hamdanitss.
1
13 a a
Ksgdad
fffien b(
the Ti
Egypt and Syria no longer obeyed the khalifs, but
Mahomet Ebn Taj, who had formerly been appointed
governor of thefe provinces.
Africa and Spain had long been independent.
Sicily and Crete were governed by princes of their
own.
The provinces of Khorafan and Mawaralnahr were
under the dominion of Al Nafr Ebn Ahmed, of the
dynafty of the Sammanians.
The provinces of Tabreftan, Jorjan, or Georgiana,
and Mazanderan, had kings of the firft dynafty of the
Deylamites.
The province of Kerman was occupied by Abu AH
Mahomet Ebn Eylia Al Sammani, who had made him¬
felf mafter of it a (hort time before ; and,
Laftly, the provinces of Yamama and Bahrein, in¬
cluding the diftritff of Hajr were in the poffeffion of
Abu Thaher the Karmatian.
Thus the khalifs were deprived of all their dominions,
and reduced to the rank of fovereign pontiffs; in which
light, though they continued for fome time to be re¬
garded by the neighbouring princes, yet their power
never _arrived to any height. In this low ftate the
khalifs continued till the year of the Hegira 656, cpm-
mencing January 8 >h 1258. This year was rendered (
remarkable by the taking of Bagdad by Hulaku the
Mogul or Tartar; who likewife aboliffiedthe khalifat,
putting the reigning khalif Al Moftafem Billah to a
moft cruel death. Thefe diabolical conquerors, after
they had taken the city, maffacred, according to cuf-
tom, a vaft number of the inhabitants ; and after they
had plundered it, fet it on fire. The fpoil they took
from thence was prodigioully great, Bagdad being then
looked upon as the firft city in the world.
Bagdad remained in the hands of the Tartars or Hiftorj
Moguls to the year of the Hegira 795, ofChrift 1392,ttie ci|
when it was taken by Tamerlane from Sultan Ahmed ‘
Ebn Weis ; who being incapable of making head a-
gainft Tamerlane’s numerous forces, found himfelf ob¬
liged to fend all his baggage over the Tigris, and
abandon his capital to the conqueror. He was, how¬
ever, hotly purfued by his enemy’s detachments to the
plain of Karbella, where feveral (kirmiffies happened,
' and a tonfiderable number of men were loft on both
fides. Notwith(landing this difafter, he found means
to efcape the fury of his purfuers, took refuge in the
territories of the Greek emperor, and afterwards re-
poffeffed himfelf of the city of Bagdad. There he re¬
mained till the year of the Hegira 803, when the city
was taken a fecond time by Tamerlane; who neverthe-
lefs reftored it to him, and he continued fovereign of
the place till driven from thence by Miran Shah. Still,
however, he foundmeansto return; butin the 815 h year
of the Hegira was finally expelled by Kara Yufef the
Turkman. The defeendants of Kara Yufef continued
matters of Bagdad till the year of the Hegira 875, of
Chrift 1470, when they were driven out by Ufun Caf-
fun. The family of this prince continued till the year
of the Hegira 914, of our Lord 1508, when Shah
Khmael, furnamed Sufi or Safi, the firft prince of the
royal family reigning in Iran or Perfia, till the dethro¬
ning of the late Shah Hofein, made himfelf mafter of
it. From that time to this Bagdad has continued to
be a bone of contention between the Turks and Per-
fians. It was taken by Soliman furnamed the magnt~
ficent+
BAG [ 953 ) BAG
fod. fceut. and retaken by Shah Abbas the great, king
of Perfia : but being at laft befieged by Amurath or
Morad IV. with a formidable army, it was finally
obliged to furrender to him in the year 1638; fince
which time the Perfians have never been able to make
' themfelves mailers of it for any length of time,
lit rient j,. js now two mj]es Jong, one broad, and five in
circumference. The walls are built with brick, covered
with earth, and ftrengthened with large towers like
baftions. The ditches are broad, and five or fix fa¬
thom deep. There are four gates, three on the land
fide, and one towards the river, which is paffed over
by a bridge of boats, that are placed at the diitance
. of a boat’s length from each other ; the number of them
is about 40. The caitle is within the city, near one
of the gates, on the north fide of the town, and is
built w’ith fine white free- {tone, but now looks as if
it were covered with earth. It is feated partly upon
the river, and is furrounded by a fingle wall. It has
likewife fmall towers, on which cannon arc placed.
The ditch is narrow, and about two or three fathbm
deep. On the weft fide of the river is an open town,
which may be entered at any time of the night as w'ell
as in the day. This is called by fome the fuburls of
Bagdad; the heufes of which.are miferably built, as are
I alfo thofe in the city itfelf, for they are but one ftory
high, and generally raifed with earth. All the build¬
ings that are good are owing to the Perfians. Some
of the mofques are tolerably handfome, with large
domes, covered with painted tiles ; and there are bazars
in the ftreets, covered on the top, which are full of
{hops, where the merchants carry on their trade. There
are ten caravanferas, or public inns, only two of which
are commodious.
The Turks have a garrifon here of 10,000 men,
which are doubled in time of war, with about 200
pieces of cannon. There are likewife 12,000 militia;
and yet Bagdad would be but thinly peopled, if great
numbers did not refort thither on account of its trade,
for which reafon the Armenians and Jews take up near
half the city. Some part of the year the air is here in¬
tolerably hot; and then the inhabitants lie on the tops
of their houfes, which are terraffed, in the night. The
winter is fo mild, that the peafants plough the land
in December ; at which time there are narciffufes, hya¬
cinths, violets, &c. in full flower. There are very few
trees or (hrubs herabouts, except liquorice which is in
great plenty. Nor is there cultivated land about Bag¬
dad fufficient to maintain it with provifions ; not but
that part of Irak Ai%bi, that lies between the rivers
Euphrates and Tigris, formerly called Mefopotamia, is
fruitful enough, but it wants a fufficient number of in-
B habitants; and if it were not. for the rivers, by which
all forts of neceflaries are brought to their doors, they
would often be in a ftarving condition.
The Mahometan women are very richly dreiTed,
and wear bracelets on their arms, and jewels in their
ears. The Arabian women have the partition between
their noftrils bored, wherein they wear rings. Not far
from this city there are fprings of naptha, which they
burn there inftead of candles. There are three forts of
Chriftians among the inhabitants; Neftorians, Arme¬
nians, and Jacobites. The firft have a church; thetwolaft
perform their devotion at a chapel about a mile from
Bagdad. Befides the Jews that live in the city, there
are many that come out of devotion, every year, to vifit B.igg;age,
the tomb of the prophet Ezekiel, which they believe rfogfona*
to be about 30 miles from this place. This likewife
is in the road for the caravans that come out of Perfia
in pilgrimage to Mecca.
BAGGAGE, in militaryaffairs, denotes the clothes,
tents, utenfils of divers forts, provifions, and other ne-
ceffaries belonging to the army.
Before a march, the waggons with the baggage are
marfhalled according to the rank which the {everal re¬
giments bear in the army; being fometimes ordered to
follow the refpective columns of the army, fometimes
to follow the artillery, and fometimes to form a column
by themfelves. The general’s baggage marches firft
and each waggon has a flag, {hewing the regiment to
which it belongs.
Packing up the Baggage, vafa colligere, was a term
among the Romans, for preparing to go to war, or to
be ready for an expedition.
The Romans diftinguiffied two forts of baggage ; a
greater, and lefs. The lefler was carried by the foldier on
his back, and called farcina ; confifting of the things
moft neceffary to life, and which he could not do with¬
out. Hence colligere farcinas, packing up the baggage,
is ufed for decamping, cajlra movere. The greater and
heavier was carried on horfes and vehicles, and called
onera. Hence onera vebiculorum, farcina: hominum.
The baggage-horfes were denominated fagmentarii e-
TdU
The Roman foldiers in their, marches were heavy
loaden; infomuch, that they were called by way of jell,
muli mariani, and arunina. They had four forts of
luggage, which they never went without, viz. corn, or
hucc'ellatum, utenfils, valli, and arms. Cicero obferves,
that they ui'ed to carry with them above half a month’s
provifions; and we have inftances in Livy, where they
carried provifions for a whole month. Their utenfils
comprehended thofe proper for gathering fuel, dreffing-
their meat; and even for fortification, or ittfrcnchraent ;
and what is more, a‘ chain for binding captives-.! For
arms, the foot carried a fpear, fliield, favv, b a fleet, ru-
trum, hatchet, lorum, falx, &c. Alfo {lakes or pales,
valli, for the fudden fortifying a camp; fometitnes fe-
ven or- even twelve of thefe pales were carried by each
man, though generally, as Polybius tells us, only three
or foiir. On the Trajan column we fee foldiers repre-
fented with this fardle of corn, utenfils, pales, &c. ga¬
thered into a bundle and laid on their {boulders. Thus
inured to labour, they grew tlrong, and able to un¬
dergo any fatigue in battle; the greateft heat of which
never tired them, or put them out of breath. In after¬
times, when difeipline grew flack, this luggage Was
thrown on carriages and porter’s {boulders.
The Macedonians were not lefs inured to hardftup
than the Romans: when Philip firft formed an army,
he forbid all ufe of carriages ; yet, with all their load,
they would march, in a furomer’s day, 20 miles in mi¬
litary rank.
BAGLANA, or Buglana, a province of the
kingdom of Dekkan in the Mogul’s empire. It is
bounded on the north and eaft by Guzerat and Balia-
gat; and on the fouth and weft by that part of Vizia-
pur called Konkan, belonging to the Marattas. It ends
in a point at the fea-coaft between Daman and Balfora,
and is the leaft province in the kingdom. The Portu-
BAG
Bagnagar guefe territories begin in this province at the port Da¬
li . man, 21 leagues fouth of Surat; and run along the
ag-P'Pe- coa{( jjy Baflaim, Bombay, and Chawl, to Dabul, al-
moft 50 leagues to the north of Goa.
BAGNAGAR, a town of Alia, in the, dominions of
the Great Mogul, and capital of the kingdom of Gol-
conda in the peninfula on this fide the Ganges. The
inhabitants within the town afe the better fort; the
merchants and meaner people inhabiting the fuburbs,
which is three miles long. It is chiefly remarkable
for a magnificent refervoir of water, furrounded with a
colonnade fupported by arches. It is feated on the ri¬
ver Newa, in E. Long. 96. o. N. Lat. 15. 30.
BAGNARA, a fea-port town of Italy in the king¬
dom of Naples, in the farther Calabria, with the title
of a duchy. E. Long. , 16. 8. N. Lat. 38. 15.
BAGNAREA, a town of Italy in St Peter’s pa¬
trimony, and in the territory of Orvieta, with a biihop’s
fee. E. Long. 12. 10. N. Lat. 42. 36.
BAGNERES, a town of France, in Gafcony, and
in the county of Bigorre, fo called from its mineral wa¬
ters. It is feated on the river Adour, in E. Long,
o. 12. N: Lat. 43. 3.
BAGNIALACK, a large town of Turky in-Eu¬
rope, in the province of Bofnia. E. Long. 18. 10.
N. Lat. 44. o.
BAGNIO, an Italian word, fignifying a bath: we
ufe it for a houfe with conveniencies for bathing, cup¬
ping, fweating, and otherwife cleanfing the body; and
fometimes for worfe purpofes. - In Turky, it is become
a general name for the prifons where the flaves are in-
clofed, it being ufual in thefe prifons to have baths.
BAGNOLAS, a town of Lower Languedoc in
France. It has a very handfome fquare, and two foun¬
tains which rife in the middle of the town ;"the waters
-of which, being received in a bafon, are conveyed by a
canal out of town, and from thence to the lands about
it. E. Long. 4. 43. N. Lat. 44. 10.
BAGNOLIANS, in church-hiftory, a feft of here¬
tics, who in reality were Manichees, though they fome-
what difguifed their errors. They rejected the Old
Teftament, and part of the New; held the world to be
eternal; and affirmed that God did not create the foul
when he infufed it into the body.
BAGOI, among the ancient Perfians, were the fame
with thofe called' by the Latins fpadones, viz. a fpecies
of eunuchs, in whom the canal of the penis was fo con¬
torted by a tight vinculum, that they could not emit
the femen.
BAG-PIPE, a mufical inftrument, of the wind kind,
chiefly ufed in Scotland and Ireland. The peculiarity
of the bag-pipe, and from which it takes its name, is,
that the air which blows it is eolle&ed into a leathern
bag, from whence it is prefled out by the arm into the
pipes. Thefe pipes confift of a bafs, and tenor or ra¬
ther treble; and are different according to the fpecies
of the pipe. The bafs part is called the drone, and the
tenor or treble part the chanter. In all the fpecies, the
bafs never varies from its uniform note, and therefore
very defervedly gets the name of drone ; and the com-
pafs of the chanter is likewife very limited. There is a
confiderable difference between the Highland and Low¬
land bag-pipe of Scotland; the former being blown
with the mouth, and the latter with a fmall bellows:
though this difference is not effential, every fpecies of
BAG
bag-pipe being capable, by a proper conftru&ion of
the reeds, of producing mufic either with the mouth
or bellows. The following are the fpecies of bag-pipes
moft commonly known in this country.
1. The Irijh Pipe. This is the fofteft, and in fome
refpefts the moft melodious of any, fo that mufic-books
have been publifhed.with dire&ions how to play on it.
The chanter, like that of all the reft, has eight holes
like the Englilh flute, and is played on by opening
and (hutting the holes as occafion requires; the bafs
confifts of two (hort drones, and a long one. The low-
eft note of the chanter is D on the German flute, be¬
ing the open note on the counter firing of a violin;
the fmall drone (one of them commonly being ftopped
up) is tuned in unifon with the note above this, and
the large one to an o&ave below, fo that a great length
is required in order to produce fuch a low note, on
which account the drone hath fometimes two or three
turns. The inftrument is tuned by lengthening or
fliortening the drone till it founds the note defired.
2. The Highland Bag-Pipe. This coufifts of a chan¬
ter and two fhort drones, which found in unifon the
lowed: note of the chanter except one. This is exceed¬
ingly loud, and almoft deafening if played in a room;
and is therefore moftly, ufed in the fields, for marches,
&c. It requires a prodigious blaft to found it; fo that
thofe unaccuftomed to it cannot imagine how High¬
land pipers can continue to play for hours together, as
they are often known to do. For the fame reafon, thofe
who ufe the inftrument are obliged either to ftand on
their feet, or walk, when they play. This inftrument
hath but nine notes ; its fcale, however, hath not yet
been reduced to a regular ftandard by comparing it
with that of other inftruments, fo that we can fay no¬
thing about its compafs.
3. The Scots Lowland Pipe. This is likewife a very
loud inftrument, though lefs fo than the former. It is
blown with bellows, and hath a bafs like the Irifti pipe.
This fpecies is different from all the reft; as it cannot
play the natural notes, but hath F and C (harp. The
lowcft note of a good bag-pipe of this kind is unifon
with C (harp on the tenor of a violin tuned concert-
pitch; and as it hath but nine notes, the higheft is D
in alt. From this peculiar conftru&ion, the Highland
and Lowland bag-pipes play two fpecies of mufic ef-
fentially different from one another, as each of them
alfo is from every other fpecies of mufic in the world.
Hence thefe two fpecies of bag-pipes deferve notice as
curiofities-; for the mufic which they play is accompa¬
nied with fuch peculiar ornaments, or what are intended
as fuch, as neither violin, nor even organ, can imitate,
but in a very imperfedl manner.
4. The Small Pipe. This is remarkable for its fmall-
nefs, the chanter not exceeding eight inches in length;
for which reafon, the holes are fo near each other, that
it is with difficulty they can be clofed. This hath only
eight notes, the lower end of the chanter being com¬
monly ftopped. The reafon of this is, to prevent the
flurring of all the notes, which is unavoidable in the
other fpecies, fo that in the hands of a bad player they
become the moft (hocking and unintelligible inftruments
imaginable; but this, by having the lower hole clofed,
and alfo by the peculiar way in which the notes are ex-
reffed, plays all its tunes in the way called by the Ita-
ans JlaccatO) and cannot flur at all. It hath no fpecies
E 954 1
BAG f 955 ] BAH
Sfipt-
3 vim
tf |. Sco-
of mufic peculiar to itfelf; and can play nothing which
' cannot be much better done upon other inftruments;
though it is furprifing-what volubility fome performers
on this inftrument will difplay, and how much they will
overcome the natural drfadvantages of it. Some of this
fpecies, inftead of having drones like the others, have
their bafs parts confifting of a winding cavity in a kind
of Ihort cafe, and are tuned by opening thefe to a cer¬
tain degree by means of Aiding covers; from which
contrivance they are calledJhuttle-pipes.—Befides thefe,
there are a variety of others, called Italian, German,
Organ, &c. bag-pipes, which have nothing different in
their conftruftion from thofe above defcribed, nor any
good quality to recommend them.
As to the origin of bag-pipe mufic, fome are of opi¬
nion, that it is to be derived from the Danes; but Mr
Pennant thinks differently, and gives the following rea-
fons for deriving it from Italy.
“ Neither of thefe inftruments (the Highland and
Lowland bag-pipes above defcribed) were the inven¬
tion of the Danes, or, as is commonly fuppofed, of any
of the northern nations; for their ancient writers prove
them to have been animated by the clangor tubarum.
Notwithftanding they have had their fceck-pipe long
amongft them, as their old fongs prove, yet we cannot
allow them the honour of inventing this melodious in¬
ftrument ; but muft affert, that they borrowed it from
the invaded Caledonians. We muft ftill go farther, and
deprive even that ancient race of the credit; and de¬
rive its origin from the mild climate of Italy, perhaps
from Greece.
“ There is now in Rome a moft beautiful bas relievo,
a Grecian fculpture of the higheft antiquity, of a bag¬
piper playing on his inftrument, exa&ly like a modern
highlander. The Greeks had their or inftru¬
ment compofed' of a pipe and blown-up fkin: the Ro-
'mans in all probability borrowed it from them, and in •
troduced it among their fwains, who ftill ufe it under
the names of piva and cornu-mufa.
“ That mafler of mufic, Nero, ufed one; and had
not the empire been fo fuddenly deprived of that great
artift, he would (as he gracioufly declared his inten¬
tion) have treated the people with a concert, and, a-
mong other curious inftruments, would have introduced
the utricularius or bag-pipe. Nero peri filed ; but the
figure of the inftrument is preferved on one of his coins,
but highly improved by that great mafter: it has the
bag and two of the vulgar pipes; but was blown with
a bellows, like an organ; and had on one fide a row of
nine unequal pipes, refembling the fyrinx of the god
Pan. The bag-pipe, in the unimproved ftate, is alfo
reprefented in an ancient fculpture'; and appears to have
had two long pipes or drones, and a fingle ftiort pipe
for the fingers. Tradition fays, that the kind played
on by the mouth was introduce'd by the Danes: as
theirs was wind-mufic, we will admit that they might
have made improvement; but more we cannot allow :
they were Ikilled in the ufe of the trumpet; the high¬
landers in the piohb, or bag-pipe.
Non tuba in ufu Hits, conjeBa at tibia in utrem
Dat belli fignum, et martem vocat horrida in arma
Formerly there were in the Me of Skiea kind of col¬
leges where the Highland bag-pipe was taught; the
teachers making ufe of pins ftuck in the ground, in¬
ftead of marks for mufical notes. One of thefe colleges,
George Mackie, the reformer of the Lowland bag-pipe,
is faid to have attended feven yerrs. He had before
been the beft performer on that inftrumeht in that part
of the country where he lived; but, while attending the
college at Skie, he adapted the graces of the Highland
mufic to the Lowland pipe. Upon his return, he was
heard with aftonifhment and admiration; but unluckily,
not being able to commit his improvements to writing,
and indeed the nature of the inftrument fcarce admit¬
ting of it, the knowledge of this kind of mufic hath
continued to decay ever fince, and will probably foon
wear out altogether. What contributes much to this
is, that bag-pipers, not content with the natural nine
notes which their inftrument can play eafily, force it to
play tunes requiring higher notes, which diforders the
whole inftrument in fuch a manner as to produce the
moft horrid difcords; and this pra6):ice brings, though
undefervedly, the inftrument itfelf into contempt.
BAGUETTE, in archite&ure, a fmall round mould¬
ing, lefs than an aftragal, and fo called from the refem-
blance it bears to a ring.
BAHAMA islands, called a\io tht Lucaya ijlands%
the eaftermoft of all the Antilles, or Carribbees, lying
in the Atlantic ocean, ftretching from north-eaft to
fouth-weft, between the 21st and 28th degree of north
latitude, and between 72 and 81 degrees of weft lon¬
gitude. They are very numerous; but only 12 are par¬
ticularly noticed by geographers, becaufe the dangers
attending the navigation among them are fo great, that
many of them have fcarce ever been vifitcd by Euro¬
peans.
It was upon one of thefe, to which he gave the name
of St Salvadore, that Columbus firft landed when he
difcovered America. Banzoni, one of the firft naviga¬
tors, fays, that the failor, who on this occafion firft dif¬
covered land, and called out that he faw a fire, was de¬
nied the reward promifed to the firft difcoverer, under
a pretence that the fame had been difcovered by Co¬
lumbus two hours before; and that for this reafon the
failor afterwards went into Africa, and turned Maho¬
metan.
Columbus perceiving that this ifland was but fmall,
and the inhabitants poor, immediately fet fail in queft
of richer countries, and the Bahama iflands were after¬
wards totally neglected by the Spaniards. In 1667,
one Captain Sayle, an EngKftiman, was forced upon
the ifland of St Salvadore, now Providence, by ftrefs of
weather; and upon his return to England, made fo fa¬
vourable a report of the Bahama ifiands in general to
his employers the proprietors of Carolina, that fix of
them obtained a grant for the ifiand .of Providence,
and the Bahama iflands in general, between the lati¬
tudes of 22 and 27 degrees. The names of their firft
proprietors were George duke of Albemarle, William
Lord Craven, Sir George Carteret, John Lord Berke¬
ley, Anthony Lord Aftdey, and Sir Peter Colliton. But
though this was the firft legal fettlement that had been
made of thefe iflands, they had long before (particu¬
larly the ifland of Providence) been a ftielter for pirates,
and other diforderly people, who lived either by plun¬
dering the wrecks of fhips, or fupplying withfpirits, &c.
the (hips that happened to touch there.
In 1672, Captain Sayle paid another vifit to Provi¬
dence ifland; and on his return made the government
fo fenhble of the advantages that would accrue to'
England
Bag-pipe
II
Bahama.
f
BAH [ 95^ ] BAH
Bahama England from the poffeffion of the Bahama iflands in
Iiir-nds‘ general, that they refolved to fend thither a governor
and fome fettlers ; and the firft governor fent thither
was one Mr Chillingworth, a gentleman of capacity
and chara&er. By this time the natives of the Ba¬
hamas had been either butchered or carried off by the
Spaniards or pirates ; and Mr Chillingworth, on his
arrival, found he had a very unruly fet of men to deal
with. England was at that time over-run with diflblute
people of both fexes; who, embracing the encourage¬
ment given by government, fhipped themfelves off
for Providence in great numbers ; and thefe meeting
with the pirates and coafters already fettled there, the
whole formed fo ungovernable a colony, that Mr Chil¬
lingworth, in endeavouring to reclaim them, was him-
felf forced off to Jamaica, and an unreftrained anarchy
eitfued among the fettlers. Thefe diforders continued
for fome years; neither the government, nor the pro¬
prietors, thinking it worth while to be at the expence of
checking them. At laft, one Mr Clark accepted of a
proprietory commiflion to be governor but the Spa¬
niards, who had ail along fomented the. diforders, no
fooner underftood that the Englifh intended to refettle
the ifland, than they invaded it, deftroyed all the
flock, and burnt the houfes of the inhabitants. It is
even faid, that, having carried off the governor in
chains, they afterwards cruelly put him to death.
After this depopulation, the ifland of Providence,
and all the other' Bahamas, were abandoned ; the
Englifh removing to Carolina and other American
fettiements. At the time this difafter happened, the
principal town of the ifland, fince called NaJJ'au, con-
iifted of 150 houfes. The vaft confequence of the
fituation of thefe iflands, however, efpecially in time
of war,- prompted a great number of people to come
thither again, both from England and the continent of
America. By the year 1690, New Providence became
fo populous, that the proprietors thought fit to appoint
one Cadwallader Jones to be their governor; and he
accordingly arrived there on the 19^ of June that year.
According to all accounts, this governor Jones was of
a very rough arbitrary difpofition ; and as the people
he was fent to govern retained pretty much the fpirit
of their predeceffors, it was no wonder that there were
frequent quarrels between, them. At laft; Jones being
impeached of high treafonby one Bulkley, was thrown
into prifon, where he lay for fome time; but afterwards
was releafed, and Bulkley imprifoned. However, the
proprietors finding it would be highly improper to
continue Jones in his government, removed him, and
appointed one Trott to fucceed him. Under governor
Trott the town of Naflau recovered its-former fize ; its
houfes amounting to 160; and having a fort for its
protection, on which were mounted 28 guns befidcs
demiculverins.
In 1697 the proprietors, with the confent of king
William, appointed Nicholas Webb, Efq; to the go¬
vernment of the Bahama iflands ; and, in this gentle¬
man’s time, New Providence enjoyed a ftate of tole¬
rable tranquillity, and was reckoned to contain about
400 negroes. One Mr Lightfoot, who was afterwards
governor, endeavoured to fet up a fugar-work on New
Providence, for which the foil was extremely proper;
but the means taken by a good governor for the im¬
provement of this perverfe colony, proved the very
means of weakening it: for the pirates, finding now BahanS
no longer any harbour in the Bahama iflands, no longer IflanԤ
fpent their money there ; and the inhabitants being at 1
the fame time reftrained from the cruel pradice of
plundering wrecks, grew poor and difcontented. Per¬
petual altercations now happening between them and
their governors, their differences were by the Lords g|
propietors generally referred to the government of
South Carolina ; which equally difcontented the go¬
vernor and people, both complaining that they were
treated only as a dependent province of that colony.
In this untoward fituation matters continued till.thc SI
year 1700, when one Elias Halket was promoted
to the government of the Bahama iflands. But he
was fcarcely fettled when the inhabitants put him in
irons, and fent him off the ifland, choofing by their
own authority Ellis Lightfoot, Efq; to fucceed him.
On this occafion the proprietors ftiewed no refentment, l'-
and Lightfoot remained in poffeffion of the govern¬
ment till 1703. At that time the diffenfions which
prevailed at New Providence, encouraged the French
and Spaniards to make a defeent upon it from Petit
Guaves. The iffand was then completely ruined ; the 9
town of Naffau was burnt, the fort difmantled, its 9
guns nailed up, and the governor with half the negroes,
carried off. As to the” white inhabitants, their enemies 9
took very little concern about them, and they retired
to the woods till the danger was over. Returning
from thence, and finding the ifland entirely ruined, |H
they found means to remove themfelves to other fettle- <H|
ments. So little cSre did the proprietors take all this
time of the affairs of New Providence, that they did
not even know the cataftrophe that had befallen them :
nay, they even named one Birch, to fuperfede Light- 5
foot; but. when he came thither, he found the ifland
entirely abandoned, fo he was obliged to return.
After this the Bahama iflands became once more the
refidence of pirates and free-booters of all kinds, and
of all nations, efpecially the Englifh and Irifh, who
committed more depredations on the Britifh trade than
both the French and Spaniards. At laft, upon an
addrefs of the Houfe of Lords, king George I. gave
orders for fortifying arid fettling the ifland of Provi- jH I
dence, and expelling thefe robbers. The plan was
committed to Captain Woods Rogers, a celebrated
navigator, who in the year 1718 faded as governor of
Providence, with a force fufficient to reduce the pirates.
Before his arrival, governor Bennet of Bermudas had
fent a floop to Providence, requiring the pirates to
furrender themfelves, by which they were entitled to a
late proclamation of pardon. About 150 of the pirates,
among whom were feveral of their captains, gladly
accepted of this fummons, and furrendered themfelves.
Upon the arrival of Captain Rogers at this ifland in
1718, he found about 300 men capable of bearing
arms ; many of whom had been pirates themfelves,
and none of them under any apprehenfioqs from that
wicked fraternity; but all of them determined in the
moft refolute manner to defend themfelves againft the
French and Spaniards ; which, by the affiftancc of 100
regulars the captain had brought with him, they were
very foon enabled to do.
The firft meafure of Rogers’s government was to
read his Majefty’s commiffion to himfelf in prefence of
all the inhabitants of the ifland; after which he ad¬
mitted
BAH [ 957 1 B A J
mitted to the benefit of the proclamation about 200
of the remaining pirates that furrendered thcmfdves.
In fettling his council, he nominated fix adventurers
who attended him from England ; and had the good
fortune to meet alfo with fix inhabitants of the ifland,
who pretended they had never been pirates, upon which
he admitted them likewife. He himfelf had been ap¬
pointed captain of the independent company that came
with him from England ; and the judge of the admi¬
ralty, the colle&or of cuftoms, the chief juftice, the
fecretary, the regifter, the provoft marihal and officers,
had all their commiffions from England. Under his go¬
vernment the colony throve fo well, that in a ffiort time
the number of white people amounted to 1500; and
fo fenfible was government of his fcrvices, that when
he returned to England in 1721 to folicit fome fupplies,
he received a new commiffion as governor, and had a
falary of E. 400 a-year fettled upon him. Captain
Rogers indeed had interefted himfelf fo much in the
affairs of his colony, that he greatly hurt his own cir-
cumflances ; for the Spaniards having twice attacked
the Bahama iflands with 2000 men, Mr Rogers defeated
them without having any fupport from the other colo¬
nies, except what he engaged on his own perfonal cre¬
dit. He died within two or three years after his re-
furn to his government; and fince that time nothing
remarkable has happened to thefe iflands, only that
the colonies on them have fiill continued to thrive.
Bahama, the largeft of all the abovementioned
iflands, and from which they take their name, is fituated
in N. Lat. 26. 45. and is about fifteen leagues from the
peninfula of Florida. According to the befl accounts,
it is fifty miles in length, and in fome places fixteen in
breadth. The air is ferene, and the ifland well wa¬
tered and fruitful, yet is inhabited only by a few flrag-
glers, who fubfift by felling neceffaries to the fhips
which the currents drive upon the coaft. This ifland
is faid to have formerly produced guaiacum, farfapa-
rilla, and red wood; all of which were defltoyed by the
Spaniards. The inhabitants are obliged to bring all
their neceffaries from Carolina, excepting fome white
fowl, and a particular kind of rabbit which they rear.
From fome papers in the Philofophical Tranfa&ions
it appears that fperma-ceti whales have been call afhore
upon thefe iflands ; but the writer adds, that he never
heard of one of that fpecies being killed in the fea;
fo fierce and adlive are they when alive.
BAHAR, or Barre, in commerce, weights nfed
in feveral places in the Eaft Indies.
There are two of thefe weights ; one the great ba-
har, with which they weigh pepper, cloves, nutmegs,
ginger, &c. and contains 550 pounds of Portugal, or
about 524 lb. 9 oz. avoirdupois weight. With the
little bahar, they weigh quickfilver, vermilion, ivory,
filk, &c. It contains about 437 lb. 9 oz. avoirdu¬
pois weight.
BAHAREN, an ifland in the Perfian gulf, fituated
in E. Long. 50. o. N. Lat. 26. o. This ifland is
chiefly remarkable for its pearl-fifhery, and has often
changed its mailers. It fell with Ormus under the
dominion of the Portuguefe, was again reftored to
Perfia by Thamas Khouli Kan ; and after his death
the confufion into which his empire was thrown, gave
an opportunity to an enterprizing and ambitious Arab
of taking pofTeflioo of the iflaud, where he ilill main-
Vol. IL
tains his authority. Baharen was famous for its pearl-
fifhery even at the time when pearls were found at
Ormus, Karek, Kafhy, and other places in the Per¬
fian gulf: but it is now become of much greater con-
fequence ; all the other banks having been exhaufled,
while this has fuffered no fenfible diminution. The
time of fifhing begins in April, and ends n Oftober.
It is confined to a tradl four or five leagues in breadth.
The pearls taken at Baharen, though not fo white as
thofe of Ceylon or Japan, are much larger than thofc
of the former place, and more regularly fhaped than
tbofe of the latter. They have a yellowifh colour; but
have alfo this good quality, that they preferve their
golden hue, whereas the whiter kind lofe much of their
luftre by keeping, efpecially in hot countries. The
annual revenue from the Baharen pearl-fifhery is com¬
puted at about L. 157,500. The greateft part of the
pearls that are uneven are carried to Conftantinoplc
and other ports of Turky, where the larger go to com-
pofe ornaments for head-dreffes, and the fmaller arc
ufe.d in embroideries. The perfedt pearls muft be re¬
ferred for Surat, whence they are diftributed through
all Indoflan.
BAHI, a province of the ifland of Lucon or Manila,
one of the Philippine ifiands in the Eaft Indies, belong¬
ing to the Spaniards. It is remarkable for producing
excellent betel, which the inhabitants, Spainards as
well as natives, perpetually chew’ from morning till
• night. It is alfo the place where moft ef the fhips arc
built. But the natives fuffer much from this work; 200
and fometimes 400 of them being con ftantly employed
in it, on the mountains, or at the port of Cavite.
The king allows thefe labourers a piece-of-eight per
month, with a fufficient quantity of rice. The whole
province contains about 6000 tributary natives.
BAHIA, de todos los sanctos, a province of
Brafil in South America, belonging to the Portuguefe,
and the richeft in the whole country; but unhappily
the air and climate do not correfpond with other natural
advantages ; yet fo fertile is the province in fugar and
other commercial articles, that the Portuguefe flock
hither not only as it is the feat of affluence, but alfo of
pleafure and grandeur. The Capital, called St Salva¬
dor, or Cividad de Bachia, is populous, magnificent,
and beyond comparifon the moft gay and opulent city
in Brafil. It ftands on a bay in S. Lat. 12. 11. is
ftrong by nature, well fortified, and always defended
by a numerous garrifon. It contains 12,000 or 14,000
Portugnefe, and about three times as many negroes,
befides people of different nations, who ebufe to refide
in that city.
BAHIR, a Hebrew term fignifying famous or il-
lujirious ; but particularly ufed for a book of the Jews,
treating of the profound myfteries of the cabbala, be¬
ing the rcoft ancient of the Rabbinical works.
BAHUS, a ftrong town of Sweden, and capital of
a government of the fame name, feated on a rock in
a fmall ifland, in E. Long. 11. 10. N- Lat. 57. 52.
BAJA, Bayjah, or Begia, a town of the king¬
dom of Tunis in Africa, fuppofed to be the ancient
Vacca of Salluft, and Oppidum Vagger:f- of Pliny. It
was formerly, and ftill continues to be, a place of great
trade, and the chief market of the kingdom for corn,
of which the adjacent territories producefuch abundance,
that they can fupply more than the whole kingdom
6 E with
B A I [ 958 ] B A I
with it'; and the Tunefians fay, that if there was in the
kingdom fuch another town as this for plenty of corn,
it would become as cheap as fand. Here is alfo a great
annual fair,, to which the moft diftant Arabian tribes
refort with their families and flocks. Notwithftanding
all this, however, the inhabitants are very poor, i and
great part of the land about the town remains urfcul-
tivated, through the cruel exa&ions of the government,
and the frequent incurfions of the Arabs who are very
powerful in thefe parts. The town Hands on the de¬
clivity of a hill on the road to Conftantina, .about xo
leagues from the northern coaft, and 36 fouth-weft from
Tunis; and hath the convenience of being well watered.
On the higheft part is a citadel that commands the whole
place, but is now of no great ftrength. The walls were
raifed out of the ruins of the ancient Vacca, and have
fome ancient infcriptions.
Baja, a populous town of Hungary, feated on the
Danube, in E. Long. 19. 50. N. Lat. 46. 40.
BAItE, an ancient village of Campania in Italy,
between the promontory of Mifenum and Pnteoli, on
the Sinus Baianus. It was anciently famous for its
hot baths, which ferved the wealthier Romans for
the purpofes both of medicine and pleafure. Accord¬
ing to fome writers, it had its name from Baius, one
of Ulyfles’s companions who was there buried. The
agreeablenefs of the fituation invited many to build
villas and even palaces in its neighbourhood. It is
now called Bajah, and has fome ancient ruins remain¬
ing, but is otherwife inconfiderable. E. Long. 14. 45.
N. Lat. 41. 6.
BAJADOR, a cape on the weft coaft of Africa,
fouth of the Canary iflands. W. Long. 15. 20. N.
Lat. 27. o.
BAJAZET I. Sultan of the Turks, a renowned
warrior but a tyrant, was conquered by Tamerlane,
and expofed by him in an iron cage ; the fate he had
deftined for his-adverfary if he had been the vi&or.
He daflied his head againft the bars of this prifon, and
killed himfelf, in 1413. See the article Turks.
BAIKAL, a great lake in Siberia, lying between
52 and 55 degrees of north latitude. It is reckoned
to be 500 werfts in length; but only 20 or 30 broad,
and in fome places not above 15. It is environed on
all fides by high mountains. In one part of it, which
lies near the river Bargufin, it throws up an inflam¬
mable fulphureous liquid called maltha, which the
people of the adjacent country burn in their lamps.
There are likewife feveral fulphureous fprings near this
lake. Its water at a diftance appears of a fea-green co¬
lour : it is frefli; and fo clear, that objefts may be feen
in it feveral fathoms deep. It does not begin to freeze
till near the latter end of December, and thaws again
about the beginning of May: from which time till Sep¬
tember, a fliip is feldom known to be wrecked on it;
but by the high winds which then blow, many ftiip-
wrecks happen. This lake is called by the neigh¬
bouring people Siuiataie More, or the Holy Lake}
and they imagine, that when ftorms happen on it, they
will be preferred from all danger by complimenting it
with the title of Sea. When it is frozen over, people
trayel upon it in the road to China j but they muft be
very ftiarp (hod, otherwife they cannot ftand upon the
ice, which is exceedingly fmooth. Notwithftanding
that the icc on this lake is fometimes two ells thick,
there are fome open places in it to which tempeftuous
winds will often drive thofe who are crofting it, in
which cafe they are irrecoverably loft. The camels
that pafs along have a particular kind of fhoes ftiarp
at bottom, and the oxen have ftiarp irons driven thro’
their hoofs, without which it would be impofiible for
them to pafs. Here are plenty of large fturgeon
and pike ; with many feals of the black, but none of
the fpotted, kind. It contains feveral iflands; and the
borders are frequented by black fables and civet-cats.
BAIL, ballium, (from the French hailler, which
comes of the Greek and fignifies to deliver in¬
to hands), is ufed in our common law for the freeing or
fetting at liberty of one arrefted or imprifoned upon any
aftion, either civil or criminal, on furety taken for his
appearance at a day and place certain.
The reafon why it is called bail, is becaufe by this
means the party reftrained is delivered into the hands
of thofe that bind themfelves for his forthcoming, in
order to a fafe keeping or proteftion from prifon ; and
the end of bail is to fatisfy the condemnation and cofts,
or render the defendant to prifon.
With refpeft to bail in civil cafes, it is to be obfer-
ved, that there is both common and fpecial bail. Com¬
mon bail is in a&ions of fmall concernment, being called
common, becaufe any fureties in that cafe are taken ;
whereas in caufes of greater weight, as adtions upon
bonds, or fpeciality, &c. where the debt amounts to
10 1. fpecial bail or furety muft be taken, fuch as
fubfidy-men at leaft, and they according to the value.
The commitment of a perfon being only for fafe
cuftody, wherever bail will anfwer the fame intention,
it ought to be taken; as in moft of the inferior crimes t
but in felonies, and other offences of a capital nature,
no bail can be a fecurity equivalent to the adfual cu¬
ftody of the perfon. For what is there that a man
may not be induced to forfeit, to fave his own life ?
and what fatisfadlion or indemnity is it to the public,
to feize the effedls of them who have bailed a murderer,
if the murderer himfelf be fuffered to efcape with impu¬
nity? Upon a principle fimilar to which, the Athenian
magiftrates, when they took a folemu oath never to
keep a citizen in bonds that could give three fureties of
the fame quality with himfelf, did it with an exception
to fuch as had embezzled the public money, or been
guilty of treafonable praftices.
Bail may be taken either in court, or, in fome par¬
ticular cafes, by the ftieriff or other magiftrate; but
moft ufually by the juftices of the peace. To refufe or
delay to bail any perfon bailable, is an offence againft
the liberty of the fubjeft, in any magiftrate, by the
common law; as well as by the ftatute Weftm. 1.
3 Edw. I. c. 13. and the habeas corpus aft, 31 Car. II.
c. 2. And, left the intention of the law ftiould be
fruftrated by thejuftices requiring bail to a greater
amount than the nature of the cafe demands, it is ex-
prefsly declared by ftatute x W. & M. ft. 2. c. 1. that
exceflive bail ought not to be required ; though what
bail ftiall be called excejive, muft be left to the courts,
on confidering the circumftances of the cafe, to deter¬
mine. And on the other hand, if the magiftrate takes
infufficient bail, he is liable to be fined, if the criminal
doth not appear.
In civil cafes, every defendant is bailable. But it is
otherwife in
Criminal
B A I
Criminal matters. Regularly, all offences either a-
_ gainlt the common law or a£t of parliament, that are
below felony, the offender ought to be admitted to
bail, unlefs it be prohibited by fome fpecial aft of par¬
liament.—By the ancient common law, before and fince
the conqueft, all felonies were bailable, till murder was
excepted by llatute : fo that perfons might be admit¬
ted to bail almoft in every cafe. But the ftatute
Weftm. i. 3 Edw. I. c. 15. takes away the power of
bailing in treafon, and in divers inttances of felony.
The ftatutes 23 Hen. VI. c. 9. and 1 & 2 Ph. & Mar.
c. 13. give farther regulations in this matter: and
upon the whole we may colleft, that no julliees of the
peace can bail, 1. Upon an accufation of treafon: nor,
2. Of murder : nor, 3. In cafe of manllaughter, if the
prifoner be clearly the flayer, and not barely fufpefted
to be fo ; or if any indiftment be found againft him :
nor, 4. Such as, being committed for felony, have
broken prifon ; becaufe it not only carries a prefump-
tion of guilt, but is alfo fuperadding one felony to an¬
other : 5. Perfons outlawed : 6. Such as have abjured
the realm : 7. Perfons taken with the mainour, or in the
faft of felony : 8. Perfons charged wdth arfon: 9. Ex¬
communicated perfons, taken by writ de excommunicato
capiendo: all which are clearly not admiffible to bail
by the juftices. Others are of a dubious nature, as,
10. Thieves openly defamed and known : 11. Perfons
charged with other felonies, or manifeft and enormous
offences, not being of good fame : and 12. Acceffories
to felony, that labour under the fame want of reputa¬
tion. Thefe feem to be in the diferetion of the juffi-
ces, whether bailable or not. The laft clafs are fuch
as mu/1 be bailed upon offering fufficient furety; as,
13. Perfons of good fame, charged with a bare fufpi-
cion of manflaughter, or other infamous homicide :
14. Such perfons, being charged with petit larceny or
any felony, not before fpecified: or, 16. With being
acceffory to any felony. Laftly, it is agreed, that the
[ 959 1
B A I
wife, now aboliihed. It is alfo the name of a magi-
ftrate in royal boroughs, and of the judge appointed a‘-lwlc
by a baron over lands erefted into a barony *. * See JLtjw,
BAILIFF, (ballivus)% from the French word bay- l>al,t in\
liff, that is, prafecius provincial: and as the name, fo No cxviu.
the office itfelf was anfwerable to that of France ;
where there are eight parliaments, which are high
courts from whence there lies no appeal, and within
the precinfts of the feveral parts of that kingdom
which belong to each parliament there are feveral pro¬
vinces to which juftice is adminiftered by certain offi¬
cers called bailiffs ; and in England there are feveral
counties in which juftice hath been adminiftered to the
inhabitants by the officer who is now called Jheriff or
vifeount, (one of which names defeends from the Saxons,
the other from the Normans); and though the ftieriff
is not called bailiffs yet it is probable that was one of
his names alfo, becaufe the county is often called bal-,
liva. And in the ftatute of Magna Charta, cap. 28.
and 14 Ed. 3. c. 9. the word bailiff teems tocomprife
as well ftieriffs, as bailiffs of hundreds. As the realm
is divided into counties, fo every county is divided in¬
to hundreds; within which in ancient times the people
had juftice miniftered to them by the officers of every
hundred. But now the hundred courts, except certain,
franchifes, are fwallowed in the county-courts ; and the
bailiff’s name and office is grown into contempt, they
being generally officers to ferve writs, &c. within their
liberties. Though, in other refpefts, the name is ftill
in good efteem : for the chief magiftrates in divers
towns, are called bailiffs, or bailies; and fometimes,
the perfons to whom the king’s caftles are committed
are termed bailiffs, as the bail if of Dover caflle, &c.
Of the ordinary bailiffs there are feveral forts, viz.
fheriff’s bailiffs, bailiffs of liberties, &c.
Sheriff’s bailiffs, or fherift’s officers, are either bailiffs
of hundreds, or fpecial bailiffs. Bailiffs of hundreds
^ are officers appointed over thofe refpeftive diftrifts by
court of king’s bench (or any judge thereof in time of the flieriffs, to colleft fines therein; to fummon juries;
vacation) may bail for any crime whatfoever, be it trea¬
fon, murder, or any other offence, according to the
circumftances of the cafe.    
the law is very manifeft.
commonly for fuch enormous crimes, would greatly
tend to elude the public juftice : and yet there are ca¬
fes, though they rarely happen, in which it would be
hard and unjuft to confine a man in prifon, though
accufed even of the greateft offence. The law has
therefore provided one court, and only one,- which has
to attend the judges and juftices at the affifes, and quar-
ter-feffions; and alfo to execute writs and procefs in
And herein the wifdom of the feveral hundreds. But as thefe are generally plain
To allow bail to be taken men, and not thoroughly fkilful in this latter part of
their office, that of ferving writs, and' making arrefts
and executions, it is now ufual to join fpecial bailiffs
with them ; who are generally mean perfons employed
by the ftieriffs on account only of their adroitnefs and
dexterity in hunting and feizing of their prey.
Bailiffs of liberties are thofe bailiffs who are ap-
a diferetionary power of bailing in any cafe: except pointed by every lord within his liberty, to execute
only, even to this high jurifdiftion, and of courfe to all
inferior ones, fuch perfons as are committed by either
houfe of parliament, fo long as the feffion lafts ; or
fuch as are committed for contempts by any of the
» king’s fuperior courts of juftice *.
Clerk of the Bails, is an officer belonging to the
court of the King’s Bench : he files the bail-pieces ta¬
ken in that court, and attends for that purpofe.
Bail, or Bale, in the fea-language. The feamen
procefs and do fuch offices therein as the bailiff errant
doth at large, in the county ; but bailiffs errant or iti¬
nerant, to go up and down the county to ferve procefs,.
are out of ufe.
There are alfo bailiffs of forefts, and bailiffs of ma¬
nors, who direft hufbandry, fell trees, gather rents,
pay quit-rents, &c.
lVater-~£>A.\viyv, an officer appointed in all port-
towns, for the fearching of (hips, gathering the toll for
call throwing the water by hand out of the Ihip’s or anchorage, &c. and arrefting perfons for debt, &c, on
boat’s hold, bailing. They alfo call thofe hoops that the water.
bear up the tilt of a boat, its bails.
BAILIE, in Scots law, a judge anciently appointed
by the king over fuch lands not erefted Into a regality
as happened to fall to the crown by forfeiture or other-
BAILIWICK, that liberty which is exempted from
the fheriff of the county ; over which liberty the lord
thereof appoints his own bailiff, with the like power
within his precinft as an under fhejlff exercifes under
6 E 2 the
Baillet
.11
Bailment.
B A I [ 960 1 B A I
the (heriff of the county: Or it fignifies the precinft
of a bailiff, or the place within which his jurifdi&ion is
. terminated.
BAILLET (Adrian), a very learned French wri¬
ter and critic, born in 1649, at the village of Neuvilk
near Beauvais in Picardy. His parents were too poor
to give him a proper education, which however he ob¬
tained by the favour of the bilhop of Beauvais, who
afterward prefented him with a fmall vicarage. In
1680, he was appointed librarian to M. de Lamoignon,
advocate general to the parliament of Paris; of whofe
library he made a copious index in 35 vols folio, all
written with his own hand. He died in 1706, after
writing many works, the principal of which are, A Hi-
Jiory of Holland from 1609, to the peace of Niniegucn in
1679, 4 vols 12mo; Lives of the Saints, 3 vols folio,
which he profeffed to have purged from fables; Jnge-
pietis des Savans, which he extended to 9 vols tamo;
and The Life of Des Cartes, 2 vols 4to. which he a-
bridged, and reduced to 1 vol. 12010.
BAILLEUL, a town of France, in the earldom of
Flanders, formerly very llrong, but now without any
fortifications. It has been feveral times burnt by acci-
cident, and contains now only about 500 houfes. E.
Long. 2. 55. N. Lat. 40. 35.
BAILMENT, in law, is a delivery of goods in
trull, upon a contrail, expreffed or implied; that the
trull lhall be faithfully executed on the part of the
bailee. As if cloth be delivered, or (in our legal dia-
left) bailed', to a taylor to make a fuit of clothes, he
has it upon an implied contrail to render it again, when
made, and that in a workmanly manner. If money, or
goods be delivered to a common carrier, to convey
from Oxford to London, or from Glafgow to Edin¬
burgh, &c. he is under a contrail in law to pay, or
carry them to the perfon appointed. If a horfe, or o-
ther goods, be delivered to an inn-keeper or his fer-
vants, he is bound to keep them fafely, and reftore
them when his guell leaves the houfe. If a man takes
in a horfe, or other cattle, to graze and departure in
his grounds, which the law calls agiftmejit, he takes
them upon an implied contrail to return them on de¬
mand to the owner. If a pawnbroker receives plate or
jewels as a pledge, or fecurity, for the repayment of
money lent thereon at a day certain, he has them upon
an exprefs contrail or condition to reftore them if the
pledger performs his part by redeeming them in due
time ; for the due execution of which contrail, many
ufeful regulations are made by llarute 30 Geo. II. c, 24.
And fo, if a landlord diftrains goods for rent, or a pa-
rifli officer for taxes, thefe for a time are only a pledge
in the hands of the dirtrainers; arid they are bound by
an implied contrail in law to reftore them on payment
of the debt, duty, and expences, before the time of fale;
or, when fold, to render back the overplus.' If a friend
delivers any thing H> his friend to keep for him, the re¬
ceiver is bound to reftore it on demand: and it was for¬
merly held, that, in the mean time he was anfwerable
for any damage or lofs it might fuftain, whether by ac¬
cident or otherwife ; unlefs he exprefsly undertook to
keep it only with the fame care as his own goods, and
then he Ihould not be anfwerable for theft or other ac¬
cidents. But now the law feems to be fettled on a much
more rational footing ; that fuch a general bailment
will not charge the bailee with any lofs, unlefs it hap¬
pens by grofs neglecl, which is conftrued to be an evi¬
dence of fraud: but, if the bailee undertakes fpecially
to keep the goods fafely and fecurely, he is bound to
anfwer all perils and damages that may befal them for
want of the fame care with which a prudent man would
keep his own.
BAILO; thus they ftyle at Conftantinople the am-
baffador of the republic of Venice, who refidcs at the
Porte. This minifter, befidesbis political charge, ads
there the part, of a conful of Venice.
BAINBRIDGE (Dr John), an eminent phyficias
and aftronomer, born at Alhby de la Zouche in Lei-
cefterlhire, in 1582. He taught a grammar-fehool for
fome years, and praftifed phylic, employing his leifurc
hours in aftronomy, which was his favourite lludy: at
length he removed to London, was admitted a fellow
of the college of phyficians, and raifed his charadler by
his defeription of the comet in i6i'8. The next year
Sir Henry Savile appointed him his firft profeffor of
ailronomy at Oxford ; and the mailers and fellows of
Merton-college made him firft junior, and then- fupe-
rior, reader of Linacre’s ledlure. He died in 1643,
having written many works, fome of which have never
been publifhed: but the MSS. are preferred in the li¬
brary of Trinity-college, Dublin.
BAIOCAO, a copper-coin, current at Rome, and
throughout the whole Hate of the church, ten of which
make a julio, and an hundred a Roman crown.
BAIRAM, or Beiram, a Turkiftv word which,
fignifies a folemn feaft. The Mahometans have two
Bairams; the Great, and'the Little. The Little Bairam
is properly that held at the clofe of the fall Ramaaan,
beginning with the firft full moon in the following
month Shawal. This is called in Arabic Id al Fetz,
or the Feafl of breaking the Fiji /-by European writers,
the Furkijh Eafler, becaufe it fucceeds Ramazan,
which is their Lent, more ufually the Great Bairam,
becaufe obferved with great ceremony and rejoicing at
Conftantinople, and through Turkey, for three days,
and in Perfia for five or fix days, at kail by the com¬
mon people, to make themfelvea amends for the mor¬
tification of the preceding month.—The feaft com¬
mencing with the new moon, the Mahometans are very
fcrupulous in obferving the time when the new moon
commences; to which purpofe, obfervers are fent to
the tops of the higheft mountains, who, the moment
they fpy the appearance of a new moon, run to the
city, and proclaim Muzhdaluk, “ welcome news as it
is the fignal for beginning the feftivity.—The Great
Bair am, is properly that held by the pilgrims at Mecca,
commencing on the tenth of Dhu Ihajia, when the
vklims are flain, and lading three days. This is called
by the Arabs, Id al adha, that is, the feajl of facrifice,
as being celebrated in memory of the facrifice of A-
bram, whofe fon God redeemed with a great vktim.
By European writers it is called the Lejfer Bairam, as
being lefs taken notice of by the generality of the
people, who are not ftruck with it, becaufe the cere¬
monies, it is obferved withal, are performed at Mecca,
the only feene of the folemnity.—On the feaft of
Bairam, after throwing little ftones, one after another,
into the valley of Mina, they ufually kill one or more
fheep, fome a goat, bullock, or even a camel ; and,
after giving part thereof to the poor, eat the reft with
their friends. After thisj they ftiave themfelves. The
fccond
B A J
t fecond is a day of reft. On the third, they fet out
on their return home.
;.r' , BAIT, among fifhermen, implies a fubftance pro¬
per to be faftened to a hook, in order to catch the
different forts of fifh. See Fishing.
BAITING, the aft of fmaller or weaker beafts
attacking and harrafiing greater and ftronger. In
this fenfe we hear of the baiting of bulls or bears by
maftiffs, or bull-dogs with fliort nofes that they may
take the better hold.
Utility may be pled, in feme degree, in j unification
of lull-baiting. This animal is rarely killed without
being firft baited; the chaffing and cxercife whereof
makes his fldh tenderer and more digeftible. In reality,
it difpofes it for putrefaction ; fo that, unlefs taken
m time, baited flefh is foon loft. But a fpirit of bar-
barifm had the greateft ftrare in fupporting the fport:
bulls are kept on purpofe, and exhibited as ftanding
fpe&acles for the public entertainment. The poor
beafts have not fair play : they are not only tied down
to a (lake, with a collar about their necks, and a fhort
rope, which gives them not above four or five yards
play; but they are difarmed too, and the tips of their
horns cut off, or covered with leather, to prevent their
hurting the dogs. In this fport, the chief aim of the
dog is to catch the bull by the nofe, and hold him
down ; to which end, he will even creep on his belly :
the bull’s aim, on the contrary, is, with equal induf-
try, to defend* his nofe ; in order to which, he thrufts
it clofe to the ground, where his horns are alfo in readi-
nefs to tofs the dog.—Bull-baitino; was firft introduced
into England, as an amufement, in the reign of King
John, about 1209.
BAJULUS, an ancient officer in the court of the
Greek emperors. There were feveral degrees of bajuli;
as, the grand1 bajulus, who was preceptor to the em¬
peror ; and the bajuli, who were fub-preceptors.
The word is derived from the Latin verb bajttlare,
to carry or bear a thing on the arms or on the fhoulders;
and the origin of the office is thus traced by antiquaries.
Children, and efpecially thofe of condition, had an¬
ciently, befide their nurfe, a woman called gerula, as
appears from feveral paffages of Tertullian; when wean¬
ed, or ready to be weaned, they had men to carry
them about and take care of them, who were called
geruli and bajuli, a gerendo i) bajulatido. Hence it is,
that governours of princes and great lords were ftill
denominated bajuli, and their charge or government
bajulatio, even after their pupils were grown too big
to be carried about. The word paffed in the fame fenfe
into Greece.
Bajulus is alfo ufed by Latin writers in the feveral
'lif. other fenfes wherein bailiff is ufed among us *.
Bajolus was alfo the name of a conventual officer
in the ancient monafteries, to whom belonged thecharge
of gathering and diftributing the money and legacies
left for maffes and obits ; whence he was alfo denomi¬
nated bajulus obituum novorum.
BAKAN, a large and handfome town of Alia in
the Eaft Indies, in the kingdom of Ava. E. Long.
r8. o. N. Lat. 19. 35.
BAKER (Sir Richard), author of the Chronicle of
the kings of England, was born at Siffingherft, in
Kent, about the year 15-68. After going through
the ufual courfe of academical learning at Hart-Kali,
[ 961 1
B A K
in Oxford, he travelled into foreign parts; and upon
his return home was created mafter of arts, and foon ~
after, in 1603, received from king James I. the ho¬
nour of knighthood. In 1620, he was high flieriff of
Oxfordfhire ; but engaging to pay fome of the debts
of his wife’s family, he was reduced to poverty, and
obliged to betake himfelf for ftrelter to the Fleet prifon,
where he compofed feveral books, among which, are,
1. Meditations and Difquifitions on the Lord’s Prayer.
2. Meditations, &c. on feveral of the Pfalms of David.
3. Meditations and Prayers upon the feven Days of the
Week. 4. Cato Variegatus, or Cato’s Moral Diftichs
varied, &c.—Mr Granger obferves, that his Chro¬
nicle of the Kings of England was ever more efteemed
by readers of a low^er clafs, than by fuch as had a cri¬
tical knowledge of hiftory. The language of it was,
in tliis reign, called polite; and it long maintained its
reputation, efpecially among country gentlemen. The
author feems to have been fometimes more ftudious to
pleafe than to inform, and with that view to have fa-
crificed even chronology itfelf to method. In 1658,
Edward Philips, nephew to Milton, publilhed a third
edition of this work, with the addition of the reign of
Charles I. It has been feveral times reprinted fince,
and is now carried as low as the reign of George I.
Sir Richard alfo tranflated Ceveral works from the French
and Italian; and died very poor, in the Fleet prifon,
on the 18th of February, 1645.
Baker (Thomas), an eminent mathematician, was
born at Ikon, in Somerfetfhire, about the year 1625,
and entered at Magdalen-hall, Oxon, in 1640; after
w-hich he was vicar of Bilhop’s-Nymmet, in Devon-
ftiire, where he wrote The Geometrical Key, or the
Gate of Equations unlocked ; by which he gained a
confiderable reputation. A little before his death, the
members of the Royal Society fent him fome mathe¬
matical queries, to which he returned fo fatisfactory
an anfwer, that they prefented him a medal, with ^n
infeription full of honour and refpeft. He died at Bi
fhop’s-Nymmet, on the 5th of June, 1690.
Baker (Thomas), a dramatic writer, was the fon
of an eminent attorney in the city of London. His
turn was entirely to comedy, and his plays are five ia
number, visr. 1. Aft at Oxford. 2. Fine Ladies airs.
3. Hampftead Heath. 7. Humours of the age.
5. Tunbridge Walks. All of them have, a confide¬
rable (hare of merit; yet only one among the number
Hands on the prefent lift of afting plays, viz. Tun¬
bridge Walks. It is faid that the charafterof Maiden
in this play-, which is perhaps the original of almoft
all the Fribbles, beau Mizens, &c. that have been
drawn fince, and in which effeminacy is carried to an
height beyond what any one could conceive to exift
in any man in real life, was abfolutely, and without
exaggeration, a portrait of the author’s own former
charafter; whofeunderftandinghavingat length pointed
out to him the folly he had fo long been guilty of, he
reformed it altogether in his fubfequent behaviour, and
wrote this charafter, in order to fet it forth in the moft
ridiculous light, and wran others from that rock of
contempt which he had himfelf for fome time been
wrecked upon. Whether this gentleman’s attachment
to the mufes drew him from any application to bufi-
nefs, or from what other caufe, is not known; but du¬
ring the latter part of Iris life he Hood on indifferent
terms
13 A K [ 962 ] B A K
Baker
b I-
terms with his father, who allowing him a very fcanty
income, he was obliged to retire into Worcefterfhire,
where he is reported to have died of that loathfome
diforder the morbus pediculofus.
BAKER, a perfon whofe occupation or bufinefs is
to bake bread. See the articles Baking and Bread.
The learned are in great doubt about the time when
baking firft became a particular prbfeffion, and bakers
were introduced. It is however generally agreed, that
they had their rife in the eaft, and paffed from Greece
to Italy after the war with Pyrrhus, about the year of
Rome 583. Till which time every houfe-wife was her
own baker : for the word pijior, which we find in Ro¬
man authors before that time, fignified a perfon who
ground or pounded the grain in a mill or mortar to
prepare it for baking, as Varro obferves. According
to Athenseus, the Cappadocians were the moft ap¬
plauded bakers, after them the Lydians, then the
Phoenicians.—To the foreign bakers brought into
Rome, were added a number of freed-men, who were
incorporated into a body, or, as they called it, a college;
from which neither they nor their children were allowed
to withdraw. They held their effefts in common, and
could not difpofe of any part of them. Each bake-
houfe had a patronus, who had the fuperintendency
thereof; and thefe patroni defied one out of their
number each year, who had fuperintendence over all
the reft, and the care of the college. Out of the body
of the bakers were every now and then one admitted
among the fenators.—To preferve honour and honefty
in the college of bakers, they were exprefsly prohibited
all alliance with comedians and gladiators; each had
his ftiop or bake-houfe, and they were diftributed into
fourteen regions of the city. They were excufed from
guardianfliips and other offices, which might divert
them from- their employment.—By our own ftatutes
bakers are declared not to be handicrafts. No man for
ufing the myfteries or fciences of baking, brewing,
furgery, or writing, lhall be interpreted a handicraft.
The bakers were a brotherhood in England before the
year 1155, in the reign of king Henry II. though the
white bakers were not incorporated till 1307, by king
Edward III. and the brown bakers not till 1621,
in king James I.’s time. Their hall is in Harp-
lane, Thames-ftreet ; and their court-day on the firft
Monday of the month.—They make the 19th company;
and confift of a warden, 4 matters, 30 affiftants, and
140 men on the livery, befides the commonalty.—
The French had formerly a great baker, grandpanetier
de France, who had the fuperintendency of all the ba¬
kers of Paris. But, fince the beginning of this cen¬
tury, they have been put under the jurifdiftion of the
lieutenant-general de police. In fom'e provinces of
France, the lord is the only baker in his feigneury;
keeping a public oven, to which all the tenants are
obliged to bring their bread. This right is calledfur-
nagium, or furnaticum, and makes part of the bannalite.
BAKEWELL, a pretty large town of Derbyftiire,
in England, feated on the river Wye, on the north-
fide of the Peak. It has a confiderable trade in lead.
W. Long. 2. 30. N. Lat. 35. 15.
BAKHUISEN (Ludolph), a painter and engraver,
was born at Embden in 1631, and died 1709. He
excelled in fea-pieces, particularly ftorms.
BAKING, the art of preparing bread, or reducing
meals of any kind, whether Ample or compound, into
bread. See the article Bread.
The various forms of baking among us may be re¬
duced into two, the one for unleavened, the other for
leavened bread. For the firft, the chief is manchet-
baking; the procefs whereof is as follows. The meal,
ground and boulted, is put into a trough; and to every
bufhel are poured in about three pints of warm ale,
with barm and fait to feafon it. This is kneaded well
together, with the hands through the brake; or, for
want thereof, with the feet, through a cloth : after
which, having lain an hour to fwell, it is moulded into
manchets; which, fcorched in the middle, and pricked up
at top, to give room to rife, are baked in the oven by
a gentle fire.—For the fecond, fometimes called cheat-
bread baking, it is thus : Some leaven (faved from a
former batch) filled with fait, laid up to four, and at
length diflblved in water, is ftrained through a cloth
into a hole made in the middle of the heap of meal ia
the trough ; then it is worked with fome of the flour
into a moderate conliftence: this is covered up with
meal, where it lies all night; and in the morning the
whole heap is ftirred up, and mixed with a little warm
water, barm, and fait, by which itjs feafoned, foft-
ened, and brought to an even leaven: it is then kneaded,
moulded, and baked, as before.
Method of raifing a bifhel of flour, ’with a tca-fpoonful
of barm ; by James Stone, of Amport, in Hatnpfhire.
—Suppofe you want to bake a bufhel of flour, and
have but one tea-fpoonful of barm. Put your flour
into your kneading-trough or trendle; then take a-
bout three quarters of a pint of warm water, and take
the tea-fpoonful of thick tteady barm and put it into the
water, ftir it until it is thoroughly mixed with the wa¬
ter : then make a hole in the middle of the flour large
enough to contain two gallons of water, pour in your
fmall quantity ; then take a ftick about two feet long,
(which you may keep for that purpofe), and ftir in fome
of the flour, until it is. as thick as you would make batter
for a pudding; then ftrewfome of the dry flour over it,
and go about your ufual bufinefs for about an hour: then
take about a quart of warm water more, and pour in; for
in one hour you will find that fmall quantity raifedfo, that
it will break through the dry flour which you (hook
over jit; and when you have poured in the quart of
warm water, take your ftick as before, and ftir in fome
more flour, until it is as thick as before; then (hake
fome more dry flour over it, and leave it for two hours
more, and then you will find it rife and break through
the dry flour again ; then you may add three quarts or
a gallon of water more, and ftir in the flour and make
it as thick as at firft, and cover it with dry flour again;
in about three or four hours more you may mix up
your dough, and then cover it up warm ; and in four
or five hours more you may put it into the oven, and
you will have as light bread as though you had put a
pint of barm. It does not take above a quarter of an
hour more time than the ufual way of baking, for there
is no time loft but that of adding water three or four
times.
The author of this method aflures us that he con-
ftantly bakes this way in the morning about fix or feven
o’clock, puts the flour out, and puts this fmall quan¬
tity of barm into the before-mentioned quantity of
water, in an hour’s time fome more, in two hours more
B A K [ 963 ] B A L
a greater quantity, about noon makes up the dough,
and about fix in the evening it is put into the oven, and
he has always good bread, never heavy nor bitter.
When you find, he fays, your body of flour fpunged
large enough, before you put in the reft of your water,
you fliould, with both your hands, mix that which is
fpunged and the dry flour all together, and then add
the remainder of warm water, and your dough will rife
the better and eafier.
The reafon he afligns why people make heavy bread
is, not becaufe they have not barm enough, but be-
caufe they do not know that barm is the fame to flour
as fire is to fuel; that, as a fpark of fire will kindle a
large body by only blowing of it up, fo will a thimble-
full of barm, by adding of warm water, raife or fpunge
any body of flour; for warm water gives freth life to
that which is before at work : fo that the reafon of
making bread heavy is, becaufe the body fpunged is
not large enough, but was made up and put into the
oven before it was ripe.
In regard to the difference of feafons, he prefcribes,
that in the fummer you fhould put your water blood-
warm; and in winter, in cold frofty weather, as warm
as you can bear your hand in it without making it
fmart; being fure you cover up your dough very warm
in the winter, and your covering of it with dry flour
every time you add warm water will keep in the heat;
when you have added fix or eight quarts of warm water,
as before mentioned, in fuch a gradual way, you will
find all that body of flour which is mixed with the
warm water, by virtue of that one tea-fpoonful of barm,
brought into great agitation, waxing, or fermenting ;
for it is to the flour what the fpirit is to the body, it
foon fills it with motion.
BAKOU, a town of Perfia, in the province of Shi-
rivan, fituated at the extremity of the Gulf of Ghilan
on the Cafpian Sea. E. Long. 51. 30. N. Lat. 40. 20.
BALA, a town of Merionethfhire in Wales. W.
Long* 3* 37- N- Lat- 52* 54-
BALiENA, or whale, in zoology, a genus of the
mammalia clafs, belonging to the order of cete. The
chara&ers of this genus are thefe: The balasna, in place
of teeth, has a horny plate in the upper jaw, and a
double fiftula or pipe for throwing out water. The fpe-
cies are four, viz.
j 1. The myfticetus, or common whole, which has
many turnings and winding in its noftrils, and has no
fin on the back. This is the largeft of all animals; it*
is even at prefent fometimes found in the northern feas
90 feet in length ; but formerly they were taken of a
much greater fize, when the captures were lefs fre¬
quent, and the fifh had time to grow. Such is their
bulk within the ar&ic circle; but in thofe of the torrid
zone, where they are unmolefted, whales are ftill feen
160 feet long. The head is very muckdifproportioned
to the fize of the body, being one third the fize of the
fifh: the under lip is much broader than the upper.
The tongue is compofed of a foft fpongy fat, capable
of yielding five or fix barrels of oil. The gullet is very
fmall for fo vaft a fifh, not exceeding four inches in
width. In the middle of the head are two orifices,
through which it fpouts water to a vaft height, and
with a great noife, efpecially when difturbed or wound¬
ed. The eyes are not larger than thofe of an ox, and
when the cryftalline humour is dried, it does not appear
larger than a pea. They are placed towards the back Balatna,
of the head, being the moft convenient fituation for or Whalr.
enabling them to fee both before and behind ; as alfo
to fee over them, where their food is principally found.
They are guarded by eye-lids and eye-lafhes, as in qua¬
drupeds; and they feem to be very fharp-fighted.
Nor is their fenfe of hearing in lefs perfeftion ; for
they are warned, at great diftances, of any danger pre¬
paring againft them. It w’ould fee'm as if nature had
defignedly given them thefe advantages, as they mul¬
tiply little, in order to continue their kind. It is true,
indeed, that the external organ of hearing is not per¬
ceptible, for this might only embarrafs them in their
natural element; but as foon as the thin fcarf-fkin af¬
ter mentioned is removed, a black fpot is difcovered
behind the eye, and under that is the auditory canal,
that leads to a regular apparatus for hearing. In fhort,
the animal hears the fmalleft founds at very great di¬
ftances, and at ail times, except when it is fpouting
water; which is the time that the fiftiers approach to
ftrike it. What is called vjbaleboney adheres to the up¬
per jaw; and is formed of thin parallel laminae, fome
of the longeft four yards in length: of thefe there are
commonly 350 on each fide, but in very old filh more;
about 500 of them are of a length fit for ufe, the others
being too Ihort. They are furrounded with long ttrong
hair, not only that they may not hurt the tongue, but as
ftrainers to prevent the return of their food when they
difcharge the water out of their mouths.—The real
bones of the whale are hard, porous, and full of mar¬
row. Two great ftrong bones fuftain the upper lip,
lying againft each other in the ftiape of an half-moon.
The tail is broad and femilunar; and when the fifti
lies on one fide, its blow is tremendous. The tail alone,
it makes ufe of to advance itfelf forward in the water;
and it is furpriling to fee with what force and celerity
its enormous bulk cuts through the ocean. The fins
are only made ufe of for turning in the water, and gi¬
ving a dire&ion to the velocity imprefled by the tail.
The female alfo makes ufe of them, when purfued, to
bear off her young, clapping them on her back, and
fupporting them by the fins on each fide from falling.
The whale varies in coldur; the back of fome being
red, the belly generally white. Others are black, fome
mottled, others quite w hite ; according to the obferva-
tion of Martin, who fays, that their colours in the wa¬
ter are extremely beautiful, and that their {kin is very
fuaooth and flippery. The outward or fcarf ficin of the
whale is no thicker than parchment; but this removed,
the real {kin appears, of about an inch thick, and co¬
vering the fat or blubber that lies beneath: this is from
eight to twelve inches in thicknefs; and is, when the
filh is in health, of a beautiful yellow. The mufcles lie
beneath; and thefe, like the flefh of quadrupeds, are
very red and tough. The penis is eight feet in length,
inclofed in a ftrong {heath. The teats in the female are
placed in the lower part of the belly.
In copulation, the female joins with the male, as is ]y[u(lfai fi
afferted, more humano; and once in two years feels the delityofthe
acceffes of defire. Their fidelity to each other exceeds male and fc~
whatever we are told of, even the conftancy of birds. ma*c-
Some fifliers, as Anderfon informs us, having ftruck one
of two whales, a male and a female, that were in com¬
pany together, the wounded filh made a long and ter¬
rible reiiftance : it ftruck down a boat with three men
Balena,
or Whale.
Offspring;
parental af
fw-ftion, &c
Are gre¬
garious.
Their food
* See Me-
Ju/a.
InofFenfive-
8
Enemies.
B A L [ 964 ] B A L
in it, with a Angle blow of its tail, by which all went The fwnrd-fifhf, however, is the whale’s moil terri- Bali
to the bottom. The other ftill attended its companion, ble enemy. “ At the fight of this little animal,” fays orW
and lent it every afiiftance; till, at laft, the fifh that was Anderfon, “ the whale feems agitated in an extraor- f See Xi- _
Itruck, funk under the number of its wounds; while its dinary manner; leaping from the water as if with af- pfcw.TI
faithful afibciate, difdaining to furvive the lofs, with fright: wherever it appears, the whale perceives it at a
great bellowing, ftretched itfelf upon the dead filh, diftance, and flies from it in the oppofite dire&ion. I
and (hared his fate.—The whale goes with young nine have been myfelf,” continues he, “ a fpe&ator of their
or ten months, and is then fatter than ufual, particu- terrible encounter. The whale has no inftrument of de- Confl^
■ larly when near the time of bringing forth. It is faid fence except the tail; with that it endeavours to ftrike w°th t'hc
• that the embryo, when firft perceptible, is about 17 the enemy; and a Angle blow taking place, would ef- fword-filli
inches long, and white; but the cub, when excluded, feftually deftroyits adverfary: but the fword-fifli is as
is black, and about 10 feet long. She generally pro- aftive as the other is ftrong, and eafdy avoids the ftroke;
duces one young one, and never above two. When (he then bounding into the air, it falls upon its great fub-
fuckles her young, (he throws herfelf on one fide on jacent enemy, and endeavours not to pierce with its
the furface of the fea, and the young one attaches itfelf pointed beak, but to cut with its toothed edges. The
to the teat. fea all about it is feen dyed with blood, proceeding
Nothing can exceed the tendernefs of the female for from the wounds of the whale; while the enormous a-
her offspring; fhe carries it with her wherever (he goes, nimal vainly endeavours to reach its invader, and ftrikes
and, when hardefl: purfued, keeps it fupported be- with its tail againft the furface of the water, making
tween her fins. Even when wounded, fhe ftill clafps a report at each blow louder than the noife of a can¬
ker young one; and when flie plunges to avoid danger, non.” In calm weather, the fifliermen lie upon their oars
takes it to the bojnom ; but rifes fooner than ufual, to as fpeclators of this combat, until they perceive the
give it breath again. The young ones continue at the whale at the laft gafp: then they row towards him;
breaft for a year; during which time, they are called and his enemy retiring at their approach, they enjoy the
by the failors, They are then extremely fruits of the victory.—The whale has another defperate
fat, and yield above 50 barrels of blubber. The mo- enemy, a kind of fhark, of different fizes from one to
ther at the fame time is equally lean and emaciated. At three fathoms ; fo voracious, that it tears large pieces
the age of two years they are called Jiunts, as they do of flelh from the whale, as if they had been dug with
not thrive much immediately after quitting the breaft: (hovels.
they then yield fcarce above 20 or 24 barrels of blub- To view thefe animals in a commercial light, we
ber: from "that time forward they are called Jkull-fiJJ), muft obferve, that the Englifh were late before they enga<* Anecdi
and their age is wholly unknown. ged in the whale-fifhery: it appears by a fet of queries, of ^
Every fpecies of whale propagates only with thofe propofed by an honeft-merchant in the year 157J, in j
of its own kind, and dees not at all mingle with the order to get information in the bufinefs, that we were
reft: however, they are generally feen in fhoals, of dif- at that time totally ignorant of it, being obliged to
ferent kinds together, and make their migrations in fend to Bijkatefor menjkilful in the catching of the whale,
large companies from one ocean to another. They are and ordering of the oil, and one cooper Jkilful to fet up the
•gregarious animals; which implies their want of mu- ftavedcajk. This feems very ftrange ; for hy the account
tual defence againft the invafions of fmaller, but more O&her gives of his travels to King Alfred, near 700
powerful, fiflves. It feems.aftonifhing, therefore, how years before that period, it is evident that he made that Haclhijt
a fhoal of thefe enormous animals find fubfiftence to- monarch acquainted with the Norwegians praftifing the Cvl-offt
gether, when it would feem that the fupplying even whale-fifhery; but it feems all memory of that gainful I-4'4»
one with food would require greater plenty than the employ, as well as of that able voyager Ofther, and all
ocean could furnifh. To increafe our wonder, we not his important difeoveries in the north, were loft for near
only fee them herding together, but ufually find them feven centuries.
fatter than any other animals of wbatfoever element. It was carried on by the Bifcayeners long before we
We likewife know that they cannot fwallow large fifties, attempted the trade; and that for the fake not only of
as their throat is fo narrow, that an animal larger than the oil, but alfo of the whalebone, which they feem to
. an herring could not enter. How then do they fubfift have long trafficked in. The earlieft notice we find of
and grow fo fat? A certain fort of fmall fnail, or (as that article in our trade is by Hackluyt, who fays it
Linnasus fays) the meduja * or fea-blubber, is fufficient was brought from the Bay of St Laurence by an En-
for this fupply. Content with this fimple food, it pur- glifh fhip that went there for the harhes and fy7mes of
fues no other animal, leads an inoffenfive life in its ele- whales and train oil, A. D. 1594, and who found there
ment, and is harmlefs in proportion to its ftrength to 700 or 800 whale fynnes, part of the cargo of two great
do mifehief. Bijhaine fhips, that had been wrecked there three years
As the whale is an inoffenfive animal, it is not to be before. Previous to that, the ladies flays muft have
wondered that it has many enemies, willing to take ad- been made of fplit cane, or fome tough wood, as Mr
vantage of its difpofition, and inaptitude for combat. Anderfon obferves in his Didlionary of Commerce; it
There is a fmall animal, of the fhell-fifh kind, called being certain that the whale fifhery was carried on, for
the whale-lwife, that flicks to its body, as w^e fee fhells the fake of the oil, long before the difeovery of the ufe
flicking to the foul bottom of a fhip. This infinuates of whalebone.
itfelf chiefly under the fins; and whatever efforts the The great refort of thefe animals wras found to he on
great animal makes, it ftill keeps its hold, and lives upon the iirhofpitable fhores of Spitzbergen, and the Euro-
the fat, which it is provided with inftruments to ar- pean fhips made that place their principal fifhery, and
rive at. for numbers of years were very fuccefsful: the Englifh
com- ■
B A L [ 965 ] B A L
commenced that bufinefs about the year 1598, and the
town of Hull had the honour of firft attempting that
profitable branch of trade. At prefent it feetns to be
on the decline, the quantity of fifli being greatly redu-
’ ced by the conftant capture for fuch a vaft length of
time: fome recent accounts inform us, that the fdhers,
from a defe& of whales, apply themfelves to feal-fifliery,
from which animals they extract an oil. This we fear
will not be of very long continuance; for thefe fhy and
timid creatures will foon be induced to quit thofe fhores
by being perpetually harraffed, as the morfe or walrus
has already in a great meafure done. We are alfo told,
that the poor natives of Greenland begin even now to
fuffer from the decreafe of the feal in their feas, it be¬
ing their principal fubfiftence; fo that, fhould it totally
defert the coaft, the whole nation would be in danger
of perifhing through want.
In old times the whale feems never to have been ta¬
ken on our coafts, but when it was accidentally flung
afhore: it was then deemed a^royal fifli, and the king
and queen divided the fpoil; the king afl’erting his right
to the head, her majefty to the tail.—For the manner
of taking whales, fee JF##/(?-Fish£ry.
2. The phyfalus, or fin-fiih, is diftinguiflied froth the
common whale by a fin on the back, placed very low
and near the tail. The length is equal to that of the
common kind, but much more flender. It is furniflied
with whale-bone in the upper jaw, mixed with hairs,
but fliort and knotty, and of little value. The blubber
alfo on the body of this kind is very inconfiderable.
Thefe circumftances, added to its extreme fiercenefs and
agility, which renders the capture very dangerous, caufe
the fifhers to negleft it. The natives of Greenland,
however, hold it in great efteem, as it affords a quan¬
tity of flelh which to their palate is very agreeable.
The lips are brown, and like a twifted rope: the
fpout-hole is as it were fplit in the top of its head,
through which it blows water with much more violence,
and to a greater height, than the common whale. The
fifhers are not very fond of feeing it, for on its appear¬
ance the others retire out of thofe feas.
Some writers conje&ure this fpecies to have been the
<t>va«.y<§r,?ir\& phyfeter, orblowing-whule of Oppian, ^Eli¬
an, and Pliny: but fince thofe writers have not left the
leaf! defeription of it, it is impoffible to judge which
kind they meant; for in refpedt to the faculty of fpout-
ing out water, or blowing, it is not peculiar to any one
fpecies, but common to all the whale kind.
The phyfalus inhabits the European and American
oceans: it feeds upon herrings and other fmall fifli.
3. The boops, or pike-headed whale, has a double
pipe in its fnout, three fins like the former, and a hard
horny ridge on its back. The belly is full of longitu¬
dinal folds or rugse. It frequents the northern ocean.
The length of that taken on the coaft of Scotland, as
remarked by Sir Robert Sibbald, was 46 feet, and its
greateft circumference 20. This fpecies takes its name
from the ftiape of its nofe, which is narrower and
fharper-pointed than that of other whales.
4. The mufculus has a double pipe in its front, and
three fins; the under jaw is qjuch wider than the upper
one. It frequents the Scotch coafts, and feeds upon
herrings.
Linnaeus makes the phyfeter and delphinus, which
are ranked among the whales by fome writers, two di-
Vou II.
ftinft genera. See Physeter and Delphinus.
BALAGATE, a province of the Mogul empire,
and the largeft of the three that compofe the kingdom
of Dekkan. It has Kandifli and Barar to the north,
Tellinga to the eaft, Baglana with part of Guzerat
to the weft, and Vifiapur to the fouth. It is. a fruit¬
ful and pleafant country, abounding with cotton and
fugar. Here they have flieep without horns ; but fo
ftrong, that when bridled and faddled they will carry
boys of ten years of age. Its prefent capital is Au-
rengabad, but formerly was Dowlet Abad; and from
the latter the whole province is fometimes called Do<uj-
let-Abad.
Balagate Mountains, a chain of mountains which
divides the coaft of Malabar from that of Coromandel,
running almoft the whole length of the peninfula on
this fide the Ganges. Some parts of them are covered
with fine red earth, which i.s blown by the ftrong weft
winds as far as the ifland of Ceylon ; and when the
rays of the fun are refle&ed from thefe mountains,
they feem to be all on fire. They make furprifing al¬
terations in the feafons ; for on the north fide of cape
Comorin, it is winter in May, June, July, Auguft,
and September, in which months it is fummer on the
fouth fide of the cape ; on one fide there are continual
tempefts, thunder and lightening, while the other en¬
joys a conftant ferenity. Whenblackclouds are gathered
about the mountains, they are followed by fudden rain,
which caufes the overflowing of the rivers, and choaks
them up with fand, infomuch that they are unnavigable
for fome time afterwards. The buildings and clothes
of the inhabitants are fcarce fufficient to defend them
from the weather. They live upon rice, milk, roots,
and herbs, with very little meat: they have likewife a
fort of fmall arrac, but are never given to drunken-
nefs; nor do they import foreign vices, for they never
travel abroad.
BALAGNIA, a town of Mufcovy in the province
of Little Novogorod, feated on the Wolga. E. Long.
45. $. N. Lat. 30. 36.
BALAGUER, a city of Catalonia in Spain, feated
on the north bank of the river Segra, at the foot of a
high mountain, on which there was formerly a fortrefs.
E. Long. o. 48. N. Lat. 41. 38.
BALAMBUAN, or Padambuan, a ftrong town
of Afia in the Indies on the eaft end of the ifland of
Java, and capital of a territory of the fame name. E.
Long. 115. 30. S. Lat. 7. 50.
BALANCE, or Ballance, one of the fix Ample
powers in mechanics, principally ufed in determining
the equality or difference of weights in heavy bodies,
and confequently their maffes or quantities of matter.
The balance is of two kinds ; the ancient, and the
modern. The ancient, or Roman, called alfo the Jla-
tera Romana, or fteel-yard, confifts of a lever or beam,
moveable on a centre, and fufpended near one of its
extremities : the bodies to be weighed are applied on
one fide of the centre; and their weight is (hewn by
the divifion marked on the beam, where the weight,
which is moveable along the lever, keeps the fteel-yard
in equilibria. This balance is ftill frequently ufed in
weighing heavy bodies.
The modern balance now generally ufed confifts of
a lever or beam fufpended exa&ly in the middle, ha¬
ving feales or bafons hung to each extremity. The lever
6 F is
Balagate
Balance.
B A I
B A L [ 966 ]
Balance. ;s called the jagum or beam; and the two moieties
thereof on each fide the axis, the brachia or arms.
The line on which the beam^turns, or which divides
its brachia, is called the axis; and, when confidered
with regard to the length of the brachia, is efteemed
a point only, and called the centre of the balance : the
handle whereby it is held, or by which the v/hole ap¬
paratus is fufpended, is called trutina ; and the flender
part 'perpendicular to the beam, whereby either the
equilibrium or preponderancy of bodies is indicated,
Plate LV. is called the tongue of the balance. Thus in fig. 4. a £
is the beam, divided into two equal brachia or arms by
the white fpot in the centre, which is the axis or centre
of the balance, and c is the tongue. The trutina, on
which the axis is fufpended, is not reprefented in this
figure, in order to render the other parts more confpi-
cuous.
It follows, from what has been obferved, therefore,
that in the Roman balance, the weight ufed for a coun-
terpoife is the fame, but the points of application varies;
in the common balance the counterpoife is various, and
the point of application the fame. The principle on
which each is founded, may be very eafily underftood
from the following obfervations, and the general pro¬
perties of the lever. See Lever.
The beam AB, fig. 7. is a lever of the firft kind ;
but, inftead of refting on a fulcrum, is fufpended by
fomething faftened to its centre of motion: confequently
the mechanifm of the balance depends on the fame
theorems as the lever.
Hence as the quantity of matter in known weight is
to its diftance from the centre of motion, fo is the di-
ftance of the unknown weight to its quantity of mat¬
ter. Hence the nature and ufe of the fteel-yard is
eafily known. Let AB (fig. 7.) reprefent an in-
ftrument of this kind; a, the trutina or handle on
which the beam turns ; kt a ring, on which the balance
may be fufpended on a nail, or hook; f the hook on
which the body to be weighed ishungj.e-, a collar
or guard by which the hook f\s faftened to the beam ;
g, a moveable collar ; h, a fwivel; /, the counterpoife.
. From what has been faid it evidently follows, that if
the body to be weighed be faftened to the hook f and
the whole fufpended by the ring the divifion on which
the counterpoife is placed to maintain an equilibrium
in the balance, will fhew the weight of the body re¬
quired ; provided the weight of the counterpoife i be
known, and the large divifions, /, 2, 3, &c. be equal
to the diftance between the centre of the balance and
the fcrew which faftens the guard c to the fliorter arm
of the balance. It will alfo be neceffary that the fteel-
yard itfelf, with its whole apparatus, exclufive of the
counterpoife, be in equilibria, when fufpended on the
ring k. If the body to be weighed be heavier than the
divifions on the longer arm will indicate, the balance
is turned the lower fide upwards, and fufpended on the
other ring b, by which means the divifions become
fhorter, becaufe the diftance between the trutina d, and
the fcrew on which the guard c moves, is lefs : the di¬
vifions in the figure on this fide extending to 17,
whereas they extend only to fix on the other. It will
be unneceffary perhaps to obferve, that the fame pre¬
caution, with regard to the centre of gravity when
the balance is fufpended, is alfo neceffary when this
fide of the balance is ufed, as we before mentioned
with regard to the other. Balance. ; |
We have already obferved, that in the common fcales 
the two brachia or arms of the balance, ef, eg, fig. 5.
are equal to each other, and confequently equal weights
placed in the fcales d, d, will be in equilibria when
the balance is fufpended on its centre e, as in the figure,
where the ring at the extremity of the trutina is hung
on the tapering rod a b, fixed in the foot or bails c.
The.DeceitfulV>AhAncz, or that which cheats by the * ij
inequality of its brachia, is founded on the fame prin¬
ciple as the fteel-yard. Let there be, for example, a
balance fo conftrudbed, that both the brachia with their
fcales lhall equiponderate, but that the length of the
one arm fhall be to that of the other as to to 9. In
this cafe, a weight of nine pounds put into the longeft
arm, will counterpoife one of ten pounds put into the
fhorter one: but the cheat is immediately difcovered
by ftnfting the weight from one fcale to the other; in
which cafe, the balance will no longer remain in equi¬
libria.
s4J[ay-T!>Ai.kHC£, a very nice balance ufed in doci-
maftical operations, to determine exa&ly the weight of
minute bodies. This balance fhould. be made of the
beft fteel, and of the hardeft kind; becaufe that metal
is not fo eafily fpoiled with ruft, as iron ; and it is more
apt than any other to take a perfedl polilh, which at
the fame time prevents the ruft.
The ftrudlure of the affayer’s fcale is little different
from that of common fcales, otherwife than by its
nicety and fmallnefs. The longer the beam of it is, i
the more exadt may the weight of a body be found ;
however, 10 or 12 inches are a fufficient length. Let
the thicknefs of it be fo little, that two drams may
hardly be hung at either of its extremities, without its
bending ; for the largeft weight put upon it feldom ex¬
ceeds one dram. The whole furface of this beam muft
be altogether without ornaments, which only increafe
the weight and gather duft, &c. The beam is fufpended,
in a fork, the two legs of which are fteel fprings joined
at top, but kept together below with a brafs pliant
clafp, parallel, and two lines and a half diftant from
each other. This clafp being taken off, and the legs
of the fork being ftretched out, the axis of the beam
may be put into two holes made for that purpofe at the
ends of the legs, or be taken away from them. Let a
very ftrarp needle be fixed in the head of the fork, Hand¬
ing perpendicularly downwards, if the fork is fufpended,
and fo long, as that it may almoft touch the top of the
tongue of the beam put into the fork when in equi-
librio. This needle is the mark of the equilibrium ;
and, that the artifts may be able to obferve this, the
legs of the fork muft be broader in that place, and have
an opening two or three lines wide; this fork may
be adorned at pleafure, provided the motion of the ba¬
lance is not hindered by fuch ornaments : then take two
fcales made of thin plate of filver, one inch and a half
in diameter, hanging on three fmall filk fixings, almoft
as long as the beam, tied together at top, with a filver
hook in form of an S, and hang them to the extremities
of the beam : a fmaller filver difti, or blued fteel, fome-
what lefs than one inch in diameter, belongs to each
of thefe fcales. You firft put into thefe dilhes, with a
pair of pincers, the bodies to be weighed, or with a
fpoon or a fmall ftiovel, when they are pounded, and
then you put them into the fcales ; therefore the fmall
di flies
B A L [ 967 ] B A L
t« {Balance, dirties muft be perfeftly equal in weight. Weufethem,
lip- ""that bodies maybe more conveniently put into and
taken out of the fcales, and that thefe, which are vaftly
thin, may not be bent or foiled, and thence rendered
falfe by wiping.
This balance is fufpended on a moveable brafs or
copper fupport, which confifts of a pedeftal, and of a
column fet upon it about 20 inches high, at the top
of which comes out at right angles an arm one inch
long. At the extremity of this arm, put a fmall pul¬
ley three lines in diameter, another at the top of the
column, and a third near the botom of it; all which
pullies muft turn very eafily on their axis. At the di-
ftance of one inch and a half below the upper arm, let
another arm one inch and a half long come out of the
column at right angles, having a hole through it two
lines long, a quarter of a line broad, and placed
perpendicularly below the pulley of the upper arm, to
receive a fmall plate, one inch and a half long ; and of
fuch breadth and thicknefs, as that it may freely move
up and down, and yet not have too much play within
the hole. This plate muft alfo have a fmall hook at
each extremity.
And as fuch a balance will hardly ftand ftill in the
open air, and becomes falfe when fpoiled with dull; it
muft be put, together with its fupport, into a fmall cafe
as reprefented in fig. 8. having glafles, a, a, a, at top
and all round it, that you may fee what is within.
Manner of u/ing the ajfay Balance.—Pafs a filk
firing over the three pullies of the fupport, and tie it
at its upper extremity to the fmall hook introduced
into the hole of the inferior arm ; then put the fupport
in the middle of the fmall cafe, and pafs the other ex¬
tremity of the filk firing below, through a hole bored
in the middle of the lower part of the frame, contain¬
ing the window in the forepart of the cafe, and fallen
it to a fmall weight of a cubic form. Sufpend the fork
of the balance on the inferior hook of the plate. By
I this means if you move backwards and forwards the
weight faftened to the firing, placed upon the top of
I the drawer jutting out beyond the forepart of the cafe,
the balance within is either lifted up, or let down. But
a you muft put the bodies to be weighed, and the weights
themfelves, in the fmall filver dirties ; and thefe, when
loaded, into the fcales, through the fide-windows, which
muft be opened for that purpofe. When any thing is
to be added to or taken out of them, you do it with the
fmall pincers; or, if it is powder, with the fmall fhovel
or fpoon : but you muft let the balance down every
time any thing is to be added or taken away, that the
fcales may reft upon the bottom of the cafe; and fhut
the windows before the balance is lifted up again, ef-
pecially if the air is not perfedtly calm.
Hydrojiatic Balance, an inftrument contrived to de¬
termine accurately the fpecific gravity of both folid and
fluid bodies. It is conftru&ed in various forms ; but
we (hall content ourfelves here with defcribing that
which appears of all others the moft accurate.
VCG, (fig. 6.) is the ftand or pillar of this hydro-
ftatic balance, which is to be fixed in a table. From
I the top A, hangs, by two filk firings, the horizontal
barBB, from which is fufpended, by a ring /, the fine
beam of a balance b; which is prevented from defend¬
ing too low on either fide by the gently fpringing piece
t xyz, fixed on the fupport M. The harnefs is annulated
at 0, to ftiew diftimSlly the perpendicular pofition of Balance,
the examen, by the fmall pointed index fixed above it.   
The firings by which the balance is fufpended, paf-
fing over two pullies, one on each fide the piece at A,
go down to the bottom on the other fide, and are hung
over the hook at v ; which hook, by means of a fcrew
P, is moveable, about one inch and a quarter, back¬
ward and forward, and therefore the balance may be
railed or deprefled fo much. But if a greater elevation
or depreflion be required, the Aiding piece S, which
carries the fcrew P, is readily moved to any part of the
fquare brafs rod VK, and fixed by means of a fcrew.
The motion of the balance being thus adjufted, the
reft of the apparatus is as follows. HH is a fmall
board, fixed upon the piece D, under the fcales d and
e, and is moveable up and down in a long flit in the
illar above C, and faftened at any part by a ferew be-
ind. From the point in the middle of the bottom of
each fcale hangs, by a fine hook, a brafs wire a dandae.
Thefe pafs through two holes m m in the table. To
thewireaJ is fufpended a curious cylindric wire, r sy per¬
forated at each end for that purpofe : this wire r s is
covered with paper, graduated by equal divifions, and
is about five inches long.
In the corner of the board at E, is fixed a brafs tube,
on which a round wire ^ / is fo adapted as to move nei¬
ther too tight nor too free, by its flat head I. Upon
the lower part of this moves another tube which
has fufEcient fri&ion to make it remain in any pofition
required: to this is fixed an index T, moving hori¬
zontally when the wire is turned about, and there¬
fore may be eafily fet to the graduated wire rs. To the
lower end of the wire rs hangs a weight L; and to that
a wire p », with a fmall brafs ball g about one-fourth
of an inch diameter. On the other fide, to the wire
a c, hangs a large glafs-bubble R, by a horfe-hair.
Let us firft fuppofe the weight L taken away, and
the wire p n fufpended from S : and, on the other fide,
let the bubble R be taken away, and the weight F fuf¬
pended at c, in its room. This weight F we fuppofe
to be fuflicient to keep the feveral parts hanging to the
other fcale in equilibrium; at the fame time that the
middle point of the wire />» is at the furface of the wa¬
ter in the veffel N. The wire « is to be of fuch a fize,
that the length of one inch fliall weigh four grains.
Now it is evident, fince brafs is eight times heavier
than water, that for every inch the wire finks in the
water it will become half a grain lighter, and half a
grain heavier for every inch it rifes out of the water :
confequently, by finking two inches below the mid¬
dle point, or rifing two inches above it, the wire
will become one grain lighter or heavier. There¬
fore, if, when the middle point is at the furface
of the water in equilibrium, the index T be fet to the
middle point a of the graduated wire r s, and the di-
ftance on each fide a r and a s contains too equal parts;
then, if in weighing bodies the weight is required to the
hundredth part of a grain, it may be eafily had by pro¬
ceeding in the following manner.
Let the body to be weighed be placed in the fcale d.
Put the weight X in the fcale e,; and let this be fo de¬
termined, that one grain more fliall be too much, and
one grain lefs too little. Then the balance being mo¬
ved gently up or down, by the fcrew P, till the equi¬
librium be nicely ftiewn at 0; if the index T be at the
6 F 2 middle
Balance
U
Balayan.
* See Watch
and Clock
Making.
B A L [ 968 ] B A L
middle point a of the wire r s, it fhews that the weights
put into the fcale e are juft equal to the weight of the
body. By this method we find the abfolute weight of
the body : the relative weight is found by weighing it
hydroftatically in water, as follows.
Inftead of putting the body into the fcale e, as be¬
fore, let it hang with the weight F, at the hook c, by
a horfe-hair, as at R, fuppofing the vefiel O of water
were away. The equilibrium being then made, the
index T ftanding between a and r, at the 36 divifion,
(hews the weight of the body put in to be 1095,36
grains. As it thus hangs, let it be immerfed in the
water of the vefl’el O, and it will become much lighter:
the fcale e will defcend till the beam of the balance reft
on the fupport z. Then fuppofe 100 grains put into
the fcale d reftore the equilibrium precifely, fo that the
index T Hand at the 36 divifion above a ; it is evident
that the weight of an equal'bulk of water would, in
this cafe, be exa&ly 100 grains.
After a like manner this balance may be applied to
find the fpecific gravity of liquids, as is eafy to con¬
ceive from what has been faid.
Balance of Track. That which is commonly meant
by the balance of trade, is the equal importing of fo¬
reign commodities with the exporting of the native.
And it is reckoned that nation has the advantage in the
balance of trade, which exports more of the native com¬
modities, and imports lefs of the foreign. The reafon
of this is, that, if the native commodities be of a greater
value than are exported, the balance of that account
muft be made up in bullion or money ; and the nation
grows fo much richer, as the balance of that account
amounts to.
Balance of a Clock, or Watch, is that part which
regulates the beats *.
Balance-TT/^. See Squalus.
BALANCER, in the hiftory of infers, a ftyle, or
oblong body, ending in a protuberance or head, found
under each wing of the two-winged flies ; thefe ferve
to poife the body of the fly.
BALANCING, among feamen, the contrafting a
fail into a narrower compafs, in a ftorm, by retrench¬
ing, or folding up a part of it at one corner : this me¬
thod is ufed in contradiftin&ion to reefing, which is
common to all the principal fails; whereas balancing
is peculiar to few, fuch as the mizen of a (hip, and the
main-fail of thofe veffels wherein it is extended by a
boom. See Boom and Reef.—The balance of the
mizen is thus performed : the mizen yard is lowered
a little, then afmall portion of the fail is rolled up at the
peek or upper corner, and faftened to the yard about
one fifth inward from the outer end or yard arm to¬
ward the mail. See Mizen.—A boom main-fail is
balanced, after all its reefs are taken in, by rolling up
a fimilar portion of the hindmoft or aftmoft lower cor¬
ner called the clue, and faftening it ftrongly to the
boom, having previoufly wrapped a piece of old canvas
round the part (which is done in both cafes) to pre¬
vent the fail from being fretted by the cord which faf-
tens it.
BALANUS, in zoology, the trivial name of a fpe-
cies of lepas. See Lepas.
BALAUSTIA, in botany. See Punica.
BALAYAN, a province of the ifland of Manila in
the Eaft Indies, belonging to the Spaniards.—It lies
next to the city of Manila, and extends along the coaft
on the eaft fide of the ifland, a little beyond the bay of
Batangas. There were formerly gold mines in it, but
they have been long fince abandoned. It is inhabited
by about 2500 tributary Indians, and abounds in cot¬
ton, rice, and palm-trees. The province is well culti¬
vated; and the Spaniards, generally fpeaking, have
country-hdufes in it.
BALBASTRO, an epifcopal town of Spain, in the
kingdom of Arragon, and capital of a diftridf of the
fame name. E. Long. o. 20. N. Lat. 41. 50.
BALBEC, a city of Afia, in Syria, anciently called
Heliopolis, and by the Arabians the nvonder of Syria.
It is now, however, remarkable only for its ruins *.
BALBINUS (Decimus Ccelius), the Roman empe¬
ror, being chofen by the fenate in 237, was maflacred
by the foldiers, who had a diflike to fuch emperors as
were elefted only by the fenators. This prince was e-
loquent, and wrote pretty good verfes.
BALBOA (Vafco Nugnesde), a Caftilian ; a cele¬
brated navigator, and one of the firft difcoverers of
South America. He was beheaded by the Spanifh
governor of St Mary, through jealoufy of his growing
reputation, in 1517, aged 42.
BALBUS (Lucius Cornelius Theophanes) was born
at Cadiz, and diftinguiflied himfelf by his valour in the
war carried on by the Romans in Spain againft Serto-
rius and the Lufitanians, on which account Pompey
gave him the privileges of a Roman citizen. He was
conful in the 714th year of Rome, and was the firft fo¬
reigner on whom that dignity was conferred. He was
the friend, of Pompey, Casfar, Craffus, and Cicero.—
There were many other illuftrious Romans of the name
of Balbus.
BALCONY, in architedture, a projedlure'in the
front of a houfe, or other building, fupported by pillars
or confoles, and encompafled with a baluftrade.
BALDACHIN, or Baldaquin, in architedlure,
a building in form of a canopy, fupported by pillars,
and frequently ufed as a covering to infulated altars.
Some alfo ufe the term baldachin for the (hell over a
door.
BALDINUCCI (Philip), of Florence; a con no if-
feur in the polite arts, and the continuator of Vafar’s
lives of the painters. He died in 1696, aged 72.
BALDIVIA, or Valdivia, a fea-port town of
Chili, in America, belonging to the Spaniards. It is
fituated between the rivers Callaculles and Portero,
where they fall into the fouth fea. . W. Long, 80. 5.
S. Lat. 40. 5. It was built in 1551 by the Spanifli
general Baldivia, from whom it takes its name. We
may judge of its importance from the fum granted
annually by the king for maintaining the garrifon, and
keeping the fortifications in repair, being no lefs than
300,000 pieces of eight. It is defended byfourftrong
cafHes, mounting 100 pieces of fine brafs cannon.
Notwithftanding which, however, as the garrifon is
compofed moftly of tranfported criminals, on whom no
dependance can be placed, and generally ill fupplied
with ammunition, &c. it could make but a poor de¬
fence. In 1643 it was eafily taken by the Dutch, who
would probably have maintained their conqueft againft
all the power of the Spanilh viceroy, had they not been
obliged to relinquifti it through ficknefs and famine.
The inhabitants of Baldivia amount to about 2000.
The
Baiba ft ro
II. 1
Baldivia.
» See JM-
I*late I/Vr
, *
B A L
Baldnefs The trade is lefs confiderable than formerly, becaufe
B"je the gold mines in the neighbourhood are ihut up ; yet
— fcveral large fhips are employed in the trade between
this port and that of Lima, which confifts of gold,
corn, hides, and fait provifions, which are exchanged
for flaves, fugar, chocolate, and European commodi¬
ties and manufa&ures.
BALDNESS, a defeft of hair, chiefly
put. It differs from alopecia, area, ophiafis, and tinea,
as thefe all arife from fome vice in the nutritious hu-
[ 969 1
B A L
born at Cove, near Dunwich in Suffolk, in the year
1495. At 12 years of age he was entered in the mo-
naftery of Carmelites at Norwich, and was thence fent
to Jefus-college in Oxford. He was educated a Ro¬
man catholic, but was converted to the Proteflant reli¬
gion by Thomas lord Wentworth. On the death of
lord Cromwell, favourite of Henry VIII. who protec-
the finci* ted him from the perfecutions of the Romifh clergy,
.,wi *:<— hg was obliged to retire into the Low Countries, where
he continued eight years. Soon after the acceffion of
mour; baldnefs, from the defefk of it. When the eye- Edward VI. he was recalled; and being firft prefented
lids fhed their hair, it is called aAmong the to the living of Bifhop’s-Stocke in Hampfhire, in 1552,
caufes of baldnefs, immoderate vent; y is reputed one he was nominated to the fee of Offory. During his re-
Ol the Chief ! nm P ere nfnallv Kri rvrrc 1* f r»n fi A.^ rtf'** V. LI~
of the chief: old age ufually brings it on of courfe.
Some will have the proximate caufe of baldnefs to be
the drynefs of the brain, and its fhrinking from the
fidence in Ireland he was remarkably affiduous in pro¬
pagating the Proteftant do&rines ; but to very little
purpofe, and frequently at the hazard of his life. Once,
nium; it having been, obferved, that in bald perfons in particular, they murdered five of his domeftics, who
there is always a vacuity or empty fpace between the were making hay in a meadow near his houfe ; and
fkull and the brain,—Calvus, bald-pate, was a frequent would probably have done the fame by him, if the fo-
term of reproach among the Romans; among whom vereign of Kilkenny had not come to his afliftance with
this defeft was in great diferedit. Hence divers arts to 100 horfe and 300 foot. On the acceffion of Qu^een
conceal it, as falfe hair, a galericulus contrived on pur¬
pofe. The later Romans, however, feem to have been
reconciled to baldnefs ; for we find among them a kind
of officers, or fervants, calledglabratores, or glabrarii,
whofe bufinefs was to take off the hair from all parts,
Mary, the tide of oppofition became fo powerful, that,
to avoid aflaffination, he embarked for Holland, but
was very unfortunate in his efcape. Firft; he was ta¬
ken by a Dutch man of war, and robbed by the cap¬
tain of all his effedts. Then, being forced by ftrefs of
even from the head. In an ancient infeription, ‘there weather into St Ive’s in Cornwall,°he was confined on
is mention of one Diophantus, TI. C^ESARIS fufpicion of treafon. Being however releafed after a
ORNATOR GLABR. that is, ornator Glabrarius. few days confinement, the Ihip anchored in Dover
■rat T»r\r' „   „r ur c i/l- • 1 1 , , 1 .
BALDOC, a town of Herefordlhire, in England,
chiefly noted for its trading in malt. W. Long. o. IO.
N. Lat. 51. 55.
BALDOCK (Ralph de), bifliop of London in the
reigns of Edward I. and II. was educated at Moreton-
college, in Oxford; became dean of St Paul’s ; was
afterwards promoted to the fee of London ; and at laft
was made lord high chancellor of England. He had a
road, where he was again feized on a falfe accufation.
After his arrival in Holland, he was kept prifoner for
three weeks, and at length obtained his liberty on pay¬
ing 30 1. From Holland he travelled to Bafil in Swit¬
zerland, where he continued till Queen Elizabeth a-
feended the throne. After his return to England, he
was, in 1560, made prebendary of Canterbury, pro¬
bably not chufing to return to his former flock of
very amiable charadter both for morals and learning; wolves. He died in November 1563, at Canterbury,
and wrote Hijloria Anglica, or An Hiftory of the Bri- in the 68th year of his age. He was fo fevere a writer
tifh Affairs down to his own Time ; and, A Colledtion againft the church of Rome, that his books are parti-
of the Statutes and Conftitutions of the church of St cularly prohibited in the expurgatory index publifhed
Paul. Bifhop Baldock died at Stepney, July 24. 1313. at Madrid, in folio, in the year 1667. He is theear-
BALDWIN, archbifhop of Canterbury, was born lieft dramatic writer in the Englifh language, or at leaft
of obfeure parents at Exeter, where, in the early part author of the firft pieces of that kind that we find in
of his life, he taught a grammar-fehool; after which '   
he took orders, and was made archdeacon of Exeter :
but he refigned that dignity, and became a Ciftertian
monk in the monaftery of Ford in Devonfhire, of which
in a few years he was made abbot. In the year 1180,
he was confecrated bifhop of Worcefter. In 1184, he
was promoted to the fee of Canterbury by Pope Im¬
print. Of his writings in that way, no fewer than 21
have been enumerated; only 3 of them, however, have
been feen in print, viz. 1. God’s promifes, an inter¬
lude ; 2. St John Baptift, an interlude ; 3. Concern¬
ing the laws of nature corrupted : the firft of which
has been reprinted by Dodfley in the firft volume of
his colle&ion of old plays, and the only copy extant
cius III. and, by his fucceffor Urban III. was ap- of the laft is preferved in St Sepulchre’s library in Du-
pointed legate for that diocefe. He laid the founda- blin. As to the reft, they are mentioned by himfelf, as
tion of a church and monaftery in honour of Thomas his own, in his account of the writers of Britain before
Becket, at Hackington, near Canterbury, for fecular mentioned.—He alfo tranflated the tragedies of Pam-
priefts ; but, being oppofed by the monks of Canter- ma/chius.—His other works are very numerous; but the
bury and the.Pope, was obliged to defift. In 1190 chief is his Catalogue of Britifh authors: a book of
he crowned king Richard I. at W^minifter; and foon fome merit, as it contains fome information which is
after followed that prince to the Ifoly land, where he
died at the fiege of Ptolemais. Giraldus Cambrenfis,
who accompanied him in this expedition, fays he was
of a mild difpofition, and of great abftinence. He
wrote various tra&s on religious fubjefts, which were
colle&ed and publilhed by Bertrand Tiffier in 1662.
BALE (John), biffiop of Ofibry in Ireland, was
not elfewhere to be found; but he has deftroyed his
credit by his intemperate Billingfgate abufe ofall thofe
who differed from him in religion. The authentic part
of his work is tranferibed from Leland. The title of
it is, lllujlrium Majoris Britannia: feriptorum catalogus,
a Japheto fanftijfimi Noah filio ad an. Dom. 1557.
BALE, in commerce. Any goods packed up in cloth,
and;
HAL [ 97° ] B A L
Bale and corded round very tight, in order to keep them of grafs. The Englifh, French, and Dutch, have fac-
II from breaking, or preferve them from the weather, is tories here ; but they are now of no great account.
Ea ifore' called a bale—A bale of cotton yarn is from 300 to E. Long. 85. 20. N. Lat. 21. 30.
400 weight; of raw filk, is from 10010400; of lock- BALISTES, in ichthyology, a genus of filhesbe-
ram or dowlafs, either three, three and a half, or four longing to the order of amphibia nantes. The charac-
pieces. ters are thefe : the head is flat; there are eight teeth
Bale-GW//, among the Engliih merchants, are in each fide, and the two anterior ones are longeft ; in
all fnch as are imported or exported in bales; but the the place of gills, the baliftes has an aperture imme-
French give that name to certain hard-wares, and o- diately above the pe&oral fins; the body is flat, the
ther forts of merchandize, which come to Paris, and fcales are joined together by the Ikin, and the belly is
are commonly made by bad workmen, of indifferent keeled. The fpecies of this genus are eight; viz.
materials. 1. The monoceros, whofe head-fin confifts of but one Plate LVI.
BALEARIC islands, the ancient name of the ray, and the tail-rays are carinated. It is called the ’
iflands Majorca, Minorca, and Ivica, in the Mediterra- unicorn-fifh by Cateiby; who informs us, that the guts
nean. See Majorca, &c. of this fiih are full of fmall fhells and coralline fub-
BALEY (Walter), the fon of Henry Baleyof Warn- fiances, which by the ftrength and hardnefs of itsjaws
well in Dorfetfliire, was born at Potfliam in the fame it is enabled to ground very fmall. Thefe fifli, he
county, and educated at Winchefter' fchool. From adds, are not eat, being accounted poifonous. They
thence he was fent to Oxford ; and, after two years moft frequent thofe feas, amongft the Bahama iflands,
probation, was admitted perpetual fellow of New col- where the corals are in greateft plenty. 2. The hifpi-
lege in the year 1550. Having taken his degrees in dus, whofe head-fin is uniradiated ; and there is a round
arts, he pra&ifed phyfic, and in 1558 was pro&or of black fpot in the tail-fin. The body is rough, and
the univerfity. About this time he obtained a pre- briftly towards the tail. The fpine or horn is fituated
bend of Wells, which he refigned in 1579. In the between the eyes; the fnout is fubulated ; and inftead
year 1561 he was appointed queen’s profeffor of phy- of a belly-fin, it has a jagged fharp fpine. This fpecies
tie, in 1563 proceeded doftor in that faculty, and af- is a native of Carolina. 3. The tomentofus, whofe
terwards became one of her majefty’s phyficians in or- head-fin, is biradiated, and the body of it towards the
dinary. He was thought fleilful in his profeffion, and hind part is hairy. It is a native of America. 4. The
had confiderable pra&ice. He died in 1592, aged 63 ; papillofus, has a biradiated back-fin, and a papillous
and was buried in the inner chapel of New college. His body. 5. The verrucofus, has a triradiated back-fin;
works are, 1. A difeourfe of three kinds ofpepper in com- and the tail is full of little warts. In the place of a
mon ufe, 1588, 8vo. 2. Brief treatife of the preferva- belly-fin, this fpecies has a large, thick, warty ray. It
tion of the eye-fight. Firft printed in the reign of E- has 25 fmall reverfed fliarp fpines at the fide of the tail,
lizabeth, in i2mo ; afterwards at Oxford in 1616, and difpofed in four rows. It is a native of India. 6. The
1654, 8vo. 3. Direflions for health, natural and ar- aculeatus has a triradiated back-fin ; and the fpines of
tificial; ’with medicines for all difeafes of the eyes, 1626, the tail lean upon each other. It is alfo a native of In-
4to. 4. Explicatio Galeni de potu convalefcentiurn et fe- dia. 7. The vetula, or old-wife, has a triradiated fig, 3,
nurn, &c. Manufcript, formerly in lord Aylefbury’s back-fin; the belly-fin is longitudinal, and fomewhat
library. carinated; and the tail-fin is forked. It is found at
BALI, an ifland of Afia, in the Eaft Indies, form- Afcenfion ifland. 8. The ringens, has a triradiated
ing the north fide of the ftraits of Java, through which back-fin ; there are three folds on each fide of the
the Eaft-India fhips fometimes return from China to head, and the tail-fin is forked. This fpecies is like-
Europe : but the paffage is commonly difficult on ac- wife found at Afcenfion ifland.
count of contrary winds. The ifland is extremely po- BALIVO amovendo, in law, was a writ for re-
pulous, and abounds in rice and other productions pro- moving a bailiff from his office, for want of having fuf-
per to the climate. The inhabitants are Pagans, and ficient land in his bailwick to anfwer the king and his
very warlike. E. Long. 115. 30. S. Lat. 9. o. people, according to the ftatute of Wettmintter, 2 reg.
BALIOL, or Balliol, (Sir John de), founder of Orig. 78.
Baliol-college, in Oxford, was the fon of Hugh Baliol, BALK, among builders, is fometimes ufed for the
of Bernard’s caftle, in the diocefe of Durham; and was fummer-beam of a houfe ; fometimes for the poles and
a perfon very eminent for his power and riches. During rafters, which fupport the roofs of barns, &c.; and
the contefts and wars between King Henry III. and fometimes for the beams ufed in making fea-holds.
his barons, he firmly adhered to the king. In 1263, BALK, or Balkh, a province of Great Bukharia
he began the foundation and endowment of Baliol-col- in Afia, about 360 miles long, and 250 broad, fitu-
lege, which was afterwards perfefted by his widow, ated to the fouth of the province of Samarkand, and
He died in the year 1269. to the eaft of Bukharia Proper. It is the leaft of the
Baliol, Balliol, or Boilliol, (John), the bro- three provinces that make up what is called Great
ther of Alexander king of Scotland, and competitor Bukharia; but being extremely fertile and well culti-
tid^Scs/3r* W^1 Robert Bruce for that crown *. vated, the prince draws a great revenue from it. The
Und. C0" BALISORE, a fea-port town of Afia, in the Eaft country particularly abounds with filk, of which the
Indies, to the north-weft of the bay of Bengal. It is inhabitants make pretty manufactures. The Uzbecks
about four miles from the fea by land, but 20 by the fubjeCt to the khan of Balkh are the moft civilized of
river; feated in a very fruitful foil producing rice, all the Tartars inhabiting Great Bukharia, owing pro¬
wheat, aromatic feeds, tobacco, &c. The inhabitants bably to their commerce with the Perfians : they are
make feveral forts of fluffs of cotton, filk, and a kind likewife more induftrious, and more honeft, than the
reft;
Balk
' fl
Ball.
B A L [ 97i ] B A L
reft ; but in other refpedts have the fame cuftoms with
the reft of the Tartars. The province is fubdivided
. into feveral counties ; the molt remarkable of which
are Khotlan, or Katlan, Tokhareftan, and Badaglhan.
Its chief cities are Balk, Fariyab, Talkhan, Badag-
fhan, and Anderab.
Balk, the capital of the abovementioned province,
fituated on the frontiers of Perfia, in E. Long. 65. 20.
N. Lat. 37. o. It is probably the ancient Badtra,
capital of the kingdom of Badtria ; and is faid by the
Perfians to have been founded by Kay-umarraz the
firft king of Perfia, becaufe he met his brother upon
the fpot where it ftood, after he had been loft for a
long time ; balkhiden, or balghiden, in the Perfic
language, fignifying to receive and embrace a friend.
The firft kings of Perfia who refided in the province
of Media or Aderbijan, confidered this city as one of
their principal frontiers on the fide of Scythia. In the
27th year of the Hegira, of Chrift 647, Balk was
reduced by the Arabs, under the command of Abdal¬
lah Ebn Amer. It continued fubjedt to Arab princes
till the year of the Hegira 432, of Chrift 1041; when
it was reduced by Togrol Beg, the Tangrolipix of the
Greeks, and prince of the Seljukian dynafty. It was
taken by Jenghiz Khan, A. D. 1221, who with his
ufual and unparallelled cruelty caufed all the inhabi¬
tants to be brought without the walls and mafiacred
without mercy. In 1369, Sultan Hofein the laft of
the race of Jenghiz Khan was driven from Balkh by
Tamerlane, whofe fucceffors were driven out by the
Uzbecks in the 15th century. It was afterwards re¬
deemed by Shah Ifmael Sufi ; but finally wrefted out of
his hands by the Uzbeck Tartars, between whom and
the Perfians it is the occafion of almoft continual wars. It
was, not long fince, the refidence of a khan of Tartars.
It is the moft confiderable city pofleffed in thefe parts
by the Mahometan Tartars, is large, well built, and
populous, the houfes confifting for the moft part of
ftone or brick. The fortifications confift of bulwarks
of earth, fenced without with a ftrong wall high enough
to cover the foldiers employed in defence of thofe for¬
tifications. As this place is the refort of all the bufi-
nefs tranfadled between the Indies and Great Bukha-
ria, trade flourifhes extremely at Balkh ; efpecially as
it has a fine river palling through its fuburbs, which is
of vaft fervice to the town. This river falls into the
Amu, in N. Lat. 38. 30. upon the confines of Great
Bukharia and Kowarazm. The khan’s palace, or
caftle, is a large edifice built after the oriental manner;
and confifts almoft entirely of marble, of which there
are fine quarries in the neighbourhood. The khan of
Balk, however, was obliged in 1739 to fubmit to the
Perfians under Khouli Kan ; but, fince that time, has
moft probably regained his independency.
BALKERS, in the fifhery, perfons placed on rocks,
and eminences at fea, to fpy the herring droves, and
give notice to the filhermen, by waving boughs, what
way they go, and where they may be found.
BALL, in a general fenfe, a fpherical and round
body, whether naturally fo, or formed into that figure
by art.
Ball, in the military art, comprehends all forts of
bullets for fire-arms, from the cannon to the piftol.
Cannon-balls are of iron ; mufquet-balls, piftol-balls,
&c. are of lead. The experiment has been tried of
iron bolls for piftols and ffifees ; but they arejuftly Balls.
rejefted, not only on account of their lightnefs, which  
prevents them from flying ftraight, but becaufe they are
apt to furrow the barrel of the piftol, &c.
Ball, in pyrotechnics, is alfo a compofition of va¬
rious combuftible ingredients, ferving to burn, fmoke,
give light, 8cc. In this lenfe we read of fire-balls,
light-balls, fmoke-balls, ftink-balls, Iky-balls, water-
balls, land-balls.
ivVe-BALLS, are bags of canvas filled with gun¬
powder, fulphur, falt-petre, pitch, &c. to be thrown by
the foldiers, or out of mortars, in order to fire the houfes
incommoding trenches, advanced polls, or the like.—
The Greeks had divers kinds of fire-balls, or nvj>otZt>x.<>i
\iSot; one kind called, more particularly, o-xv1x\ia, or
made of wood, fometimes a foot or even
a cubit long ; their heads being armed with fpikes of
iron, beneath which were hemp, pitch, and other
combuftibles, which being fet on fire, they were call
among the enemy. The preparations of fire-balls,
among the moderns, confifts of feveral operations, viz.
making the bag, preparing the compofition, tying,
and, laftly, dipping the ball. 1. The bags for this
purpofe are either oval or round. 2. The compofition
wherewith fire^-balls are filled, is various : To ten
pounds of meal-gunpowder add two of falt-petre, one
of fulphur, and one of colophony; or, to fix pounds
of gunpowder, add four of falt-petre, four of fulphur,
one of powdered glafs, half a pound of antimony, as
much camphor, an ounce of fal-ammoniac, and four
of common fait, all pulverifed. Sometimes they even fill
fire-balls with hand granadoes. 3. For tying the fire¬
balls, they prepare two iron rings, one fitted round the
aperture, where the ball is to be lighted, the other
near its bafe. A cord is tied to thefe rings in fuch a
manner, as that the feveral turns reprefent femicircles
of the fphere cutting the globe thro’ the poles : over
the cords, extended according to the length of the ball,
others are tied, cutting the former at right angles, and
parallel to each other, making a knot at each interiec-
tion : laftly, after putting in a leaden-bullet, the reft
of the fpace is filled with tow or paper. 4. Thus com¬
pleted, the fire-ball remains to be dipped in a compo¬
fition of melted pitch four pounds, colophony two,,
and linfeed oil or oil of turpentine two ; after dip¬
ping, they cover it round with tow, and dip again,
till it be brought to the juft diameter required.
jLigbt Balls, are fuch as diffufe an intenfe light
around ; or they are balls which, being call out of the
hand or a mortar, burn for fome time, and illuminate
the adjacent parts, x. Luminous or light-balls for
the hand, are made of ground powder, falt-petre,.
brimftone, camphor, and borax, all fprinkled with oil,
and moulded into a mafs with fuel; and this is wrap¬
ped up in tow, with a fheet of ftrong paper over it.
To fire it, they make a hole into it with a bodkin, into
which they put fome priming that will burn flow. Its
ufe is to be call into any works they would difcover in
the night-time. 2. For the larger light-balls, or thofe
to be thrown to a greater diftanee, they melt equal
quantities of fulphur, turpentine, and pitch; and
herein dip an earthern or ftone-ball, of a diameter ‘
much lefs than that of the mortar out of which the
fire-ball is to be call: then rolling it in gun-powder,
and covering it round with gauze, they dip it again.
B A L [ 972 ] B A L
Bail*, and repeat the reft till it come to fit the cavity of the
  — mortar ; laftly, they fprinkle it around with gun-pow¬
der. This, being once kindled, will ftrongly illumi¬
nate all around the place where it is thrown, and give
opportunity to examine the ftate and condition thereof.
Smoke or Dark Balls, thofe which fill the air with
fmoke, and thus darken a place to prevent difcoveries.
To prepare a darkening ball, make an oval or fphe-
rical bag, melt rofin over the coals, and add an equal
part of falt-petre not purified, alfo of fulphur, and a
fifth part of charcoal. The whole being well incor¬
porated, put in tow firft ftired, and fill the bags with
this compofition, and dip it after the fame manner as
a fire-ball.
.Sr/«/£-Balls, thofe which yield a great ftench where
fired to annoy the enemy. Their preparation is thus :
Melt ten pounds of pitch, fix of rofin, twenty of falt-
petre, eight of gun-powder, and four of colophony;
to thefe add two of charcoal, fix of horfe-hoofs cut
fmall, three of afia-fcetida, one of ftinking faracen,
and any other offenfive ingredients. The reft as in
the former.
S.fy-BALLS, thofe caft on high out of mortars, and
which, when arrived at their height, burfting like
rockets, afford a fpe&acle of decoration. Sky-balls
are made of a wooden ftiell, filled with various com-
pofitions, particularly that of the ftars of rockets.
Thefe are fometimes intermixed with crackers and other
combuftibles, making rains of fire, &c.
IVater-J^ALLs, thofe which fwim and burn a confi-
derable time in the water, and at length burlt therein.
Thefe are made in a wooden Ihell, the cavity of which
is filled with refined falt-petre, fulphur, faw-duft
boiled in water of falt-petre, and dried ; to which
fometimes other ingredients are added, as iron filings,
Greek pitch,, amber dull, powdered glafs, and cam¬
phor. The ingredients are to be ground, mixed up,
and moiftened with linfeedoil, nut oil, olive oil, hemp-
feed oil, or petrol. At the bottom is placed an iron
coffin, filled with whole gunpowder, that the ball may
at laft burft with a greater noife : and, laftly, the ball
is, by the addition of lead or otherwife, made of the
fame fpecific gravity with water.
/.iW-Balls are thofe which, being thrown out of
a mortar, fall to the ground, burn, and burft. there.
The ingredients are much the fame as in the ’water-
halls, only the fpecific gravity is not attended to.
Ball of a Pendulum, the weight at the bottom.
In fhorter pendulums, this is called the bob.
Ball, among the Cornifh miners, fignifies a tin-
mine.
Ball, among printers, a kind of wooden tunnel
fluffed with wool, contained in a leather cover, which
is nailed to the wood, with which the ink is applied on
the forms to be wrought off. See Printing.
/fc/ye-BALLS, among farriers. Horfes have a very
nice tafte ; it is therefore proper to give the more dif-
agreeable drugs in the form of balls, and to make
drenches of the more palatable. Balls fhould be of an
oval fhape, not exceeding the fize of a pullet’s egg ;
and ftiould be dipped in fweet oil to make them flip
down the eafier. Some horfes have a ttrait gullet,
which makes them very averfe to a ball being thruft
down their throats; fuch horfes had better have drench¬
es given them, or their medicines may be mixed with
bran, or in their mafliee. See Farriery,8»l!s.
Ball Vein, in mineralogy, a name given by the
miners of Suffex to a fort of iron ore, common there,
and wrought to confiderable advantage. It yields
not any great quantity of metal, but what it has runs
freely in the fire; it is ufually found in loofe maffes,
not in the for$ of a ftratum, and is often covered with
one or more crufts. It generally contains fome fpark-
ling particles; and is ufually of a»circular form in the
perfedt maffes, thickeft in the middle, and gradually
thinner as it approaches the fides. The ores of Suffex
in general are poor, but they require very little trouble
in the working ; fo that a confiderable profit is made
annually from them.
Ball and Socket is an inftrument made of brafs,
with a perpetual ferew, fo as to move horizontally,
vertically, and obliquely; and is generally ufed for
the managing of furveying and aftronomical inftru- |
ments. 1
iP«y'-BALL, the Englifh name of the lycoperdon *. •SeeLjwi-j
Martial Balls, in pharmacy, are a mixture of filings ^er 1
of iron and of cream of tartar, formed into a folid con-
fiftence and form of a ball, which is ufed to impregnate
water or other liquids with iron diffolved by the tarta-
reous acid. To make thefe balls, one part of filings of
iron and two parts powdered cream of tartar are mixed
well together, and put into an earthen or iron veffel
with fome water. This mixture is to be ftirred from
time to time, till it becomes almoft dry; and then it is
to receive more water, and to be ftirred as before. This
treatment is to be continued till it acquires, when nearly
dry, fomewhat of the confiftence and tenacity of foft-
ened rofin. Then it is to be rolled up into the form of
a ball, which is generally kept tied up in a rag; and
when-intended to be ufed, it is to be infufed in water,
till it gives fome colour to that liquid. The infufion
of martial balls is tonic, vulnerary, difeutient, and ape¬
ritive ; and is employed both internally and externally*. * Sec
Iron being foluble in all acids, is attacked in this pre¬
paration by the tartareous acid, which reduces it to a
kind of neutral fait not cryftallizable. This fait would
remain liquid, and would form a fqluble martial tartar,
called tartarifed tindure of Mars. If proper propor¬
tions of filings of iron and cream of tartar be ufed, and
treated long enough for an entire and complete com¬
bination, nothing would be obtained but a liquor or
magma, which could not be preferred in a folid form,
but would be continually moift. Therefore, in the mar¬
tial ball there is a good deal of the cream of tartar and
filings of iron not combined together, by which its fo-
lidity is preferred.
Mercurial Balls, in pharmacy, are an amalgam of
mercury and tin, fufficiently folid to be moulded, and
to preferve a given form. The method of making them
is by adding mercury to melted tin, and pouring the
fluid mafs into a round hollow mould.—Thefe balls are
employed to purify water, in which they are boiled ;
for which purpofe travellers often carry fome along with
them. Nothing, however, can be more pernicious than
fuch a pradtice, fhould the water contain any nitrous
acid, which it very often does.
Balls of Silk-’worms and Spiders, are little cafes or
cones woven of filk, wherein thofe infects depofit their
eggs. Spiders are extremely tender of their balls, which
they carry about with them, adhering to the papillae
about
B A L [9
>an about their anus. Grew mentions balls or bags of a
fpecies of filk-worms in Virginia, as big as hens eggs,
'  and containing each four aurelias.
Zoologifts fpeak of a fort of balls of hair covered
over with a fmooth Alining coat, pr (hell, found in the
ftomachs of oxen, cows, calves, horfes, fheep, and goats.
See the article Bezoar.
BALLAGHAN, a town of Ireland, in the county
of Sligo, and province of Connaught. W. Long. 9. 50.
N. Lat. 53. 48.
BALL AN, a town of France in the diocefe of Mons,
with the title of a marquifate, feated on the river Orne.
E. Long. o. 20. N. Lat. 48. 10.
BALLAD, or Ballet, a kind of fong, adapted
to the capacity of the lower clafs of people; who, be-
ing mightily taken with this fpecies of poetry, are
thereby not a little influenced in the condudl of their
lives. Hence we find, that feditious and defigning men
never fail to fpread ballads among the people, with a
view to gain them over to their fide.
BALLAST, any heavy matter, as Hones, gravel,
iron, &c. thrown into the hold of a fhip, in order to
make her fink a proper depth in the water, that fhe
may be capable of carrying a fufficient quantity of fail
without overfetting.
There is often great difference in the proportion of
ballaft required to prepare flips of equal burden for a
voyage; the quantity being always more or lefs, ac¬
cording to the fharpnefs or flafnefs of the (hip’s bottom,
which feamen call the floor.
The knowledge of ballafting a fhip with propriety,
is certainly an article that deferves the attention of the
. flcilful mariner: for although it is known, that flips in
general will not carry a fufficient quantity of fail till
they are laden fo deep that the furface of the water will
nearly glance on the extreme breadth amidffiips, yet
there is more than this general knowledge required ;
fince, if (he has a great weight of heavy ballaft, as lead,
iron, &c. in the bottom, it will place the centre of gra¬
vity too low in the hold; and although this will enable
her to carry a great fail, (lie will neverthelefs fail very
heavily, and run the ri(k of being difmafted by her vio¬
lent rolling.
To ballaft a (hip, therefore, is the art of difpofing
thofe materials fp that (he may be duly poifed, and
maintain a proper equilibrium on the water, fo as nei¬
ther to be too Jhjf, nor top crank, qualities equally per¬
nicious : as in the firft, although the (hip may be fit¬
ted to carry a great fail, yet her velocity will not be
proportionably increafed ; whilft her mafts are more
endangered by her fudden jerks and exceffive labour¬
ing: and in the laft, (he will be incapable of carrying
fail, without the rift of overfetting.
Stiflriefs in ballafting, is occafioned by difpofing a
great quantity of heavy ballaft, as lead, iron, &c. in
the bottom, which naturally places the centre of gra¬
vity very near the keel; and that being the centre a-
bout which the vibrations are made, the lower it is pla¬
ced, the more violent will be the motion of rolling.
Cranknefs, on the other hand, is occafioned by ha¬
ving too little ballaft, or by difpofing the (hip’s lading
fo as to raife the centre of gravity too high, which alfo
endangers the maft in carrying fail when it blows hard:
for when the mafts lofe their perpendicular height, they
ft rain on the (hrouds in the nature of a lever, which in-
Vol. II.
73 1 I'- A I.
creafes as the fine of their obliquity ; and a (hip that
lofes her mafts is in great danger of being loft.
The whole art of ballaftin^, therefore, confifts in pla¬
cing the centre of the gravity to correfpond with the
trim and (hape of the vefiel, fo as neither to be too high
nor too low; neither too far forward, nor too far aft;
and to lade the (hip fo deep, that the furface of the water
may nearly rife to the extreme breadth amidfhips; and
thus (he will be enabled to carry a good fail, incline
but little, and ply well to the windward.
Ships are faid to be in ballafl, -when they have no
other loading. Mafters of veflels are obliged to de¬
clare the quantity of ballaft they bear, and to unload it
at certain places. They are prohibited unloading their
ballaft in havens, roads, &c. the negleft of which has
ruined many excellent ports.—Ships and veflels taking
in ballaft in the river Thames, are to pay fo much a
tun to Trinity-houfe, Deptford; wdio (hall employ bal-
laftmen, and regulate them ; and their lighters to be
marked, &c. on pain of 10I.
BALLATOONS, large heavy luggage-boats ufed
for carrying wood by the river from Aftracan and the
Cafpian fea to Mofcow. Thefe will carry from too to
200 ton, and have from 100 to 120 men employed to
row and tow them along.
BALLENDEN (Sir John), a Scottifti poet, in
the reign of James V. of Scotland, was defcended from
an ancient family in that kingdom. His father, Mr
Thomas Ballenden of Auchinoul, was diredtor to the
chancery in the year 1540, and clerk regifterin 1541.
Where our poet was educated, we are not informed ;
but from one of his poems we learn, that in his youth
he had fome employment at the court of king James V.
and that he was in great favour with that prince. Ha¬
ving taken orders, and being created doftor of divinity
at the Sorbonne, he’was made canon of Rofs, and arch¬
deacon of Murray. He likewife obtained the place of
clerk regifter, but was afterwards deprived of that em¬
ployment by the fadtions of the times ; however, in
the fucceeding reign, of Mary, he recovered that office,
and was one of the lords of feffion. Being a zealous
papift, he, in conjun&ion with DrLaing, was extremely
affiduous in retarding the progrefs of the reformation;
till at laft, finding the oppofition too powerful, be quit¬
ted Scotland, and went to Rome* where he died in the
year 1550. He is generally efteemed one of the beft
Scottilh poets of that age. His works are, 1. The
hifiory and chronicles of Scotland of He dor Boeis ( Boe¬
thius), tranflatedhy Mr John Ballenden. Edinb. 1536.
This is not a mere tranflation, Ballenden having cor-
redted feveral miftakes of his author,, and made large
additions. It is in folio, and black letter. 2. Cofmo-.
graphy to the hijlory of Scotland, with a poetical proem.
3. A defer ipt ion of Albany. 4. Tranflation of Boethius's
defeription of Scotland. 5. Epiflles to king James V.
Bale fays he had feen thefe letters. 6. Several poems
in Carmichael’s colledlion of Scottiffi poems ; befides
many others in manufeript, in private libraries in Scot¬
land. 7. Virtue and vyce, a poem addrefled to king
James V.
BALLERUS, in ichthyology, the trivial name of
a fpecies of cypriuus. See Cyprinus.
BALLET, Balet, or Baletto, a kind of dra¬
matic poem, reprefenting fome fabulous adlion or fub-
jedl divided into feveral entries ; wherein feveral per-
6 G fon*
if
B A L [ 974 ] B A L
Ballet
, II
Ballifteum.
fons appear, and recite things under the name of fome
deity, or other illullrious chara&er.
Ballet is more particularly ufed for a kind of comic
dance, confiding of a feries of feveral airs of different
kinds of movements, which together reprefent fome fub-
jeft or aftion. They are performed chiefly by mafks
reprefenting fylvans, tritons, nymphs, fhepherds, and
the like ; and confift of three parts, the entry, .figure,
and the retreat. The word is of Greek origin, formed
from fSoLMuv, jacere, to caff, throw, or tofs; whence alfo
in writers of the middle age, we find ballationes for
faltationes, dancings; and bailor e, for fait are, to dance.
Ballet, in the Englifh poetry. See Ballad.
BALLIAGE, or Bailiage, in commerce, afmall
duty paid to the city'of London by aliens, and even
denizens, for certain commodities exported by them.
BALLICONNEL, a town of Ireland, in the county
of Covan and province of Ulfter. W. Long. 7. 45.
N. Lat. 54. 6.
BALLISHANNON, a large town of Ireland, in
the county of Donegal, or Tyrconnel, with a good
haven. W. Long. 8. 25. N. Lat. 54. 25.
BALLISTA, a machine ufed by the ancients for
fhooting darts; it refembled in fome meafure our crofs-
bow. The word is Latin, fignifyinga crofs-bow; and
is derived from the Greek, to Jhoot, or throw.
Vegetius informs us, that the balliita difcharged
darts withfuch rapidity and violence, that nothing could
refift their force : and Athenaeus adds, that Agiftratus
made one of little more than two feet in length, which
fhot darts 500 paces.
Plate LVI. fig. 4. reprefents the ballifta ufed in
fieges, according to the chevalier Folard: 2, 2, the bafe
of the ballifta 53,4, upright beams ; 5, 6, tranfverfe
beams ; 7, 7, the two capitals in the upper tranfverfe
beam, (the lower tranfverfe beam has alfo two fimilar
capitals, which cannot be feen in this tranfverfe figure);
9, t), two polls or fupports for {Lengthening the tranf¬
verfe beams ; 10, 10, two fkains of cords faftened to
the capitals ; 11, 11, two arms inferted between the
two ftrands, or parts of the flcains ; 12, a cord faftened
to the two arms; 13, darts which are ftiot by the bal¬
lifta; 14, 14, curves in the upright beams, and in the
concavity of which culhions are faftened, in order to
break the force of the arms which ftrike againft them
with great force when the dart is difcharged ; 16, the
arbor of the machine, in which a groove or canal per-
feftly'ftraight is formed, and in which the darts are
placed in order to their being (hot by the ballifta ;
17, the nut of the trigger ; 18, the roll or windlafs, a-
bout which the cord is wound; 19, an hook, by which
the cord is drawn towards the centre and the ballifta
cocked; 20, a ftage or table on which the arbor is in
part fuftained.
BALLISTEUM, or Ballistjea, in antiquity, a
military fong or dance ufed on occafions of vidlory.
Vopifcus has preferved the ballijieum fung in honour of
Aurelian, who, in the Sarmatian war, was faid to
have killed 48 of the enemy in one day with his own
hand. Mills, mills, mills, mills, mills, mills dscolla-
vimtis : Units homo mills, mills, mills, mills dscollavit;
mills, mills, mills vivat, qui mills, mills occidit. Tan-
tum vini habst nsmo, quantum fudit fanguinis. The
fame writer fubjoins another popular long of the fame
kind : Mills Francos, mills Sarmatas, fsmsl occidimits ;
mills, mills, mills, mills, mills Psrfas quserimus. It
took the denomination balliftsum from the Greek
jacio, or jafto, to call or tofs, on account of the mo¬
tions ufed in this dance, which was attended with great
elevations and fwingings of the hands. The ballijlea
were a kind of popular ballads, compofed by poets of
the lower clafs, without much regard to the laws of
metre.
BALLOON, or Ballon, in a general fenfe, fig-
nifies any fpherical hollow body, of whatever matter
it be compofed, or for whatever purpofes it be defigned.
Thus, with chemifts, balloon denotes a round Ihort-
necked veflel, ufed to receive what is diftilled by means
of fire; in archite&ure, a round globe on the top of
a pillar; and among engineers, a kind of bomb made
of pafteboard, and played off in fire-works, either in
the air or on the water, in imitation of a real bomb.
Balloon alfo denotes a kind of game fomething
refembling tennis. The balloon is played in the open
field, with a great round ball of double leather blown
up with wind, and thus driven to and fro with the
ftrength of a man’s arm, fortified with a brace of wood.
Balloon, or Balloen, is more particularly ufed,
among voyagers, for the ftate-barges of Siam. The
balloons are a kind of brigantine, managed with oars,
of very odd figures, as ferpents, fea-horfes, &c. but,
by their lharpnefs and number of oars, of incredible
fwiftnefs. The balloons are faid to be made of a fingle
piece of timber, of uncommon length ; they are raifed
high, and much decorated with carving at head and
ftern : fome are gilt over, and carry 120 or even 150
rowers on each fide. The oars are either plated over
with filver, or gilt, or radiated with gold; and the
dome or canopy in the middle, where the company is
placed, is ornamented with fome rich Huff, and furnilhed
with a balluftrade of ivory, or other coftly matter,
enriched with gilding. The edges of the balloon juft
touch the water, but the extremities rife with a fweep
to (a great height. Some are adorned with variety of
figures,nmade of pieces of mother of pearl inlaid: the
richer fort, inftead of a dome, carry a kind of fteeple
in the middle ; fo that, confidering the flendernefs of
thevelfel, which is ufually 100 or 120 feet long, and
fcarce fix broad, the height of the two ends, and of
the fteeple, with the load of decorations, it is a kind
of miracle they are not overfet.
Balloon, in the French paper-trade, is a term for
a quantity of paper, containing 24 reams.
Balloon, Ballon, or Ballot, in the French
glafs-trade, fignifies a certain quantity of glafs-plates,
fmaller or greater, according to their quality. The
ballon of white glafs contains 25 bundles, of fix plates
per bundle ; but the ballon of coloured glafs is only
of 12^ bundles, and of three plates to a bundle.
BALLOTA, white horehound ; a genus of the
gymnofpermia order, belonging to the didynamia clafs
of plants. It is a common weed growing on the fides
of banks in moft parts of England, as alfo in walk-
places near towns and villages in Scotland ; fo is fel-
dom admitted into gardens. The flowers grow in
whirls, upon branched peduncles, and lean on one fide
of the ftalk ; they are commonly of a dull red colour,
but fometimes white. It was formerly ufed in hyfteric
cafes, but is now fallen into difufe. The Swedes
reckon it almoft an univerfal remedy in the difeafes of
their
Balloon,;
Ballots.
B A L
Sallotade
Ipalfam.
[ 975 ]
B A L
tee Cheml-
\y, n° 79.
See Chemi-
y, 00498.
their cattle. Horfes, cows, fheep, and goats, refufe Prepared Balsam ; as Locatelli's, the Trauviatic, Balfamics
to eat it. &c. See Pharmacy, n° 432, 890, &c. _ |l
BALLOTADE, in the menage, the leap of a BALSAMICS. isaLatin word whichfig-  !,_UZe'_
horfe between two pillars, or upon a ftraight line, made nifies mitigating. The term balfamic is a very lax one ;
with juftnefs of time, with the aid of the hand, and it includes medicines of very different qualities, as e-
the calves of the legs; and in fuch a manner, that when mollients, detergents, reftoratives, &c. but in medicines Motherly't
his fore-feet are in the air, he fhews nothing but the of all thefe kinds there feems to be this requifite in MeL DiB.
fhoes of his hinder-feet without yerking out. them, viz. that they be foft, yielding, and adhefive,
BALLOTING, a method of voting at eledlions, alfo that by their fmallnefs they have a ready difpoiition
&c. by means of little balls ufually of different colours, to motion. Medicines of this tribe are generally re-
by the French called ballotes which are put into a quired for complaints whofe feat is in the vifcera; and
box privately. as they cannot be conveyed there but by the common
BALLS, or Ballets, in heraldry, a frequent road of the circulation, it follows that no great effe&s
bearing in coats of arms, ufually|denominated, accord- can be expe&ed from them but by their long continn-
ing to their colours, bezants, plates, hurts, &c. ation. Hoffman calls by the name of balfamics thofe
BALLUSTER, a fmall kind of pillar ufed for bal- medicines which are hot and acrid, alfo the natural bal-
luftrades. fams, gums, &c. by which the vital heat is increafed.
BALLUSTRADE, a feries or row of ballufters, BALSORA. See Bassora.
joined by a rail; ferving as well for a reft to the elbows, BALTAGI, among the Turks; porters, and hew-
as for a fence or inclofure to balconies, altars, ftair- ers of wood, in the court of the grand fignior; who
cafes, &c. See Architecture, n° 79, 80. alfo mount on horfeback, when the emperor rides out.
BALM, in botany. See Melissa. Part of them alfo, who, for that purpofe, muft be ca-
Balm, or Balsam. See Balsam. ftrated, keep watch at the gates of the firft andfecond
Balm of Gilead. See Opobalsam. courts of the feraglio. Thefe laft are called capigi, and
BALNAVES (Henry), a Scottilhproteftantdivine, their commander capigi pafcha.
born in the (hire of Fife, in the reign of James V. BALTIC sea, a great gulph between Germany
and educated at the univerfity of St Andrew’s. He and Poland ; from which run feveral other gulphs, par-
went afterwards to France in order to finilhhis ftudies; ticularly thofe of Bothnia, Finland, Livonia, and Dant-
and, returning to Scotland, was admitted into the fa- zick. It is remarkable that this fea neither ebbs nor
mily of the earl of Arran, who at that time governed Hows, and there is always a current fets through the
the kingdom : but in the year 1542 the earl difmiffed found into the ocean. It is generally frozen over three
him for having embraced the Proteftant religion. In or four months in the year. Yellow amber is found in
1564, he joined, fays Mackenzie, the murderers of plenty on this coaft.
cardinal Beaton; for which he was declared a traitor, BALTIMORE, a town of Ireland in the county
and excommunicated. Whilft that party were be- of Corke and province of Munfter, with the title of a
fieged in the caftle of St Andrew’s, they fent Balnaves barony. It is feated on a headland which runs into the
to England, who returned with a confiderable fupply fea, five miles north-eaft of Cape Clear. W. Long. 9.
of provifions and money: but, being at laft obliged 10. N. Lat. 51. 15.
to furrender to the French, he was fent with the reft of BALTZAR (Thomas), a native of Lubec, was an
the garrifon to France. He returned to Scotland about eminent mufical compofer, and efteemed the fineft per-
the year 1559 ; and, having joined the congregation, former on the violin of his time. He came into Eng-
he was appointed one of the commiffioners to treat land in the year 1658, and lived about two years in
with the duke of Norfolk on the part of queen Eliza- the houfe of Sic. Anthony Cope of Hanwell in Oxford-
beth. In 1563 he was made one of the lords of feffion, Ihire. He was the great competitor of Davis Mell,
and appointed by the general affembly, with other who, though a clock-maker by trade, was, till Baltzar
learned men, to revife the Book of Difcipline. Knox, came hither, allowed to be the fineft performer on the
his cotemporary and fellow-labourer, gives him the violin in England ; and after his arrival he divided with
charafter of a very learned and pious divine. He died him the public applaufe, it being agreed that Mell ex-
at Edinburgh in the year 1579. He wrote, 1. A celled in the finenefs of his tone and the fweetnefs of
trcatife concerning jujlification. Edinb. 1550, 8V0. 2. A his manner, and Baltzar in the power of execution and
catechifm, or confeflion of faith. Edinb. 1584, 8V0. command of the inftrument. Moreover, it is faid of
BALNEUM, a term ufed by chemifts to fignify a . the latter, that he firft taught the Englilh the pra&ice
veffel filled with fome matter, as fand, water, or the of fhifting, and the ufe of the upper part of the finger¬
like, in which another is placed that requires a more board. Baltzar was given to intemperance, and is faid to
gentle heat than the naked fire *. have Ihortened his days byexceffivedrinking: he wasbu-
BALSA, an ancient town of Lufitania in the Ager ried in Weftminfter-abbeyon the 2 7ch day of July 1663.
Cunasus ; now Tavira, capital of Algarva BALUCLAVO, or Jambol, a fea-port town of
BALSAM, or Native Balsam, an oily, refinous, Crimea on the Black Sea, where they build ftiips for
liquid fubftance, flowing either fpontaneoufly, or by the Grand Signior. E. Long. 35. 15. N. Lat. 44. 50.
means of incifion, from certain plants. There are a BALUZE (Stephen), a French writer, born in
great variety of balfams, generally denominated from 1631, and fometime librarian to M- Colbert. In 1693
the fubftances from which they are obtained *• he obtained a penfion, with the poft of dire&or of the
Balsam of Copaiba.'} c tvt. „ nr royal college, for writing the lives of the popes of A-
Balsam of Peru. { See Medica, 99, v^non . ^ whJch advf„tages he foon loft in the fluc-
Balsam «/7c/«. J ’ tuation of court-parties. M. Baluze is much more
6 G 2 noted
Balyur,
Balzac.
B A L [ 976 ] BA M
noted for collefting ancient MSS. and illuftrating them fubjefts ; The Prince; The Chriftian Socrates, &c.
by notes, than famed for his own compofitions. and many other pieces; all of which have been publifh-
BALYUR, or Baliur, a fea-port of Africa in the ed in two volumes folio,
kingdom of Dancali, about 14 hours journey weft from BAMBA, a province of the kingdom of Congo in
Babel-Mandel. It is remarkable only for being the Africa—It is fituated between the rivers of Ambrifi
landing place of the Abyffinian Patriarch Alphonfus and Loze ; the laft of which parts it from Pemba on
Mendez, with his Jcfuits and Portuguefe, on April 3d the eaft, and the Ambrifi from the province of Sogno
1724. The king who had received orders from the A- on the north. Along the fea-coafts it extends itfelf
byfiinian emperor to give them a proper reception, dif- northward to the river Lelunda ; and on the fouth to
patched his fon to meet them and condndt them to. that of Danda, which parts it from the kingdom of
him. The royal palace they found to confift of about Angola. The governors of this province bear the title
half a dozen of tents, and a fcore of huts, fenced about of dukes, and are always fome of the princes of the
with a thorn hedge, and fhaded by fome wild kinds of royal family. They are as defpotic and arbitrary as if
trees. Near the palace was a river, which was then they were really kings, notwithftanding the'care and
quite dried up, and no water to be found but what was pains their monarchs have taken to keep them within
digged for in the channel. . The hall of audience was due bounds. The foil of this province is very fertile ;
only a large tent about a mulket-ftiot from the reft. At and would produce all the neceflaries of life in great
the upper end was a kind of throne made of ftones and plenty, were the inhabitants but induftrious in its cul-
clay, covered with a carpet, and two velvet culhions. tivation. The fea-coafts produce a vaft quantity of fait.
At the other end was his majefty’s horfe, with the fad- which could be purified with little trouble, and would
die and other accoutrements hanging on one fide ; it yield an extraordinary revenue if the duties were duly
being the cuftom of this country for the mafter and paid; but theie the governors find means to finkmoftly
horfe to lie together, whether king or fubjedl. A- into their own coffers.— Here is alfo the fiihery of the
round the hall were about 50 young men fitting crofs- zimbis, or little fea-fnail, whofe ihell is the current
legged; and when the Portuguefe ambafiadors were coin, not only in this and the neighbouring kingdom,
admitted, they were made to i;t down in the fame po- but alfo in the molt diftant parts of Africa. Here arc
fture. Soon after came the king preceded by fome of alfo faid to be mines of gold, filver, quickfilver, cop-
his domellics, one having an earthen pitcher full of per, tin, and iron; but none except the iron mines are
hydromel, another a cup made of porcelane, a third allowed to be worked.
carrying a cocoa fftell full of tobacco, and a fourth BAMBERG, a large handfome town of Franconia
bringing a filver tobacco-pipe with fome fire. Next to in Germany, and capital of a biihopric of the fame
them w'as the king, drefied in a light filk fluff, having name. It was formerly imperial, but is now fubjedl
on his head a turban, from the rims of which hung a to the bifhop. The country about it produces plenty
parcel of rings nicely wrought, which dangled before of corn, fruits, and liquorice. It has an univerfity,
his face. He had in his hand a ftiort kind of javelin, founded in 1585; and is fituated at the confluence of
and was followed by all the chief officers of hia court the rivers Main and Reidnitz. E. Long. to. 15.
and houfehold. The refpeft paid him at his coming N. Lat. 50. 10.
in was by (landing on their feet, and fquatting down Bamberg, a town of Bohemia, fituated at the foot
again twice, after which they went forward to kifs his of a mountain. E. Long. 16. 50. N. Lat. 49. 53.
hand. BAMBOCCIO. See Laer.
BALZAC (John Lewis Guez de), born at An- BAMBOE, in botany, the trivial name of a fpecies
gouleme in 1595. Voltaire allows him the merit of of arundo *.—It is a plant which multiplies very much *
having given numbers and harmony to the French profe, by its root, from which fprings a ramous or branchy 1
but cenfures his (lyle as fomewhat bombaft. The cri- tuft, after the manner of the European reeds. The
tics of his own time gave him no little difquiet; and he Indian bamboe is the larged kind* of cane that is
gave them no little advantage over him by his fallies of known, It is of an extraordinary height and bignefs,
vanity, and fome particular propofitions which were when it bears its bloffom : each (hoot or cane is often,
a little dangerous. Mr Balzac, getting rid of thefe towards the bottom, of the bignefs of a man’s thigh,
difputes by his moderation, fettled at his country-feat; and decreafes gradually to the top, where it bears a
refined his ftyle and genius ; and got by his letters bloffom of flower, like our reeds, in their proper fea-
and other writings which he publiftied from time to fon. With thefe canes of bamboe the Indians build
time, the reputation of being the firft writer in France, their houfes, and make all forts of furniture, in a very
He was at length drawn from his retirement by the ingenious manner. I'he wood of thefe canes is fo hard
hopes of making his fortune under cardinal Richlieu, and ftrong, that they ferve very well to make piles for
who had formerly courted his, friendffiip ; but in a few fupporting their little houfes, built over rivers, which
years he retired again, difguiled with the flaviflr de- have a gentle courfe, as if it were over (lanting waters,
pendence of a court life. All he obtained from the They alfo make with this wood all forts of utenfils for
court was a penfion of 2000 livres, with the titles of their kitchens and tables. The thickeft bamboes ferve
counfellorof (late and hiftoriographer of France. He to make the (licks and poles with which the (laves or
died in 1654; and was buried in the hofpital of Notre other perfons carry thofe forts of litters which are called
Dame des Anges, to which he bequeathed 12,000 palanquins, and are fo common in ufe and fo conve-
livres. He left an eftate of too franks per ann. for a nient in all the eaft. They likewife make of that wood
gold medal to be bellowed every two years for the bed a kind of pails, in which the water keeps extremely
difcourfe on fome moral fubjedl.—Befides his letters, he cool. The walking-canes which we fee in Europe, are
wrote a work called Oeuvres Diverfes, i. e. on various the firft and fmalleft (hoots of the bambocs.—The Ma-
lays.
Bi.mba-f
I! f
Bamboe;
B A M [ 977 ] BAM
jiJamboe, lays, and thofe Chinefe who are difperfed in the Mo-
fjambuck. ]uccas ancj sun(la Jfles> ufe the young fmall fhoots of
the bamboes preferved in vinegar after their manner,
with very ftrong peppered ingredients. This they call
achiar bamboe. For they give the name of achiar to
all that is preferved in vinegar ; and, to diftinguifh it,
J they add to that name of acbiar that of the thing pre-
1 J]Ckia ^erve^ *•—Two pieces of bamboe of a certain bignefs,
j c iar' being rubbed hard againd each other after a certain
manner, will produce fire ; and, when the Indians can¬
not get any by other means, they obtain it that way.
Bamboe-Habit; a Chinefe contrivance by which a
perfon who does not know how to fwim may eafily
keep himfelf above water. The following account of
it is from a letter to the author of the Seaman's Pre-
fervative. “ In the year 1730, I was paflenger in a
(hip from Batavia to China, burden about 400 tons,
called the Pridae, Francifco Xavier commander, freight¬
ed by Englilh, Chinefe, and Portuguefe. Near the
coaft of China we met one of thofe ftorms called a
Tuftoon, (Tau fong) or a great wind, which carried
away all our mafts, bowfprit, and rudder ; and in our
hold we had fix feet of water, expediting every mo¬
ment the Ihip would founder.—We confequently were
confulting our prefervation: the Engliih and Portu¬
guefe ftood in their Ihirts only, ready to be thrown off;
but the Chinefe merchants came upon deck, not in a
cork-jacket, but I will call it a batnboe-kabit, which
had lain ready in their chefts againft fuch dangers; and
it was thus conftrudted; four bamboes, two before,
and two behind their bodies, were placed horizontally,
and projected about 28 inches. Thefe were croffed on
each fide by two others, and the whole properly fe-
cured, leaving a fpace for their body ; fo that they had
only to put it over their heads, and tie the fame fe-
curely, which was done in two minutes, and we were
fatisfied they could not poffibly fink.” The fhape is
BAMBUCK, a country of Africa, of which the
following account is given by the Abbe Raynal, on
the credit of a modern traveller whom he does not
name. “ In the interior parts of Africa, under the
12th or 13th degree of north latitude, there is, fays a
modern traveller, a pretty large country, known by
the name 0$Bambuck. It is not fubje& to a particular
king; but governed by village lords, called farims.
Thefe hereditary and independent chiefs are all ob¬
liged to unite for the defence of the ftate, when it is
either attacked as a community, or only in one of its
branches.
“ The territory of this ariftocratical ftate is dry and
barren. It produces neither maize, rice, nor pulfe.
The infupportable heat it is fubjeft to, proceeds in
part from its being furrounded by high mountains,
which prevent the wind from refreftiing the air. The
climate is as unwholefome as it is difagreeable; vapours,
which continually iffue from the bowels of a foil replete
with minerals, render this country unfit to live in, efpe-
cially to ftrangers.
“ It is gold that hath made this miferable country
an object worthy of notice : gold, which in the eyes of
the covetous man feems to compenfate for all the evils
of nature, tho’ in reality it increafes them all. This
metal is fo common in this country, that it is found
almoft indifcriminately every where. To obtain it,
fometimes it is fufficient to fcrape the furface of the
earth, which is clayifti, light, and mixed with fand.
When the mine is very rich, it is digged only to the
depth of a few feet, and never deeper ; though it has
been obferved, that the lower it was digged, the more
gold the foil afforded. The miners are too indolent to
purfue a toil which conftantly becomes more tedious,
and too ignorant to perceive the inconveniences it
would be attended with. Their negligence and their
folly are in this inftance fo extraordinary, that in wa(h-
ing the gold, in order to feparate it from the earth,
they only preferve the larger pieces : the light parts
pafs away with the water, which flows down an in¬
clined plain.
“ The inhabitants of Bambuck do not work thefe
mines at all times, nor are they at liberty to do it
when they pleafe. They are obliged to wait till pri¬
vate or public wants determine the farims to grant this
permiflion. When it is proclaimed, all who are able
to avail themfelves of this advantage meet at the ap¬
pointed place. When their work is finiflied, a divifion
is made. Flalf of the gold goes to the lord, and the
remainder is equally diftributed among the labourers.
Thofe who want gold at any other time than that of
the general digging, feareh for it in the beds of the ri¬
vers, where it is very common.
“ The French and Englifti have fucceffively been
defirousof appropriating to themfelves thefe real or ima¬
ginary riches. Some thought they could reach this
country by the Niger, others by the S-iam. Far from
having fucceeded in their attempts of becoming mafters
of this country, they have not yet afeertained its ex-
iftence. The unfuccefsfulnefs of paft efforts hath re¬
doubled the activity of fanguine minds : fenfible and
judicious merchants have chofen to limit themfeives to
a commerce much more important, which is that of
flaves.”
BAMFF, a (hire of Scotland, comprehending part
of-Buchan, with the countries of Strathdovern, Boyn,
Enzie, Strathaven, and Balvenie, extends 32 miles
from eaft to weft, and 13 in breadth from north to
fouth. On the fouth, it is feparated from part of Bu¬
chan by the rivpr Ugie; on the eaft, it is watered by
the Dovern and the German ocean ; on the weft, it is
bounded by the Spey and the country of Murray ; on
the fouth-weft, it borders on Badenoch and the Braes
of Mar ; and on the north, it is confined by the Mur¬
ray Frith. The face of the country is agreeably di-
verfified with hill and dale, not without woods, well
watered with rivers, and exhibiting many feats and
plantations. The air is pure and keen, the climate
healthy, and the foil fertile, producing plentiful crops
BAM [ 978 ] BAN
of corn. The country of Buchan, extending north-
wards from the river Ugie to the fea, and weftward as
far as Dovern, comprehending a tract of 20 miles in
length, and nine in breadth, is more free from hills
and mountains than any other country of the fame ex¬
tent in the kingdom of Scotland. It is inhabited chief¬
ly by Lowlanders, and gives the title of Earl to the
chief of the family of Erfkine. The country of Bamff
abounds with the neceffaries and comforts of life. The
pafture-grounds yield fheep, cattle, and horfes: the
arable lands produce plenty of corn; while the rivers
and fea fupply great quantities of,fi(h. Various mine¬
rals have been found in different parts of the (hire ; and
a piece of amber, as large as a horfe, was once cafl a-
fhore on the beach. In the mountainous diftrift of
Balvenie, on the weftern fide of the (hire, watered by
the Spey, there is a noted rock, which produces hones
and whet-ftones fufficient to fupply the whole ifland.
Here are alfo veins of allum-ftone, and fprings of al-
lum-water. Strathallan, another diftrid to the north-
eaft of Balvenie, abounds with fuch plenty of lime-
ftone, that the inhabitants ufe it as common ftone in
building their houfes; and moreover burn a great quan¬
tity of into lime, which they fell to good advantage in
the village of Keith, on the river Dovern. Along this
whole coaft, there are ancient Danifh monuments, fuch
as cairns, tumuli, and huge ftones Handing ered. In
Strathaven, a hilly country, lying along the limpid
river Avin, which falls into the Spey, we meet with
Gordon caftle, belonging to the duke of Gordon, the
moft princely edifice in the north of Scotland, confift-
ing of noble apartments, magnificently furnifhed, and
environed with fine gardens and parks, well ftored with
fallow-deer. The fame nobleman pofTeffes feveral other
feats in this county.
Bamff, the capital of the (hire of that name in
Scotland. It is feated at the mouth of the river Do¬
vern, but has no harbour, and confequently little trade
except for corn and falmon. W. Long. 2. 5* N. Lat.
57. 40.
BAMIYAN, a city of Afia, fituated in the pro¬
vince of Zableftan, 10 days journey from Balkh, and
eight from Gozna. It is remarkable only for its
dreadful cataftrophe when taken by Jenghiz Khan in
1221. At that time the city belonged to fultan Jalal-
lodin, the latl of the famous Mahmud Gazni’s race.
Jenghiz Khan was at that time about to attack Gazna,
that prince’s capital; but was Hopped by the garrifon
of Gazna, which he had hoped would give him no
trouble. In this, however, he was difappointed. The
people had for a long time expefted an attack; and had
therefore ruined the country for five or fix leagues
round, while the peafants had carried away the Hones,
and every thing that could be of ufe to the befiegers.
Accordingly, Jenghiz Khan having erected wooden
towers, and planted his engines upon them, was in a
Ihort time obliged to give over his attacks till millHones
and other materials could be brought from a great di-
Hance. The walls of the city were very Hrong, fo that
the engines of the Moguls made but little impreffion ;
and the garrifon making frequent and furious fallies
cut off whole fquadrons of their enemies, and frequent¬
ly overthrew their towers and engines. This exceed¬
ingly chagrined Jenghiz Khan; who one day returning
from a fruitlefs attack, and hearing of the defeat of
one of his generals by Jalallodin, fwore to be revenged Bamptotr ■
on Bamiyan. This fury coH the life of one of his J
grandchildren; who expofing himfelf too much, to   
pleafe his grandfather, was flain with an arrow At
laff, however, by the numberlefs multitude of the Mo¬
guls, who continued the attacks without intermiffion,
the city was taken, after its walls had been ruined in
many places, and the braveH foldiers and officers of the
garrifon flain in its defence. The mother of the young
prince who had been killed, entering with the troops,
and more deferving the name of a fiend than a woman,
caufed the throats of all the inhabitants to be cut,
without excepting one. She even gave orders to rip
up the bellies of all the women with child, that not an
infant might be left alive. In fliort, to gratify the rage
of this inhuman monHer, the buildings were all levelled
with the ground; the cattle, and every living creature,
deHroyed; infomuch that the hardened Moguls them-
felvesgave this place the name of Maubalig, which in
their language fignifies the unfortunate city. A ftrong
caflle has fince been built out of its ruins.
BAMPTON, a town of Devonlhire, fituated in a
bottom furrounded with high hills. W. Long. 4. 25.
N. Lat. 51.5.
BAN, or Bans. See Bank.
Ban, in commerce, a fort of fmooth fine muffin,
which the Englifli import from the Eaff Indies. The
piece is almoH a yard broad, and runs about 20 yards
and a half.
BANANA-tree, a fpecies*_of the mufa or plan¬
tain. See Plantain.
BANARES, or Benares, a handfome town of
Afia, in the dominions of the Great Mogul, greatly
celebrated for its fanftity, and being the univerfity of
the Indian bramins. It is feated on the north fide of
the river Ganges, in E. Long. 82. 30. N. Lat. 26. 20.
BANBURY, a town of Oxfordffiire in England,
fituated on the river Charwell, in W. Long. 1. 20.
N. Lat. 52. o.
BANC, or Benca, in law, denotes a tribunal, or
judgment-feat: hence king's banc is the fame with the
court of king's-bench, and common banc with that of
common pleas *. * See King’s
BANCA, an ifland of Afia, in the Eaff Indies, be- Bench and
tween Sumatra and Borneo; from the firff of which it
‘s feparated only by a narrow channel. E.Lon.105.10.
13. 25.
N. Lat. 1
BANCALIS, a fea-port town on the eaff coaft of
the ifland of Sumatra, where the Dutch have a fettle-
ment. E. Long. 99. 7. N. Lat. 1. 5.
BANCO, an Italian word which fignifies bank. It
is commonly ufed to fignify the bank of Venice.
BANCOCK, a town of the kingdom of Siam in
Afia, with a fort, which was once in the poffeffion of
the French, but they were driven from it in 1688.
E. Long. 101. 5. N. Lat. 13. 25.
BAND, in a general fenfe, fome fmall narrow li¬
gament, wherewith any thing is bound, tied, or fa¬
ttened.
Band, in architefture, a general name for any flat,
low member, or moulding, that is broad, but not very
deep.
Band of Soldiers, in military affairs, thofe who fight
under the fame flag or enfign.
Band of Penftoners, a company of 120 gentlemen,
who
BAN
who receive a yearly allowance of )oo/. for attending
on his majefty on folemn occafions.
Band is alfo the denomination of a military order in
Spain, inftituted by Alphonfus XI. king of Caftile, for
the younger fons of the nobility •, vyho, before their ad-
miffion, muft ferve 10 years, at leaft, either in the army,
or at court; and are bound to take up arms for the ca¬
tholic faith againft the infidels.
Band, in furgery. See Bandage.
[ 979 1
BAN
BANDER-Congo, a fmall fea-port town in Afia,
feated on the Perfian Gulph. E. Long. 54.10. N. Lat.
19. o.
BANDERET, a general, or one of the comman- -
ders in chief of the forces.—This appellation is given
to the principal commanders of the troops of the canton
of Bern in Switzerland, where there are four banderets,
who command all the forces of that canton.
BANDEROLE, a little flag, in form of a guidon.
BANDA islands, the general name of five iflands extended more in length than in breadth, ufed to be
in the Eaft Indies, belonging to the Dutch. Two of hung out on the mails of veffels, &c.
them are uncultivated, and almoft entirely uninhabited;
the other three claim the dillinftion of being the only
illands in the world that produce the nutmeg.
If we except this valuable fpice, the iflands of Banda,
like all the Moluccas, are barren to a dreadful degree.
What they produce in fuperfluities they want in necef-
faries. The land will not bring forth any kind of corn;
and the pith of the fago ferves the natives of the coun¬
try inftead of bread.
As this food is not fufficient for the Europeans who
fettle in the Moluccas, they are allowed to fetch pro-
chandife to Banda,
This is the only fettlement in the Eaft Indies that
can be confidered as an European colony ; becaufe it
is the only one where the Europeans are proprietors of diftorted, turning either inward
lands. The company finding that the inhabitants of fide.
Banda were favage, cruel, and treacherous, becaufe "
they were impatient under their yoke, refolved to ex¬
terminate them. Their poffefiions were divided among
the white people, who got flaves from fome of the neigh¬
bouring iflands to cultivate the lands. Thefe white
people are for the moft part Creoles, or malecontents
who have quitted the fervice of the company. In the
fmall ifland of Rofinging, there are likewife feveral ban¬
ditti, whom the laws have branded with difgrace; and
young men of abandoned principles, whofe families
wanted to get rid of them: fo that Banda is called the
ijland of correftion. The climate is fo unhealthy, that
thefe unhappy men live but a flrort time. It is on ac¬
count of the lofs of fo great a number of hands, that
attempts have been made to transfer the culture of the
nutmeg to Amboyna; and the company were likewife
probably influenced by two other ftrong motives of in-
tereft, as their trade could be carried on with lefs ex¬
pence and greater fafety. But the experiments that
have been made have proved unfuccefsful, and matters
remain in their former ftate.
BANDAGE, in furgery, a fillet, roller, or fwath,
ufed in dreffing and binding up wounds, reftraining
dangerous haemorrhages, and in joining fractured and
diflocated bones.
BANDALEER, or Bandeleer, in military affairs,
a large leathern belt, thrown over the right ftioulder,
and hanging under the left arm; worn by the ancient of the bay of Carrick Fergus, oppofite to the town of
mufqueteers, both for the fuftaining of their fire-arms,
and for the carriage of their mufquet-charges, which
being put up in little wooden cafes, coated with lea¬
ther, were hung, to the number of twelve, to each ban-
daleer.
BANDELET, or Bandlet, in architedlure, any
little band, or flat moulding, as that which crowns the
Doric architrave.
congo
Bangue.
BANDITTI, perfons proferibed, or, as we call it,
outlawed; fometimes denominated banniti, or foris-
banniti.
Banditti, or Banditi, is alfo a denomination gi¬
ven to highwaymen, or robbers, who infeft the roads
in troops, efpecially in Italy and France. The term is
alfo applied to a fort of freebooters, who pillage in the
iflands of the Archipelago.
BANDORA, the capital of the ifland of Salfet, on
the weft coaft of the peninfula on this fide the Ganges.
T‘- feparated from the ifland of Bombay by a narrow
vifions from Java, Macaffar, or the extremely fertile channel, and fubjeft to the Portuguefe. E. Lon. 72.30.
ifland of Bali. The company itfelf carries fome mer- N. Lat. 19. o.
Bandora is alfo the name of an ancient mufical in-
ftrument, with firings, refembling a lute. See Lute.
BANDY-legged Perfons are fuch whofe feet a
r outward on either
BANE, (from the Sax. bana, a murderer), figni-
fies deftrudtion or overthrow. Thys, “ I will be the
bane of fuch a man,” is a common faying. So, when a
perfon receives a mortal injury by any thing, we fay,
“ it was his bane and he who is the caufe of ano¬
ther man’s death, is faid to be le bane, i. e. a malefac¬
tor.
BANGHIR, a town of Ireland, in king’s county in
the province of Leinfter, feated on the river Shannon.
W. Long. 8. 5. N. Lat. 53. 10.
BANGLE ears, an imperfe&ion in a horfe, reme¬
died in the following manner. Place his ears in fuch a
manner as you would have them Hand; bind them with
two little boards fo fall that they cannot ftir, and then
clip away all the empty wrinkled Ikin clofe by the head.
BANGIUS (Thomas), a Danifh divine, and an e-
legan Latin writer on the origin of languages and a
variety of other fubje£ls. He died in 1661.
BANGOR, an epifcopal city of Caernarvonfliire in
North Wales. In ancient times it was fo confiderable,
that it wat called Bangor the Great, and defended by a
a ftrong caftle; but it is now a very mean place : the
principal buildings being the cathedral, the biihop’s
palace, and a free fchool. W. Long. 4. 10. N. Lat.
53. 20.
Bangor, a town of Ireland, in the county of Down
and province of Ulfter. It is feated on the fouth ftiore
that name; and fends two members to parliament.
W. Long. 6. N. Lat. 54. 42.
BANGUE, a fpecies of opiate, in great ufe through¬
out the eaft, for drowning cares and infpiring joy.—
This by the Perfians is called beng; by the Arabs,
ejfrar, corruptly aj/eral, and ajfarth ; by the Turks,
bengitic, and vulgarly called majlack ; by the Euro¬
pean naturalifts, bangue or bange.—It is the leaf of a
kind
BAN [ 9S0 ] BAN
Bangae kind of wild hemp, growing in the countries of the
Banian I-evant > ^ differs little, either as to leaf or feed, from
- :ini:ins' our hemp, except in fize. Some have miftaken it for
a fpecies of althaea.
There are divers manners of preparing it, indifferent
countries. Olearius defcribes the method ufed in Per-
iia. Mr Sale tells us, that, among the Arabs, the leaf
is made into pills, or conferves. But the mofl diftiiift
account is that given by Alexander Maurocordato
counfellor and phyfician of the Ottoman Porte, in a
letter to Wedelius. According to this author, bangue
is made of the leaves of wild hemp, dried in the fhade,
then ground to powder; put into a pot wherein butter
has been kept; fet in an oven till it begin to torrify :
then taken out, and pulverized again ; thus to be ufed
occafionally, as much at a time as will lie on the point
of a knife. Such is the Turfkifh bangue.—The effe&s
of this drug are. To confound the underftanding ; fet
the imagination loofe; induce a kind of folly, and for-
getfulnefs, wherein all cares are left, and joy and gaiety
take place thereof. Bangue in reality, is a fucceda-
neum to wine, and obtains in thofe countries where
Mahometanifm is eftablifhed; which prohibiting the
ufe of that liquor abfolutely, the poor muffelmans are
forced to have recourfe to fuccedanea, to roufe their
fpirits. The principal are opium and this bangue.
As to the opinion among Europeans, that the Turks
prepare themfclves for battle by a dofe of bangue,
which roufes their courage, and drives them, with
eagernefs, to certain death; Dr Maurocordato affures
us, that it is a popular error: the Turks think they
are then going affuredly to receive the crown of mar¬
tyrdom ; and would not, for any confideration, lofe
the merit of it, which they would do, by eating the
bangue, as being held unlawful by their apoftle,
among other things which intoxicate.
BANIALUCH, or Bagnaluch, a city of Euro¬
pean Turky, the capital of Bofnia, upon the frontiers
of Dalmatia, near the river Setina. E. Long. 18. 20.
N. Lat. 44. 20.
BANIANS, a religions fed in the empire of the
Mogul, who believe a metempfychofis-; and will there¬
fore eat no living creature, nor kill even noxious ani¬
mals, but endeavour to releafe them when in the hands
of others.—The name of Banian is ufed with fome
diverfity, which has occafioned much confufion, and
many miftakes. Sometimes it is taken in a lefs proper
fenfe, and extended to all the idolaters of India, as
contradiftinguifhed from the Mahometans: in which
fenfe, banians include the bramins and other'calls.
Banians, in a more proper fenfe, is re [trained to a pe¬
culiar caft, or tribe, of Indians, whofe office or pro-
feffion is trade and merchandize: in which fenfe,
banians Hand contradiftinguifiied from bramins, cutlery,
and ’myfe, the three other calls into which the Indians
are divided. The four calls are abfolutely feparate as
to occupation, relation, marriage, &c. though all of
the fame religion; which is more properly denominated
the religion of the bramins, who make the ecclefiallical
tribe, than of the banians, who make the mercantile.
The proper banians are called, in the Jhafier, or book
of their law, by the name of Jhuddery; under which
are comprehended all who live after the manner of
merchants, or that deal and tranfaft fpr others, as brok¬
ers ; exclufive of the mechanics, or artificers, who
make another call, called ^yfe. Thefe banians have Baniank ^
no peculiar left or religion, unlefs it be, that two of *f|
the eight general precepts given by their legiflator
Bremaw to the Indian nation, are, on account of the
profeffion of the banians, fuppofed more immediately
to relate to them, viz. thofe which enjoin veracity in
their words and dealings, and avoiding all pra&ices of
circumvention in buying and felling.—Some of the
banians, quitting their pofleffion, ahd retiring from
the world, commence religious, alfume a peculiar habit,
and devote themfelves more immediately to God, under
the denomination of vertea. Thefe, tho’ they do not
hereby change their call, are commonly reckoned as «
bramins of a more devout kind; much as monks in the
Romifli church, though frequently not in -orders, are
reputed as a more facred order than the regular clergy.
The name banian imports as much, in the bramin lan¬
guage (wherein their law is written), as a people inno¬
cent and harmlefs ; void of all guile; and fo gentle,
that they cannot endure to fee even a fly or worm in¬
jured ; and who, when llruck, will patiently bear it,
without refilling or returning the blow.—Their mien
and appearance is deferibed by Lordf, in terms a little f Dlfcov-\
precife, but very fignificant : “ A people prefented Re!iS- Sa*\
“ themfelves to my eyes clothed in linen garments, ntan‘
“ fomewhat low defeending, of a gefture and garb, as
“ I may fay, maidenly and well nigh effeminate, of a
“ countenance ffiy and fomewhat eftrangedd’—Gemelli
Careri divides the banians into 22 tribes, all diffindl,
and not allowed to marry with each other. Lord affures
us they are divided into 82 caffs or tribes, correfpond-
ent to the caffs or divifions of the bramins or priefts,
under whofe difeipline they are, as to religious matters;
though the generality of the banians choofe to be un¬
der the direaion of the two bra-min tribes, the Vifal-
nagranaugers and Vulnagranaugers.
The banians are the great fadlors, by whom moft
of the trade of India is managed; in this refpefl,
comparable to the Jews and Armenians, and not be¬
hind either, in point of flcill and experience, in what¬
ever relates to commerce. Nothing is bought but by
their mediation. They feem to claim a kind of jus
divinum to the adminiftration of the traffic of the na¬
tion, grounded on their facred books, as the bramins
do to that of religion. They are difperfed, for this
purpofe, through all parts of Afia, and abound in
Perfia, particularly at Ifpahan and Gombroon where
many of them are extremely rich, yet not above
adling as brokers, where a penny is to be got. The
chief agents pf the Engliffi, Dutch, and French Eaff
India companies, are of this nation : they are faithful,
and are generally trufted with the calh of thofe com¬
panies in their keeping. They a£t alfo as bankers,
and can give bills of exchange for moft cities in the
Eaft Indies. Their form of contraft in buying and
felling, is remarkable ; being done without words, in
the profoundeft filence, only by touching each other’s
fingers: the buyer loofening his panierin, or girdle,
fpreads it on his knee, and both he and the feller ha¬
ving their hands underneath, by the intercourfe of the
fingers, mark the price of pounds, [hillings, &c. de¬
manded, offered, and at length agreed on. When the
feller takes the buyer’s whole hand, it denotes a thou-
fand ; and, as many times as he fqueezes it, as many
thoufand pagods, or roupees, according to the fpecies
BAN [981] B AN
| Banicr In queftion, are demanded : when he only takes the
| .11 . five fingers, it denotes five hundred ; and when only
one, one hundred : taking only half a finger, to the
fecond joint, denotes fifty ; the fmall end of the finger,
to the fii ll joint, (lands for ten.
BANIER (Anthony), licentiate in laws, member
of the academy of infcriptions and belles lettres, and
ecclefiafiic of the diocefe of Clermont in Auvergne ;
died in November 1741, aged, 69. He is principally
celebrated for his tranllation of the Metamorphofes of
Ovid, with hiilorical remarks and explanations; which
was publifhed in 1732, at Amfterdam, in folio, finely
ornamented with copperplates, by Picart; and re¬
printed at Paris 1738, in two vols 4to : and for his
Mythology, or fables of the ancients explained by hi-
ftory; a work full of the moll important information,
which was tranflated into Englifli, and printed at Lon¬
don in 1741, in 4 vols 8vo.
BANISHMENT, exile, among us is of two kinds:
the one voluntary, and upon oath ; the other by com-
See Exile; pnlfion, for feme offence or crime *. The former pro-
Ifo the ar- pcrly called abjuration, is now ceafed; the latter is chief-
deRights, 1 y enjoined by judgment of parliament. Yet outlaw-
°ii. par. 4. jng an(j transportation may alfo be confidered as fpe-
See Abju- cies of exile f.
ation and BANISTER (John), a phyfician and furgeon in
''tion^°rt~ t^e r€’8n <lueen Elizabeth, was educated at Oxford,
where, fays Anthony Wood, he (tudied logicals for a
time ; but afterwards applied himfelf folely to phyfic
and furgery. In 1573 he took the degree of bachelor
of phyfic; and, obtaining a licence from the univerfity
to praflife, fettled at Nottingham, where he lived many
years in great repute. When or where he died, is not
known. There was a long poetical memorial of him in
the church of St Olave, Silver-ftreet, London, which is
preferred by Stow. He was author of, 1. A needful,
new, and necejfary treatife of chirurgery, briefly compre¬
hending • the general and particular cur at ion of ulcers.
Lond. 1575, 8vo. 2. Certain experiments, ^ his own
invention. 3. The hiflory of man, fucked from the fappe
of the mojl approved anathomijls. See. in nine books.
Lond. 1578, thin fpl. 4. Cofiipendious ckirurgery, ga¬
thered and tranflated efpecia/ly out of IVecker, &c. Lond.
1585, !2mo. 5. flfitidotary chirurgical, containing va¬
riety of all forts of medicines, &c. Lond. 1589, 8vo.
His works were colledled and publilhed in 1633, 4to.
BANISTERIA, in botany, a genus of the trigynia
order, belonging to the decandria clafs of plants; of
which there are feven
Species. I. The angulofa, with a (hrubby climbing
ftalk, is a native of Jamaica. It twills round the neigh¬
bouring trees, raifing itfelf to their very top. It is
garnilhed with leaves as large as thofe of the bay-tree,
and of the fame thicknefs : the flowers are produced
in long fpikes growing at the end of the branches, and
are fucceeded by two or three winged feeds like thofe
of the greater maple. 2. The fulgens, with fmooth
oval leaves, is likewife a native of Jamaica and other
warm parts of America. It hath flender winding llalks
which rife five or fix feet high ; the flowers grow in a
round bui\ch at the extremity of the branches: they
are of a brownilh yellow colour; and are alfo fucceeded
by winged feeds, but fmaller, and with narrower wings,
than the former. 3. The bracliata, with climbing
diffufed branches, grqws naturally about Carthagena
Vol. II.
in South America. It fends out many branches which Bauiftem.
divide again into others, growing without order, and Sank,
become very bulhy upward, fending forth tendrils, by ’
which they fallen themfelves to the neighbouring trees
and mount to a great height ; thefe have lliff oval
leaves ending in a point. The flowers are produced
in loofe fpikes at the end of the branches, and are firll
of a gold colour, fading afterwards to a fcarlet. They
are fucceeded by feeds of the fame lhape with the for¬
mer; but flender, thin, and for the moll part Angle.
4. The laurifolia is a native of Campeachy. It hath
many irregular climbing flalks, which fallen themfelves .
to the neighbouring trees, and rife to a great height.
The leaves are heart-Ihaped, and hairy on their under
fide, where they have many tranfverfe ribs. The flowers
come out thinly from the fide of the branches; they
are of a pale yellow colour, and fucceeded by large
winged feeds which are double. 5. The aculeata,
with fpikes of flowers growing from the fides of the
branches, is a native of Tolu in New Spain. It hath
llrong woody llalks, -covered with an alh-coloured bark,
and divided into many branches garnilhed with winged
leaves, compofed of five or fix pair of fmall ones whitilh
on their under fide : from the wings of the leaves are
produced flender bunches of flowers growing in a race-
mus like thofe of the currant-bulh, and are of a purplilh
colour. They are fucceeded by broad winged feeds
growing eredl. 6. The bengalenfis is a native of the
Eaft Indies, as alfo of the warm parts of America.
It hath llrong woody llalks, which twine round the
neighbouring trees, and fometimes rile 20 feet high.
It hath oblong pointed leaves, like thofe of the bay-
tree, growing by pairs oppofite: from the wings of the
leaves the flowers are produced in loofe fpikes growing
upon long footftalks; they are of a blue colour, and
are fucceeded by flender winged feeds which fpread open
from each other. 7. The purpurea very much refembles
the fifth, and is a native of the fame country.
Culture. All thefe plants require to be kept in a
bark Hove, on account of their being natives of warm
climates. They are propagated by feeds, which mult
be procured from thofe places where they are natives.
The treatment of them differs in nothing material from
that of other hot-bed plants.
BANK, in commerce, a common repofitory, where
many perfons agree to keep their money, to be always
ready at their call or diredlion : or certain focieties or
communities, who take the charge of other people’s
money, either to improve it, or to keep it fecure.
The firll inllitutioii of banks was in Italy, where
the Lombard Jews kept benches in the market-places
for the exchange of money and bills; and banco being
the Italian name for bench, banks-took their title from
this word.
Banks are of two principal kinds. 1. One fort is I. Compa-
either public, confilling of a company of monied men, ny-banks.
who being duly ellablilhed, and incorporated by the
laws of their country, agree to depofit a confiderable
fund, or joint flock, to be employed for the ufe of the
fociety, as lending money upon good fecurity, buying
and felling bullion, difeounting bills of exchange,'&c.:
or private, i. e. fet up by private perfons, or partner-
finps, who deal in the fame way as the former upon
their own Angle flock and credit.
The greateft bank of circulation in Europe is the
6 II Bank
BAN
Bank. Bank of England. The company was incorporated by
' parliament in the fifth and fixth years of king William
Bank of and queen Mary, by the name of The Governors and
England; Company of the Bank of England; in confideration of
ment re u" t^le ^oan I>200>000 ^ granted to the government; for
fadon’s' Ym- which the fubfcribers received almoft 8 per cent. By
portance, this charter, the company are not to borrow under their
common feal, unlefs byadt of parliament; they are not
to trade, or fuffer any perfon ih truft for them to trade,
in any goods, or merchandize; but they may deal in
bills of exchange, in buying or felling bullion, and fo-
reign gold and filver coin, &c.
By an aft of parliament paffed in the 8rh and 9th year
of William III. they were impowered to enlarge their
capital ftock to 2,201,171!. 10s. It was then alfo
enafted, that bank-ftock fliould be a perfonal, and not
a real eftate ; that no contraft either in word or wri¬
ting, for buying or felling bank-ftock, fliould be good
in law, unlefs regiftered in the books of the bank within
7 days; and the ftock transferred in 14 days; and that
it (hall be felony, without benefit of clergy, to counter¬
feit the common feal of the bank, or any fealed bank-
bill, or any bank-note, or to alter or erafe fuch bills or
notes. By another aft pafled in the 7th of queen Anne,
the company were impowered to augment their capital
to 4,402,3431. and they then advanced 400,000!. more
to the government; and in 1714, they advanced another
loan of 1,500,000!.
In the third year of the reign of king George I. the
intereft in their capital ftock was reduced to 5 per cent.
when the bank agreed to deliver up as many exchequer
bills as amounted to 2,000,0001. and to accept an an¬
nuity of 100,000 1. and it was declared lawful for the
bank to call from their members, in proportion to their
interefts in the capital ftock, fuch fums of money as in
a general court fliould be found neceflary. If any mem¬
ber fliould negleft to pay his ftiare of the moneys fo
called for, at the time appointed by notice in the London
Gazette, and fixed upon the Royal Exchange, it fliould
be lawful for the bank, not only to ftop the dividend
of ftfch member, and to apply it towards payment of
the money in queftion, but alfo to ftop the transfers of
the ftiare of fuch defaulter, and to charge him with an
intereft of 5 per cent, per annumt for the money fo o-
mitted to be paid: and if the principal and intereft
ftiould be three months unpaid, the bank fliould then
have power to fell fo much of the ftock belonging to
the defaulter as would fatisfy the fame. After this, the
bank reduced the intereft of the 2,000,0001. lent to
the government, from 5 to 4 per cent, and purchafed
feveral other annuities, which were afterwards redeemed
by the government, and the national debt due to the
bank reduced to i,6oo,oool. But in 1742, the com-
panyengagedtofupply thegovernment with l,6oo,oool.
at 3 per cent, which is now called the 3 per cent, an¬
nuities ; fo that the government was now indebted to
the company 3,200,000!. the one half carrying 4, and
the other 3 per cent.
In the year 1746, the company agreed that the fum
of 986,8001. due to them in the exchequer bills unfa-
tisfied, on the duties for licences to fell fpirituous li¬
quors by retail, fliould be cancelled, and in lieu thereof
to accept, of an annuity of 39,442!. the intereft of that
fum at 4 per cent. The company alfo agreed to ad¬
vance the further fum of 1,000,0001. into the exche-
B A N
quer, upon the credit of the duties arifing by the malt Bank,
and land tax, at 4 per cent, for exchequer bills to be “
iflued for that purpofe; in confideration of which, the
company were enabled to augment their capital with
986,800!. the intereft of which, as well as that of the
other annuities, was reduced to 3-!- per cent, till the
25th of December 1757, and from that time to carry
only 3 per cent.
And in order to enable them to circulate the faid ex¬
chequer bills, they eftabliftied what is now called batik
circulation. The nature of which may be underftood
from what follows.
The company of the bank are obliged to keep cafli
fufficient not only to anfwer the common, but alfo any
extraordinary demand that may.be made upon them;
and whatever money they have by them, over and above
the fum fuppofed neceflary for the purpofes, they em¬
ploy in what may be called the trade of the company;
that is to fay, in difeounting bills of exchange, in buy-
ing of gold and filver, and in government fecurities, &c.
But when the bank entered into the abovementioned
contraft, as they did not keep unemployed a larger fum
of money than what they deemed neceflary to anfwer
their ordinary and extraordinary demands, they could
not conveniently take out of their current cafh fo large
a fum as a million, with which they were obliged to
furnilh the government, without either leflening that fum
they employed in difeounting, buying gold and filver,
&c. (which would have been very difadvantageous to
them), or inventing fome method that fhould anfwer all
the purpofes of keeping the million in cafti. The me¬
thod which they chofe, and which fully anfwers their
end, was as follows:
They opened a fubfeription, which they renew an¬
nually, for a million of money; wherein the fubfcribers
advance 1 o per cent, and enter into a contraft to pay
the remainder, or any part thereof, whenever the bank
fliall call upon them, under penalty of forfeiting the
10 per cent, fo advanced ; in confideration of which,
the bank pays the fubfcribers 4 per cent, intereft for
the money paid in, and | per cent, for the whole fum
they agree to furnilh; and in cafe a call fliall be made
upon them for the whole, or any part thereof, the bank
further agrees to pay them at the rate of 5 per cent,
per annum for fuch fum till they repay it, which they
are under an obligation to do at the end of the year.
By this means the bank obtains all the purpofes of
keeping a million of money by them; and though the
fubfcribers, if no call is made upon them (which is in-
general the cafe )> receive 6-J per cent, for the money they
advance, yet the company gains the fum of 23,500!.
per annum by the contraft; as will appear by the fol¬
lowing account.
The bank receives from the government f.
for the advance of a million - - 30,000-
The bank pays the fubfcribers who advance}
100,0001. and engage to pay (when called C 6,500
for) 900,000!. more * * * 3
The clear gain to the bank therefore is 23,500
This is the ftate of the cafe, provided the company
fliould make no call on the fubfcribers ; which they will
be very unwilling to do, becaufe it would not only lef-
fen their profit, but affeft the public credit in general.
Bank-ftock may not improperly be called a trading
Jlocky fince with this they deal very largely in foreign
gold
[ 982 ]
Bank.
BAN L 983 ] BAN
Bank, gold antJ filver, in difcounting bills of exchange, &c.
Befides which, they are allowed by the government
very confiderable fums annually for the management of
the annuities paid at their office. All which advantages
render a (hare in their flock very valuable ; though it
is not equal in value to the Eaft India flock. The
company make dividends of the profits half yearly, of
which notice is publicly given ; when thofe who have
occafion for their money, may readily receive it; but
private perfons, iTthey judge convenient, are permitted
to continue their funds, and to have their intereft added
to the principal.
This company is under the dire&ion of a governor,
deputy-governor, and 24 diredtors, who are annually
eledied by the’ general court, in the fame manner as in
the Eaft India company. Thirteen, or more, compofe
a court of diredtors for managing the affairs of the com¬
pany. The officers of this company are very numer¬
ous.
The (lability of the bank of England is equal to that
of the Britilh government. All that it has advanced
to the public muft be loft before its creditors can fu-
ftain any lofs. No other .banking company in England
can be eftablHhed by aft of parliament, or can confift
of more than fix members. It afts, not only as an or¬
dinary bank, but (as we have already feen) as a great
engine of date; receiving and paying the greater
part of the annuities which are due to the creditors of
the public; circulating exchequer-bills; and advancing
to government the annual amount of the land and malt
taxes, which are frequently not paid up till fome years
thereafter. It likewife has, upon feveral different oc-
cafions, fupported the credit of the principal houfes,
not only in England, but of Hamburgh and Holland.
Upon one occafion it is faid to have advanced for this
purpofe, in one week, about 1,600,0001. a great part
of it in bullion.
i| Icotch In Scotland there are two public banks, both at E-
ir anks, pu- dinburgh. The one, called The Bank of Scotland, was
l '*‘5 antl eftablifhed by aft of parliament in 1695; t^e other,
» ►rivate. caj]ed Yke Ji0yal Bank, by royal charter in 1727.
Within thefe twenty-five or thirty years there have
alfo been erefted private banking companies in al-
moft every confiderable town, and even in fome vil¬
lages. Hence the buiinefs of the country is almoft en¬
tirely carried on by paper-currency, /. e. by the notes
of thpfe different banking companies; with which pur-
chafes and payments of all kinds are commonly made.
Silver very feldom appears, except in the change of a
twenty-fliillings bank-note, and goldftill feldomer. But
though the conduft of all thofe different companies has
not been unexceptionable, and has accordingly requi¬
red an aft of parliament to regulate it ; the country,
notwithftanding, has evidently derived great benefit
from their trade. It has been afferted, that the trade
of the city of Glafgow doubled in about 15 years after
the firft ereftion of the banks there; and that the trade
of Scotland has more than quadrupled fince the firft
ereftion of the two public banks at Edinburgh. Whe¬
ther the trade, either of/Scotland in general, or of the
city of Glafgow in particular, has really increafed in
fo great a proportion, during fo (hort a period, we do
not pretend to know. If either of them has increafed
in this proportion, it feems to be an effect too great to
be accounted for by the foie operation of this caufe.
That the trade and induftry of Scotland, however, have
increafed very confiderably during this period, and that
the banks have contributed a good deal to this increafe,
cannot be doubted.
The value of the filver money which circulated in Smith's
Scotland before the Union, in 1707, and which imme- health of
diately after it was brought- into the bank of Scotland ^ookTr
in order to be recoined, amounted to 411 ,n 71.10s. qd. chap. it.
fterling. No account has been got of the gold coin;
but it appears from the ancient accounts of the mint of
Scotland, that the valueof the gold annually coined fome-
what exceeded that of the filver. There were a good
many people too upon this occafion, who, from a dif¬
fidence of repayment, did not bring their filver into the
bank of Scotland; and there was, befides, fome Englifh
coin, which was not called in. The whole value of the
fold and filver, therefore, which circulated in Scotland
efore the Union, cannot be eftimated at lefs than a
million fterling. It feems to have conftituted almoft the
whole circulation of that country; for though the cir¬
culation of the bank of Scotland, which had then no
rival, was confiderable, it feems to have made but a very
fmall part of the whole. In the prefent times the whole
circulation of Scotland cannot be eftimated at lefs than
two millions, of which that part which confifts in gold
and filver mod probably does not amount to half a
million. But though the circulating gold and filver of
Scotland have fuffered fo great a diminution during
this period, its real riches and profperity do not ap¬
pear to have fuffered any. Its agriculture, manufac¬
tures, and trade, on the contrary, the annual produce
of its land and labour, have evidently been augmented.
It is chiefly by difcounting bills of exchange, that Difcouniing
is, by advancing money upon them before they are due, of bills,
that the greater part of banks and bankers iffue their
promiffory notes. They deduft always, upon whatever
fum they advance, the legal intereft till the bill (hall
become due. The payment of the bill, when it be¬
comes due, replaces to the bank the value of what had
been advanced, together with a clear profit of the in¬
tereft. The banker, who advances to the merchant
whofe bill he difcounts, not gold and filver, but his own
promiflbry notes, has the advantage of being able to
difcount to a greater amount, by the whole value of his
promiffory notes, which he finds by experience are
commonly in circulation. He is thereby enabled to
make his clear gain of intereft on fo much a larger fum.
The commerce of Scotland, which at prefent is not
very great, was (till more inconfiderable when the two
firft banking companies were eftabliftied; and thofe
companies would have had but little trade, had they
confined'their bufinefs to the difcountiug of bills of ex¬
change. They invented, therefore, another method of
iffuing their promiffory notes; by granting what they
called cafh accounts, that is, by giving credit to the'Cafii-ac-
extent of a certain fum, (2000 or 3000I. for example), counts,
to any individual who could procure two perfons of un¬
doubted credit and good landed eftate to become furety
for him, that whatever money (hould be advanced to
him within the fum for which the credit had been gi¬
ven, (hould be repaid upon demand, together with the
legal intereft. Credits of this kind are commonly grant¬
ed by banks and bankers in all different parts of the
world. But the eafy terms on which the Scotch bank¬
ing companies accept of re-payment are peculiar to
6 H 2 them,
BAN [ 984 ] BAN
Bank, them, and have, perhaps, been the principal caufe, both
Advantages t^e great trade of thofe companies, and of the be-
from thefe; nefit which the country has received from it.
Whoever has a credit of this kind with one of thofe
companies, and borrows 1000I. upon it, for example,
may repay this fum piece-meal, by 20 and 30I. at a
time, the company difcounting a proportiqnable part
of the intereft of the great fum from the day on which
each of thofe fmall fiims is paid in, till the whole be in
this manner repaid. All merchants, therefore, and al-
moll all men of bufinefs, find it convenient to keep fuch
cafh-accounts with them; and are thereby interefted to
to the promote the trade of thofe companies, by readily re¬
banks, and ceiving their notes in all payments, and by encouraging
all thofe with whom they have any influence to do the
fame. The banks, when their cuftomers apply to them
for money, generally advance it to them in their own
promiflbry notes. Thefe the merchants pay away to
the manufa&urers for goods, the manufadiurers to the
farmers for materials and provifions, the farmers to their
landlords for rent, the landlords repay them to the mer¬
chants for the conveniencies and luxuries with which
they fupply them, and the merchants again return them
to the banks in order to balance their cafh accounts, or
to replace what they may have borrowed of them; and
thus almofi: the whole money-bufinefs of the country is
tranfadfed by means of them. Hence the great trade
of thofe companies.
By means of thofe cafli accounts every merchant can,
to the without imprudence, carry on a greater trade than he
country. otherwife could do. Jf there are two merchants, one
in London, and the other in Edinburgh, who employ
equal flocks in the fame branch of trade, the Edin¬
burgh merchant can, without imprudence, carry on
a greater trade, and give employment to a greater
number of people, than the London merchant. The
London merchant muft always keep by him a confi-
derable fum of money, either in his own coffers, or in
thofe of his banker (who gives him no intereft for it),
in order to anfwer the demands continually coming
upon him for payment of the goods which he purchafes
upon credit. Let the ordinary amount of this fum be
fuppofed L. 500. The value of the goods in his ware-
houfe muft always be lefs by L. 500 than it would have
been, had he not been obliged to keep fuch a fum un-
emjffoyed. Let us fuppofe that he generally difpofes
of his whole flock upon hand, or of goods to the va¬
lue of his whole flock upon hand, once in the year.
By being obliged to keep fuch a great fum unem¬
ployed, he muft fell in a year L. 500 worth lefs goods
than he might otherwife have done. His annual pro¬
fits muft be lefs by all that he could have made by the
fale of L. 500 worth more goods ; and the number of
people employed in preparing his goods for the market,
muft be lefs by all thofe that L. 500 more ftock could
have employed. The merchant in Edinburgh, on the
other hand, keeps no money unemployed for anfwcr-
ing fuch occafional demands. When they adftually come
upon him, he fatisfies them from his cafh-account with
the bank, and gradually replaces the fum borrowed
with the money or paper which comes in from the oc¬
cafional fales of his goods. With the fame ftock,
therefore, he can, without imprudence, have at all
times in his warehoufe a larger quantity of goods than
the London merchant; and can thereby both make a
greater profit himfelf, and give conftant employment Bank.
to a greater number of induftrious people who prepare
thofe goods for the market. Hence the great benefit
which the country has derived from this trade.
The late multiplication of banking companies in
both parts of the united kingdom, an event by which
many people have been much alarmed, inftead of di-
miniftiing, increafes the fecurity of the public. It
obliges all of them to be more circumfpeft in their con-
du&, and, by not extending their currency beyond its
due proportion to their caih, to guard themfelves
againft thofe malicious runs, which the rivallhip of fo
many competitors is always ready to bring upon them.
Itreftrains the circulation of each particular company
within a narrower circle, and reduces their circulating
notes to a fmaller number. By dividing the whole cir¬
culation into a greater number of parts, the failure of
any one company, an accident which, in the courfe of
things, muft fometimes happen, becomes of lefs con-
fequence to the public. This free competition too
obliges all bankers to be more liberal in their dealings
with their cuftomers, left their rivals ftiould carry them
away. In general, if any branch of trade, or any
divifion of labour, be advantageous to the public, the
freer and more general the competition, it will always
be the more fo. See further, the article Paper-/Hc/.y_}’.
2. The other kind of banks confifts of fuch as are II. Eai.ks
inftituted wholly on the public account, and are called'of depofif.
Banks of Depojit; the nature of which not being ge¬
nerally underftood, the following particular explana¬
tion may not be unacceptable.
The currency of a great ftate, fuch as Britarf), ge- Smith's
nerally confifts almoft entirely of its own coin. Should Wealth of
this currency, therefore, be at any timeworn, dipt, or Nations,
otherwife degraded below its ftandard value, the ftate iY1
by a reformation of its coin can effedually re-eftablifti c‘ a*5' 1U‘
its currency. But the currency of a fmall ftate, fuch
as Genoa or Hamburgh, can feldom confift altogether
in its own coin, but muft be made up, in a great mea-
fure, of the coins of all the neighbouring ftates with
which its inhabitants have a continual intercourfe. Such
a ftate, therefore, by reforming its coin, will not al¬
ways be able to reform its currency. If foreign bills of
exchange are paid in this currency, the uncertain value
of any fum, of wdiat is in its own nature fo uncertain,
muft render the exchange always very much againft
fuch a ftate, its currency being, in all foreign ftates, ne-
ceflarily valued even below what it is worth. In order
to remedy the inconvenience to which this difadvantage-
ous exchange muft have fubje&ed their merchants, fuch
fmall ftates, when they began to attend to the intereft
of trade, have frequently ena&ed*, that foreign bills of
exchange of a certain value fhould be paid, not in com¬
mon currency, but by an order upon, or by a transfer
in the books of, a certain bank, eftablifhed upon the
credit and under the protedlion of the ftate; this bank
being always obliged to pay, in good and true money,
exadly according to the ftandard of the ftate. The
banks of Venice, Genoa, Amfterdam, Hamburgh, and
Nuremberg, feem to have been all originally eftabliftied
with this view, though fome of them may have after¬
wards been made fubfervient to other purpofes. The
money of fuch banks, being better than the common
currency of the country, nccefiarily bore an agio, w hich
was greater or fmaller, according as the currency was
fuppoftd
BAN [ 985 ] BAN
!n| Bank, fuppofed to be more or lefs degraded below the ftand-
’ “ ard of the ftate. The agio of the bank of Hamburgh,
for example, which is faid to be commonly about 14per
cent, is the fuppofed difference between the good ftand-
ard money of the ftate, and tiie clipt, worn, and dimi-
nifhed .currency poured into it from all the rieighbour-
ing ftates.
Before 1609, the great quantity of clipt and worn
foreign coin, which the extenfive trade of Amiterdam
brought from all parts of Europe, reduced the value of
its currency about 9 percent, below that of good money
frefti from the mint. Such money no fooner appeared,
than it was melted down or carried away, as it always
is in fuch circumftances. The merchants, with plenty
of currency, could not always find a fufficient quantity
of good money to pay their bills of exchange; and the
value of thofe bills, in fpite of feveral regulations which
were made to prevent it, became in a great meafure un¬
certain. In order to remedy thefe inconveniencies, a
;lnk of bank was eftabliftied in 1609 under the guarantee of
iflj mfter- tbe city. The bank received both foreign coin, and the
sf the nnoft an^ worn co’n °f t^ie country, at its real and in-
jJmous. tnnfic value in the good ftandard money of the coun-
iw inftitu- .try, deducing only fo much as was neceffary for de-
i|.n> regu7 fraying the expence of coinage, and the other neceffary
$1° &’CUU" cxPence management. For the value which remained
‘ ^ C‘ after this fmall dedu&ion was made, it gave a credit in
its books. This credit was called bank-money; which,
as it reprefented money exaftly according to the ftand¬
ard of the mint, was always of the fame real value, and
intrinfically worth more than current money. It was at
the fame time ena&ed, that all bills drawn upon or ne¬
gotiated at Amfterdam of the value of 600 gilders and
upwards fhould be paid in bank-money, which at once
took away all uncertainty in the value of thofe bills.
Every merchant, in qonfequence of this regulation, was
obliged to keep an account with the bank in order, to
pay his foreign bills of exchange, which neceffarily oc-
cafioned a certain demand for bank-money.
Bank-money, over and above both its intrinfic fu-
peridrity to currency, and the additional value which
this demand neceffarily gives it, has likewifefome other
advantages. It is fecure from fire, robbery, and other
accidents; the city of Amfterdam is bound for it ; it
can be paid away by a fimple transfer, without the
trouble of counting, or the rifle of tranfporting it from
one place to another. In confequence of thofe different
advantages, it feems from the beginning to have borne
an agio; and it is generally believed that all the money
originally depofited in the bank was allowed to remain
there, nobody caring to demand payment of a debt-
which he could fell for a premium in the market. Be-
fidesji this money could not be brought from thofe cof¬
fers, as it will appear by and by, without previoufly
paying for the keeping.
Thofe depofits of coin, or which the bank was bound
to reftore in coin, conftituted the original capital of the
bank, or the whole value of what was reprefented by
what is called bank-money. At prefent they are fuppo¬
fed to conftitute but a very fmall part of it. In order
to facilitate the trade in bullion, the bank has been for
thefe many years in the praftice of giving credit in its
books upon depofits of gold and filver bullion. This
credit is generally about 5 per cent, below the mint
price of fuch bullion. The bank grants at the fame
time what is called a recipice or receipt, infilling the
perfon who makes the depofit, or the bearer, to take 
out the bullion again at any time within fix months,
upon re-transferring to the bank a quantity of bank-
money equal to that for which credit had been given
in its books when the depofit was made, and upon pay¬
ing £ per cent, for the keeping if the depofit was in fil¬
ver, and 4-per cent, if it was in gold; but at the fame •
time declaring, that in default of fuch payment; and
upon the expiration of this term, the depofit Ihould be¬
long to the bank at the price at which it had been re¬
ceived, or for which credit had been given in the tranf-
fer books. What is thus paid for the keeping of the
depofit may be confidered as a fort of warehoufe rent;
and why this warehoufe rent Ihould be fo much dearer
for gold than for filver, feveral different reafons have
been afligned. The finenefs of gold, it has been faid,
is more difficult to be afcertained than that of filver.
Frauds are more eafily pradtifed, and occafion a greater
lofs in the more precious metal. Silver, befides, being
the ftandard metal, the ftate, it has been faid, wilhes
to encourage more the making of depofits of filver than
of thofe of gold.
Depofits of bullion are moft commonly made when
the price is fomewhat lower than ordinary; and they
are taken out again when it happens to rife. In
Holland the market-price of bullion is generally above
the mint-price, for the fame reafon that it was fo in
England before the late reformation of the gold Coin.
The difference is faid to be commonly from about fix
to fixteen ftivers upon the mark, or eight ounces of
filver of eleven parts fine and one part alloy. The bank
price, or the credit which the bank gives for depofits
of fuch filver (when made in foreign coin, of which the
finenefs is well known and afcertained, fuch as Mexico
dollars), is 22 gilders the mark; the mint-price is about
23 gilders; and the market-price is from 23 gilders fix,
to 23 gilders fixteen ftivers, or from 2 to 3 per Cent.
above the mint-price. The proportions between the
bank-price, the mint-price, and the market-price of
gold bullion are nearly the fame. A perfon can gene¬
rally fell his receipt for the difference between the mint-
price of bullion and the market-price. A receipt for
bullion is almoft always worth fomething; and it very
feldom happens, therefore, that any body fuffershis re¬
ceipt to expire, or allows his bullion to fall to the bank
at the price at which it had been received, either by
not taking it out before the end of the fix months, or
by negledfing to pay the £ or -r per cent, in order to
obtain a new receipt for another fix months. This,
however, though it feldom happens, is faid to happen
fometimes, and more frequently with regard to gold
than with regard to filver, on account of the higher
warehoufe-rent which -is paid for the keeping of the
more precious metal.
The perfon who by making a depofit of bullion ob¬
tains both a bank-credit and a receipt, pays his bills of
exchange as they become due with his bank-credit; and
either fells or keeps his receipt, according as he judges
that the price of bullion is likely to rife or to fall. The
receipt and the bank-credit feldom keep long together,
and there is no occafion that they ftiould. The perfon
who has a receipt, and who wants to take out bullion,
finds always plenty of bank-credits, or bank-money to
buy at the ordinary price; and the perfon who has
bank-
BAN [ 986 ] BAN
Bank, bank-money, and wants to take out bullion, finds re-
ceipts always in equal abundance.
The owners of bank-credits and the holders of receipts
conftitute two different forts of creditors againft the
bank. The holder of a receipt cannot draw out the bul¬
lion for which it is granted, without re-affigning to the
bank a fum of bank-money equal to the price at which,
the bullion had been received. If he has no bank-money
of his own, he mud purchafe it of thofe who have it.
The owner of bank-money cannot draw out bullion
without producing to the bank receipts for the quan¬
tity which he wants. If he has none of his own, he
muft buy them of thofe who have them. The holder
of a receipt, when he purchafes bank-money, purchafes
the power of taking out a quantity of bullion, of which
the mint-price is 5 per cent, above the bank-price. The
agio of 5 per cent, therefore, which he commonly pays
for it, is paid, not for an imaginary, but for a real value.
The owner of bank-money, when he purchafes a re¬
ceipt, purchafes the powder of taking out a quantity of
bullion of which the market-price is commonly from
2 to 3 per cent, above the mint-price. The price which
he pays for it, therefore, is paid likewife for a real va¬
lue. The price of the receipt, and the price of the
bank-money, compound or make up between them the
full value or price of the bullion.
Upon depofits of the coin current in the country,
the bank grants receipts likewife as well as bank-credits;
but thofe receipts are frequently of no value, and will
bring no price in the market. Upon ducatoons, for
example, which in the currency pafs for three gilders
three divers each, the bank gives a credit of three gil¬
ders only, ox 5per cent, below th-rir current value. It
grants a receipt likewife intitling the bearer to take
out the number of ducatoons depofited at any time
within fix months, upon paying £ per cent, for the
keeping. Thi$ receipt will frequently bring no price
in the market. Three gilders bank-money generally
fell in the market for three gilders three divers, the full
value of the ducatoons if they were taken out of the
bank ; and before they can be taken out, per cent.
mud be paid for the keeping, which would be mere
lofs to the holder of the receipt. If the agio of the
bank, however, fliould at any time fall to 3 per cetit.
fuch receipts might bring fome price in the market,
and might fell for per cent. But the agio of
the bank being now generally about 5 per cent, fuch
receipts are frequehtly allowed to expire, or, as they
exprefs it, to fall to the bank. The 5 per cent, which
the bank gains, when depofits either of coin or bul¬
lion are allowed to fall to it, may be confidered as the
w'arehoufe rent for the perpetual keeping of fuch de-
pofits.^
The fum of bank-money for which the receipts are
expired mud be very confiderable. It mud compre¬
hend the whole original capital of the bank, which,
it is generally fuppofed, has been allowed to remain
there from the time it was fird depofited, nobody
caring either to renew his receipt or to take out his
depofit, as, for the reafons already alfigned, neither
the one nor the other could begone without lofs. But
whatever may be the amount of this fum, the propor¬
tion which it bears to the whole mafs of bank-money is
fuppofed to be very fmall. The bank of Amderdam
has for thefe many years pad been the great warehoufe
of Europe for bullion* for which the receipts are very
feldom alkwed to expire, or, as they exprefs it, to fall
to the bank. The far greater part of the bank-money,
or of the credits upon the books of the bank, is fup¬
pofed to have been created, for thefe many years pad,
by fuch depofits which the dealers in bullion are con¬
tinually both making and withdrawing.
No demand can be made upon the bank but by means
of a recipice or receipt. The fmallermafs of bank mo¬
ney, for which the receipts are expired, is mixed and
confounded with the much greater mafs for which they
are dill in force; fo that, though there may be a con¬
fiderable fum of bank-money for which there are no
receipts, there is no fpecific fum or portion of it which
may not at any time be demanded by one. The bank
cannot be debtor to two perfons for the fame thing; and
the owner of bank-money who has no receipt cannot
demand payment of the bank till he buys one. In or¬
dinary and quiet times, he can find no difficulty in get¬
ting one to buy at the market-price, which generally
cqrrefponds with the price at what he can fell the coin
or bullion it intitles him to take out of the bank.
It might beotherwife during a public calamity; an
invafion, for example, fuch as that of the French in
1672. The owners of bank-money being then all eager
to draw it out of the bank, in order to have it in their
own keeping, the demand for receipts might raife their
price to an exorbitant height. The holders of them
might form extravagant expedlations, and, indead of
2 or 3 per cent, demand half the bank-money for which
credit had been given upon the depofits that the re¬
ceipts had refpedtively been granted for. The enemy,
informed of the conditution of the bank, might even
buy them up in order to prevent the carrying away of
the treafure. In fuch emergencies, the bank, it is fup¬
pofed, would break through its ordinary rule of making
payment only to the holders of receipts. The holders
of receipts, who had no bank-money, mud have recei¬
ved within 2 or 3 per cent, of the value of the depofit
for which their refpedtive receipts had been granted.
The bank, therefore, it is faid, would in this cafe make
no fcruple of paying, either with money or bullion, the
full value of what the owners of bank-money who could
get no receipts were credited for in its books; paying
at the fame time 2 or 3 per cent, to fuch holders of re¬
ceipts as had no bank-money, that being the whole
value which in this date of things could judly be fup¬
pofed due to them.
Even in ordinary and quiet times it is the intered of
the holders of receipts to deprefs the agio, in order ei¬
ther to buy bank-money (and confequently the bullion
which their receipts would then enable them to take
out of thy bank) fo much cheaper, or to fell their re¬
ceipts to thofe who have bank-money, and who want
to take out bullion, fo much dearer; the price of a re¬
ceipt being generally equal to the difference between
the market-price of bank-money, and that of the coin
or bullion for which the receipt had been granted. It
is the intered of the owners of bank-money, on the
contrary, to raife the agio, in order either to fell their
bank-money fo much dearer, or to buy a receipt fo
much cheaper. To prevent the dock-jobbing tricks
which thofe oppofite intereds might fometimes occa-
fion, the bank has of late years come to a refolution to
fell at all times bank-money for currency, at 5 per cent.
BAN L 987 ] BAN
agio, and to buy it again at 4 per cent. agio. In con-
fequence of this refolution, the agio can never either
rife above 5 or fink below 4 per cent, and the propor¬
tion between the market-price of the bank and that of
current money is kept at all times very near to the pro¬
portion between their intrinfic values. Before this re¬
folution was taken, the market-price of money ufed
fometimes to rife fo high as 9 per cent, agio, and fome-
times to fink fo low as par, according as oppofite in-
terefts happened to influence the market.
The bank of Amfterdam profefies to lend out no part
of what is depofited with it, but, for every gilder for
which it gives credit in its books, to keep in its repo-
fitories the value of a gilder either in money or bullion.
That it keeps in its repofitories all the money or bullion
for which there are receipts in force, for which it is at
all times liable to be called upon, and which, in reality,
is continually going from it and returning to it again,
cannot well be doubted. But whether it does fo like-
wife with regard to that part of its capital for which
the receipts are long ago expired, for which in ordi¬
nary' and quiet times it cannot be called upon, and
which in reality is very likely to remain with it for
ever, or as long as the States of the United Provinces
fubfift, may perhaps appear more uncertain. At Am¬
fterdam, however, no part of faith is better eftablilhed,
than that for every gilder circulated as bank-money
there is a correfpondent gilder in gold and filver to be
found in the treafure of the bank. The city is gua¬
rantee that it fhould be fo. The bank is under the di-
re&ion of the four reigning burgomafters, who are
changed every year. Each new fet of burgomafters vi-
fits the treafure, compares it with the books, receives
it upon oath, and delivers it over, with the fame awful
folemnity, to the fet which fucceeds it; and in that fo-
ber and religious country oaths are not yet difregarded.
A rotation of this kind feems alone a fufficient fecurity
againft any pra&ices which cannot be avowed. Amidft
all the revolutions which fadlion has ever occafioned in
the government of Amfterdam, the prevailing party
has at no time accufed their predeceflbrs of infidelity in
the adminiftration of the bank. No accufation could
have affefted more deeply the reputation and fortune of
the difgraced party; and if fuch an accufation could
have been fupported, we may be affured that it would
have been brought. In 1672, when the French king
was at Utrecht, the bank of Amfterdam paid fo readily
as left no doubt of the fidelity with which it had ob-
ferved its engagements. Some of the pieces which were
then brought from its repofitories appeared to have been
fcorched with the fire which happened in the town-
houfe foon after the bank was eftablifhed. Thofe
pieces, therefore, muft have lain there from that time.
What may be the amount of the treafure in the
bank is a queftion which has long employed the fpecur
lations of the curious. Nothing but conje&ure can be
offered concerning it. It is generally reckoned, that
there are about 2000 people who keep accounts with
the bank; and allowing them to have, one with another,
the value of 1500I. lying upon their refpeftive ac¬
counts, (a very large allowance), the whole quantity of
bank-money, and confequently of treafure in the bank,
will amount to 3,000,000!. or, at 11 gilders the pound
fterling, 33,000,000 of gilders; a great fum, and fuf¬
ficient to carry on a very extenfive circulation, but
vaftly below the extravagant ideas which fome people
have formed of this treafure.
The city of Amfterdam derives a confiderable revenue
from the bank. Befides what may be called the ware-
houfe-rent above mentioned, each perfon, upon firft o-
pening an account with the bank, pays a fee of 10 gil¬
ders ; and for every new account, 3 gilders 3 ftivers;
for every transfer, 2 ftivers ; and if the transfer is for
lefs than 300 gilders, 6 ftivers, in order to difeourage
the multiplicity of fmall tranfa&ions. The perfon who
negle<fts to balance his accounts twice in the year for¬
feits 25 gilders. The perfon who orders a transfer for
more than is upon his account, is obliged to pay 3 per
cent, for the fum overdrawn, and his order is fet afide
into the bargain. The bank is fuppofed too to make
a confiderable profit by the fale of the foreign coin or
bullion which fometimes falls to it by the expiring of
receipts, and which is always kept till it can be fold
with advantage. It makes a profit likewife by felling
bank-money at 5 per cent, agio, and buying it in at 4.
Thefe different emoluments amount to a good deal more
than what is neceffary for paying the falaries of officers,
and defraying the expence of management. What is
paid for the keeping of bullion upon receipts, is alone
fuppofed to amount to. a neat annual revenue of be¬
tween 150,000 and 200,000 gilders. Public utility,,
however, and not revenue, was the original objedt of
this inftitution. Its objedt was to relieve the merchants
from the inconvenience of a difadvanrageous exchange.
The revenue which has arifen from it was unforefeen,
and may be conlidered as accidental.
Bank, in fea-affairs, denotes an elevation of the
ground or bottom of the fea, fo as fometimes to fur-
mount the furface of the water, or at leaft to leave the
water To {hallow as. ufually not to allow a veffel to re¬
main a-float over it In this fenfe, bank amounts to
much the fame as flat, fhoai, &c. There are banks
of fand, and others of ftone, called alfo Jhelves, or
rocks. In the north fea they alfo fpeak of banks of
ice, which are large pieces of that matter floating.
BANKER, a perfon who traffics and negotiates in-
money; who receives and remits money from place to
place by commiffion from correfpondents, or by means
of bills or letters of exchange, &c.
The ancient bankers were called argent art;, and num-
mularii; by the Greeks, KoKw/itrui, and «?-
■yvpKftoifioi. Their chief bufinefs was to put out the
money of private perfons to intereft : they had their
boards and. benches, for thispurpofe, in all the markets
and public places, where they took in the .money from
fbme, to lend it to others.
BANKING, the making of banks to oppofe the.
force of the fea, rivers, or the like, and fecure the land
from being overflowed thereby. With refpedt to the
water which is.to be kept out, this is called banking;
with refpedt to the. land, which is hereby to be de¬
fended, imbanking.
Banking is alfo applied, to the keeping a bank, or
the. employment of a banker. Banking, in this fenfe,
fignifi.es the trading, in money, or remitting it from,
place to place, by means of bills of exchange. This
anfwers to what the French faire la banque. In
France, every body is allowed to bank, whether mer¬
chant or not; even foreigners are indulged in this kind
of traffic. In Italy, banking does not derogate from
nobility.
BAN [ 9S8 ] BAN
H tnklili, nobility, efpecially in the republic ftates; whence it
Bankrupt. jSj mo{]. 0f the younger fons of great families en¬
gage in it. In reality, it was the nobility of Venice
and Genoa, that, for a long time, were the chief
bankers in the other countries of Europe.
BANKISH, a province of the Mogul’s dominions,
in the north part of the Hither India, Tying fouth-weft
of the province of Caflimere.
BANKRUPT, [bancus ruptus), is fo called, be-
caufe, when the bank or flock is broken or exhaufled,
the owner is faid to be a bankrupt. And this word
bankrupt is derived from the French banqueroute, which
fignities a breaking or failing in the world: banque in
French is as much menfa in Latin, and route is the
fame as vejligium ; and this term is faid to be taken o-
riginally from the Roman menfarii, which were fet in
public places, and when a tradefman flipped away, with
an intention to deceive his creditors, he left only fome
vejiigia or figns of his table or fhop behind him. But
a bankrupt with us, from the feveral defcriptions given
of him in our flatute-law, may be defined “ a trader,
who fecretes himfelf, or does certain other a£ls tending
to defraud his creditors.” For the better underflanding
of this article, it will be proper to confider, 1. Who may
become a bankrupt: 2. What arts make a bankrupt:
3. The proceedings on a commiffion of bankruptcy : and,
4. In what manner an eflate in goods and chattels may
be transferredby bankruptcy.—But of thefe, the two
laft being treated under the article Com m 1 s s 1 on c/-Bank¬
ruptcy, the two firfl only belong to this place,
1. A bankrupt was formerly confidered merely in
the light of a criminal or offender; and in this fpirit
we are told by Sir Edward Coke, that we have fetched
as well the name, as the wickednefs, of bankrupts from
foreign nations. But at prefent the laws of bank¬
ruptcy are confidered as laws calculated for the benefit
of trade, and founded on the principles of humanity as
well as juflice ; and to that end they confer fome pri¬
vileges, not only on the creditors, but alfo on the bank¬
rupt or debtor himfelf. On the creditors; by com¬
pelling the bankrupt to give up all his effe&s to their
ufe, without any fraudulent concealment: on the debtor;
by exempting him. from the rigor of the general law,
whereby his perfon might be confined at the difcretion
of his creditor, though in reality he has nothing to fa-
tisfy the debt; whereas the law of bankrupts, taking
into confideration the hidden and unavoidable accidents
to which men in trade are liable, has given them the
liberty of their perfons, and fome pecuniary emolu¬
ments, upon condition they furrender up their whole
eflate to be divided among their creditors.
tlackft. In this refpedl our legislature feems to have attended
Comm.W. to the example of the Roman law. We mean not the.
47 J. terrible law of the twelve tables; whereby the creditors
might cut the debtor’s body into pieces, and each of
them take his proportionable fhare : if indeed that law,
de debitore in partes fecando, is to be underflood in fo
very butcherly a light; which many learned men have
with reafon doubted. Nor do we mean thofe lefs inhu¬
man laws (if they may be called fo, as their meaning
is indifputably certain), of imprifoning the debtor’s
perfon in chains; fubjefting him to flripes and hard
labour, at the mercy of his rtgid creditor; and fame- Bankrupt,
times felling him, his wife, and children, to perpetual
foreign flavery trans Tiberhn (a): an opprefiion, which
produced fo many popular infurre&ions, and feceffions
to the mans facer. But we mean the law of cefiion, in¬
troduced by the Chriflian emperors; whereby, if a
debtor ceded or yielded up all his fortune to his cre¬
ditors, he was fecured from being dragged to a gaol,
“ omni quoque corporals cruciatu femoto.” For, as the
emperor juftly obferves, “ inhitmanum erat fpoliatuni
fcrtunis fuis in foltdum damnari." Thus far wasjufl
and reafonable : but, as the departing from one ex-,
treme is apt to produce its oppofite, we find it after¬
wards ena&ed, that if the debtor by any unforefeen
accident was reduced to low circumflances, and would
fwear that he had not fufficient left to pay his debts, he
fhould not be compelled to cede or give up even that
which he had in his pofTeffion ; a law which, under a
falfe notion of humanity, feems to be fertile of perjury,
injuflice, and abfurdity.
The laws of England, more wifely, have fleered
in the middle between both extremes : providing at
once againfl the inhumanity of the creditor, who is not
fuffered to confine an honeft bankrupt after his effefts
are delivered up; and at the fame time taking care that
all his juft debts fliall be paid, fo far as the effedls will
extend. But flill they are cautious of encouraging
prodigality and extravagance by this indulgence to
debtors : and therefore they allow the benefit of the
laws of bankruptcy to none but a6lual traders; fince
that fet of men are, generally fpeaking, the only per¬
fons liable to accidental lofles, and to an inability of
paying their debts, without any fault of their own. If
perfons in other fituations of life run in debt without
the power of payment, they muft take the confequences
of their own indifcretion, even though they meet with
fudden accidents that may reduce their fortunes : for
the law holds it to be an unjuflifiable practice, for any
perfon but a trader to encumber himfelf with debts of
any confiderable-value. If a gentleman, or one in a
liberal profeffion, at the time of contrafting his debts,
has a fufficient fund to pay them, the delay of pay¬
ment is a fpecies of diffionefty, and a temporary inju-
flice to his creditor: and if, at fuch time, he has not
fufficient fund, the diffionefty and injuftice is the greater.
He cannot therefore murmur, if he fuffers the punifli-
ment which he has voluntarily drawn upon himfelf. But
in mercantile tranfadlions the cafe is far otherwife.
Trade cannot be carried on without mutual credit on
both fides: the contrafting of debts is therefore here
not only juftifiable, but neceffary. And if by ac¬
cidental calamities, as by the lofs of a ffiip in a tempeft,
the failure of brother traders, or by the non-payment
of perfons out of trade, a merchant or trader becomes
incapable of difcharging his own debts, it is his mif-
fortune and not his fault. To the misfortunes therefore
of debtors, the law has given a compaffionate remedy,
but denied it to their faults : fince, at the fame time
that it provides for the fecurity of commerce,' by en-
a6ling that every confiderable trader may be declared
a bankrupt, for the benefit of his creditors as well as
himfelf, it has alfo, todifcourage extravagance, declared.
(a) In Pegu, and the adjacent countries in Eaft India, the creditor is entitled todifpofe of the debtor himfelf, and
likewife of his wife and children : infomuch that he may even violate, with impunity, the chaftity of the debtor’s wife;
but then, by fo doing, the debt is underftood to be difcharged.
BAN [ 989 ] BAN
that n6 one (hall be capable of being made a bankrupt,
but only a trader; nor capable of receiving the full
benefit of the ftatutes, but only an induftrious trader.
In the interpretation of the feveral ftatutes made
concerning Englifh bankrupts f, it hath been held,
that buying only, or felling only, will not qualify a
man to be a bankrupt; but it muft be both buying
and felling, and alio getting a livelihood by it: as,
by exercifing the calling of a merchant, a grocer, a
mercer, or, in one general word, a chapman., who is
one that buys and fells any thing. But no handicraft
occupation (where nothing is bought or fold, and there¬
fore an extenfive credit, for the ftock in trade, is not
neceffary to be had) will make a man a regular bank¬
rupt j as that of a huibandman, a gardener, and the
like, who are paid for their work and labour. Alfo an
inn-keeper cannot, as fuch, be a bankrupt: for his
gain or livelihood does not arife from buying and fell¬
ing in the way of merchandize, but greatly from the
ufe of his rooms and furniture, his attendance, and the
like : and though he may buy corn and vidtuals, to fell
again at a profit, yet that no more makes him a trader,
thanafchoolmafteror other perfon is, that keeps a board-
ing-houfe, and makes confiderable gains by buying and
felling what he fpends in the houfe, and fuch a one
is clearly not within the ftatutes. But where perfons
buy goods, and make them up into faleable commodi¬
ties, as (hoemakers, fmiths, and the like ; here, tho’
part of the gain is by bodily labour, and not by buying
and felling, yet they are within the ftatutes of bank¬
rupts ; for the labour is only in melioration of the com¬
modity, and rendering it more fit for fale.
2. To learn what the atts of bankruptcy are which
render a man a bankrupt, we muft confult the feveral
ftatutes, and the refolutions formed by the courts
thereon. Among thefe may therefore be reckoned,
1. Departing from the realm, whereby a man withdraws
himfelffrom thejurifdi&ionandcoercionofthelaw, with
intent to defraud his creditors. 2. Departing from his
. own houfe, with intent to fecrete himfelf and avoid his
creditors. 3. Keeping in his own houfe, privately,
(except for juft and neceffary caufe) fo as not to be
feen or fpoken with by his creditors ; which is likewife
conftrued to be an intention to defraud his creditors,
by avoiding the procefs of the law. 4. Procuring or
fuffering himfelf willibgly to be arrefted, or outlawed,
or imprifoned, without juft and lawful caufe ; which is
likewife deemed an attempt to defraud his creditors.
5. Procuring his money, goods, chattels, and effects,
to be attached or fequeftered by any legal procefs;
which is another plain and diredf endeavour to difap-
point his creditors of their fecurity. 6. Making any
fraudulent conveyance to a friend, or fecret truftee, of
his lands, tenements, goods, or chattels ; which is an
ad) of the fame fufpicious nature with the laft. 7. Pro¬
curing any protection, not being himfelf privileged by
parliament, in order to fcreen his perfon from arrefts;
which alfo is an endeavour to elude the juftice of the
law. 8. Endeavouring, or defiring, by any petition
to the king, or bill exhibited in any of the king’s
courts againft any creditors, to compel them to take
lefs than their juft debts; qr to procraftinate the time
of payment, originally contracted for ; which are an
acknowledgment of either his poverty or his knavery.
9. Lying in prifon for two months, or more, upon ar->
Vot. II.
reft or other detention for debt, without finding bail,
in order to obtain his liberty. For the inability to
procure bail argues a ftrong deficiency in his credit,
owing either to his fufpedted poverty, or ill character ;
and his negleCt to do it, if able, can arife only from a
fraudulent intention : in either of which cafes, it is high
time for his creditors to look to themfelves, and compel
a diftribution of his effeCts. 10. Efcaping from prifon
after an arreft for a juft debt of 100/. or upwards.
For no man would break prifon, that was able and de-
firous to procure bail; which brings it within the rea-
fon of the laft cafe. 11. NegleCting to make fatisfac-
tion for any juft debt to the amount of 100/. within
two months after fervice of legal procefs, for fuch debt,
upon any trader having privilege of parliament.
Thefe are the feveral aCts of bankruptcy exprefsly
defined by the ftatutes relating to this article ; which be¬
ing fo numerous, and the whole law of bankrupts be¬
ing an innovation on the common law, our courts of
juftice have been tender of extending or multiplying''
aCts of bankruptcy by any conftruCUon or implica¬
tion. And therefore Sir John Holt held, that a man’s
removing his goods privately to prevent their being fei-
zed in execution, was no aCt of bankruptcy. For the
ftatutes mention only fraudulent gifts to third perfons,
and procuring them to be feized by fliam procefs, in
order to defraud creditors : but this, though a palpable
fraud, yet, falling within neither of thofe cafes, can¬
not be adjudged an aCt of bankruptcy. So alfo it has
been determined exprefsly, that a banker’s flopping or
refufing payment is no a<ft of bankruptcy : for it is not
within the defcription of any of the ftatutes ; and there
may be good reafons for his fo doing, as fufpicion of
forgery, and the like : and if, in confequence of fuch
refufal, he is arrefted, and puts in bail, ftill it is no a&
of bankruptcy; but if he goes to prifon, and lies
there two months, then, and not before, is he become
a bankrupt.
As to the confequences refulting from the unhappy
fituation of a bankrupt, fee the article Commission vf
Bankruptcy.
BANKS (John), a dramatic writer, was bred to
the law, and belonged to the fociety of Gray’s Inn;
but this profeffion not fuiting his natural difpofi-
tion, he quitted it for the fervice of the mufes.
Here, however, he found his rewards by no' means ade¬
quate to his deferts. His emoluments at the beft were
precarious, and the various fucceffes of his pieces too
feelingly convinced him of the error in his choice.
This however did not prevent him from purfuing with
cheerfulnefs the path he had taken ; histhirft of fame,
and warmth of poetic enthufiafm, alleviating to his i-
magination many difagreeable circUmftances into which
indigence, the too frequent attendant on poetical pur-
fuits, frequently threw him. His turn was entirely to
tragedy. His merit in which is of a peculiar kind.
For at the fame time that his language muft be confef-
fed to be extremely unpoetical, and his numbers un¬
couth and unharmonious; nay, even his charadlers very
far from being ftrongly marked or diftinguiftied, and
his epifodes extremely irregular ; yet it is impofiible
to avoid being deeply affe&ed at the reprefentation,
and even at the reading, of his tragic pieces. This is
owing in the general to an happy choice of his fub-
jgfts; which are all borrowed from hiftory, either real
6 1 or
Bankrupt,
Bank5.
BAN [ 99° ] BAN
Hanks, or romantic ; and indeed the moft of them from circum-
Bann’ ftances in the annals of our own country, which, not
only from their being familiar to our continual recollec¬
tion, but even from their having fome degree of rela¬
tion to ourfelves, we are apt to receive with a kind of par¬
tial prepoffeflion, and a pre-determination to be pleafed.
He has conftantly chofen as the balls of his plays fuch
tales as were in themfelves and their well-known cata-
ftrophes moft truly adapted to the purpofes of the dra¬
ma. He has indeed but little varied from the ftriftnefs
of hiftorical fafts; yet he feems to have made it his
conftant rule to keep the fcene perpetually alive, and
never fuffer his chara&ers to droop. His verfe is not
poetry, but profe run mad. Yet will the falfe gem
fometimes approach fo near in glitter to the true one,
at leaft in the eyes of all but the real connoifleurs, (and
how fmall a part of an audience are to be ranked in
this clafs will need no ghoft to inform us), that bombaft
w’ill frequently pafs for the true fublime; and where it
is rendered the vehicle of incidents in themfelves affeft-
ing, and in which the heart is apt to intereft itfelf, it
will perhaps be found to have a ftronger power on the
human paffions than even that property to which it is
in reality no more than a bare fuccedaneum. And from
thefe principles it is that we muft account for Mr
Banks’s writings having in the general drawn more
tears from, and excited more terror in, even judicious
audiences, than thofe of much more correft and more
truly poetical authors. The tragedies he has left be¬
hind are, 1. Albion Queens. 2. Cyrus the Great. 3. De-
Jiruftion of Troy. 4. Innocent Ufurper. 5. IJland
Queens. This is only the Albion Queens altered.
6. Rival Kings. 7. Virtue betrayed. 8. Unhappy
Favourite. The Albion Queens was rejected by the
managers in 1684 ; but was afted by queen Anne’s
command in 1706, with great applaufe, and has been
feveral times revived. The unhappy Favourite conti¬
nued, till very lately, a ftock tragedy at the theatres ;
but gives way at prefent to the later tragedies from the
fame ftory, by Jones and Brooke.—Neither the time
of the birth, nor that of the death, of this author, are
afcertained. His remains, however, lie interred in the
church of St James’s, Weftminfter.
BANKS’s island, a fmall ifland in the fouth fea
difcovered by captain Cook in 1770, in S. Lat. 53.
32. W. Long. 186. 30. It is of a circular figure, and
about 24 leagues in compafs: it is fufficiently high
to be feen at the diftance of 12 or 15 leagues; and the
land has a broken irregular furface, with the appearance
of barrennefs rather than fertility. It is, however, inha¬
bited, as fomeftraggling favages were obferved upon it.
BANN, or ban (from the Brit, ban, i. e. clamour),
is a proclamation or public notice; any public fum-
mons or ediift, whereby a thing is commanded or for¬
bidden. It is a word ordinary among the feudifts ;
and there is both bonus and banum, -which fignify two
feveral things.—The word banns is particularly ufed in
England in publiftiing matrimonial contraAs; which
is done in the church before marriage, to the end that
if any perfons can fpeak againft the intention of the par¬
ties, either in refpeft of kindred, precontraft, or for
other juft caufe, they may take their exception in time,
before the marriage is confummated ; and in the canon
law, Bannae funt proclamationes fponfi et fponfee in ee-
thejik fieri folitce. But there may be a faculty or li¬
cence for the marriage, and then this ceremony is o- Barm,
mitted ; and minifters are not to celebrate matrimony Banner. J
between any perfons without a licence, except the bans
have been firft pub]ifhed three feveral times, upon pain
of fufpenfion, &c. Can. 62.
The ufe of matrimonial banns is faid to have been
firft introduced in the Gallican church, though fome-
thing like it obtained even in the primitive times; and it
is this that Tertullian-is fuppofed to mean by trinundina
promulgatio. The council of Lateran firft extended,
and made the ufage general. By the ordinance of
Blois, no perfon could validly contraft marriage, with¬
out a preceding proclamation of three banns ; nor
could any perfon whatever be difpenfed with, except
for the two laft. But the French themfelves have a-
bated much of this feverity ; and only minors are now
under an abfolute neceffity of fubmitting to the forma¬
lity of banns. For majors, or thofe of age, after pu¬
blication of the firft banns, the two latter are eafily
bought off.
Bann is alfo ufed to denote profcription, or banilh-
ment, for a crime proved ; becaufe anciently publilhed
by found of trumpet; or, as Voffius thinks, becaufe
thofe who did not appear at the abovementioned fum-
mons, were punifhed by profcription. Hence, to put
a prince under the bam of the enipire, is to declare him
divefted of all his dignities. The fentence only de¬
notes an interdift of all intercourfe, and offices of hu¬
manity, with the offender; the form of which feems
taken from that of the Romans, who banifned perfons
by forbidding them the ufe of fire and water. Some¬
times alfo cities are put under the imperial bann ; that
is, dripped of their rights and privileges.
Bann alfo denotes a pecuniary mulcft, or penalty,
laid on a delinquent for offending againft a bann.
Bann, or Bannus, a title anciently given to the go¬
vernor or viceroy of Croatia, Dalmatia, and Sclavonia.
Bannus Epifcopalis, was a mulft paid to the bifhop
by thofe guilty of facrilege and other crimes.
Bann, is alfo ufed for a folemn anathema, or ex-
communication, attended with curfes, &c. In this
fenfe, we read of papal banns, &c.
Bann, in military affairs, a proclamation made in
the army by beat of drum, found of trumpet, &c. re¬
quiring the ftrifft obfervance of difcipline, either for the
declaring a new officer, or punifning an offender.
BANNER denotes either a fquare flag, or the prin¬
cipal ftandard belonging to a prince.
We find a multiplicity of opinions concerning the
etymology of the word banner; fome deriving it from
the Latin bandum, a band or flag ; others from the
word to fummons the vaffals to appear in arms ;
others again from the German ban, a field or tenement,
becaufe landed men alone were allowed a banner ; and,
finally, there are fome who think it is a corruption of
panniere, from pannus, cloth, becaufe banners were
originally made of cloth.
The Banner of France, was the largeft and richeft
of all the flags borne by the ancient kings in their great
military expeditions. St Martin’s cap was in ufe fix
hundred years, as the banner of France : it was made
of taffety, painted with the image of that faint, and
laid one or two days on his tomb to prepare it for ufe.
About the year 1100, came in a more pompous appa¬
ratus. The banner royal was faftened to the top of a
BAN [ 99i ] BAN
Banneret maft, or fotne tall tree, planted on a fcaffold, borne on a
j carriage drawn by oxen, covered with velvet houfings,
i Xm"2’ decorated with devices or cypliers of the prince reigning.
I1———— At the foot of the tree was a prieft, who faid tnafs early
every morning. Ten knights mounted guard on the
fcarfold night and day, and as many trumpets at the
foot of the tree never ceafed flouriftiing, to animate the
troops. This cumberfome machine, the mode of which
was brought from Italy, continued in ufe about i3Cyears.
Its poft was in the centre of the army. And here it
was that the chief feats were performed, to carry off and
defend the royal banner ; for there was no victory with¬
out it, nor was 'an army reputed vanquiihed till they
had loft this banner.
BANNERET, a very ancient title of honour, faid
I to derive its inftitution from the Romans, towards the
end of the emperor Gratian’s reign. Knights-banneret
are called in Latin milites vexilliferi, by Matth. Paris,
p. 134 ; and milites vexillati, by the author of the Did.
de Trevoux; th'eir ftiield was fquare, and they bore
their arms in a banner of the fame form.
This was a very honourable order, as it was never
conferred but for fome heroic a&ion performed in the
field; whereas other orders have frequently beenbeftowed
from favour, or other meaner motives. It is faid to have
been firft ufed in England in the time of Edward I.
I We have had none of this order created fince the time
of king Charles I. fo that it is now become extinft a-
mong us.
The form of the bannerets creation was this : On a
day of battle, the candidate prefented his flag to the
king, or general, who cutting off the train or Ikirt
thereof, and making it a fquare, returned it again,being
then the proper banner of bannerets, who from hence
are fometimes called knights of the fquare flag.
BANNOCK, a kind of oat-cake, baked in the em¬
bers, or on a ftone placed before the fire: it is common
in the northern parts of this kingdom.
BANNUM, in law, fignifies the utmoft bounds of
a manor or town.
BANQUET, a feaft or entertainment, where people
regale themfelves with pleafant foods, or fruits.
Banquet, in the menage, that fmall part of the
branch of a bridle that is under the eye; which being
rounded like a fmall rod, gathers and joins the extre¬
mities of the bit to the branch in fuch a manner, that
the banquet is not feen, but covered by the cope, or
that part of the bit that is next the branch.
BANQUET-Z/7ze, an imaginary line drawn, in making
a bit, along the banquet, and prolonged up or down,
to adjuft the defigned force or weaknefs of the branch,
in order to make it ftiff or eafy.
Banquet, or Banquette, in fortification, a little
foot-bank, or elevation of earth, forming a path which
runs along the infide of a parapet, upon which the
mufqueteers get up, in order to difcover the counter-
fcarp, or to fire on the enemy in the moat or in the co¬
vert-way.
BANQUETING-room, or house. See Saloon.
The ancient Romans fupped in the atrium, or vefti-
bule, of their houfes; but, in after-times, magnificent
falcons, or banqueting-rooms, were built, for the more
commodious and fplendid entertainment of their guefts.
Lucullus had feveral of thefe, each diftinguiflied by the
name of fome god; and there was a particular rate of
expence appropriated to each. Plutarch relates with Kanflickle,
what magnificence he entertained Cicero and Pompey,
who went with defign to furprife him, by telling only a ~
flave who waited, that the doth flrould be laid in the
Apollo. The emperor Claudius, among others, bad a
fplendid banqueting-room, named Mercury. But e-
very thing of this kind was outdone by the luftre of
that celebrated banqueting-houfe. of Nero, called do-
mus aurea; which, by the circular motion of its parti¬
tions, and ceilings, imitated the revolution of the hea¬
vens, and reprefented the different feafons of the year,
which changed at every fervice, and fliowered down
flowers, effences, and perfumes, on the guefts.
BANSTICKLE, in ichthyology. See Gas^ero-
steus.
BANTAM, a large town of the ifland of Java, in
the Eaft Indies, fituated in E. Long. 105. j6. S. Lat.
6. 20. It is the capital of a kingdom of the fame
name, with a good harbour and fortified caftle. It is
divided into two towns feparated by a river, and one
of them inhabited by the Chinefe. For its hiftory, &c.
See Java.
Bantam-work, a kind of painted or carved work,
refembling that of Japan, only more gaudy.
There are two forts of Bantam, as well as of Japan
work. As, in the latter, fome are flat, lying even
with the black, and others high and emboffed ; fo, in
Bantam-work, fome are flat, and others in-cut, or
carved into the wood, as we find in many large fcreens :
with this difference, that the Japan artiils work chiefly
in gold and other metals; and thofe of Bantam gene¬
rally in colours, with a fmall fprinkling of gold here
and there : for the flat Bantam work is done in co¬
lours, mixed with gum-water, proper for the thing de¬
figned to be imitated. For the carved, or in-cut kind,
the method of performing it is thus defcribed by an in¬
genious artift : j. The wood is to be primed with
whiting and lize, fo often, till the primer lie near a
quarter of an inch thick ; then it is to be water-plain¬
ed, i. e. rubbed with a fine wet cloth, and, fome time
after, rubbed very fmooth, the blacks laid on, varniflied
up with a good body, and poliflied well, though with
a gentle hand. This done, the defign is to be traced
out with vermilion and gum-water, exa&ly in the
manner wherein it is intended to be cut; the figures,
trees, buildings, &c. in their due proportion: then the
graver is applied, with other tools of proper fhapes,
'differing according to the workman’s fancy : with thefe
he cuts deep or fhallow,. as is found convenient, but
never deeper than the whiting lies, the wood being
never to feel the edge of the inftrument. Lines, or
parts of the black, are ftill to be left for the draperies,
and other out-lines, and for the diftimfrion of one
thing from another; the rule being to cut where the
white is, and leave the black untouched. The carving
being finiftied, then take to the pencil, with which the
colours are laid into the cut-work: after this, the gold
is to be laid in thofe places which the defign requires;
for which purpofe, a ftrong thick gum-arabic water is
taken, and laid with a pencil on the work ; and, while
this remains wet, leaf-gold is cut with a fliarp fmooth
edged knife, in little pieces, ftiaped to the bignefs and
figure of the places where they are to be laid. Thefe
being taken up with a little cotton, they daub them
with the fanje clofe to the gum-water, which affords a
6 I 2 rich
Bantry,
Baobab.
B A O [ $92 ] B A O
rich luftre. The work thus finifhed, they clear up the two centuries before, by Thevet, who mentions them
black with oil, taking care not to touch the colours, in the relation of his voyage to Terra Antarflica or
The European workmen ordinarily ufe brafs-duft, which Auftralis. Adanfon faw them in 1749.
is lefs brip-ht and beautiful. The virtues and ufes of this tree and its fruit, are
BANTRY, a town of Ireland, in the county of
Cork, and province of Munfter. It is feated on a bay
of the fame name, in W. Long. 9. 15. N. Lat. 51. 30.
BAOBAB, the name given by Profper Alpinus to
the African calabalh-tree, fmce ‘called Adansonia.
See that article. But the following more particular
account of this moft remarkable tree, the largeft pro-
du&ion of the whole vegetable kingdom, will not, it is
hoped, appear fuperfluous.
The trunk is not above 12 or 15 feet high, but
from 65 to 78 feet round. The loweft branches
extend almoft horizontally; and as they are about
60 feet in length, their own weight bends their ex¬
tremities to the ground, and thus form an hemifphe-
rical mafs of verdure of about 120 or 130 feet dia¬
meter. The roots extend as far as the branches :
that in the middle forms a pivot, which penetrates a
great way into the earth; the reft fpread near the fur-
face. The flowers are in proportion to the fize of the
tree ; and are followed by an oblong fruit, pointed at
both ends, about ten inches long, five or fix broad, and
covered with a kind of greenifh down, under which is a
ligneous rind, hard and almoft black, marked with
rays which divide it lengthwife into fides. The fruit
hangs to the tree by a pedicle two feet long and an inch
diameter. It contains a whitifli fpongy juicy fubftance;
with feeds of a brown colour, and fhaped like a kidney-
bean. The bark of this tree is nearly an inch thick, of
an afh-coloured grey, greafy to the touch, bright, and
very fmooth : the outfide is covered with a kind of
varniih; and the infide is green, fpeckled with red.
The wood is white, and very foft; the firft flioots of
the year are green and downy.
The tree flieds its leaves in November, and new ones
begin to appear in June. It flowers in July, and the
fruit ripens in Oftober and November. It is very com¬
mon in Senegal, and the Cape de Verd iflands ; and is
found 100 leagues up the country at Gulam, and upon
the fea-coaft as far as Sierra-Hone.
The age of this tree is perhaps no lefs remarkable
than its enormous fize. M. Adanfon relates, that in a
botanical excurfion to the Magdalen Iflands, in the
neighbourhood of Goree, he difcovered fome calabafh-
trees, from five to fix feet diameter, on the bark of
which were engraved or cut to a confiderable depth
a number of European names. Two of thefe names,
which he was at the trouble to repair, were dated one
the 14th, the other the 15th century. The letters
were about fix inches long, but in breadth they occu¬
pied a very fmall part only of the circumference of the
trunk : from whence he concluded they had not been
cut when thefe trees were young. Thefe infcriptions,
however, he thinks fuffieient to determine pretty nearly
the age which thefe calabafh-trees may attain ; for even
fuppofing that thofe in queftion were cut in their early
years, and that trees grew to the diameter of fix feet
in two centuries, as the engraved letters evince, how
many centuries muft be requifite to give them a dia¬
meter of 25; feet, which perhaps is not the laft term
of their growth! The infcribed trees mentioned by this
ingenious Frenchman had been feen in 1555, almoft
various. The negroes of Senegal dry the bark and
leaves in the (haded air; and then reduce them to
powder, which is of a pretty good green colour.
This powder they preferve in bags of linen or cot¬
ton, and call it lillo. They ufe it every day, putting
two or three pinches of it into a mefs, whatever it
happens to be, as we do pepper and fait: but their
view is, not to give a relifli to their food, but to pre¬
ferve a perpetual and plentiful perfpiration, and to at¬
temper the too great heat of the blood ; purpofes
which it certainly anfwers, as feveral Europeans have
proved by repeated experiments, preferring themfelves
from the epidemic fever, which, in that country, de-
ftroys Europeans like the plague, and generally rages
during the months of September and O&ober, when,
the rains having fuddenly ceafed, the fun exhales the
water left by them upon the ground, and fills the air
with a noxious vapour. M. Adanfon, in that critical
feafon, made a light ptifan of the leaves of the baobab,
which he had gathered in the Auguft of the preceding
year, and had dried in the (hade ; and drank conftantly
about a pint of it every morning, either before or af¬
ter breakfaft, and the fame quantity of it every even¬
ing after the heat of the fun began to abate; he alfo
fometimes took the fame quantity in the middle of the
day, but this was only when he felt fome fymptoms of
an approaching fever. By this precaution he prefer-
ved himfelf, during the five years he refided at Senegal,
from the diarrhoea and fever, which are fo fatal there,
and which are, however, the only dangerous difeafes
of the place ; and other officers fuffered very feverely,
only one excepted, upon whom M. Adanfon prevailed
to ufe this remedy, which for its fimplicity was defpi-
fed by the reft. This ptifan alone alfo prevents that
heat of urine which is common in thefe parts, from the
month of July to November, provided the party ab-
ftains from wine.
The fruit is not lefs ufeful than the leaves and the
bark. The pulp that envelopes the feeds has an agree¬
able acid tafte, and is eaten for pleafure : it is alfo
dried and powdered, and thus ufed medicinally in pefti-
lential fevers, the dyfentery, and bloody flux ; the dofe
is a drachm, pafled through a fine fieve, taken either in
common water, or in an infufion of the plantain. This
powder is brought into Europe under the name of terra
figillata lemma.
The woody bark of the fruit, and the fruit itfelf
when fpoiled, helps to fupply the negroes with an ex¬
cellent fdap, which they make by drawing a ley from
the allies, and boiling it with palm-oil that begins to
be rancid.
The trunks of fuch of thefe trees as are decayed, the
negroes hollow out into burying places for their poets,
muficians, buffoons: perfons of thefe characters they
efteem greatly while they live, fuppofing them to de¬
rive their fuperior talents from forcery or a commerce
with demons; but they regard their bodies with a kind
of horror when dead, and will not give them burial in
the ufual manner, neither fuffering them to be put into
the ground, nor thrown into the fea or any river, be-
caufe they imagine that the water would not then nou-
ri(h
BAP [ 993 ] BAP
astfearpaume rJ{h the fifh, nor the earth produce its fruits. The bo-
u Ba fifm ^es ^lut UP *n t^e^e trun^s become perfedly dry with-
{ out rotting, and form a kind of mummies without the
help of embalment.
The baobab is very diftinft from the calabalh-tree of
America, with which it has been confounded by father
Labat. See Crescentia.
B APAUME, a ftrong town of Artois in the French
Netherlands. It has been in the poffeffion of the French
ever fince the year 1641; and is feated in a dry fpot, in
E. Long. 3.x. N. Lat. 50. 6.
BAPTiE, in antiquity, an effeminate, voluptuous
kind of priells, at Athens, belonging to the goddefs
Cotyttus; thus called from their ftated dippings and
wafhings, by way of purification. Their rites were
peformed in the night, and confifted chiefly of lafci-
vious dances, and other abominations. Eupolis ha¬
ving compofed a comedy to expofe them, entitled
they threw him into the fea, to be revenged ;
and the fame fate is alfo faid to have befallen Cratinus,
another Athenian poet, who had written a comedy a-
gainft the Baptas, under the fame title.
BAPTISM, in matters of religion, the ceremony
of wafhing ; or a facrament, by which a perfon is ini¬
tiated into the Chriftian church.—The word is formed
from the Greek of to dip or nuajk. Bap-
tifm is known, in ecclefiaftical writers, by divers other
[7|Various names and titles. Sometimes it is called palingenefta,
ames or [aver 0f regeneration ; fometimes falus, or life and
aptifm° falvation; fometimes fignaculnm Domini, and
fignaculum fidei, or tke feal of faith; fometimes abfo-
lutely myferiutn, and facramentum ; fometimes the fa¬
crament of faith ; fometimes viaticum, from its ufe to
departing perfons ; fometimes facerdotium laid, or the
Bingham's lay priejlhood, becaufe allowed, in cafes of neceffity,
Orig. Ecclef to be conferred by laymen : fometimes it is called the
great circumcifton, by reafon it fucceeds in the room of
circumcifion, and is the feal of the Chriftian covenant,
as that was the feal of the covenant made with Abra¬
ham : fo, in regard that baptifm had Chrift for its
anthor, and not man, it was anciently known by the
name of Aufov and Ku?‘«> the gift of the Lord :
fometimes it was fimply called without any other
addition, by way of eminence, becaufe it was both a
gratuitous and fingular gift of Chrift : in reference to
the making men complete members of Chrift’s body,
the church, it had the name of T£\£/u<r/f, and TE\Ei»,
the confecration, and confummation; becaufe it gave
men the perfedtion of Chriftians, and a right to par¬
take of the To Texoov, which was the Lord's Supper:
it had alfo the name of and the ini¬
tiation, becaufe it was the admittance of men to all the
facred rites and myfteries of the Chriftian religion.
Its origin, Baptifm had its origin from the Jewiftx church, where
&<-'■ it was the praftice, long before Chrift’s time, to bap¬
tize profelytes or converts to their faith, as part of
the ceremony of their admifiion ; a pra&ice which ob¬
tains among them to this day : a perfon turning Jew,
is firft circumcifed, and, when healed, is bathed, or
baptized in water, in prefence of their rabbins; after
which he is reputed a good Jew.
Grotius is of opinion, that the rite of baptifm had
its original from the time of the deluge; immediately
after which, he thinks, it was inftituted in memory of the
world having been purged by water. Some learned
men think it was added to circumcifion, foon after the Baptifm. v
Samaritan fchifm, as a mark of diftindlion to the ortho- r*
dox Jews. Spencer, who is fond of deriving the rites
of the Jewiftx religion from the ceremonies of the Pa¬
gans, lays it down as a probable fuppofition, that the
Jews received the baptifm of profelytes from the neigh¬
bouring nations, who were wont to prepare candidates
for the more facred fun&ions of their religion by a fo-
lemn ablution ; that, by this affinity of facred rites,
they might draw the Gentiles to embrace their religion,
and the profelytes (in gaining of whom they were ex¬
tremely diligent) might the more eafily comply with
the tranfition from Gentilifm to Judaifm. In confirm¬
ation of this opinion, he obferves, firft, that there is
no divine precept for the baptifm of profelytes, God
having enjoined only the rite of circumcifion for the
admilfion of ftrangers into the Jewifh religion. Se¬
condly, that, amongforeign nations, the Egyptians, Per-
fians, Greeks, Romans, and others, itwascuftomarythat
thofe who were to be initiated into their myfteries, or fa¬
cred rites, ftiould be firft purified by dipping their whole
body in water. That learned writer adds, as a farther
confirmation of his opinion, that the cup of bleffing
likewife, added to the pafchal fupper, feems plainly to
have been derived from a pagan original: for the
Greeks, at their feafts, had one cup, called aompiov
ayxSy tuiftov®, the cup of the good daman or god, which
they drank at the conclufion of their entertainment,
when the table was removed. Since, then, a rite of
Gentile origin was added to one of the Jewilh facra-
ments, viz. the paflbver, there can be no abfurdity in
fuppofing, that baptifm, which was added to the other
facrament, namely circumcifion, might be derived from
the fame fource. In the laft place, he obferves, that
Chritt, in the inftitution of his facraments, paid a pe¬
culiar regard to thofe rites which were borrowed from
the Gentiles: for, rejecting circumcifion and the pafchal
fupper, he adopted into his religion baptifm and the
facred cup ; thus preparing the way for the converfion
and reception of the Gentiles into his church.
The delign of the Jewilh baptifm is fuppofed to be,
to import a regeneration, whereby the profelyte is
rendered a new man, and of a flave becomes free. The
effedft of it is, to cancel all former relations; fo that
thofe, who were before akin to the perfon, after the
ceremony ceafed to be fo. It is to this ceremony Chrift
is fuppofed to have alluded, in his expreffion to Nico-
demus, that it was neceffary he fhould be born again,
in order to become his difciple.—The neceffity of bap¬
tifm to falvation, is grounded on thofe two fayings of
our Saviour : He that Idievetk, and is baptized, Jhall
be faved; and, Except a man be born of water and of
the Spirit, he cannot enter into the kingdom of God.—
The ancients did not generally think the mere want of Opinions-
baptifm, where the procuring it was impracticable, concerning:
excluded men abfolutely from the benefit of church- nec®1I‘tVv
communion, or the hopes of eternal falvation. Some few ^ faction
of them,, indeed, are pretty fevere upon, infants dying
without baptifm and fome others feem alfo,. in ge¬
neral terms, to deny eternal life to adult perfons dying
without it: but when they interpret themfelves, and
fpeak more diftinCtly, they make fome allowances, and
except feveral cafes, in which the want of baptifm
may be fupplied with other means. Such are, martyr¬
dom, which commonly goes by the name of fecond
BAP
E:pt!fm. I apt!fin in nans own blood, in the writings of the an-
  cients ; becaufe of the power and efficacy it was thought
to have, to fave men by the invifible baptifm of the
fpirit, without the external element of water. Faith,
and repentance, were alfo efteemed a fupplement to
the want of baptifm, in fuch catechumens as died
while they were pioufly preparing themfelves for bap-
tifm. Conftantly communicating with the church, was
thought to fupply the want of baptifm, in perfons who
had been admitted to communion, on a prefumption of
their being duly baptized, though the contrary after¬
wards appeared. For infants dying without baptifm,
the cafe was thought more dangerous; as here, no
perfonal faith, repen tance, or the like, could be pleaded,
to fupply the defeft, and wafh away original fin : on
this account, they who fpoke moft favourably of them,
as Greg. Nazianzen, and Severus bilhop of Antioch,
only affigned them a middle ftate, neither in heaven
nor hell. But the Latins, as St Auguftin, Fulgentius,
Marius Mercator, &c. who never received the opinion
of a middle ftate, concluded, as they could not be re¬
ceived into heaven, they muft go to hell. Pelagius,
and his followers, who denied original fin, aflerted,
that they might be admitted to eternal life and falva-
tion, though not to the kingdom of heaven ; between
which they diftinguifhed. Where the fault was not
on the fide of the child, nor his parents, but of the
minifter, or where any unavoidable accident rendered
baptifm abfolutely impoffible, Hincmar, and others,
make an exception, in holding the child faved without
Of the time, baptifm.—The receiving baptifm is not limited to any
place, and time, or age of life. Some contend for its being ad-
ba^dfin °f miniftered like circumcifion, precifely on the eighth day,
ap 1 m’ as Greg. Nazianzen ; and others would have it deferred
till the child is three years of age, and able to hear
the myftic words, and make anfwer thereto, though
they do not underftand them. In the canon law we
find divers injundtions againft deferring the baptifm of
infants beyond the 37 th day, 30th day, and the 9th day;
fome of them under pecuniary forfeitures.
Salmafius, and Suicerus from him, deliver it as
authentic hiftory, that, for the two firft ages, no one
received baptifm, who was not firft inftrudted in the
faith and dodlrine of Chrift, fo as to be able to an¬
fwer for himfelf, that he believed ; becaufe of thofe
words, He that believeth, and is baptized; which, in
effedt, is to fay, that no infant, for the firft two ages,
was ever admitted to Chriftian baptifm. But, after¬
wards, they own, that paedo-baptifm came in, upon
the opinion that baptifm was neceffary to falvation.
But Voffius, Dr Forbes, Dr Hammond, Mr Walker,
and efpecially Mr Wall, who has exadlly confidered
the teftimony and authority of almoft every ancient
writer that has faid any thing upon this fubjedt, en¬
deavour to evince, that infants were baptized even in
the apoftolical age. It is certain, Tertullian pleads
ftrongly againft giving baptifm to infants; which ftiews,
at leaft, that there was fome fuch pradtice in his age,
tho’ he difapproved of it. It is certain, the ordinary
fubjedls of this facrament, in the firft ages, were con¬
verts from Judaifm and Gentilifm, who, before they
could be admitted to baptifm, were obliged to fpend
fome time in the ftate of catechumens, to qualify them
to make their profeffions of faith, and a Chriftian life,
in their own pevfons: for, without fuch perfonal pro-
B A P
feffions, there was ordinarily no admiffion of them -to Baptifm.' I
the privilege of baptifm.—Thofe baptized in their   ;
fick-beds were called clinici; and were held in fome re¬
proach, as not being reputed true Chriftians. Hence
feveral cenfures, in councils and ecclefiaftical w'riters,
of clinic baptifm. This clinic baptifm was not fuffi-
cient to qualify the perfon, in cafe of recovery, for
ordination. Some had their baptifm put off by way
of punilhment, w'hen they fell into grofs and fcanda-
lous crimes, which were to be expiated by a longer
courfe of difeipline and repentance. This was fome-
times 5, 10, 20 years, or more; even all their lives, to
the hour of death, when their crimes were very flagrant.
In the earlieft ages of the church, there was no ftated
time or place for the reception of baptifm. After¬
wards, Eafter, Whitfuntide, and Epiphany, became
folemn feafons, out of which baptifm was not admi-
niftered, except in cafes of neceffity. The catechu¬
mens, who were to receive it at thefe times, were called
competentes ; and to thefe it is that St Cyril addreffes
his catechefes. In the apoftolical age, and fome time
after, before churches and baptifteries were generally
ere&ed, they baptized in any place where they had
convenience; as John baptized in Jordan, and Philip
baptized the eunuch in the wildernefs, and Paul the
jailor in bis own houfe. But, in after-ages, baptifteries
were built adjoining to the church ; and then rules
were made, that baptifm ftiould ordinarily be admini-
ftered no where but in thefe buildings. Juftinian, in
one of his novels, refers to ancient laws, appointing
that none of the facred myfteries of the church ftiould
be celebrated in private houfes. Men might have pri¬
vate oratories for prayer in their own houfes; but they
were not to adminifter baptifm or the eucharift in them,
unlefs by a particular licence from the biftnop of the
place. Such baptifms are frequently- condemned in
the ancient councils, under the name xagaPaxho-pctU,
baptifms in private conventicles.
As to the attendant ceremonies and manner of bap- Ancient
tifm in the ancient church : The perfon to be baptized, ceremoniesi
if an adult, was firft examined by the bifhop, or offi¬
ciating prieft, who put fome queftions to him; as, firft.
Whether he abjured the devil and all his wmrks ; fecond-
ly, Whether he gave a firm affent to all the articles of
the Chriftian faith : to both which he anfwered in the
affirmative. If the perfon to be baptized was an in¬
fant, thefe interrogatories were anfwered by his fipon-
fores, or god-fathers. Whether the ufe of fponfors
was as old as the apoftles days, is uncertain: perhaps
it was not, fince Juftin Martyr, fpeaking of the me¬
thod and form of baptifm, fays not a word of them.—
After the queftions and anfwers, followed exorcifm; the
manner and end of which was this : The minifter laid
his hands on the perfon’s head, and breathed in his
face, implying thereby the driving away, or expelling,
of the devil from him, and preparing him for baptifm,
by which the good and holy fpirit was to be conferred
upon him.—After exorcifm, followed baptifm itfelf:
and firft the minifter, by prayer, confecrated the water
for that ufe. Tertullian fays, “ any waters may be ap-
“ plied to that ufe ; but then God muft be firft invo-
“ cated, and then the Holy Ghoft prefently comes
“ down from heaven, and moves upon them, and fanc-
“ tifies them.” The water being confecrated, the per¬
fon was baptifed ‘‘ in the name of the Father, and of
“ the
L 994 J
BAP [ 995 ] BA P
: :c]Sptifm. « the Son, and of the Holy Ghoft by which “ de-
~T “ dication of him to the bleffed Trinity, the perfon
“ (fays Clemens Alexandrianus) is delivered from the
“ corrupt trinity, the devil, the world, and the flefh.”
In performing the ceremony of baptifm, the ufual
cuftom, (except in clinical cafes, or where there was
fcarcity of water), was to immerfe and dip the whole
body. Thus St Barnabas, defcribing a baptized per¬
fon, fays, “ We go down into the water full of fin
“ and filth, but we afcend bearing fruit in our hearts.”
And this practice of baptizing naked was fo general,
that we find no exceptions made in refpef): either to
the tendernefs of infants, or the bafhfulnefs of the other
fex, unlefs in cafe of ficknefs or other difability. But,
to prevent any indecency, men and women were bap¬
tized apart. To which end, either the baptifteries
were divided into two apartments, one for the men,
the other for the women, as Bingham has obferved ;
or the men were baptized at one time, and the women
at another, as is (hewn by Voffius, from the Or do Ro¬
mania, Gregory’s Sacramentarium, &c. Add, that
there was anciently an order of deaconeffes, one part
of whofe bufinefs was to affift at the baptifm of women.
After immerfion, followed the imdlion ; by which (fays
St Cyril) was fignified, that they were now cut off
from the wild olive, and were ingrafted into Chrifi,
the true olive-tree ; or elfe to fhew, that they were
now to be champions for the gofpel, and were anointed
thereto, as the old athletae were againft their folemn
games. With this anointing was joined the fign of the
crofs, made upon the forehead of the perfon baptized;
which being done, he had a white garment given him,
to denote his being wafhed from the defilements of fin,
or in allufion to that of the apoftle, “ as many as are
baptized into Chrift have put on Chrift.” From this
cuftom the feaft of Pentecoft, which was one of the
annual feafons of baptifm, came to be called Whitfimday,
i. e. White-funday* This garment was afterwards laid
up in the church, that it might be an evidence againft
fuch perfons as violated or denied that faith which
they had owned in baptifm.—When the baptifm was
performed, the perfon baptized, according to Juftin
Martyr, “ was received into the number of the faith-
1 “ ful, who then fent up their public prayers to God,
“ for all men, for themfelves, and for thofe who had
“ been baptized.”
The ordinary minifters, who had the right of ad-
miniftering this facrament, that is, of applying the
water to the body, and pronouncing the formula, were
prefbyters, or bilhops ; though on extraordinary occa-
fions, laymen were admitted to perform the fame.
iModern As to the prefent forms of adminiftering baptifm,
■forms. the church of Rome ufes the following. When a
■In the child is to be baptized, the perfons who bring it,
■ptirreh of wajt for ^ prJeft at door of the church, who
■r ' comes thither in his furplice and purple ftole, attended
by his clerks. He begins with quettioning the god¬
fathers, whether they promife, in the child’s name, to
live and die in the true catholic and apoftolic faith, and
what name they would give the child. Then follows
an exhortation to the fponfors-; after which the prieft,
calling the child by its name, alks it as follows : /'F6at
doji thou demand of the church ? The god-father an-
fwers, Eternal life. The prieft goes on : If you are de-
Jirous of obtaining eternal life, keep God's commandments.
thou Jhalt love the Lord thy God, &c. After which he Baptifm.
breathes three times in the child’s face, faying, Come
out of this child, thou evil fpirit, and make room for the
Holy Ghojl. This faid, he makes the fign of the crofs
on the child’s forehead and breaft, faying, Receive the
fign ofthe crop, on thy forehead, and in thy.heart. Then,
taking offhis cap, he repeats a fhortprayer; and, laying
his hand gently on the child’s head, repeats a fecond
prayer: which ended, he blefles fome fait; and, putting
a little of it into the child’s mouth, pronounces thele
words, Receive the fait of nnifdom. All this is per¬
formed at the church-door. The prieft, with the god¬
fathers and god-mothers, coming into the church, and
advancing towards the font, repeat the apoftles-creed
and the Lord’s-prayer. Being come to the font, the
prkft exorcifes the evil fpirit again ; and taking a little
of his own fpittle, with the thumb of his right-hand
rubs it on the child’s ears and noftrils, repeating, as he
touches the right ear, the fame word (Ephatha, be thou,
opened) which our Saviour made ufe of to the man born
deaf and dumb. Laftly, they pull off its fwaddling-
cloaths, or ftrip it below the ftioulders, during which
the prieft prepares the oils, &c. The fponfors then
hold the child dire&ly over the font, obferving to turn
it due eaft and weft : whereupon the prieft alks the
child, Whether he renounces the devil and all his works ;
and, the god-father having anfwered in the affirmative,
the prieft anoints the child between the Ihoulders in the
form of a crofs. Then taking fome of the confecrated
water, he pours part of it thrice on the child’s head,
at each perfufion calling on one of the Perfons of the
Holy Trinity. The prieft concludes the ceremony of
baptifm with an exhortation.—The Romilh church al¬
lows midwives, in cafes of danger, to baptize a child
before it is come entirely' out of its mother’s womb:
where it is to be obferved, that fome part of the body
of the child muft appear before it can be baptized, and
that it is baptized on the part which firft appears : if
it be the head, it is not neceffary to rebaptize the child ;
but if only a foot or hand appears, it is neceffary to re¬
peat baptifm. A ftill-born child, thus baptized, may
be buried in confecrated ground.
The Greek church differs from the Romilh, as to the Tn the
rite of baptifm, chiefly, in performing it by immerfion, Greek
or plunging the infant all over in the water, which the cllufclu
relations of the child take care to have warmed, and
throw into it a calle&ion of the moft odoriferous
flowers.
The forms of adminiftering baptifm among us being Eng!i(h
too well known to require a particular defcription, we *)rm in
lhall only mention one or two of the more material dif-
ferences between the form, as it flood in the firft litur¬
gy of King Edward, and that in the Englilh Com¬
mon-Prayer Book at prefent. Firft, the form ofcon-
fecrating the water did not make a part of the office,
in King Edward’s liturgy', as it does in the prefent, be-
caufe the water in the font was changed, and confe¬
crated, but once a month. The form likewife itfelf
was fomething different from that now ufed; and was
introduced with a fliort prayer, that Jefis Chrif, upon
whom (when he was baptized) the Holy Ghoft came down
in the likenefs of a dove, would fend down the fame Holy
Spirit, to fanflify the fountain of baptifm-} which prayer
was afterwards left out, at the fecond review.—By
King Edward’s firft book, the minifter is to dip the
child
BAP
[ 996 ]
BAP
child in the water thrice ; firft, dipping the right fide;
^ fecondly, the left; the third time, dipping the face to¬
ward the font. This trine irfimerfion was a very an¬
cient praftice in the Chriftian church, and ufed in ho¬
nour of the Holy Trinity ; though fome later writers
fay, it was done to reprefent the death, burial, and re-
furreftion, of Cbrift, together with his three days con¬
tinuance in the grave. Afterwards, the Arians ma¬
king an ill ufe of it, by perfuading the people that it
Avas ufed to denote that the three Perfons in the Tri¬
nity were three diftinft fubftances, the orthodox left it
off, and ufed only one Angle immerfion.
By the firft common-prayer of king Edward, after
the child was baptized, the godfathers and godmothers
were to lay their hands upon it, and the minifter was
to put on him the white veftment commonly called the
chryfome, and to fay, “ Take this white vefture, as a
token of the innocency, which, by God’s grace, in
this holy facrament of baptifm, is given unto thee ;
and for a fign, whereby thou art admonilhed, fo long as
thou liveft, to give thyfelf to innocence of living, that
after this tranfitory life thou mayed be partaker of
the life everlading. Amen.” As foon as he had pro¬
nounced thefe words, he was to anoint the infant on
the head, faying, “ Almighty God, the father of our
Lord Jefus Chrid, who hath regenerated thee by wa¬
ter and the Holy Ghod, and hath given unto thee re=-
miffion of all thy fins ; may he vouchfafe to anoint thee
who die without it will not rife again. It mud be Baptifro.
added, he redrains this effedt to epifcopal baptifm alone.
From the effe&s ordinarily afcribed to baptifm, even
by ancient writers, it Ihould feem, that the ceremony
is as much of heathen as Jewifh origin ; fince Chri-
dians do not redrain the ufe of it, like the Jews, to
the admiffion of new members into the church, but
hold, with the heathens, a virtue in it for remitting
and walking away fins. The bramins are dill faid to
baptize with this latter view, at certain feafons, in the
river Ganges ; to the waters whereof they have an¬
nexed a cleanfing or fadtifying quality: and hence it is
that they flock from all parts, even of Tartary, dri¬
ven by the expedition of their being eafed of their
load of fins. But, in this point, many Chridians feem
to have gone beyond the folly of the heathens. It
was Only the fmaller fins of infirmity which thefe lat¬
ter held to be Cxpiable by waffling; for crimes of a
blacker dye, they allowed no water could efface them,
no purgation, could difeharge them. The Chridian
dodtrine of a total remiffion of fins by baptifm could
not fail, therefore, to fcandalize many among the
heathens, and furniftied Julian an occafion of fatyri-
fing Chridianityitfelf: Whoever, fays he, is guilty of
rapes, murders, facrilege, or any abominable crime,
let him be walked with water, and he will become pure
and holy.
In the ancient church, baptifm was frequently
with the undlion of his Holy Spirit, and bring thee to ferred on Jews by violence : but the church itfelf never
the inheritance of everlading life. Amen.” This was
manifedly done in imitation of the pradlice of the pri¬
mitive church.
The cudom of fprinkling children, indead of dip¬
ping them in the font, which at fird was allowed
feems to have allowed of force on this occafion. By
a canon of the fourth council of Toledo, it is exprefs-
ly forbid to baptize any againd their wills. That
which looks mod like force, in this cafe, allowed by
law, were two orders of Judinian ; one of which ap-
cafe of the weaknefs or ficknefs of the infant, has fo points the heathens, and the other Samaritans, to be
far prevailed, that immerfion is at length quite exclu¬
ded. What principally tended to confirm the pra&ice
of affulfion or fprinkling, was, that feveral of our Pro-
tedant divines, flying into Germany and Switzerland
during the bloody reign of queen Mary, and returning
home when queen Elizabeth came to the crown, brought
back with them a great zeal for the Protedant churches
beyond fea, where they had been fheltered and received;
baptized, with their wives and children, and fervants,
under pain of confifcation. By the ancient laws, bap¬
tifm was not to be conferred on image-makers.
dage-
players, gladiators, aurigx or public drivers, magi¬
cians, or even drolling beggars, till they quitted fuch
profeffions. Slaves were not allowed the privilege of
baptifm without the tedimony and confent of their
maders ; excepting the flaves of Jews, heathens, and
and having obferved, that, at Geneva and fome other heretics, who were not only admitted to baptifm, but, 1-
Bingham
Orig. Ecct.
places, baptifm was adminidered by fprinkling, they
thought they could not do the church of England a
greater piece of fervice than by introducing a pra&ice
di&ated by fo great an oracle as Calvin. This, toge¬
ther with the coldnefs of our northern climate, was what
contributed to banifh entirely the practice of dipping
infants in the font.
Many different notions have been entertained con¬
confequence thereof, had their freedom. Vollius
has a learned and elaborate work, De Baptifmo; where¬
in he accurately difeuffes all the quedions concerning
baptifm, according to the do&rine of the ancients.
Baptism by E/r?, fpoken of by St John the Baptid,
has occafioned much conjedture. The generality of
the fathers held, that believers, ere they enter paradife,
are to pafs through a certain fire, which is to purify
§4. 1. 8.
c. 11. §17
concerning cerning the effedls of baptifm, which it would be endlefs them from all pollutions remaining on them unexpia-
t llC f) f M .« MM .c /-v n n *-> <4 C! n n mo L o«T r T«- L O 4. T5 „ ] /I  ] 'a. - C A 1 _ C“ 
theefFefts of to enumerate.—The Remonffrants and Socinians re¬
ap l m. ftiu-p hantlfm to a mere fiom of divine wraee. The
duce baptifm to a mere fign of divine grace.
Romanids, on the contrary, exalt its power ; holding,
that all fin is entirely taken away by it; that it abfo-
lutely confers the grace of judification, and confe-
ted. Others, with St Bafil, underdand it of the fire
of hell ; others, of that of tribulation and temptatiop-
Others, with St Chryfodom, will have it denote an a-
bundance of graces. Others fuppofe it to mean the de-
feent of the Holy Ghod on the apodles, in form of
quently grace ex opere operato. Some alfo fpeak of fiery tongues. Ladly, others maintain, that the word/re,
an indelible charadler impreffed on the foul by it, called here, is an interpolation ; and that we are only to read
character dominicus, and character regius: but this is
held, by others, a mere fpeftre; for that the fpiritual
chara&er, conferred in regeneration, may eafily be
effaced by mortal fins. Dodwell maintained, that it
the text. He that Jhall come after ?>ie ’will baptize you
’with the Holy Ghoft. In reality, it is not found in di¬
vers manufeript copies of St Matthew.
The ancient Seleucians and Hermians, underdand-
is by baptifm the foul is made immortal; fo that thofe ing the paflage literally, maintained, that material fire
'
BAP [ 997 ] BAP
was neceflary in the adminiftration of baptifm. But
we do not find how, or to what part of the body, they
applied it, or whether they were fatisfied with obliging
the perfon baptized to pafs through the fire. Valentinus
re-baptized all who had received water-baptifm, and
conferred on them the baptifm of fire.
Bis docuit tingi, traduBoque corpore flarrima. .
, Tertull. Carm. contr. Marc. I. i.
Heracleon, cited by Clemens Alexandrinus, fays, that
| fome applied a red-hot iron to the ears of the perfon
baptized, as if to imprefs fome mark upon him.
Baptism-c/" the Dead; a cufiom which anciently pre¬
vailed among fome people in Africa, of giving baptifm
to the dead. The third council of Carthage fpeaks of
it as a thing that ignorant Chriftians were fond of.
Gregory Nazianzen alfo takes notice"of the fame fuper-
ftitious opinion prevailing among feme who delayed to
be baptized. In his addrefs to this kind of men, he
afks, whether they ftaid to be baptized after death ?
Philaltrius alfo notes it as the general error of the Mon-
tanifts or Cataphrygians, that they baptized men after
death. The practice feems to be grounded on a vain
opinion, that, when men had neglefted to receive bap¬
tifm in their life-time, fome compenfation might be
made for this default by receiving it after death.
Baptism of the Dead was alfo a fort of vicarious
baptifm, formerly in ufe, where a perfon dying with¬
out baptifm, another was baptized in his (lead.
St Chryfoftom tells us, this was praftifed among
the Marcionites with a great deal of ridiculous cere¬
mony ; which he thus defcribes : After any catechu¬
men was dead, they hid a living man under the bed of
thedeceafed; then coming to the dead man, they allced
him, whether he would receive baptifm ? and he ma¬
king no anfwer, the other anfwered for him, and faid,
he would be baptized in his Head : and fo they bap¬
tized the living for the dead.
Epiphanius allures us, the like was alfo pra&ifed a-
mong the Corinthians. This praftice they pretended
to found on the apoftle’s authority ; alleging that text
of St Paul for it, If the dead rife not at all, nvhat Jhall
they do <who are baptized for the dead? A text which
has given occafion to a great variety of different fyftems
and explications. Bofius enumerates no lefs than nine
different opinions, among learned divines, concerning
the fenfe of the phrafe being baptized for the dead.
St Ambrofe, and Walafred Strabo, feem clearly of
opinion, that the apoftle had refpeft to fuch a cuftom
then in being; and feveral moderns have given into the
fame opinion, as Baronius, Jof. Scaliger, juftellus, and
Grotius.
Several among the Roman-catholics, as Bellarmin,
Salmeron, Menochius, and a number of fchoolmen, un-
derftand it of the baptifm of tears, and penance, and
prayers, which the living undergo for the dead ; and
thus allege it as a proof of the belief of purgatory in
St Paul’s days.
Hypothetical Baptism, that formerly adminiftered in
certain doubtful cafes, with this formula : If thou art
baptized, I do not rebaptize ; if thou art not, I baptize
thee in the name of the Father, &c. This fort of bap¬
tifm, enjoined by fome ancient conftitutions of the Eng-
lilh church, is now fallen into difufe.
Solemn Baptism, that conferred at Hated feafons ;
fuch, in the ancient church, were the Pafchal baptifm,
Vox.. II.
and that at Whitfuntide. This is fometimes alfo called Baptifm,
general baptifm. BaPtifaaJ-
Z^v-Baptism, we find to have been permitted by
both the Common-Prayer Books of King Edward, and
that of Queen Elizabeth, when an infant is in imme¬
diate danger of death, and a lawful minifter cannot
be had. This was founded upon the miitaken notion
of the impoffibility of falvation without the facrament
of baptifm : but afterwards, when they came to have
clearer notions of the facraments, it was unanimoufiy
refolved in a convocation, held in the year 1575, that
even private baptifm, in a cafe of necefiity, was only
to be adminillered by a lawful miniller.
Baptism is alfo applied, abufively, to certain cere¬
monies ufed in giving names to things inanimate.
The ancients knew nothing of the cuftom of giving
baptifm to inanimate things, as bells, fhips, and the
like, by a fuperftitious confecration of them. The firft:
notice we have of this is in the Capitulars of Charles
the Great, where it is only mentioned to be cenfured:
but, afterwards, it crept into the Roman offices by de¬
grees. Baronius carries its antiquity no higher than
the year 968, when the greateft bell of the church of
Lateran was chriftened by Pope John III. At lall it
grew to that fuperftitious height, as to be thought pro¬
per to be complained of in the Centum Gravamina of
the German nation, drawn up in the public diet of the
empire held at Norimberg anno 1581 ; where (after
having defcribed the ceremony of baptizing a bell, with
god-fathers, who make refponfes as in baptifm, and
ive it a name, and clothe it with a new garment as
hriftians were ufed to be clothed, and all this to make
it capable of driving away tempefts and devils), they
conclude againft it, as not only a fuperftitious pra&ice,
but contrary to the Chriftian religion, and a mere fe-
duftion of the Ample people.
Baptism, in the fea-language, a ceremony in long
voyages on board merchant fhips, pra&ifed both on
perfons and veffels who pafs the tropic or line for the
firft time. The baptizing the veffel is Ample, and
confifts only in wafliing them throughout with fea-
water; that of the paffengers is more myfterious. The
oldeft of the crew, that has pall the tropic or line,
comes with his face blacked, a grotefque cap on his
head, and fome fea-book in his hand, followed by the
reft of the feamen dreffed like himfelf, each having
fome kitchen utenfil in his hand, with drums beating;
he places himfelf on a feat on the deck, at the foot of
the main maft. At the tribunal of this mock magi-
ftrate, each paffenger not yet initiated, fwears he will
take care the fame ceremony be obferved, whenever he is
in the likecircumftances: Then, by giving a little money
by way of gratification, he is difcharged with a little
fprinkling of water; otherwife he is heartily drenched
withftreamsof water poured upon him: and the fhip-
boys are inclofed in a cage, and ducked at difcretion.
—The feamen, on the baptizing a fliip, pretend to a
right of cutting off the beak-head, unlefs redeemed by
the captain.
BAPTISMAL, fomething belonging to baptifm ;
thus, we fay, baplifmal vow, prefents, &c.
Baptismal Vo*w, or Covenant, a profeffionof obe¬
dience to the laws of Chriit, which perfons in the an¬
cient church made before baptifm. It was an indif-
penfable part of the obligation on catechumens, before
r 6 K they
BAP [ 998 ] BAR
Baptifmal they were admitted to the ceremony of regeneration.
It was made by turning to the Eaft ; for what myfti-
cal reafons, is not well agreed on.
Baptismal Prefents are in ufe in Germany, made
by the fponfors to the infant, confiding of money,
plate, or even fometimes fiefs of lands ; which by the
laws of the country are to be kept for the child till of
age, the parents having only the truft, not the right
of difpofing of them. An anonymous author has pub-
liihed a ditcourfe exprefs on this occalion, entitled, De
pecunia lujirica.
BAPTISTS, in church hiftory, the name by which
•Set Ana- the Anabaptifts love to diftinguifh themfelves *.
aptijts. BAPTISTERY, in eccldiaftical writers, a place
in which the ceremony of baptifm is performed.
In the ancient church it was one of the exedrae or
buildings diftindt from the church itfelf; and confided
of a porch or anti-room where the perfons to be bap¬
tized made their confeffion of faith, and an inner room
where the ceremony of baptifm was performed. Thus
it continued till the fixth century, when the baptideries
began to be taken into the church-porch, and after¬
wards into the church itfelf.
The ancient baptideries were commonly called
*■»£<«, photijieria, q. d. places of illumination ; an ap¬
pellation fometimes given to baptifm. Or, they might
have the name for another reafon, bec^ufe they were
the places of an illumination, or indrudtion, preceding
baptifm : for here the catechumens feem to have been
trained up, and indrudted in the fird rudiments of the
Chridian faith.
Thofe baptideries were anciently very capacious ;
becaufe, as Dr Cave obferves, the dated times of bap¬
tifm returning but feldom, there were ufually great
multitudes to be baptized at the fame time : and then
the manner of baptizing, by immerfion, or dipping
under water, made it neceflary to have a large font
likewife. In Venantius Fortunatus, it is called aula
laptifmatis, the large hall of baptifm ; which was in¬
deed fo capacious, that we fometimes read of councils
meeting and fitting therein. This hall, or chapel, was
always kept dint during Lent, and the door fealed up
with the bilhop’s feal, not to be opened till Maunday-
Thurfday.
The baptidery was always reputed a facred place.
In the Roman order, we find the ceremonies ufed in
the confecration of the baptideries : they were to be
built of a round figure, and didinguifhed with the
image of St John the Baptid ; over the bafon or font
was a figure of a dove in gold or filver, to reprefent
the Holy Ghod.
The name baptijlery is fometimes alfo given to a kind
of chapel in a large church, which ferved for the fame
office. It is an obfervation of fome learned men, that
anciently there was but one baptidery in a city, and
that at the blfhop’s church ; and that afterwards they
were fet up in parilh churches, with the fpecialallow-
■ ance however of the bifliop.
BAR, in a general fenfe, denotes a flender piece of
wood, or iron, for keeping things clofe together.
Bar, in courts of judice, an inclofure made with a
drong partition of timber, where the council are pla¬
ced to plead caufes. It is alfo applied to the benches
where the lawyers or advocates arefeated, becaufe an¬
ciently there was a bar to feparate the pleaders from
the attorneys and others. Hence our lawyers who are Bar.
called to the bar, or licenfed to plead, are termed bar-
rijlers, an appellation equivalent to licentiate in other
countries.
Bar, or Barr, (Latin barra, and in French barre),
in a legal fenfe, is a plea or peremptory exception of a
defendant, fufficient to dedroy the plaintiff’s adtion.
And it is divided into bar to common intendment, and
bar fpecial ; bar temporary, and perpetual. Bar to a
common intendment is an ordinary or general bar,which
ufually difableth the declaration of the plaintiff; bar
fpecial is that which is more than ordinary, and falls
out upon fome fpecial circumdance of the fa<d as to
the cafe in hand. Terms de Ley. Bar temporary is
fuch a bar as is good for the prefent, but may after¬
wards fail; and bar perpetual is that which overthrows
the adlion of the plaintiff for ever.
Bar, in heraldry, an ordinary in form of the fefs,.
but much lefs. See Heraldry, n° 22.
Bar, in the menage, the highed part of that place
of a horfe’s mouth iituated between the grinders and
tulhes, fo that the part of the mouth which lies under
and at the fide of the bars retains the name of the
gum. A horfe with feufible bars has a fine light mouth,
with an even and firm appui. See Appui.
To Bar a Vein, in farriery, is an operation performed
upon the veins of the legs of a horfe and other parts,
with intent to hop the malignant humours. It is done
by opening the ikin above it, difengaging it, and ty¬
ing it both above and below, and driking between the
two ligatures.
Bar, in mufic, a droke drawn perpendicularly a-
crofs the lines of a piece of mufic, including between
each two a certain quantity or meaiureof time, which
is various as the time of the mufic is either triple or
common. In common time, between each two bars is
included the meafure of four crotchets ; in triple, three.
The principal ufe of bars is to regulate the beating of
time in a concert. The ufe of bars is not to be traced
higher than the time when the Engliih tranflation of
Adrian le Roy’s book on the Tablature was publifhed,
viz. the year 1574 ; and it was fome time after that,
before the ufe of bars became general. To come nearer
to the point, Barnard’s cathedral mufic, printed in
1641, is without bars: but bars are to be found
throughout in the Ayres and Dialogues of Henry Lawes
publilhed in 1653; from whence it may be conjedtured
that we owe to Lawes this improvement.
Bar, in hydrography, denotes a bank of fand, or
other matter, whereby the mouth of a river is in a
manner choaked up.
The term bar is alfo ufed for a ftrong beam where¬
with the entrance of a harbour is fecured : This is more
commonly called boom.
Bar, among printers, denotes a piece of iron with
a wooden handle, whereby the ferew of the prefs is
turned in printing. See Printing.
Bars of Iron, are made of the metal of the fows and
pigs as they come from the furnace. Thefe pafs thro’
two forges called the finery and the chaufery ; where,
undergoing live feveral heats, they are formed into
bars.
BAR, a very ftrong city of Podolia in Poland upon
the river Kiow. E. Long. 28. 30. N. Lat. 50. 6.
Bar, a duchy of France, bounded on the eaft by
Lorrain,
BAR [ 999 j BAR
Bal' Lorrain, on the north by Luxembourg, on the weft
ara i'va! r ^ Champagne, on the fouth by part of the fame coun-
 1L try and by Franche Compte. It is crofted by the
river Meufe from north to fouth, and watered by fe-
veral other rivers, which render it very fertile. It is
divided into four balliages, viz. Baffilyni, Bar, St Mi¬
chael, and Clermont. The chief towns are Bar-le-duc,
Clermont, St Michael, Longuey, Pont a Moufibn, and
Stenay. In 1736, it was given to Staniflaus then king
of Poland.
BAR-/e-Z)«f, the capital of the duchy of Bar, feated
on the declivity of a hill. It is divided into the higher
and lower town : the lower is watered by the rivulet
Ortsey, which abounds with excellent trouts. The
wines are excellent, and not inferior to thofe of Cham¬
pagne. E. Long. 5. 30. N. Lat. 48. 35.
Bar-le-IVlotit, a town of the French Netherlands,
in Hainault, fituated on the river Sombre. E. Long.
3. 40. N. Lat. 50. to.
Bar fur Aube, an ancient town of France, feated
at the foot of a mountain. E. Long. 4. 50. N. Lat.
48. 14.
BAay«r Seine, a town of France, in the duchy of
Burgundy, feated between a mountain which covers it
on the well, and the river Seine, which runs on the
call. E. Long. 4. 30. N. Lat. 48. 5.
'Rk'i.-Majler, among miners, the perfon who keeps
the gage, or difli, for meafuring the ore.
BARABINZIANS, a tribe of Tartars, living on
both Tides the river Irtis. They feem to derive their name
from the Barabaian defart, whofe lakes fupply them a-
bundantly with iiih, on which, and their cattle, they
chiefly fubfift. They have plenty of game and wild¬
fowl of every kind, particularly ducks and puffins.
Moil of them are heathens, but Mahometanifm daily
gains ground among them. Some of them pay tribute
to the emprefs of Ruffia, and others to the Khan Taiftia.
BARACOA, a town in the north-eaft part of the
ifland of Cuba. W. Long. 76. 10. N. Lat. 21.5.
BARALIPTON, among logicians, a term deno¬
ting the firft indiredlmode of the firft figure of fyllogifm.
A fyllogifm in baralipton, is when the two firft pro-
pofitions are general, and the third particular, the mid¬
dle term being the fubjeA in the firft propofition, and
the predicate in the fecond. The following is of this
kind :
B a. Every evil ought to be feared ;
r a. Every violent pafiion is an evil;
l 1 p. Therefore fomethingthat oughtto befeared
is a violent pafiion.
BAR ALLOTS, in church-hiftory, a fedt of he¬
retics at Bologna in Italy, who had all things in com-
' mon, even their wives and children.—Their facility in
complying with all manner of debauchery made them
get the name obedientes, compilers.
BARANCA de malambo, a town of Terra Firma
in America, with a bilhop’s fee, and a good haven.
It is a place of great trade, and is feated on the river
Magdaleine. W. Long. 75. 30. N. Lat. it. 10.
BAR ANGI, officers among the Greeks of the lower
empire. Cujas calls them in Latin proteftires, and o-
thers give them the name of fecurigeri. It was their
bufinefs to keep the keys of the city-gates, where the
emperor refided.
BARANWAHR, a town of Lower Hungary, in
a county of the fame name, taken by the emperor of ^arathnim
Germany from the Turks in 1684. It is feated be- II
tween Buda and Belgrade, in E. Long. 20. 5. N. Lat. ar.’a ocs'.
46. o.
BARATHRUM, in antiquity, a deep dark pit at
Athens, into which condemned perfons vrere caft head*
long. It had fharp fpikes at the top, that no man
might efcape out ; and others at the bottom, to pierce
and torment fuch as wTere caft in.
BARATZ, (Turkilh), letters-patent granted by
the Turkifh emperors to the Greek patriarch, bifhops,
&c. for the exercife of their ecclefiaftical funftions.
This Baraiz gives the bilhops full power and autho¬
rity to eftablilh and depofe the inferior clergy, and all
other religious perfons; to grant licences for marriages,
and iffue out divorces ; to col left the revenues belong¬
ing to the churches ; to receive the pious legacies be¬
queathed to them ; in fhort, to enjoy all the privileges
and advantages belonging to their high ftation : and
all this (as it is expreffed in the baratz itfelf) according
to the vain and idle ceremonies of the Chri/lians.
BARB, or Barbe, a horfe brought from Barbary*. *See£guusi
BARBA, in botany, a fpecies of pubes, or down,
with which the furface of fome plants is covered. The
term was invented by Linnaeus, and made its appear¬
ance in the Delineatio Plants, without any explana¬
tion. Its meaning, therefore, has not been accurately
afeertained: though, by its application in the Species
Plantarum, it feemsto fignify a tuft or bunch of ttrong
hairs terminating the leaves. Mefcmbryanihetnum bar*
batum, furnifhes an example.
The word is alfo often ufed in compofition with
fomc other, to form the trivial names of feveral plants,
as barb a jovis, barba capme, &c.
BARBACAN, or Barbican, an outer defence or
fortification to a city or caftle, ufed efpecially as a fence
to the city or walls; alfo, an aperture made in the wall
of a fortrefs, to fire through upon the enemy.
Barbacan is alfo ufed to denote a fort at the en¬
trance of a bridge, or the outlet of a city, having a
double wall with towers.
BARBADOE8, the moft eafterly of all the Carib-
bee Iflands, fubjeft to Great Britain, and, according to
the beft geographers, lying between 59. 50. and 60. 2.
of weft longitude, and between 12. 56. and 13. 16. of
north latitude. Its extent is not certainly known: the
moft general opinion is, that it is 25 miles from north
to fouth, aod 15 from eaft to weft ; but thefe menfu-
rations are fubjeft to fo many difficulties and uncer¬
tainties, that it will perhaps convey a more adequate
idea of this ifland, to tell the reader, that in reality it
does not contain above 107,000 acres. The climate is
hot, but not unwholtfome, the heat being qualified by
fea-breezes ; and a temperate regimen renders this
ifland as fafe to live in, as any climate fouth of Great
Britain ; and, according to the opinion of many, as
even Great Britain itfelf. This ifland has on its eaft
fide two ftreams that are called rivers, and in the middle
is faid to have a bituminous fpring which fends forth a
liquor like tar, and ferves for the fame ufes as pitch or
lamp-oil. The ifland abounds in wells of good water,
and has feveral refervoirs for rain-water. Some parts
of the foil are faid to be hollowed into caves, fome of
them capable of containing 300 people. Thefe are
imagined to have been the lurking places of runaway
6 K 2 negroes,
BAR [ 1000 ] BAR
Barbadoes. negroes, but may as probably be natural excavations.
— The woods that formerly grew upon the illand have
been all cut down, and the ground converted into fu-
gar plantations. When thofe plantations were firft
formed, the foil was prodigioufly fertile, but has fince
been worn out, infomuch, that about the year 1730,
the planters were obliged to raife cattle for the fake of
their dung, by which means the profit of their planta¬
tions was reduced to lefs than a tenth of its ufual value.
Notwithllanding the fmallnefs of Barbadoes, its foil is
different; being in fome places fandy and light, in o-
thers rich, and in others fpungy; but all of it is culti¬
vated according to its proper nature, fo that the ifland
prefents to the eye the moft beautiful appearance that
can be imagined. Oranges and lemons grow in Bar¬
badoes in great plenty, and in their utmoit perfedlion.
The lemon juice here has a peculiar fragrancy. The
citrons of Barbadoes afford the beft drams and fweet-
meats of any in the world, the Barbadoes ladies excel¬
ling in the art of preferving the rhind of the citron
fruit. The juice of the limes, or dwarf lemons, is the
moft agreeable fouring we know, and great quantities
of it have of late been imported into Britain and Ire¬
land. The pine apple is alfo a native of Barbadoes,
and grows there to much greater perfection than it can
be made to do in Europe by any artificial means. A
vaft number of different trees peculiar to the climate are
alfo found to flourifh in Barbadoes in great perfection;
fuch as the aloe, mangrove, calabafh, cedar, cotton,
maftic, &c. Here likewife are produced fome fenfi-
tive plants, with a good deal of garden fluff, which is
common in other places. In fhort, a native of the fineft,
the richeft, and moft diverfified country in Europe, can
hardly form an idea of the variety of delicious and at
the fame time nutritive vegetable productions with
which this ifland abounds.
When Barbadoes was firft difcovered by the Englifh,
few or no quadrupeds were found upon it, except hogs,
which had been left there by the Portuguefe. For con¬
venience of carriage to the fea-fide, fome of the planters
at firft procured camels; which undoubtedly would in
all refpeCls have been preferable to horfes for their fu-
ar and other works; but the nature of the climate
ifagreeing with that animal, it was found impoffible
to preferve the breed. They then applied for horfes to
Old and New England: from the former they had
thofe that were fit for fhew and draughts; from the
latter thofe that were proper for mounting their mi¬
litia, and for the faddle. They had likewife fo'me of
an inferior breed from Curaflao, and other fettle-
ments. They are reported to have had their firft
breed of black cattle from Bonavifta and the ifle of
May; they now breed upon the ifiand, and often
do the work of horfes. Their afies are very fer-
viceable in carrying burdens to and from the planta¬
tions. The hogs of Barbadoes are finer eating than
thofe of Britain, but the few ftieep they have are not
near fo good. They likewife have goats, which when
young are excellent food. Racoons and monkies are
alfo found here in great abundance. A variety of birds
are produced on Barbadoes, of which the humming
bird is the moft remarkable. Wild fowl do not often
frequent this ifland; but fometimes teal are found near
their ponds. A bird which they call the man of war,
is faid to meet fhips at 20 leagues from land, and their
return is, to the inhabitants, a fure fign of the arrival Barb
of thefe fhips. When the wind blows from the fouth  
and fouth-weft, they have flocks of curlews, plovers,
fnipes, wild pigeons, and wild ducks. The wild pi¬
geons are very fat and plentiful at fuch feafons, and
rather larger than thofe of England. The tame pi¬
geons, pullets, ducks, and poultry of all kinds, that
are bred at Barbadoes, have alfo a fine flavour, and are
accounted more delicious than thofe of Europe. Their
rabbits are fcarce; they have no hares; and if they have
deer of any kind, they are kept as curiofities. The in-
fedls of Barbadoes are not venomous, nor do either their
fnakes or fcorpions ever fling. The mufkettoes are trou-
blefome, and bite; but are more tolerable in Barba.ioes
than on the continent. Various other infe&s are found
on the ifland, fome of which are troublefome, but in
no greater degree than thofe that are produced by e-
very warm fummer in England. Barbadoes is well fup-
plied with fifh; and fome caught in the fea furrounding
it are ahnoft peculiar to itfelf; fuch as the parrot-fifh,
fnappers, grey cavallos, terbums, and coney-fifh. The
mullets, lobfters, and crabs, caught here are excellent;
and the green turtle is perhaps the greateft delicacy
that ancient or modern luxury can boall of. At Barba¬
does this delicious fhell-fifh feldom fells for lefs than a
fhilling a pound, and often for more. There is found
in this ifland a kind of land-crab which eats herbs
wherever it can find them, and fhelters itfelf in houfes
and hollows of trees. According to report, they are a
fhell-fifh of pafiage; for in March they travel to the fea
in great numbers. See Cancer.
The inhabitants may be reduced to three clafles,
viz. the mailers, the white fervants, and the blacks.
The former are either Englifh, Scots, or Irifh : but
the great encouragement given by government to the
peopling of this and other Weft India iflands induced
fome Dutch, French, Portuguefe, and Jews, to fettle
among them with their eflates ; by which, after a cer¬
tain time, they acquire the rights of naturalization in
Great Britain. The white fervants, whether by cove¬
nant or purchafe, lead more eafy lives than the dtiy-
labourers in England; and when they come to be qver-
feers, their wages and other allowances are confiderable.
As to the treatment of the negro Haves in this and
the other iflands, that falls to be fpoken of under the
articles Negro, Slave, West-Ikdies; which fee..
The manners of the white inhabitants, in general, are
the fame as in moft polite towns and countries in Eu¬
rope. The capital of the ifland is called Bridge-Town;
fee that article.
As the hiftory of this ifland furnifhes no very remark¬
able events, the following fhort hints concerning it
may fuffice.
When the Englifh, fome time after the year 1625,
firft landed here, they found it the moft favage and
deftitute place they had hitherto vifited. , It had not
the leaft appearance of ever having been peopled even
by favages. There was no kind of beafls of pafture
or of prey, no fruit, no herb, nor root fit for fupport-
ing the life of man. Yet as the climate was fo good,
and the foil appeared fertile, fome gentlemen of fmall
fortune in England refolved to become adventurers
thither. The trees were fo large, and of a wood fa.
hard and ftubborn, that it was with great difficulty they
could clear as much ground as was neceflary for their
fubfiftence*
BAR [ iooi] BAR
tybadoes fubfifterice. By unremitting perfeverance, however,
arb W t^e^r ^>rou§^t lt; to yield them a tolerable fupport; and
ar ari m' they found that cotton and indigo agreed well with
the foil; and that tobacco, which was beginning to come
into repute in England, anfwered tolerably. Thefe
profpefts, together with the ftorm between the king
and parliament, which was beginning to break out in
England, induced many new adventurers to tranfport
themfelves into this ifland. And what is extremely
remarkable, fo great was the increafe of people in Bar-
badoes, 25 years after its firil fettlement, that in 1650
it contained more than 50,000 whites, and a much
greater number of negro and Indian flaves. The latter
they acquired by means not at all to their honour : for
they feized upon all thofe unhappy men, without any
pretence, in the neighbouring iflands, and carried them
into flavery ; a pradlice, which has rendered the Car-
ribee Indians irreconcileable to us ever fince. They
I had begun a little before this, to cultivate fugar, which
foon rendered them extremely wealthy. The number
of flaves, therefore, was ftill augmented ; and in 1676
a it is fuppofed that their number amounted to 100,000,
which, together with 50,000 whites, make 150,000 on
this fmall fpot: a degree of population unknown in Hol¬
land, in China, or any other part of the world moft re¬
nowned for numbers. At this time Barbadoes em¬
ployed 400 fail of fliips, one with another, of 150 tons
in their trade. Their annual exports in fugar, indigo,
ginger, cotton, and citron-water, were above 350,0001.
and their circulating cafli at home was 200,000 1.
Such was the increafe of population, trade, and wealth,
in the courfe of 50 years. But fince that time this
ifland has been much on the decline ; which is to be
attributed partly to the growth of the French fugar-
colonies, and partly to our own eftablilhments in the
neighbouring ifles. Their numbers at prefent are faid
to be 20,000 whites, and 100,000 flaves. Their com¬
merce confifts of the fame articles as formerly, though
they deal in them to lefs extent.
BARBADOES-Thr, a mineral fluid of the nature^of
the thicker fluid bitumens, of a naufeous bitteriih tafte,
very llrong and difagreeable fmell, found in many parts
of America trickling down the Tides of the mountains,
and fometimes floating on the furface of the waters.
It has been greatly recommended in coughs, and other
diforders of the breall and lungs.
BARBARA, among logicians, the firft mode of
the firll figure of fyllogifms. A fyllogifm in barbara
is one whereof all the propofitions are univerfal and
affirmative ; the middle term being the fubjeft of the
firft propofition, and attribute in the fecond. For ex¬
ample:
Bar. Every wicked man is miferable ;
Ba. All tyrants are wicked men ;
Ra. Therefore all tyrants are miferable.
BARBARIAN, a name given by the ancient
Greeks and Romans to all who were not of their own
country, or were not initiated in their language, man¬
ners, and cuftoms.—In this fenfe, the word fignified with
them no more than foreigner ; not fignifying, as among
us, a wild, rude, or uncivilized perfon.
BARBARISM, in a general fenfe, a rudenefs of
language or behaviour.
Barbarism, in grammar, an offence againft the
purity of ftyle or language; or an ungrammatical way
of fpeaking or writing, contrary to the true idiom of Barbaiium
any particular language. II
BARBARIUM, (anc. geogr), a promontory of ^arliarlis'
Lufitania, to the fouth of the mouth of the Tagus;
now called Cabo de Efpichel. W. Long. 6°. N, Lat. 37°.
BARBAROSSA, (Aruch, and Hayradin), two
famous corfairs, the fons of a potter in the ifle of Lef-
bos; who, turning pirates, carried on their depredations
with fuch fuccefs and conduct, that they were foon
poffeffed of twelve galleys beiide fmaller veffels. Of
this fleet Aruch the elder brother, called Barbarojfa
from the rednefs of his beard, was admiral, and Hay¬
radin the fecond in command : they called themfelves
the friends of the fea, and the enemies of all •who failed
upon it; and their names became terrible from the (traits
of Dardanelles to thofe of Gibraltar. With fuch a
power they wanted an eftablifhment; and the opportu¬
nity of fettling themfelves offered in 1516, by the in-
confiderate application of Eutemi king of Algiers to
them for affiftance againft the Spaniards. Aruch, lea¬
ving his brother to command the fleet, carried 5000 men
to Algiers, where he was received as their deliverer;
and fecretly murdering the prince he came to aid,cau-
fed himfelf to be proclaimed king in his dead. To this
ufurpation he added the conqueft of Tremecen ; when
his exploits and piracies induced the emperor Charles
V. to furnifh the marquis de Gomarez governor of
Oran with troops to fupprefs him ; by whom he was
defeated and killed near Tremecen. His brother Hay¬
radin, known alfo by the name of Barbarojfa, affumed
the feeptre at Algiers with the fame abilities, and with
better fortune; for the Spaniards, fufficiently employed
in Europe, giving him nodifturbance, he regulated the
interior police of his kingdom with great prudence,
carried on his naval operations with vigour, and ex¬
tended his conquefts on the continent of Africa. He
put his dominions under the protedlion of the-Grand
Signior, Solyman the Magnificent; and obtained the
command of the Turkifh fleet. With fo ^powerful a
protedlor, he acquired the kingdom of Tunis in a man¬
ner fimilar to that by which his brother gained Algiers.
Since the time of the Barbaroffa’s, Algiers has been
underftood to be dependent on the Porte ; but this de¬
pendence is now little more than merely nominal *. * c , ,
BARBARUS (Francis), a noble Venetian, was a articles *
man of great fame in the 15th century, not only for Algiers, Tu-
learning, but likewife for a (kilful addrefs in the ma- n'f aBd
nagement of public affairs. He is author of a book
De Re Uxoria, and fome fpeeches.
Barbarus ( Hermolaus), grandfon of the preceding,
one of the moft learned men in the 15th century. The
public employments he was entrufted with early, did
not prevent him from cultivating polite learning with
great application. As he was very (kilfuf in the Greek,
he undertook the moft difficult tranflations, and began
with a famous paraphrafe upon Ariftotle. He then
attempted Diofcorides, whofe text he correfted, gave
a tranflation of him, and added a commentary. But
of all his works, there is none which has gained him
fo much reputation as that which he made upon Pliny;
he corrected in him above 5000 paffages, and occafion-
ally reftored 300 in Pomponius Mela. Pope Innocent
VIII. to whom he was ambaffador, conferred the pa¬
triarchate of Aquileia upon him. He was fo imprudent
as to accept of it without waiting for the confent of
his
BAR [ 1002 ] BAR
Karbanis, his fuperiors : though he could not be ignorant that
Barbary. repUblic of Venice had made laws to forbid all the
min liters they Cent to the court of Rome to accept any
benifice. His fuperiors were inflexibile ; and not being-
able to gain any thing upon them either by his flattery
or his father’s intereft, the father died of grief, and the
fon foon followed him.
Barbarus (Daniel), of the fame family with the pre¬
ceding, was patriarch of Aquileia, and famous for his
learning. He was ambafiador from Venice to England ;
and was one of the fathers of the council of Trent,
where he a&ed with great zeal for the intereft of the
pope. He wrote, i. A commentary upon Vitruvius.
2. Catena Gracorum Pat rum in quinquaginta Pfalmos
Latine verfa. 3. La Prattica della Perfpectiva. He
died in 1569, at 41 years of age.
BARBARY, a kingdom of Africa, including the
ftates of Algiers, Morocco, Tripoli, and Tunis ; (fee
thofe articles). This country contains almoft the whole
1 of what the Romans poflefl'ed of the continent of A-
£xtent,&c. fr}ca> excepting Egypt. It ftretches itfeif in length
from eaft to weft, beginning at the fouthern limits of
Egypt, to the ftraits of Gibraltar full 35 degrees of
longitude ; and from thence to Santa Cruz, the utmoft
weftern edge of it, about fix more, in all 41 degrees :
fo that the utmoft length of Barbary from eaft to weft
is computed at above 759 German leagues. On the
fouth, indeed, it is confined within much narrower
bounds, extending no farther than from 27 to 35-*-de¬
grees of north latitude ; fo that its utmoflr breadth from
north to fouth, does not exceed 128 German miles.
More particularly, Barbary begins on the weft of the
famed mount Atlas, called by the Arabs Ay Duacal, or
sll Duacaly inclofing the ancient kingdoms of Suez
and Dela, now provinces of Morocco ; thence ftretch-
ing north-eaftward along the Atlantic to the pillars of
Hercules at Cape Finifter, then along the coaft of the
Mediterranean, it is at laft bounded by the city of A-
% lexandria in Egypt.
Whence Concerning the origin of the name Barbary, there
named. are many conje&ures. According to fome, the Ro¬
mans, after they had conquered this large country,
gave it that name out of contempt and diflike to the
barbarous manners of the natives, according to their
cuftom of calling all other people but themfelves Bar¬
barians. Marmol-, on the contrary, derives the word
Barbary from Berber, a name which the Arabs gave
to its ancient inhabitants, and which they retain to
this day in many parts of the country, efpecially a-
long the great ridge of the mountains of Atlas; and
which name was given them on account of the barreu-
nefs of their country. According to Leo Africanus,
the name of Barbary was given by the Arabs on ac¬
count of the ftrange language of the natives, which ap¬
peared to them more like a murmur or grumbling of
fome brute animals than articulate founds. Others,
however, derive it from the Arabic word bar, fignify-
ing a defart, twice repeated ; which was given by one
Ifrik or Africus, a king of Arabia, from whom the
whole continent of Africa is pretended to have taken
its name. According to them, this king being driven
out of his own dominions, and clofely purfued by his
enemies, fome of his retinue called out to him bar bar;
that is, To the defart. To the defart; from which the
country was afterwards called Barbary.
Among the Romans this country was divided into Barbary.'
the provinces of Mauritania, Africa Propria, &c. and "■‘“i
they continued abfolute mailers of it from the time of snbjeftt0 I
Julius Casfar till the year of Chrift 428. At that time the Ro-
Bonifacius the Roman governor of thefe provinces, ha- mans,
ving through the treachery of Aitius been forced to f i
revolt, called in to his affiftance Genferic king of the iruhJ
Vandals, who had been fome time fettled in Spain. Vandals.
The terms offered, according to Procopius, were, that
Genferic ftiould have two thirds, and Bonifacius one
third, of Africa, provided they could maintain them¬
felves againft the Roman power; and to accompliih this
they were to affift each other to the utmoft—This pro-
pofal was inftantly complied with ; and Genferic fet fail
from Spain in May 428, with an army of 80,000 men,
according to fome, or only 24,000 according to others,
together with their wives, children, and all their ef¬
fects. In the mean time, however, the Emprefs Pia-
cidia, having difcovered the true caufe of Bonifacius’s
revolt, wrote a moil kind and obliging letter to him,
in which file affured him of her favour and proteftion
for the future, exhorting him to return to his duty, and
exert his ufual zeal for the welfare of the empire, by
driving out the barbarians whom the malice of his ene¬
mies had obliged him to call in for his own fafety and
prefervation. s \
Bonifacius readily complied with this requeft, and Endeavour*
offered the Vandals confiderable fums if they would unfuccefs-l
retire out of Africa and return to Spain. But Gen-
feric, already matter of the greateft part of the coun- to return, j
try, firft returned a fcoffing anfwer, and then, falling
unexpe&ediy on him, cut moft of his men in pieces,
and obliged Bonifacius himfelf to fly to Hippo, which
place he invefted in May 430. The fiege latted till
the month of July the following year; when the Van¬
dals were forced, by a famine that began to rage in
their camp, to drop the enterprize, and reti.re. Soon
after, Bonifacius having received two reinforcements,
one from Rome, and the other, under the condutt of
the celebrated Afpar, from Conftantinople, a refolu-
tion was taken by the Roman generals to offer the
enemy battle. The Vandals readily accepting the Romans
challenge, a bloody engagement enfued, in which the defeated by
Romans were utterly defeated, a prodigious number of Genferic
them taken, and the reft obliged to flicker themfelves
among the rocks and mountains. Afpar, who com¬
manded the eaftern troops, efcaped with difficulty to
Conftantinople, and Bonifacius was recalled to Italy.
Upon their departure, the Vandals over-ran all Africa,
committing every where the moft terrible ravages ;
wliich ftruck the inhabitants of Hippo with fuch terror,
that they abandoned their city, which was ftrft plun¬
dered, and then fet on fire by the victorious enemy ;
fo that Cirtha and Carthage were now the only ftrong
places poffeffed by the Romans. ^ y
In 435, Genferic, probably being afraid of an at- Peace con-
tack by the united forces of the eaftern and weftern eluded witl
empires, concluded a peace with the Romans, who theV*n<ia s
yielded to him part of Numidia, the province of Pro-
confularis, and likewife Byzacene ; for which, accor¬
ding to Profper, he was to pay a yearly tribute to the
emperor of the eaft. Genferic delivered up his fon
Hunneric by way of hoftage ; but fo great was the
confidence which the Romans placed in this barbarian,
that fome time after they lent him back his fon. Of
BAR
[ 1003 ] BAR
~ii Sarbary. this they foon had reafon to repeat; for in 439, the lihood have accomplished his purpofe, had not he him- Barbaiy.
^ Romans being engaged in a war with the Goths in felf been murdered foon after by Ricimer. After his
nferic’s Gaul, Genferic laid hold of that opportunity to feize death, Genferic committed what ravages he pleafed in
rf eachery. upon the city of Carthage ; by which he confiderably the poor remains of the weftern empire, and even made
enlarged his African dominions. Valentinian, the defcents on Peloponnefus and the idands belonging to ,j
Roman emperor, however, maintained as long as he the emperor of Conilantinople. To revenge this affront, Genferie
lived, the two Maufitanias, with Tripolitana, Tingi- Leo made vail preparations for the invafion of Africa, defeats the
tana, and that part of Numidia where Cirtha flood. infomuch, that, according to Procopius, he laid out e^^,n
On the taking of Carthage, Genferic made it the 130,000 pounds weight of gold in the equipment of his per°r 5 ee'
feat of his empire; and in 440 made a defcent on the army and navy. The forces employed on this occalion
ifland of Sicily, where he ravaged the open country, were fufficient for expelling the Vandals, had they
and even laid fiege to Palermo. Not being able, how- been much more powerful than they were ; but the
ever, to reduce that place, he foon returned to Africa, command being given to Bafilifcus a covetous and am-
with an immenfe booty and a vaft number of captives, bilious man, the fleet was utterly defeated through his
Being now become formidable to both empires, Theo- treachery, and all the vaft preparations came to nothing. u
dolius emperor of the eaft refolved to affift Valentinian By thislaft defeat the power of the Vandals in Africa Kingdom ot
againft fo powerful an enemy. Accordingly he fitted was fully eftabliffied, and Genferic made himfelf mafter tllc Sandals
out a fleet confifting of 1100 large ftiips; and putting of Sicily, as well as of all the other iffands between ‘oun e ’
on board of it the flower of his army, under the con- Italy and Africa, without oppofition from the weftern
duft of Arcovindas, Anfilus, and Germanus, he or¬
dered them to land in Africa, and, joining the w'eftern
forces there, to drive Genferic out of the countries he
had feized. But Genferic in the mean time pretending
a defire to be reconciled with both empires, amufed
the Roman general with propofals of peace, till the
feafon for aftion was over ; and, next year, Theodo-
fius being obliged to recall his forces to oppofe the
Huns, Valentinian found it neceffary to conclude a
peace with the Vandals; and this he could obtain on
no other terms than yielding to them the quiet pofief-
fion of the countries they had feized.
So powerful was Genferic now become, or rather
fo low was the Roman empire by this time reduced,
that in 455, he took and plundered the city of Rome
p itfelf, as is fully related under the article Rome ; and,
IMakeshim- after his return to Africa, made himfelf mafter of the
:If rafter remaining countries held by the Romans in that part
toman6 t^ie wor^* Hereupon Avitus, who had fucceeded
rovinces, Valentinian in the empire, difpatched ambafladors to
Genferic, putting him in mind of the treaty he had
concluded with the empire in 442 ; and threatening, if
he did not obferve the articles at that time agreed upon,
to make war upon him not only with his own forces,
but with thofe of his allies the Vifigoths, who were
ready to pafs over into Africa. To this Genferic was
10 fo far from paying any regard, that he immediately
foefeated by put to fea with a fleet of 60 (hips ; but being attacked
by the Roman fleet under Ricimer, he was utterly de-
lanus. J feated, and forced to fly back into Africa: he returned,
however, foon after with a more powerful fleet, com¬
mitting great ravages on the coaft of Italy : but in a
fecond expedition he was not attended with fo good
fuccefs; the Romans falling unexpectedly upon his men
while buffed in plundering the country, put great num¬
bers of them to the fword, and among the reft the
brother-in-law of Genferic himfelf. Not content with
this fmall advantage, Majorianus, at that time em¬
peror, refolved to pafs over into Africa, and attempt
the recovery of that country. For this purpofe he
made great preparations; but his fleet being furprized
and defeated by the Vandals, thro’ the treachery, it is
faid, of fome of his commanders, the enterprize mif-
carried.
Notwithftanding this misfortune, however, Majo¬
rianus perfifted in his refolution; and would in all like-
emperors, whofe power was entirely taken away in the
year 476.
Thus was the Vandalic monarchy in Barbary founded 13
by Genferic, between the years 428 and 468. If we Barbarity
take a view of that prince’s government in his new do-
minions, it prefents no very agreeable profpetft. Being 0 ,en enc*
himfelf an abfolute barbarian in the ftridleft fenfe of the
word, and an utter ftranger to every ufeful art, he did
not fail to (hew his own prowefs by the deftruftion of
all the monuments of Roman greatnefs which were fo
numerous in the country he had conquered. Accor¬
dingly, inftead of improving his country, he laid it
wafte, by demolifliing all the (lately ftrudures both
public and private, and all other valuable and fump-
tuous works with which thofe proud conquerors had
adorned this part of their dominions. So that, what¬
ever monuments the Rnmans had been at fuch an im¬
menfe expence to eredl,, in order to eternize their own
glory, the barbarous Vandals were now at no lefs pains
to reduce into heaps of ruins. Befides this kind of
devaftation, Genferic made his dominions a feene of
blood and (laughter, by perfecuting the orthodox Chri-
ftians ; being himfelf, as well as mod of his country¬
men, a zealous Arian ; and for this his long reign is
chiefly remarkable. He died in 477, after a reign of
60 years; and w'as fucceeded by his fon Hunneric. 14
The new king proved yet a greater tyrant than his Hunneric a
father, perfecuting the orthodox with the utmoft fury ? J>a1°jdy ty*
and, during his (hort reign of feven years and an half, *
deftroyed more of them than Genferic had done in all 15
his lifetime. He is faid to have died in the fame man- Histeirible
ner as the herefiarch Arius f ; before which time his .
flefti had been rotting upon hjs^kpnes, and crawling ^ Ste rw‘
with worms, fo that he looked more like a dead car-
cafe than a living man. Concerning his fucceflbrs Gu-
tamund, Thrafamund, and Hilderic, we find nothing
remarkable, except that they fometimes perfecuted,
and fometimes v/ere favourable to, the orthodox; and
by his favour for them the laft king was ruined. For,
having unadvifedly publiftied, in the beginning of his
reign, a manifefto, wherein he repealed all the a6ls of
his predecefl’ors againft the orthodox, a rebellion was l6
the immediate confequence. At the head of the mal- HiMeric de*
contents was one Gilimer, or Gildemar, a prince of pofed by
the blood-royal, who by degrees became fo powerful, Gihmer-
as to depofe Hilderic in the feventh year of his reign
after.
BAR f 1004 ]
after which he caufed the unhappy monarch with all utmoft confternation.
his family to be clofely confined, and was himfelf
crowned king of the Vandals at Carthage.
Gilimer proved a greater tyrant than any that had
gone before him. He not only cruelly perfecuted the
orthodox, but horribly opprefled all the reft, fo that
he was held in univerfal abhorrence and deteftation
when the Greek emperor Juftinian projedled an invafton
This expedition of Juftinian’s is faid to
BAR
Belfarius
invades A- of Africa.
have been occafioned by an apparition of Lsetus an
African bifhop, who had been murdered fpme time be¬
fore, but now commanded the emperor to attempt the
recovery of Africa, and affured him of fuccefs. Ac¬
cordingly, this, or fbme other motive, prevailed upon
Juftinian fo far, that, notwithftanding his being at that
time engaged in a war with Perfia, he fent a power-
His flight was not immediate- BatWiM
ly known among his troops ; but when it was, fuch an t
univerfal confufion enfued, that they abandoned their
camp to the Romans, who had now nothing to do but 'yHi
plunder it; and not content with this, they maflacred
all the men found in it, carrying away the women cap-
tives. . amffl
Thus a total end was put to the power of the Van- And puts!
dais in Barbary, and the Romans once more became an end to i]
mafters of this country. The Vandal inhabitants were theVandall
permitted to remain as they were, on condition of ex- monarcliyf
changing the herefy of Arius for the orthodox faith.
As for Gilimer, he fled with the utmoft expedition to
Medamus, a town fituated on the top of the Pappuan
mountain, and almoft inaccefiible by reafon of its
height and ruggednefs. The fiege of this place was
ful fleet and army to Africa, under the command of committed to Pharas, an officer of great experience,
the celebrated general Belifarius, who was for that
reafon recalled from Perfia.
So much was Gilimer, all this time, taken up with
his own pleafures, or with oppreffing his fubjefts, that
he knew little or nothing of the formidable prepara-
who having fhut up all avenues to the town, the un¬
happy Gilimer was reduced to the greateft ftraits for j, ;!
want of provifions. Pharas being foon apprifed of the Gilimer'iijj
diftrefs he was in, wrote him a moft friendly and pa- extremedi-
thetic letter, earneftly exhorting him to put an end to |||
tions that were making againft him. On the arrival of the diftrefs of himfelf and his friends by a furrender.
Belifarius, however, he was conftrained to put himfelf This Gilimer declined; but at the fame time concluded
into a pofture of defence. The management of his
army he committed to his two brothers Gundimer and
Gelamund, who accordingly attacked the Romans at
j8 the head of a numerous force. The engagement was
Defeats the long and bloody; but at laft the Vandals were defeated,
Vandals; ancj tlie tvv0 princes flain. Gilimer, grown defperate
at this news, fallied out at the head of his corps de re-
ferve, with full purpofe to renew the attack with the
utmoft vigour ; but by his own indifcretion loft a fair
opportunity of defeating the Romans. For no fooner
did they perceive Gilimer haftening after them at the
head of a frefti army, than they betook themfelves to
flight; and the greateft part were difperfed in fuch a
manner, that, had the king followed them clofe, they
muft have been totally cut off. Inftead of this, how¬
ever, ftumbling unfortunately on the body of one of his
flain brothers, the fight of it made him lofe all thoughts
about the enemy; and inftead of purfuing them, he
(pent part of his time in idle lamentations, and part in
burying the corpfe with fuitable pomp and dignity.
By this means Belifarius had an opportunity of rally¬
ing his men ; which he did fo effectually, that, coming
unexpectedly upon Gilimer, he ealily gained a new and
19 complete victory over him.
Takes Car- This defeat was followed by the lofs of Carthage,
which the barbarians had been at no pains to put into
his anfwer with a moft fubmiffive requeft, that Pharas
would fo far pity his great diftrefs as to fend him a loaf
of bread, a fpunge, and a lute. This ftrange requeft
greatly furprifed Pharas ; but at laft it was explained
by the meifenger, who told him that the king had not
tafted any baked bread fince his arrival on that moun¬
tain, and earneftly longed to eat a morfel of it before
he died : the fpunge he wanted to allay a tumour that
was fallen on one of his eyes ; and the lute, on which
he had learned to play, was to aflift him in fetting fome
elegiac verfes he had compofed on the fubjed of his
misfortunes to a fuitable tune. At this mournful re¬
port Pharas could not refrain from tears, and imme¬
diately difpatched the meffenger with the things he
wanted.
Gilimer had fpent near three winter-months on the
fummit of this inhofpitable mountain, his mifery har¬
dening him ftill more againft the thoughts of furren¬
dering, when a melancholy feene in his own family at
once reconciled him to it. This was a bloody ftruggle
between two boys, one of them his fitter’s fon, about
a flat bit of dough, laid on the coals ; which the one
feized upon, burning hot as it was, and clapped it in¬
to his mouth ; but the other by dint of blows forced it
out, and eat it from him. This quarrel, which might
have ended fatally had not Gilimer interpofed, madefo
a pofture of defence. After which Gilimer, having in deep an imprelfion upon him, that he immediately dif-
vain endeavoured to ^tain afliftance from the Moors and
Goths, was oblige™o recal his brother Tzafon from
Sardinia. The meeting between the two brothers was
patched a meffenger to Pharas, acquainting him that
he was willing to furrender himfelf and all his effeCts
upon the conditions he had offered, as foon as he was
very mournful ; but they foon came to a refolution of affured that they were embraced by Belifarius. Pha¬
ras loft no time to get them ratified and fent back to
him; after which he was conduced to Belifarius, who
gave him a very kind reception. Gilimer was after¬
wards brought before Juftinian in golden chains, whom
he befought in the moft fubmiflive manner to fpare his fl
life. This was readily granted by the emperor ; who Kindly 9
alfo allowed him a handfome yearly penfion to live up- treated byfl
camp of the Vandals. This Gilimer was no fooner ap- on as a private gentleman. But his mind and heart ||
prifed of, than, without (laying to give any more orders were too much unfettled and broken to enjoy the fweets
to the reft of his army, he fled towards Numidia in the of a private (late j fo that Gilimer, oppreffed with grief,
died 9
making one defperate attempt to regain the loft king¬
dom, or at leaft recover their captives out of the hands
of the enemy. The confequence of this refolution was
another engagement, in which Tzafon was killed with
800 of his choiceft men, while the Romans loft no
more than 50 ; after which Belifarius moving fudden-
ly forward at the head of all his army, fell upon the
BAR
[ 1005 ]
B 'A R
/ffeaty. died in the year 534, the firft of his captivity, and five mailer of Alexandria, A1 Tayum, A1 Baknafa, and the
" tJ'1* nftpr Rf* haA Kppn raifpfl tn tRp tVirone. ifle of A1 Aflimarvin. nenetrafincr even to A1 Tir/ah.
years after he had been raifed to the throne.
Barbary being thus again reduced under the power
L3 of the Romans, its hiftory falls to be taken notice of
hpy under that of Rome. In the khalifat of Omar, this
fTfucd by country was reduced by the Saracens, as we have al-
„6;s ready related under the article Arabia. It continued
fubjeft to the khalifs of Arabia and Bagdad till the
reign of Harun AI Raihid, who having appointed'I-
brahim Ebn Aglab governor of the weftern parts of
'I his empire, that prefeft took the opportunity, firft
ft’rcipal afi'um,"ng greater powers to himfelf than had been
Adfafthe granted by the khalif, and then ere&ing a princi-
ibites pality altogether independent of the khalifs. The
race of Aglab continued to enjoy their new principa¬
lity peaceably till the year of the Hegira 297 or 298,
during which time they made feveral defcents on the
ifland of Sicily, and conquered part of it. About this
time, however, one Obeidallah rebelled againft the
houfe of Aglab, and affumed the title of khalif of
ifle of Al Afhmaryin, penetrating even to Al Jizah,
where the khalif’s army under the command of Munes
was polled in order to oppofe him. In this country
he found means to maintain himfelf till the 308th year
of the Hegira. This year, however, he was entirely
defeated by Munes, who made himfelf mailer of all his
baggage, as well as of the plunder he had acquired ;
ano this blow obliged him to fly to Kairwan with the
lhattered remains of his army, where he remained with¬
out making any further attempt on Egypt.
Al Mohdi reigned 24 years; and was fucceeded by
his fon Abul Kafem abovementioned, who then took
the furname of Kayem Mohdi. Din ing his reign
we read of nothing remarkable, except the revolt of
one Yezid Ebn Condat, a man of mean extraction,
but who, having been raifed to the dignity of chancel¬
lor, found means to raife fuch a itrong party, that the
khalif was obliged to Ihut himfelf up in the caftle of
Mohedia. Yezid, being then at the head of a power-
Who is ut¬
terly de¬
feated by
Muncs.
Kairwan (the ancient Cyrene, and refidence of the ful army, foon reduced the capital of Kairwan, the
aXlen o
k|f.
Aglabite princes). To give the greater weight to his
pretenfions he alfo took the furname of Al Mohdi, or
Al Mahedi, the direftor. According to fome, alfo, he
pretended to be defcended in a right line from AH Ebn
AbuTaleb, and Fatema the daughter of Mahomet; for
which reafon, fay they, the Arabs called him and his
defendants Fatemites. He likewife encouraged him¬
felf and his followers by a traditional prophecy of Ma¬
homet, that at the end of 300 years the fun fhould rife
out of the weft. Having at length driven the Agla-
IdW-lMoh- bites into Egypt, where they became known by the
name of Magrebians, he extended his dominions in
6 Africa and Sicily, making Kairwan the place of his
refidence.
In the 300th year of the Hegira, Habbafah, one
pafah of Al Mohdi’s generals, overthrew the khalif Al Mok-
Bes E- tacjer’s forces ;n the neighbourhood of Barca, and
made himfelf mailer of that city. After which he re¬
duced Alexandria itfelf; and was making great pro-
grefs in the conqueft of the whole country, when Al . „
Mokhtader difpatched againft him his two generals fperate bravery ; but finding the garrifon at laft obliged
Takin and Al Kafem, with an army of 100,000 men. n':r‘ 'r-~‘   AI
Habbafah being informed that the khalif’s troops were
in motion, advanced at the head of his army to give
them battle, and at laft came up with them in an illand
called by the Arabs Ard Al Khamfin. Here he at¬
tacked them with incredible bravery, notwithftanding
| - their force was much fuperior to his; but the approach
of night obliged both generals to found a retreat.—
| The adlion therefore was by no means decifive, tho’ ex¬
tremely bloody, the khalif’s generals having loft 20,000,
and Habbafah 10,000. The latter, however, durft not
[renew the fight next morning; but Hole off in the night,
and returned hof.‘\\,fo that Al Moktader in effeft gained
a viftory. In the” 3©2d year of the Hegira, however,
Habbafah returned, poffeffed himfelf of Alexandria a
fecond time, defeated a body of the khalif’s forces,
and killed 7000 of them upon the fpot. What fur-
i*7 ther progrefs he made at that time we are not cer-
?#oesa,fo tainly told; but in the 307^ year of the Hegira, Abul
rJHjor A k»il -*»-/. /. « i% .<*■.•. *** P «
1
cities of Al Rakkada and Tunis, and feveral other
fortreffes. He was no lefs fuccefsful in defeating a
confiderable number of troops which Al Kayem had
raifed and fent againft him, after which he clofely be-
fieged the khalif himfelf in the callle where he had Ihut
himfelf up. The fiege continued feven months ; du¬
ring which time the place was reduced to fuch ftraits,
that the khalif mull either have furrendered it or been
ftarved, when death put an end to his anxiety in the
.12th year of his reign, and 334th of the Hegira.
Al Kayem was fucceeded by his fon Ilhmael, who
immediately took upon himfelf the title of Al Manfur.
This khalif thought proper to conceal the death of his
father till he had made the preparations neceffary for
reducing the rebels. In this he was fo fuccefsful, that
he obliged Yezid to raife the fiege of Mohedia the fame
year; and in the following gave him two great over¬
throws, obliging him to Ihut himfelf up in the fortrefs
of Kothama, or Cutama, where he befieged him in his
turn. Yezid defended the place a long time with ch
bravery ; but finding the garrifon at laft oblige
ipitulate, he made Ihift to efcape privately. Al
Manfur immediately difpatched a body of forces in pur-
fuit of him ; who overtook, and brought him back in
fetters ; but not till after a vigorous defence, in which
Yezid received feveral dangerous wounds, of which he
died in prifon. After his death, Al Manfur caufedhis
body to be flayed, and his Hein Huffed and expofed to
public view. Of Al Manfur’s exploits in Sicily an ac¬
count is given under that article. Nothing farther re¬
markable happened in his Afridlh dominions ; and he
died after a reign of feven years and 16 days, in the
341st of the Hegira.
Al Manfur was fucceeded by his fon Abu Zammin
Moad, who affumed the furname of Al Moez Ledinil-
lah. He proved a very warlike prince, and maintained
a bloody conteft with Abdalrahman, khalif of Anda-
lufia; for a particular account of which fee the article
In the 347th year of the Hegira, beginning
Al Moez
Ledinillali
khalif.
Spain. „
 , ,    J_/ , o-—*  March 25th 958, Al Moez fent a powerful army to the
Kafem, fon to the Fatemite khalif Al Mohdi, again weftern extremity of Africa, under the command of Abul
entered Egypt with an army of 100,000 men. At firft Hafan Jawhar, one of his Haves, whom he had-advan-
he met with extraordinary fuccefs,and over-ran aeon- ced to the dignity of Vizir. T c~a -J J
fiderable part of that fine country. He made himfelf ’ - - — •
Vol.TI.
w _ Jawhar firft advanced to
a city called Takart, which he befieged for fome time
6 L in*
BAR
[ 1006 ]
BAR
ineffe&uaHy. From thence he marched to Fez, and been an armour of iron and leather, wherewith the neck,
_ made the proper difpofitions for attacking that city, breaft, and ihoulders of the horfe were covered.
But finding that Ahmed Ebn Beer, the Emir of the Barbe (St.) a town of Bifcay in Mexico, near which
place, was refolved to defend it to thelaft, he thought are rich filver mines. W. Long. 109. 55. N. Lat.
proper to abandon the enterprize. However, having '26. ~
traverfed all the traft between that capital and the At¬
lantic ocean, he again fat down before Fez,"and took
it by ftorm the following year.
But the greateft atchievement performed by this
khalif was his conqueft of Egypt, and removal of the
khalifat to that country. This conqueft, though long
projected, he did not attempt till the year of the He¬
gira 358. Having then made all neceffary preparations
for it, he committed the care of that expedition to a
faithful and experienced general called Giafar, or Jaa-
far; but in the mean time, this enterprize did not di¬
vert A1 Moezz from the care of his other conquefts,
before he received the agreeable news that his general
had made himfelf mafter of Alexandria. He loft no
time, but immediately embarked for it, leaving the
government of his old African dominions in the hands
of his trufty fervant Yufef abovementioned, and arri¬
ving fafely at that port was received with all the demon- ting of fra&ured limbs, that was jjra&iled by another
And^trans- ftrations of joy. Here he began to lay the foundations clafs of men called bone-fetters, of whom there are
fas the feat of his new Egyptian dynafty, which was to put a hardly any now remaining. The mufical inftruments
of govern- gna] en(j to the old one of Kairwan after it had con- in his ftiop were for the entertainment of waiting cu-
mentto that tjnue(j about 65 years. ftomers ; and anfwered the end of a news-paper, with
°Un A1 Moezz preferved all his old dominions of Kair- which at this day thofe who wait for their turn at the
wan or Africa Proper. But the ambition or avarice of barber’s amufe themfelves.
the governors whom he appointed fuffered them to run BARBERINI (Francis), one of the moft excellent
quickly to a fhameful decay ; particularly the new and poets of his age, was born at Barberino, in Tufcany,
opulent metropolis of Mohedia, on which immenfe ftims in the year 1264. As his mother was of Florence, he
had been lavilhed, as well as labour and care, fo as to fettled in that city ; where his profefiion of the law,
render it not only one of the richeft and ftatelieft, but but efpecially the beauty of his poetry, raifed him a
one of the ftrongeft, cities in the world: fo that we may very confiderable charadler. The greateft part of his
truly fay, the wealth and fplendor of this once famed, works are loft ; but that which is intitled the Prctcptt
though fhort-lived ftate, took their final leave of it with
the departure of the khalif A1 Moezz, feeing the whole
maritime tra& from the Egyptian confines to the ftraits
of Gibraltar hath fince become the neft of the moft
odious piratical crew that can be imagined.
Under the article Algiers we have given a ftiort ac¬
count of the ere&hjjn of a new kingdom in Barbary by
Texefien; which, however, is there no farther continued
than is neceffary for the proper underftanding the hif-
tory of that countrjtf| A general hiftory might here
be given of the whole country of Barbary ; but as
that would neceffarily occafion repetitions under the
articles Morocco, Tripoli, Tunis, &c, we chufe
to refer, to thofe articles for the hiftorical part, as well
as for an account of the climate, inhabitants, &c.
BARBE, or Barb. See Barb.
Barbe, in the military art. To fire in barbe, means
to fire the cannon over the parapet, inftead of firing
through the embrafures.; in which cafe, the parapet
muft not be above three feet and a half high.
Barbe, or Barde, is -an old word, denoting the
armour of the horfes of the ancient knights and foldiersj
who were accoutred at all points,
Barb
li
Barbe
BARBED, in a general fenfe, bearded like a fifh-
hook, fet with barbs ; alfo ftiaved or trimmed.
Barbed, and Crefied, in heraldry, an appellation
given to the combs and gills of a cock, when particu¬
larized for being of a different tin&ure from the body.
A barbed crofs, is a crofs, the extremities whereof
are like the barbed irons ufed for linking of filh.
BARBEL, in ichthyology. See Cyprinus.
BARBELICOTiE, an ancient fedl of gnoftics,
fpoken of by Theodoret. Their dodlrines were ab-
furd, and their ceremonies abominable.
BARBER, one who makes a trade of fhaving or
particularly thofe of Sicily and Sardinia : to the laft trimming the beards of other men for money. An-
of which he failed in the year of the Hegira 361, con- ciently, a lute orviol, orfome fuch mufical inftrument,
tinuing a whole year in it, and leaving the care of his was part of the furniture of a barber’s Ihop, which was
African dominions to an experienced officer named ufed then to be frequented by perfons above the ordi-
YuCefBen Zeiri. He failed thence the following year nary level of the people, who reforted to the barber ei-
for Tripoli in Barbary, where he had not ftaid long ther for the cure of wounds, or to undergo fome chi-
rurgical operations, or, as it was then called, to be
trimmed, a word that fignified either Ihaving or cutting
and curling the hair; thefe, together with letting blood,
were the ancient occupations of the barber-furgeon.
As to the other important branch of furgery, the fet-
of Love, which is a moral poem calculated to inftrutt
thofe in their duty who have a regard for glory, vir¬
tue, and eternity, has had a better fate. It was pu-
bliffied at Rome, adorned with beautiful figures, in
1640, by Frederic Ubaldini: he prefixed the author’s
life ; and, as there are in the poem many words which
are grown obfolete, he added a gloffary to explain
them, which illuftrates the fenfe by the authority of
contemporary poets.
BARBERINO, a town of Tufcany in Italy, fi-
tuated at the foot of the Appennine mountains, in E.
Long. 12. 15. N. Lat. 43. 40.
BARBERRY, in-botany. See^-'-RBERis.
BARBESUL, (anc. geog.) a town and river of
Boetica, and a colony in the refort of the Conventus
Gaditanus in Spain : now Marbella in Granada *. *
BARBET, in natural hiftory, a name given by
M. Reaumur, and other of the French writers, to a
peculiar fpecies of the worms which feed on the pu-
cerons, or aphides. See Aphis.
This worm is more particularly called bar bet blanc,
as alfo herijfon blanc, or white hedgehog, from its being
It is faid to. have covered with oblong white tufts of filaments, which
Hand
!
BAR [ 1007 ] BAR
3! irbet. fland in the manner of the quills of a hedgehog or por-
| "T- cupine. M. Reaumur calls thefe tufts of filaments,
fpinet; not to fignify that they are capable of pricking,
U for they have no fuch power; but to exprefs their
manner of arrangement on the body of the animal.
This creature is of the fize of a fmall fly without its
J wings ; but this tufted covering fo much increafes the
bignefs, that it appears of the fize of a fly of the largefb
u, kind.
Thefe tufts have neither the hardnefs of fpines,
nor the confidence of hairs ; but they refemble, in
their fpungy texture, a filament of cotton. All thefe
fpines or tufts of cotton are arranged in fix lines,
as evenly parallel to one another as the fhape of
the animal’s body will permit. Each of thefe lines
reaches over the whole upper part of the body, fol¬
lowing the courfe of one of the rings. The feveral
I fpines, which compofe each line, almoft touch one a-
nother at their bafes ; but as they all (land perpendi¬
cular, and are placed on a convex furface, they are
confiderably diftant from one another at the points.
The tufts on different infers of this fpecies are of dif¬
ferent lengths. In the common kinds, they are fhort,'
and ftand perfe&ly ere£l; but in fome they are fo long,
as not to be able to fupport their own weight, but bend
r into hooks. In all the fpecies, every fingle tuft has
its irregularities, and is feen to be compofed of feveral
^ cottony filaments of unequal lengths, which are knotty
and rough in feveral places; and when touched, they
feel foft like cotton. It is alfo very remarkable, that,
on being touched, they always adhere to the fingers;
and are fo loofely connefted with the body of the ani¬
mal, that, on rubbing the finger over it ever fo lightly,
they all come off, and leave it naked. The creature
then appears green, and of a very different figure from
what it had before ; and the tufts lofe their figure, and
appear only a congeries of round grains of a cottony
matter. The fudden change in fize and appearance in
the creature, makes it look as if it had undergone a
transformation.
It is evident from obfervation, that the matter of
which the tufts, which cover the body of this animal,
are made, is of a very different nature and formation
from the iilky filaments which caterpillars and other
infers fpin out of their entrails. They have all pe¬
culiar organs for the fpinning it, and all draw it out
to any length they pleafe : but this matter, on the
contrary, has a determinate length, which it cannot
exceed; and is only formed of the matter perfpired
through certain parts of the body of the creature, which
hardens as it remains in the air. As it is fo eafy to dived
thefe creatures of their downy covering,it will be readi¬
ly conceived, that nature muff have made its reparation
to the animal very eafy ; and this is indeed the cafe :
for if the animal be wholly made naked, by drawing
the finger three or four times over it, it lofes its fine
green colour in half an hour afterwards, appearing as
if dulled over with flour ; and, in fine, within the fpace
of twelve hours, is furnifhed with tufts as long, and
every way as large, as thofe it loft. When the tufts
have been rubbed off from one of thefe animals, and
its body is left naked, if it be then examined by a mi-
crofcope, there will be found a number of fmall hollows
or depreffions in the fkin, exadlly anfwering in place
and number to the cottony tufts that are to fucceed the
loft ones. It is to be conceived, that, within each of
thefe hollows, there are a great number of fine aper- Barbet
tures, through which the matter that is to form the l!
new tufts is to pafs; but thefe are not diftinguifhable Barbo"r
by the moft powerful glaffes : if the tufts, however, be
examined while forming, they will be found to confilt
of a vaft number of regular filaments, placed clofe by
one another, and each running diftinAly the whole
length of the tuft: this appearance is, however, w'holly
loft afterwards, the fine threads flicking to, and in-
termii)gling with, one another, and many of them
breaking in feveral places ; fo that the whole tuft re-
fembles a coarfe and fingle filament.
Thefe barbels are found in great plenty on the leaves
of the plum-tree in the months of June and July. The'
pnceron of this tree feems more to their tafte than any
other kind; and they are often found in numbers on
every leaf of the tree where thefe little animals are.
The matter of their tufts feems analogous to the downy
covering of fome of the pucerons, and to no other fub-
flance in the animal world. The puceron of the beech-
tree has this downy matter run-ning into much longer
filaments even than this animal; and, in the feveral o-
ther fpecies, it is found growing to the different lengths
from this to a mere downy powder. The barbet lives
about a fortnight in that form, and then becomes a
chryfalis ; from which, after a month, there comes out
a fmall beettle of a dufky brown colour.
BARBETS, the name of the inhabitants of feveral
valleys in Piedmont, particularly thofe of Lucern, An-
grona, Perufa, and St Martin.
BARBEYRAC (John), was born in Befiers in
Lower Languedoc in 1674. He was made profefibr
of law and hiftory at Laufanne in 1710; which he en¬
joyed for feven years, and during that time was three
times reftor : in 1717, he was profeffor of public and
private law at Groningen. He tranflatcd into French
the two celebrated works of Puffendorf, his Law of
Nature and Nations, and his Duties of a Man and a
Citizen; to both which he wrote excellent-notes, and
to the former an introdudlory preface. He tranflated
alfo Grotius’s treatife De jure Belli ac Pads, with
large and excellent notes; and feveral of Tillotfon’s
fermons. He wrote a work intitled Traite de feu,
2 vols 8vo.
BARBEZIEUX, a town of Saintonge in France,
with the title of a marquifate. It hath a manufa&ure
of linen doth; and lies in W. Long. o. 5. N. Lat. 45.
23-
BARBICAN, or Barbacan. See Barbacan.
BARBITOS, or Barbiton, an ancient inflrument
of mufic, mounted with three, others fay feven, firings;
much ufcd by Sappho and Alcaeus, whence it is alfo
denominated Lejboum.
BABBLES, or Barbs, in farriery, the knots or
fuperfluous flefh that grow up in the channels of a
horfe’s mouth; that is, in the intervals that feparate the
bars, and lie under tongue.
BARBOUR (John), arch-deacon of Aberdeen, was
efleemed an elegant poet in the reign of David I. He
wrote the hiflory of Robert the Bruce, in an heroic
poem, which is ftill extant, and which contains many
fads and anecdotes omitted by other hiftorians. The
lateft edition of this book is that of Glafgow, &vo,
printed in the year 1672. It is entitled, “ The ads
and life of the moft vidorious conqueror Robert Bruce
king of Scotland; wherein alfo are contained the mar-
6 L 2 tial
Barbuda,
BAR [ 1008 ] BAR
tial deeds of the valiant princes Edward Bruce, Sir
James Dowglafs, Earl Thomas Randal, Walter Stew¬
ard, and fundry others.” In one paflage, he calls it a
romance; but that word was then of good reputation :
every body knows that the ‘ Romaunt of romaunts*
has been innocently applied to true hiftory; as well as
the ‘ Ballad of ballads’ to a facred fong.
BARBUDA, one of the Britilh Caribbee iflands,
about 20 miles long and 12 broad. It is low land, but
fruitful and pretty populous. The inhabitants addidt
themfelves to hufbandry, and find always a ready mar¬
ket for their corn and cattle in the fugar iflands. Bar¬
buda is the property of the Codrington family, who
have great numbers of negroes here as well as in Bar-
badoes. It lies in W. Long. 61. 3. N. Lat. 18. 5.
BARCA, a large country of Africa* lying on the
coafts of the Mediterranean fea, between the kingdoms
of Egypt and Tripoli, extending itfelf in length from
eafl to weft from the 30th to the 46l:tl degree of call
longitude, and in breadth from north to fouth about
30 leagues, as is generally fuppofed. It is for the moft
part, efpecially in the middle* a dry fandy defart; on
which account the Arabs call it Sahart, or Ceyart
Barka, that is, the defart or road of whirlwinds or
hurricanes. It labours almoft every where under a
great fcarcity of water; and except in the neighbour¬
hood of towns and villages, where the ground produces
fome fmall quantities of grain, fuch as millet, and fome
maize, the reft is in a manner quite barren and uncul¬
tivated, or, to fpeak more properly, uncultivable: and
even of that fmall quantity which thofe. few fpots pro¬
duce, the poor inhabitants are obliged to exchange
fome part with their indigent neighbours, for dates,
flieep, and camels, which they Hand in greater need of
than they, by reafon of their great fcarcity of grafs
and other proper food; for want of which, thofe that
are brought to them feldom thrive or live long. In this
country flood the famed temple of Jupiter Ammon ;
and notwithftanding the pleafantnefs of the fpot where
it flood, this part of the country is faid to have been
the moft dangerous of any, being furrounded with fuch
quick and burning fands as are very detrimental to tra¬
vellers; not only as they fink under their feet, but be¬
ing light, and heated by the rays of the fun, are eafily
raifed by every breath of wind; which, if it chance to
be in their faces, almoft burns their eyes out, and ftiffles
them for want of breath; or, if vehement, often over¬
whelms whole caravans. Againft this temple Cambyfes
king of Perfia difpatched an army of 50,000 men.
They fet out from Thebes in upper Egypt, and under
the conduct of proper guides reached the city of Oafis
feven days journey from that place: but what was their
fate afterwards is uncertain; for they never returned
either to Egypt, or to their own country. The Am-
monians informed Herodotus, that, after the army
had entered the fandy defart which lies beyond Oafis,
a violent wind began to blow from the fouth at the
time of their dinner, and raifed the fand to fuch a de¬
gree, that the whole army was overwhelmed and bu¬
ried alive.
Concerning the government or commerce of this
country we know nothing certain. Moft probably the
maritime towns are under the protection of the Porte:
but whether under the balha of Egypt or Tripoli, or
whether they have formed themfelves into independent
ftates like thofe of Algiers and Tunis, we cannot fay;
only we are told that the inhabitants of the maritime
towns are more civilized than thofe that dwell in the
inland parts. The firft profefs Mahometanifm, and
have imbibed fome notions of humanity and juftice;
whilft the latter, who have neither religion, nor any
fign of worfhip among them, are altogether favage and
brutilh. They are a fort of Arabs, and like them live
entirely upon theft and plunder. By them this trad,
which before was a continued defart, was firft inhabited.
At their firft coming in, they fettled themfelves in one
of the beft places of the country; but as they multi¬
plied, and had frequent wars with one another, the
ftrongeft drove the weakeft out of the beft fpots, and
fent them to wander in the defart parts, where they live
in the moft miferable manner, their country hardly af¬
fording one Angle neceflary of life. Hence it is that
they are faid to be the uglieft of all the Arabs: their
bodies having fcarcely any thing but ikin and bone,
their faces meagre, with fierce ravenous looks; their
garb, wdiich is commonly what they take from the paf-
fengers who go through thefe parts, tattered with long
wearing; while the pooreft of them have fcarce a rag
to cover their nakednefs. They are moft expert and
refolute robbers, that being their chief employment
and livelihood; but the travellers in thefe parts are fo
few, that the Barcans are often necefiitated to make
diftant excurfions into Numidia, Libya, and other
fouthern countries. Thofe that fell into their hands
are made to drink plenty of warm milk: then they
hang them up by the feet, and (hake them, in order to
make them vomit up any money they think they have
fwallowed; after which, they ftrip them of all their
clothes, even to the laft rag: but, with all this inhu¬
manity, they commonly fpare their life, which is more
than the other African robbers do. Yet, notwithftand¬
ing every artifice they can ufe, the Barcans are fo poor,
that they commonly let, pledge, or even fell, their chil¬
dren to the Sicilians and others from whom they have
their corn, efpecially before they fet out on any long
excurfion.
BARCALON, an appellation given to the prime
minifter of the king of Siam. The barcalon has in his
department every thing relating to commerce, both at
home and abroad. He is like wife fuperintendant of
the king’s magazines.
BARCELONA, a handfome, rich, and ftrongcity
of Spain, in the province of Catalonia, of which it is
the capital. This city was originally founded by Ha-
milcar Barcas, and from him called Barcino. It was
reduced by the Romans, and continued fubjed to them
till the kingdom of Spain was over-run by the Goths
and Vandals, and afterwards by the Saracens or Moors.
In the beginning of the 9th century, Barcelona was in
the hands of the Moors, and under the government of
one Zade. This governor having more than once abu-
fed the clemency of Charlemagne, at laft irritated Lewis
king of Aquitain, and fon to Charles, to fuch a degree,
that he gave orders to his generals to inveft the city,
and not to rife from before it till they had put Zade
into his hands. The Moor made a moft obftinate re-
fiftance, fo that the liege lafted many months: at laft,
finding it impoffibk to preferve the city much longer,
and being deftitute of all hopes of relief, he determined,
or rather was uompelled by the inhabitants, to go to the
Chriftiaur
BAR [ i ooO ] BAR
Chriftian camp, and Implore the emperor’s mercy; but
' here he was no fooner arrived than he was arretted, and
fent prifoner to Charlemagne, who condemned him to
perpetual banifhment. The people gaining nothing by
this expedient, continued to hold out for fix weeks lon¬
ger, when the king of Aquitain himfelf took the com¬
mand of the fiege. To him they made a propofal, that
if he would allow them to march out, and go where
they pleafed, they would furrender the place. Lewis
having agreed to this, made his public entry into Bar¬
celona, where he formed a defign of extending his fa¬
ther’s dominions as far as the Ebro; but being recalled
before he could put his defign in execution, he appoint¬
ed one Bera count of Barcelona. The city continued
fubje& to him and his fucceflbrs, who ftill enjoyed the
title of counts of Barcelona, from the year^Soz to 1131;
during which time we find nothing remarkable, except
that the city was once taken by the Moors, but foon after
retaken by the affiftance- of Lewis IV. king of France.
In 1131, it was united to the crown of Arragon by the
marriage of Don Raymond V. count of Barcelona with
the daughter of Don Ramiro the Monk, king of Ar¬
ragon. In 1465, the Catalonians revolted againft Don
Juan II. king of Arragon, out of hatred to his queen
Donna Juanna; the confequence of which was, that
Barcelona was befieged by that monarch in 1471. Va¬
rious efforts were made by Lewis XI. of France, and
the duke of Lorrain, in order to raife the fiege, but
without effedl. Things at length were brought to the
utmoft extremity, when the king offered to pardon them
all, without the fmalleft punilhment either in perfon or
property, provided they would fubmit: but thefe terms
they rejedled, chiefly through the influence of the count
de Pailhars, who had been pardoned the year before.
The army, on the other hand, was very earneft in be¬
ing led on to the affault, in hopes of plunder. The
king, however, wrote a letter to the citizens, dated the
6th of Odtober, in terms as affe&ionate as if he had
been writing to his children, bewailing the miferies
they had brought on themfelves, and concluding with
a proteftation, that they, and not he, mutt be anfwer-
able for the confequences. Upon this, at the perfua-
fion of a prieft who had a reputation for fanftity, they
fent deputies to the king, and made a capitulation on
the 17th of the fame month. In this the king acknow¬
ledged they had taken up arms on juft motives; and
forgave every body except Pailhars, who was, how¬
ever, fuffered to efcape. On the 22d of O&ober the
king made his entry into the city, and confirmed all
thrir ancient privileges. In 1697, Barcelona was ta¬
ken by the French, after a'bloody fiege of 52 days;
and the lofs of this city had a confiderable effettt in dif-
pofing the Spaniards to agtee to the treaty of Ryfwick.
In Queen Anne’s tipie it was taken by the allies under
the earl of Peterborough; but being afterwards fhame-
fully denied afliftance by the Englifh minittry, was ob¬
liged to fubmit to Philip II. by whom the whole pro¬
vince was deprived of its ancient privileges; for a par¬
ticular account of which, fee the article Spain.
Barcelona is fituated by the fea-fide, of a form between
a fquare and an oval; it is furrounded with a good brick
wall, round which is another, with 14 baftions, horn-
works, ramparts, and ditches; the ramparts are high,
broad, and fpacious, infomuch that an hundred coaches
may be feen every evening driving thereon forpleafure.
The city is divided into two parts, the Old and the Barctloi
New, which are feparated from each other by a wall H.
and a large ditch; the ftreets are handfome, well paved arc '
with large ftones,,wide, and very clean. It is the re-
fidence of a viceroy, is a bifhop’s fee, has a fine uni-
verfity, a mint, a good port, and is adorned with hand¬
fome buildings. Here is a court of inquifition, which
the inhabitants look upon as an advantage. The re¬
markable buildings are the cathedral, which is large,
handfome, and adorned with two high towers, the
church of the Virgin Mary, the palace of the bifhop,
that of the inquifition, and feveral religious houfes :
add to thefe the palace of the viceroy; the arfenal,
which contains arms for 1000 men ; the exchange,
where the merchants meet; the terfana, where they
build the galleys; and the palace where the nobility of
the country meet, called La Cafa de la Deputation. This
laft is built with fine large free ftone, and adorned with
columns of marble : there is in it a large hall, with a
gilt cieling, and a handfome portico, wherein perfons
may either walk or fit; the hall is adorned with the
portraits of all the counts of Barcelona. There are fe-
veral fine fquares, particularly that of St Michael, into
which all the great ftreets run. The port is wide, fpa-
cioUs, deep, and fafe; defended on the one fide by a
great mole, and on the other fheltered from the weft
wind by two mountains, that advance into the fea, and
form a kind of promontory: the mole is 750 paces long,,
with a quay, at the end of which is a light-houfe, and
a fmall fort. One of the mountains, called Mount Joy,
is very high, and rifes in the middle of the plain near
the city: it is covered with gardens, vineyards, groves
of trees, and has a ftrong fort for the defence of the
city: this mountain being a rock, yields an inexhauft-
ible quarry of fine hard free ftone. Barcelona is a
place of great trade, on account of the conveniency of
its harbour; and it has a manufa&ure of knives greatly
efteemed in Spain, as alfo of blankets. Here are alfo
feveral glafs-houfes. The inhabitants are diligent, and
equally fit for labour and trade; they are alfo very ci¬
vil to ftrangers. The women are well Ihaped, and as
handfome as any in Spain; they are brilk and lively in
their converfation, and more free and unreftrained in
their behaviour than in other parts of Spain. E. Long.
2. 5. N. Lat. 41. 26.
BARCELONETTA, a town of France in the
government of Dauphiny,. and capital of the valley of
its own name. It belonged to the duke of Savoy, and
was ceded to France by the treaty of Utrecht in 1712.
E. I.ong. 6. 40. N. Lat. 44.'2 6.
BARCELOR, a town of Alia, in the Eaft Indies,,
on the coaft of Malabar. It is a Dutch fadtory, where
they carry on a confiderable trade in pepper. E. Long.
74. 15. N. Lat. 13. 45.
BARCELOS, a town of Portugal, with the title
of a duchy. It is feated on the river Cavado, over
which there is a handfome bridge. W. Long. 7. o..
N. Lat. 41. 20.
BARCING, (anc. geogr.) a town of the Terra-
conenfis in Spain,- and capital of the Laletani. Now
Barcelona. See that article.
BARCLAY (Alexander), a learned monk in the
reign of Henry VIII. Where he was born, though
of no great importance, was neverthelefs a matter of
virulent contention among his former biographers.,
.Bale*
Barclay.
BAR f ioio 1 BAR
Bale, who was his cotemporary, is of opinion he was
' born in Somerfetrtiire. There is indeed a village of
his name, and a numerous family, in that county. Pits
thinks he was born in Devonlhire. Mackenzie is po-
fitive he was a Scotchman ; but without proof, unlefs
we admit as fuchhis name, Alexander. He was, how¬
ever, educated in Oriel college, Oxford. After leaving
the univerfity, he went abroad, and continued fome
time in France, Italy, and Germany, where he ac¬
quired a competent knowledge of the languages of thofe
countries, as appears from feveral tranflations of books,
which he afterwards publiihed. On his return to Eng¬
land, he was made chaplain to his patron the bilhop
of Tyne, who likewife appointed him a prieft of St
Mary, at the college of Ottery in Devonfhire, founded
by Grandifon bifhop of Exeter. After the death of
his patron, he became a Benediftine monk of Ely. On
the diffolution of that monaftery, he firft obtained the
vicarage of St Matthew at Wokey, in Somerfetlhire ;
and, in 1549, being then dodtor of divinity, was pre-
fented to the vicarage of Much Badew in Eflex. In
1552, he was appointed redtor of Allhallows, Lombard-
ftreet, which he lived to enjoy but a very fhort time.
He died at Croydon in Surrey, in June 1552. He is
generally allowed to have improved the Englifh lan¬
guage, and to have been one of the politeft writers of
his time. He compofed feveral original works; but
was chiefly remarkable for his tranflations from the
Latin, Italian, French, and German languages. His
verfion from Sallull of the war of Jugurtha is accurate,
and not without elegance. His lives of feveral faints,
in heroic verfe, are Hill unpublifhed. His Stultifera
navis, or The Jhip of fools, is the moft Angular of his
performances. It was printed by Richard Pynfon at
London 1509, in folio; and contains a variety of wooden
plates, which are worthy the infpedtion of the curious.
Barclay (William), a learned Civilian, was born
in Aberdeenfhire in the year 1541. He fpent the
early part of his life, and much of his fortune, at the
court of Mary Queen of Scots, from whofe favour he
had reafon to expedf preferment. In 1573, he wento-
ver to France, and at Bourgcs commenced fludent of
civil law under the famous Cujacius. He continued
fome years in that feminary, where he took a dodtor’s
degree; and was foon after appointed profeffor of civil
law in the univerfity of Pont-a-Moufibn, then firft
founded by the duke of Lorraine. That prince afterwards
made him counfellor of ftate, and mafter of requefts.
Barclay, in the year 1581, married Ann de Malla-
ville, a French lady, by whom he had a fon, who be¬
came a celebrated author, and of whom the reader will
find an account in the next article. This youth the Je-
fuits would gladly have received into their fociety. His
father refufed his copfent, and for that reafon thefe dif-
eiples of Jefus foon coutrived to ruin him with the duke
his patron. Barclay now embarked for Britain, where
king James I. offered him confiderable preferment, pro¬
vided he would become a member of the church of
England : but, not chufing to comply, he returned to
France in 1604; and, foon after his arrival, was ap¬
pointed profeffor of civil law in the univerfity of An¬
gers, where he died the year following, and was buried
in the Francifcan church. He was efteemed a learned
civilian ; and wrote elaborately in defence of the divine
right of kings, in anfwer to Buchanan and others.
The titles of his works are, r. De regno et regali pote-
fate, &c. 2. CotJimentarius in tit. pandettarum de re¬
bus credit'ss, et de jurejurando. 3. Depotefate paper,
&c. 4. Preemetia in vitam Agricola.
Barclay (John), fon of the former, was, as we
have above mentioned, fo great a favourite of the Je-
fuits, that they ufed all their efforts to engage him in
their fociety. His father would not confent, and car¬
ried his fon with him into England, who was already
an author, for he had publiftted A commentary upon the
Thebais of Statius, and a Latin poem on the coronation
of King James, and the firft part of Euphormio, 1603.
He returned to France with his father; and after his
father’s death went to Paris, and foon after came back
to London : he was there in 1606. He publiffied The
Hifory of the Gun-powder Plot, a pamphlet of fix
leaves, printed at Amfterdam. He publiihed at Lon¬
don, in 1610, An Apology for the Euphormio, and his
father’s treatife De potefate paper. And at Paris, 1612,
he publiihed a book intitled Pietas, in anfwer to car¬
dinal Bellarmin, who had written againft William Bar¬
clay’s book concerning the power of the Pope. Two
years after, he publiihed Icon Animorum. He was in¬
vited to Rome by Pope Paul V. and received a great
deal of civility from cardinal Bellarmin, though he had
written againft him. He died at Rome in 1621,
while his Argenis was printing at Paris. This cele¬
brated v/ork has fince gone through a great number of
editions, and has been tranilated into moft languages.
M. de Peirefe, who had the care of the firft edition,
caufed the effigies of the author to be placed before the
book ; and the following diftich, written by Grotiifs,
was put under it :
Genie Caledonius, Callus naialibus, hie. eft,
Romam Romano qui ducet ore loqui.
Barclay (Robert), one of the moft eminent among
the Quakers, the fon of colonel David Barclay, de-
fcended of the ancient family of Barclays, was born at
Edinburgh in 1648. He was educated under an uncle
at Paris, where the Papifts ufed all their efforts to draw
him over to their religion. He joined the Quakers in
1669, and diftinguifhed himfelf by his zeal and abili¬
ties in defence of their do&rines. In 1676, he pub-
lifhed in Latin at Amfterdam his Apology for the Qua¬
kers ; which is the moft celebrated of his works, and
efteemed the ftandard of the dodrine of the Quakers.
The Thefes Theologies, which were the foundation of
this work, and addreffed to the clergy of what fort fo-
ever, were publiffied before the writing of the Apology,
and printed in Latin, French, High-Dutch, Low-
Dutch, and Engliffi. The dedication of his Apology to
king Charles II. is very remarkable' for the uncom¬
mon franknefs and fimplicity with which it is written.
Amongft many other extraordinary paffages, we meet
with the following : “ There is no king in the world,
who can fo experimentally teftify of God’s providence
and goodnefs; neither is there any who rules fo many
free people, fo many true Chriftians ; which thing ren¬
ders thy government more honourable, thyfelf more
confiderable, than the acceffion of many nations filled
with flaviffi and fuperftitious fouls. Thou haft tafted
of profperity and adverfity; thou knoweft what it is to
be baniffied thy native country, to be over-ruled as well
as to rule and fit upon the throne; and being oppreffed,
thou haft reafon to know how hateful the oppreffor is
both.
BAR [ ion ] BAR
wcbas both to God and man : if, after all thofe warnings and
advertifements, thou doft not turn unto the Lord with
y1 tS all thy heart, but forget him who remembered thee in
thy diftrefs, and give up thyfelf to follow lull and va-
[ nity, furely great will be thy condemnation.”—He
travelled with the famous Mr William Penn, through
the greateft part of England, Holland, and Germany,
l and was every where received with the higheft refpeft ;
for though both his converfation and behaviour were
fuitable to his principles, yet there was fuch livelinefs
and fpirit in his difcourfe, and fuch ferenity and cheer-
fulnefs in his deportment, as rendered him extremely a-
greeable to all forts of people. When he returned to
j his native country, he fpent the remainder of his life in
a quiet and retired manner. He died at his own houfe
at Ury, on the 3d of October, 1690, in the 43d year of
! his age.
BARCOCHEBAS, or rather Barcoch AB,a Jewifh
impoftor, whofe real name was Akiba; but he took that
of Barcochab, which fignifies the Son of a Star ; in al-
lufion to the prophecy of Balaam, “ There fhall a ftar
arife out of Jacob.” He proclaimed himfelf the Mef-
fiah; and talking of nothing but wars, victories, and
triumphs, made his countrymen rife againft the Ro¬
mans, by which means he was the author of a thou-
| fand diforders : he ravaged many places, took a great
numberof fortreffes, and maffacred an infinite multitude
of people, and particularly the Chriftians. The em¬
peror fent troops to Rufus, governor of Judea, to fup-
1 prefs the fedition. Rufus, in obedience, exercifed a
thoufand cruelties, but could not finilh his attempt.
The emperor was therefore obliged to fend Julius Se-
verus, the greateft general of that time ; who attained
his end without a dire& battle : he fell on them fepa-
rately ; cut off their provifions ; and at laft the whole
conteft was reduced to the liege of Bitter, in the 18th
year of Hadrian. The impoftor perifhed there. This
war coft the Romans a great deal of blood.
BARDANA, or Burdock. See Arctium.
BARDAS, the brother of the emprefs Theodora-,
I and uncle of the famous Photius, is faid to have had
no other good quality befides that of loving the fciences
and polite literature, which he eftablifhed in the Eaftern
• empire ; for he was treacherous, cruel, and ambitious.
In the year 856, he aflafTinated Theoctiftes, general of
I the emperor Michael’s forces, and obtained his poll.
I At length he caufed the difgrace of the emprefs The-
odora; and St Ignatius, patriarch of Conftantinoplej
| reproaching him for his vices, he had him depofed in
858, in order to make room for Photius.. Bardas was
affaflinated by Bafilius the Macedonian,, in 866.
BARDED, in heraldry, the fame with caparifoned.
BARDESANISTS, a fe£t of ancient heretics, thus
y denominated from their leader Bardefanes, a Syrian-
of Edefla in Mefopotamia. Bardefanes, born in the
middle of the fecond century, became eminent, after
|! his converfion. to Chrittianity, for his zeal againft he¬
retics; againft whom, we are informed, by St Jerome
and Eufebius, he wrote a multitude'of booksyet had
' he the misfortune to fall, himfelf, into the errors of
> Valentinus, to which he added fome others of his own.
He taught, that the adfions of men depend altogether
on fate, and that God himfelf is fubjeft to neceflity.
His followers went further, and denied the refurre&ion
of the body, and the incarnation and death of our Sa¬
viour ; holding that thefe were only apparent or phan- Bardewick,
taftical. ; rr r Bards.
BARDEWICK, a town of Germany, in the circle
of Lower Saxony and duchy of Lunenburg ; formerly
a very large place; but being ruined in 1189, by the
duke of Saxony, has never yet recovered itfelf. It is
feated on the river Ilmeneau, in E. Long. 10. 6. N. Lat.
53- 40-
BARDS. The word bard being 3 primitive noun,
neither derived nor compounded, it can neither be tra-
ced to its root, nor refolved into its parts. It fignified
one who was a poet by his genius and profeffion; and
“ who fung of the battles of heroes, or the heaving ,
“ breafts of love Toems J
The curiofity of man is great with refpeft to the I. 37.’
tranfaftions of his own fpecies; and when fuch tranf-
adlions are deferibed in verfe, accompanied with mufic,
the performance is enchanting. An ear, a voice, /kill Kuirm's
in inftrumental mufic, and, above all, a poetical genius, Sketches,
are requifite to excel in that complicated art. As fuch sk- Y;
talents are rare, the few that pofle/Ted them were highly u*
efteemed; and hence the profefiion of a bard, which,
befide natural talents, required more culture and exer-
cife than any other known art. Bards were capital
perfons at every feftival and at every folemnity. Their
fongs, which, by recording the atchievements of kings
and heroes, animated every hearer, muft have been the
entertainment of every warlike nation. We have He-
fiod’s authority, that in his time bards were a$ common
as potters or joiners, and as liable to envy. Demodo-
cus is mentioned by Homer as a celebrated bard; and
Phemius, another bard, is introduced by him depre¬
cating the wrath of Ulyffes in the following words:
“ O king! to mercy be thy foul irclin’d^.
“ And fpare the poet’s ever-gentle kind.
“ A deed like this thy future fame would wrong,
“ For dear to gods and men is facred fong.
“ Self-taught 1 fing; by heav’n, and heav’n alone,.
“ The genuine feeds of poefy are fown ;
“ And (what the gods bellow) the lofty lay,
“ To gods alone, and godlike worth, we pay.
“ Save then the poet, and thyfelf reward;
“ ’Tis thine to merit, mine is to record.” Odyssey, viii.
Cicero reports, that at Roman feftivals; anciently, the
virtues and exploits of their great men were fung. The
fame cuftom prevailed in Peru and Mexico, as we learn
from Garcilaffo and other authors. We have for our
authority Father Gobien, that even the inhabitants of
the Marian iflands have bards, who are greatly ad¬
mired, becaufe in their fongs are celebrated the feats
of their anceftors.
But in no part of the world did the profeffion of
bard appear with fuch luftreas in Gaul, in Britain, and
in Ireland. Wherever the Celts or Gauls are men- stair’s Bif-
tioned by ancient writers, we feldom fail to hear offertatwn,
their druids and their bards; the inftitution of which fubjoined
two orders, was the capital diftinftion of their man- 0JT,an'*
ners and policy. The druids were their philofophers vpl!”n.
and priefts ; the bards, their poets and recorders of p. 306.
heroic aitions ; and both thefe orders of men feem to
have fubfifted among them, as chief members of the
ftate, from time immemorial. The Celtae poflefled,
from very remote ages, a formed fyftem of difcipline
and manners, which appears to have had a deep and
lafting influence. Ammianus Marcellinus f gives them f 2A xv.
this exprefs tellimony, that there flouriflied among s>-
them the ftudy of the moft laudable arts ; introduced
BAR
[ 1012 ]
BAR
by tbe bards, whofe office it waste fing in heroic verfe We may very reafonably fuppofe, that a profeffion-
the gallant a&ions of illuftrious men ; and by the that was at once fo honourable and advantageous, and
druids, who lived together m colleges or focieties, enjoyed fo many flattering diftin&ions and delirable
after the Pythagorean manner, and, philofophizing immunities, would not be deferted. It was indeed very
upon the higheft fubje&s, aflerted the immortality of much crowded; and the accounts which we have of the'
the human foul. Tho’ Julius Casfar, in his account of numbers of the bards in fome countries, particularly
Gaul, does not exprefsly mention the bards; yet it is in Ireland, are hardly credible. We often read, in the
plain, that, under the title of Druids, he comprehends poems of Offian, of a hundred bards belonging to one
that whole college or order ; of which the bards, who, prince, fmging and playing in concert for his enter-
it is probable, were the difciples of the druids, un- tainment. Every chief bard, who was called Allah
/. doubtedly made a part. It deferves remark, that, Redan, or doftor in poetry, was allowed to have 30 bards
according to his account, the druidical inftitution firft of inferior note conftantly about hisperfon ; and every
took rife in Britain, and paffed from thence into Gaul; bard of the fecond rank was allowed a retinue of 15
fo that they who afpired to be thorough mafters of poetical difciples.
that learning were wont to refort to Britain. He adds Though the ancient Britons of the fouthern parts
too, that fuch as were to be initiated among the druids, of this^ ifland had originally the fame tafte and genius
were obliged to commit to their memory a great num- for poetry with thofe of the north, yet none of their
ber of verfes, infomuch that fome employed twenty years poetical compofitions of this period have been preferved.
in this courfe of education ; and that they did not think Nor have we any reafon to be furprized at this. For
it lawful to record thefe poems in writing, but facredly after the- provincial Britons had fubmitted quietly to
handed them down by tradition from race to race. the Roman government, yielded up their arms, and
So ftrong was the attachment of the Celtic nations had loft their free and martial fpirit, they could take
to their poetry and their bards, that amidft all the little pleafure in hearing or repeating the fongs of their
changes of their government and manners, even long bards in honour of the glorious atchievements of their
after the order of the druids was extinft, and the na- brave anceftors. The Romans too, if they did not
tional religion altered, the bards continued to flourifh ; praftife the fame barbarous policy which was long after
not as a fet of ftrolling fongfters, like the Greek ’AoiJ'oi praftifed by Edward I. of putting the bards to death,
or rhapfodijl's, in Homer’s time, but as an order of would at leaft difeourage them, and difcountenance the
men highly refpe&ed in the ftate, and fupported by a repetition of their poems, for very obvious reafons.
public eftablifhment. We find them, according to the Thefe fons of the fong being thus perfecuted by their
teftimonies of Strabo and Diodorus, before the age of conquerors, and negledled by their countrymen, either
Auguftus Csefar ; and we find them remaining under abandoned their country or their profeffion ; and their
the fame name, and exercifing the fame funftions as of fongs being no longer heard, were foon forgotten,
old, in Ireland, and in the north of Scotland, almoft It is probable that the ancient Britons, as well as
down to our own times. It is well known, that, in both many other nations of antiquity, had no idea of poems
thefe countries, evtry regulus or chief had his own that were made only to be repeated, and not to be fung
bard, who was confidered as an officer of rank in his to the found of mufical inftruments. In the firft ftages
court. of fociety in all countries, the two fifter-arts of poetry
Of the honour in which the bards were held, many and mufic feem to have been always united; every poet
inftances occur in Offian’s poems. On all important was amufician, and fung his own verfes to the found of
occafions, they were the ambafladors between con- fome mufical inftrument. This, we are dire&ly told
tending chiefs : and their perfons were held facred. by two writers mf undoubted credit, was the cafe in
■ Cairbor feared to ftretch his fword to the bards, tho’ Gaul, and confequently in Britain, in this period.
Henry's
Hiflory,
Vol. I.
p. 3<55.
“ his foul was dark. Loofe the bards, (faid his brother
“ Cathmor), they are the fons of other times. Their
“ voice fhall be heard in other ages, when the kings
“ of Temora have failed.”—The bards, as well as the
druids, were exempted from taxes and military fer-
vices, even in times of the greateft danger ; and when
The bards (fays Diodorus Siculusf) fung their poems t Hk
“ to the found of an inftrument not unlike a. lyre.’ 31
“ The bards, (according to Ammianus Marcellinus*, * Lii. xvJ
“ as above hinted), celebrated the brave aftions of illu- 1
ftrious men in heroic poems, which they fung to the
fweet founds of the lyre. ” This account of thefe Greek
they attended their patrons in the field, to tecord and and Latin writers is confirmed by the general ftrain,
celebrate their great adlions, they had a guard affigned and by many particular paflages, of the poems of Offiah.
them for their prote&ioa. At all feftivals and public
aflemblies they were feated near the perfon of the king
or chieftain, and fometimes even above the greateft
nobility and chief officers of the court. Nor was the
profeffion of the bards lefs lucrative than it was honour-
Beneath his own tree, at intervals, each bard fat
1 down with his harp. They raifed the fong, and j
“ touched the firing, each to the chief he loved J.” I H
The invention of writing made a confiderable change
in the bard profeffion. It is now an agreed point, that
able. For, befides the valuable prefents which they no poetry is fit to be accompanied with mufic, but i]
occafionally received from their patrons when they what is Ample: a complicated thought or defeription Kaims’s
gave them uncommon pleafure by their performances, requires the utmoft attention, and leaves none for the Sketches,
they had eftates in land allotted for their fupport. Nay, mufic ; or, if it divide the attention, it makes but a faint ub’ fupra'
fo great was the veneration-which the princes of thefe impreffion f. The Ample operas of Quinault bear away t See the
times entertained for the perfons of their ports, and fo the palm from every thing of the kind compofed by aJticle.
highly were they charmed and delighted with their Boileau or Racine. But when a language, in its pro- ^1
tuneful ftrains, that they fometimeapardoned even their grefs to maturity, is enriched with variety of phrafes
capital crimes for a fong. fit to exprefs the moft elevated thoughts, men of genius
« afpired
n
BAR
[ JoiS ]
B A II
firdt afpired to the higher drains of poetry, leaving mufic
. and fong to the bards : which diftingui/hed the pro-
f?ain' feflion of a poet from that of a bard. Homer, in a
lax fenfe, may be termed a bard ; for in that chara&er
he drolled from feaft to feaft. But he was not a bard
I in the original fenfe : he, indeed, recited his poems to
fl crowded audiences ; but his poems are too complex for
mufic, and he probably did not fing them, nor accom¬
pany them with the lyre. The Trovadores of Provence
were bards in the original fenfe ; and made a capital
figure in the days of ignorance, when few could read,
and fewer write. In later times, the fongs of the
bards were taken down in writing, which gave every
one accefs to them without a bard ; and the profefiion
funk by degrees into oblivion. Among the Highlan¬
ders of Scotland, reading and writing in their own
8 tongue is not common even at prefent; and that cir-
cumllance fupported long the Sard-profeffion among
them, after being forgot among the neighbouring na¬
tions.
BARDT, a ftrong and rich town of Germany, in
the duchy of Pomerania, with a caftle and fpacious
harbour. It is fubjeA to the Swedes ; and is lituated
near the Baltic fea, in E. Long. 13. 20. N. Lat.
I 54- 23.
BARE, in a general fenfe, fignifies not covered.
Hence we fay bare-headed, bare-footed, &c.
The Roman women, in times of public diftrefs and
mourning, went bare-headed, with their hair loofe.—
Among both Greeks, Romans, and Barbarians, we
find a feaft called Nudipedalia.—The Abyffinians never
enter their churches, nor the palaces of kings and great
men, but bare-footed.
BARE-/J5/ Carmelites and Auguftines, are religious
of the order of St Carmel and St Auftin, who live un¬
der a ftridl obfervance, and go without fhoes, like the
capuchins. There are alfo barefoot fathers of mercy.
Formerly there were barefoot dominicans, and even
barefoot nuns of the order of St Auguftin.
BAREITH, a town of Germany in Franconia, in
the margravate of Culembach, with a famous college
belonging to the margrave of Brandenburg Bareith.
E. Long. 11. 50. N. Lat. 50. o.
BA RENT (Diteric), an excellent painter, was
born at Amfterdam, and was the fon of a very rndn-
ftrious painter. He ftudied in Italy, and became the
favourite difciple of Titian, with whom he lived a long
time; but at length returned to Amfterdam, where
he performed many extraordinary pieces. He died in
1582, aged 48.
BARFLEUR, a town of France, in Normandy,
on the continent. It Was ruined, and had its harbour
filled up by the Englifti in 1346. The Cape of that
name is 12 miles eaft of Cherburg, and near it part of
the French fleet was deftroyed in 1692. W. Long, x. 6.
N. Lat. 49. 40.
BARGAIN and Sale, a fpecies of conveyance in
the Englifh law. It is a kind of a real contract,
whereby the bargainer for fome pecuniary confideration
bargains and fells, that is, contrafts to convey, the
land of the bargainee ; and becomes by Rich bargain a
truftee for, or feized to the ufe of; the bargainee; and
then the ftatute of ufes completes the purchafe : or, as
it hath been well exprefied, the bargain firft vefts the
ufe, and then the ftatute vefts the poffeffion. But as
Vol. II.
it was forefeen that conveyances, thus made, would Bjrgc
want all thofe benefits of notoriety which the old
common-law affurances were calculated to give; topre-  '
vent therefore clandeftine conveyances of freeholds, it
was enadted in the fame feflion of parliament by flatute
27 Hen. VIII. c. i6. that fuch bargains and fales
fhould not enure to pafs a freehold, unlefs the fame be
made by indenture, and enrolled within fix months in
one of the courts of Weftminfter-hall, or with the aiftos
rotulorum of the county. Clandeftine bargains and
fales of chattel interefts, or leafes for years, were
thought not worth regarding, as fuch interefts were
very precarious till about fix years before; which alfo
occafioned them to be overlooked in framing the fta¬
tute of ufes : and therefore fuch bargains and fales are
not dire&ed to be enrolled. But how impoflible is it
to forefee, and provide againft, all the confequences of
innovations! This omifiion has given rife to the fpe¬
cies of conveyance by leafe and releafe *. - * See Lenfe
BARGE (bargie, Dutch), a veflel or boat of ftate, aniReleafe.
furnifhed with elegant apartments, canopies, and cu-
fhions; equipped with a band of rowers, and decorated
wdth flags'and ftreamers : they are generally ufed for
proceflions on the water, by noblemen, officers of ftate,
or magiftrates of great cities. Of this fort, too, we
may naturally fuppofe the famous barge or galley of
Cleopatra, which, according to Shakefpear,
 Like a burnifh’d throne
Burnt on the water : the poop was beaten gold:
Purple her fails; and fo perfumed, that
The winds were love-fick with them : the oars were filver,
Which to the tune of flutes kept time, and made
The water which they beat to follow falter,
As amorous of their ftrokes—-
 At the helm
A feeming mermaid (leer’d : the ftlken tackles
SwelPd wiih the touches of thofe flower-foft hands
That yarely’form’d their office. 
There are likewife other barges of a fmaller kind, for
the ufe of admirals and captains of (hips of war. Thefe
are of a lighter frame, and may be ealily hoifted into,
and out of, the fhips to which they occafionally belong.
Barge, is alfo the name of a flat-bottomed veflel of
burden, for lading and difeharging flops, and removing
their cargoes from place to place in a harbour.
Barge-Cktt/’/fi, in architefture, a beam mortifed in¬
to another, to {Lengthen the building.
~£>AV.GZ-Coiirfc, with bricklayers, a term ufed for
that part of the tiling which proje&s over without the
principal rafters, in all forts of buildings where there
is either a gable or a kirkin-head.
BARGHMASTER, Barmer, or Bar-Master,
in the royal mines, the fteward or judge of the barmote.
—The bar-mafter is to keep two great courts of bar-
mote yearly; and every week a fmall one, as occafion
requires.
BARGHMOTE, or Barmote, a court which
takes cognizance of caufes and difputes between mi¬
ners.—By the cuftom of the mines, no perfon is to fue
any miner for ore-debt, or for ore, or for any ground
in variance, but only in the court of barmote, on pe¬
nalty of forfeiting the debt, and paying the charges at
law.
BARI, a very handfome and rich town of Italy, in
the kingdom of Naples ; the capital of Terra di Bari,
and an archbifhop’s fee. It is well fortified, is feated
6 M on
Bari
ti
Bark.
BAR [ 1014 ] BAR
on the gnlph of Venice, and had formerly a good har¬
bour, but it was deftroyed by the Venetians. E. Long.
17. 40. N. Lat. 41. 31.
Bari, or Terra di Bari, a territory of Italy in
the kingdom of Naples, of which the abovementioned
city is the capital. It is bounded on the north by the
Capitanata, on the north-weft by the Ulterior Princi-
pato, on the fouth by the Bafilicata, on the fouth-eaft
by the Terra de Otranto, and on the north-eaft by the
gulph of Venice. It has no confiderable river except
the Offanto, which feparates it from the Capitanata.
The air is temperate; and the foil produces plenty of
corn, fruit, and faffron : but there are a great many
ferpents, and fpiders called tarantulas *. The princi¬
pal towns are Bari the capital, Frani, Andria, Bavo,
Bilonto, Converfano, Monopoli, Poligniano, Barlet-
ta, and Malfetto. The two firft are archiepifcopal, and
all the reft epifcopal.
BARILLIA, in the glafs-trade, a fort of potafties
imported from Spain, inferior in goodnefs to that of
the Levant; called polverine, when loofe, fmall, and in
powder; and rochetta, when in hard rocky lumps.—The
fritt made of thefe makes fine and clear cryftal glafs,
efpecially that from the rochetta, or the polverine in
lumps ; but the bafillia of Spain, though it be'ufually
fatter, yet makes not a glafs fo white, but ufually in¬
clining a little to a bluifh colour.
BARING ofTrees,in agriculture,the takingaway
fome of the earth about the roots, that the winter-rain
and fnow-water may penetrate farther into the roots.
This is frequently pradtifed in the autumn.
BARJOLS, a fmall populous town of Provence, in
France. E. Long. 5. 23. N. Lat. 43. 35.
BARIUM, (anc. geogr.) a town of Apulia on the
Adriatic ; fo called from the founders, who being ex¬
pelled from the ifland Bora, built this town. It is now
called Bari; fee that article.
BARK, in the anatomy of plants, the exterior part
of trees, correfponding to the fkin of an animal. For
its organifation, texture, &c. fee the article Plants.
As animals are furnifhed with a panniculus adipo-
fus, ufually replete with fat, which invefts and covers
all the flefhy parts, and fcreens them from external
cold; plants are encompaffed with a bark replete with
fatty juices, by means whereof the cold is kept out,
and in winter-time the fpiculas of ice prevented from
fixing and freezing the juices in the veffels: whence it
is, that fome forts of trees remain ever-green the year
round, by reafon their barks contain more oil than can
be fpent and exhaled by the fun, &c.
The bark has its peculiar difeafes, and is infe&ed
with infedls peculiar to it.—It appears from the expe¬
riments of M. BufFon, that trees ftripped of their bark
the whole length of their ftems, die in about three or
four years. But it is very remarkable, that trees thus
ftripped in the time of the fap, and fuffered to die,
afford timber heavier, more uniformly denfe, ftronger,
and fitter for fervice, than if the tree had been cut
down in its healthy ftate. Something of a like na¬
ture has been obferved by Vitruvius and Evelyn.
The ancients wrote their books on bark, efpecially
of the alh and lime-tree, not on the exterior, but on Bark
the inner and finer bark called philyra.
There are a great many kinds of barks in ufe in the
feveral arts. Some in agriculture, and in tanning lea¬
ther, as thd oak-bark (a) ; fome in phyfic, as the
quinquina or jefuit’s bark, mace, &c.; others in dye¬
ing, as the bark of alder and walnut trees 5 others in
fpicery, as cinnamon, caffialignea, &c.; and others for
divers ufes, as the bark of the cork-tree, &c.
In the Eaft Indies, they prepare the bark of a cer¬
tain tree fo as to fpin like hemp. After it has been
beat and fteeped in water, they extraft long threads
from it, which are fomething between filk and common
thread ; being neither fo foft nor fo gloffy as filk, nor
fo rough and hard as hemp. They mix filk with it in
fome fluffs; and thefe are called nillaes, and cherque-
'molles.
Of the bark of a fpecies of mulberry-tree the Ja-
panefe make their paper. See Morus.
In the ifland of O-Taheite, the natives make their
cloth, which is of three kinds, of the bark of three dif¬
ferent trees, the paper-mulberry above-mentioned, the
bread-frui! tree, and the cocoa tree. (See Morus,
BREAD-Fra/V Tree, and Cocos.) That made of the
mulberry is the fineft and whiteft, and worn chiefly by
the principal people. It is manufaftured in the fol¬
lowing manner. ' When the trees are of a proper fize,
they are drawn up, and ftripped of their branches; af¬
ter which, the roots and tops are cut off: the bark of
thefe rods being then flit up longitudinally, is eafily
drawn off; and, when a proper quantity has been pro¬
cured, it is carried down to fome running water, in
which it is depofited to foak, and fecured from float¬
ing away by heavy ftones: when it is fuppofed to be
fufficiently foftened, the women fervants go down to
the brook, and, ftripping themfelves, fit down in the
water, to feparate the inner bark from the green part
on the outfide: to do this, they place the under fide up¬
on a flat fmooth board, and with a kind of fliell fcrape
it very carefully, dipping it continually in the water
till nothing remains but the fine fibres of the inner
coat. Being thus prepared in the afternoon, they are
fpread out upon plantain leaves in the evening; they
are placed in lengths of about 11 or 12 yards, one by
the fide of another, till they are about a foot broad,
and two or three layers are alfo laid one upon the o-
ther : care is taken that the cloth ftiall be in all parts
of an equal thicknefs, fo that if the bark happens to be
thinner in anyone particular part of one layer than the
reft, a piece that is fomewhat thicker is picked out to
be laid over it in the next. In this ftate it remains till
the morning, when great part of the water which it
contained when it was laid out is either drained off or
evaporated, and the feveral fibres adhere together, fo.
as that the whole may be raifed from the ground in
one piece. It is then taken away, and laid upon the
fmooth fide of a long piece of wood prepared for the
purpofe, and beaten by the women fervants. #The in-
ftrument ufed for this purpofe is a fquare wooden club,
having each of its four fides or faces marked, length¬
ways, with fmall grooves, or furrows, of different de¬
grees
( a) The bark of the oak has been long ufed in tanning leather, and even thought effential to that operation : but
a different fubftance has been lately difcovered, which anfwers the purpofe full as well, and may be procured at a
much cheaper rate; we mean oak faw-duft, or the chips of oak reduced to powder. This valuable fecret was lately-
purchafed by the fociety for the encouragement of arts, <bc.
BAR [ ic
grees of finenefs ; thofe on one fide being of a width
and depth fufficient to receive a finall pack-thread, and
the others finer in a regular gradation, fo that the laft
are not more than equal to fewing filk. They beat it
firft with the coarfdl fide of this mallet, keeping time
like ourfmiths; it fpreads very fall under the ftrokes,
chiefly however in the breadth, and the grooves in the
mallet mark it with the appearance of threads; it is
fucceffively beaten with the other fides, laft with the
fineft, and is then fit for ufe. Of this cloth there are
feveral forts, of different degrees of finenefs, in pro¬
portion as it is more or lefs beaten. The other cloth al¬
io differs in proportion as it is beaten ; but they difler
from each other in confequence of the different mate¬
rials of which they are made. The bark of the bread¬
fruit is not taken till the trees are confiderably longer
and thicker than thofe of the mulberry ; the procefs
afterwards is the fame.—Of the bark, too, of a tree which
they call poerou *, they manufacture excellent matting;
both a coarfe fort which ferves them to fleep upon, and
a finer to wear in wet weather. Of the fame bark they
alfo make ropes and lines, from the thicknefs of an inch
to the fize of a fmall pack-thread.
Bark, or Jefuit’s Bark, is a name given byway of
eminence to the quinquina, or cinchona *.
Bark, in navigation, a general name given to fmall
Ihips ; it is however peculiarly appropriated by feamen
to thofe which carry three mafts without a mizen top-
fail. Our northern mariners, who are trained in the
coal-trade, apply this diftindtion to a broad-fterned
fhip which carries no ornamental figure on the ftern
or prow.
ffWcr-Barks, are little veffels ufed in Holland for
the carriage of frefh-water to places where it is want¬
ing, as well as for the fetching fea-water to make fait
of. They have a deck, and are filled with water up to
the deck.
JSkKYL-Binding, a diftemper incident to trees; cured
by flitting the bark, or cutting along the grain.
Ytkiv.-Galling, is when the trees are galled with
thorns, &c. It is cured by binding clay on the galled
places.
'Rkw-Longue, or Barca Longa, a fmall low fharp-
built, but very long, veffel without a deck. It goes with
fails and oars, and is very common in Spain.
BARKHAMSTEAD, orBERKHAMSTEAD, a town
of Hertfordlhire in England; formerly of more note
than at prefent. It had formerly a ftrong caftle built
by the Normans, but it has been long fince demoliftied.
W. Long. o. 35. N. Lat. 45. 49.
BARKING, a town of Effex in England, feated
on the river Roding, not far from the Thames, in a
very unwholefome air. It has been chiefly noted for a
large monaftery, now in ruins ; there being nothing
left Handing but a fmall part of the walls, and a gate-
houfe. E. Long. o. 13. N. Lat. 51. 30.
Barking of Trees; the peeling off the rind or
bark. This muft be done, in our climate, in the
month of May, becaufe at that time the fap of the
tree feparates the bark from the wood. It would be
very difficult to perform it at any other time of the
year, unlefs the feafon was extremely wet and rainy;
for heat and drynefs are a very great hindrance to it.
By the French laws, all dealers are forbid to bark
their wood while growing, on the penalty of 500 livres.
15 3 BAR
This law was the refult of ignorance f it being now
found, that barking of trees, and letting them die, in-
creafes the ftrength of timber.
BARKLEY, a town of Gloucefterftiire in England,
feated"on a branch of the river Severn. It was for¬
merly of fome note for a nunnery, and has ftill the title
of a barony. W. Long. 2. 30. N. Lat. 51. 40.
BARKWAY, a town of Hertfordfliire in Eng¬
land, on the great road from London to York. W.
Long. o. 5. N. Lat. 52.
BARLiEUS (Gafpar), profeffor of philofophy at
Amfterdam, and one of the beft Latin poets of the
17th century. There was fcarce any thing great that
happened in the world while he lived, but he made a
pompous elegy upon it, when reafons of ftate were no
obftacle to it. He was a great defender of Arminius;
and ihewed his abilities in hiftory by his relation of
what paffed in Brafil during the government of count
Maurice of Naffau, publilhed 1647. He died the year
after.
BARLERIA, (from Jacobus .Barelier at. Paris,
a famous botanift), Snap-dragon ; a genus of the
angiofpermia order, belonging to the didynamia clafs
of plants.
. Species. 1. The folanifolia, with fpear-ftiaped in¬
dented leaves, rifes with upright fquare ftalks three
feet high, garni/hed with two leaves at every joint;
above which the flowers come out in whorls furround¬
ing the ftalks ; and under each whorl there are fix (harp
fpines, whicl^ are as long as the empalement of the
flowers. The joints are about three inches diftance,
and the flowers are blue. 2. The prionites, with
fpines growing by fours on the fide of the branches,
has been long in the gardens of the curious in Holland,
but is only introduced into Britain of late. This fends
out many flender ftems from the root, which rife eight
or nine, feet high, garnilhed with oval pointed leaves,
two growing oppofite at each joint, which are attended
by four long fpines Handing crofswife. This plant
hath not yet flowered in England, though there are
large plants of it in Chelfea garden. 3. The buxifo -
lia, with round! fh entire leaves, is a native of Jamaica.
It hath ftirubby ftalks rifingfive or fix feet high, gar-
nilhed with roundifli entire leaves placed oppofite, un¬
der which are placed ftrong fpines : the flowers are
produced in whorls towards the upper part of the ftalk,
and are fucceeded by fliort feed-veiTels, containing three
or four flat feeds. 4. The Coccinea is a native of the
warm parts of America. The ftalks are fmooth, rife
to the height of four feet, and are garniflied with two
oval indented leaves (landing oppofite; the flowers are
of a fcarlet colour, and placed in whorls at the joints
of the ftalks. They appear in July, Auguft, and Sep¬
tember, and are fucceeded by fliort pods inclofing flat
feeds.
Culture. All thefe plants, being natives of very
warm countries, require to be kept in a ftove, and muft
be treated like other tender exotics. The roots of the
firft fpecieS will continue three or four years ; but after
the fecond year, the plants grow too rambling, and the
lower parts of the branches become naked ; they (hould
therefore be turned out every two years. This fpecies
is propagated by feeds. The fecond hath flexible per¬
ennial ftalks, which if cut pff during the fummer
months, and made into lengths of fix or eight inches,
6 M 2 will
Barkley
!l
Barl.ria.
BAR. [ 1016 ] BAR
Earletta will Toon put out roots when planted. The other two
Bario v are ProPag3te<^ ^7 fec<^s> anc^ require no particular di-
 U region for their culture.
BARLETTA, a handfome and ftrong town of
Italy, in the kingdom of Naples, and in the Terra di
Bari, with a bifhop’s fee. It is fituated on the gulph
of Venice, in E. Long. 16. 32. N. Eat. 41. 30.
BARLEY, in botany. See Hordeum ; and A-
GRICULTURE, n° I I 8.
The principal ufe of barley among us is for making
beer ; in order to which, it is firft malted. See the
article Beer.
The Spaniards, among whom malt-liquors are little
known, feed their horfes with barley, aa we do with
oats. In Scotland, barley is a common ingredient in
broths ; and the confumpt of it for that purpofe is
very confiderable, barley-broth being adifli as frequent
there, as that offoup in France.
Barley has likewife its ufe in medicine, on account
of its cooling and abfterfive qualities : hence, a decoc¬
tion of barley, efpecially if a little nitre be diffolved in
it, is greatly recommended in flow fevers.
Barley-cw«, the lead of our long meafures, being
the third of an inch.
BARLOW (William), biihop of Chichefter, de-
fcended of an ancient family m Wales, was born in the
county of Eflex. In his youth he favoured the refor¬
mation ; and travelled to Germany to be inftru&ed by
Luther, and other preachers of the new doftrine.
How long he continued a Proteftant is uncertain: but
from his letter to king Henry VIII. quoted below, it
appears that he wrote feveral books againft the church
of Rome. However, he was a regular canon in the
Auguftine monaftery of St Ofith in the county of Ef-
fex, and ftudied fome time at Oxford with the brothers
of that order, where he took the degree of do6tor in
divinity. He was then made prior of the convent at
Bifliam in Berkfhire ; and afterwards fucceeded to the
feveral priories of Blackmore, Typtree, Lega, Brom-
hole, and Haverford-weft. On the diflblution of ab¬
beys, he refigned not only with a good grace, but per-
fuaded feveral other abbots to follow his example.
King Henry was fo pleafed with his ready obedience
on this occafion, that he fent him, in 1535, on an
embafly to Scotland ; in the fame year, made him bi-
Ihop of St Afaph; in two months after, tranflated him
to the fee of St David’s, and in 1547 to that of Bath
and Wells. During this time, our good bifnop, as
appears from the following epiflle to the king, was, or
pretended to be, a {launch Papift ; it was written in
1533. “ Prayfe be to God, who of his infynyte
“ goodnefs and mercy inellymable hath brought me
“ out of darknefs into light, and from deadly igno-
“ ranee into the quick knowledge of the truth. From
“ the whiche, through the fiend’s iniligation and falfe
“ perfuafion, I have greatly fwerved In fo much
“ that I have made certayn bokes, and have foffred
“ them to be emprinted, as the tretife of the buryall
“ of the'maJJ'e, See. In thefe tretifes I perceive and
. “ acknowledge myfelf grievoufly to have erred, name-
“ ly againlt the blefl’ed facrament of the altare ; dif-
“ allowing the maffe and denying purgatory, with
“ flanderous infamy of the pope and my lord cardinal,
“ and outragious raylying againil the clergy ; which
“ I have forfaken and utterly renounced—Afks par-
“ don, William Barlow." However, when EdwardVI.
came to the crown, he was again a Proteftant; and for '
that reafon, on queen Mary’s acceflion, was deprived
of his biflioprick, and fent prifoner to the fleet, where
he continued fome time. At length he found means
to efcape, and immediately joined the other Englifh,
Proteftants in Germany. When queen Elizabeth af-
cended the throne, our prelate was raifed to the fee of
Chichefter, and foon after made firft prebendary of the
collegiate church of Weftminfter. He died in 1568,
and was buried in the cathedral at Chichefter. He
had five daughters, each of which married a bilhop.
He wrote, 1. The buryal of the majfe. 2. The climb¬
ing up of fryers and religious perfons portred ixiith fi¬
gures. 3. Chrijlian homilies. 4. A book upon Coftno-
graphy. 5. The godly and pious inftitution of a Chrif-
tian man, commonly called the bijhop’s book; and feveral
other works. He is faid to be the tranflator of the a-
pocrypha as far as the book of Wifdom. His letters
to M. Parker are in manufeript in Corpus Chrifti col¬
lege Cambridge, Mifc. i. 445.
Barlow (William), a mathematician and divine,
the fon of the biftiop of Chichefter, was born in Pem-
brokeftiire whilft bis father was biftiop of St David’s.
In 1560, he was entered commoner of Baliol college in
Oxford; and in 1564, took a degree in arts, which
having completed by determination, he left the uni-
verfity and went to fea ; but in what capacity is un¬
certain: however, he acquired confiderable knowledge
in the art of navigation. About the year 1573, he
entered into orders ; and became prebendary of Win-
chefter, and re&or of Eafton near that city. In 1588,
he was made prebendary of Litchfield, which he ex¬
changed for the place of treafurer of that church. Some
years after, he was made chaplain to prince Henry,
the fon of king James I.; and in 1614, archdeacon of
Salilbury. He was the firft writer on the nature and
properties of the magnet. Barlow died in the year
1625, and was buried in the church at Eafton. His
works are, I. The navigator's fupply, containing many
things of principal importance belonging to navigation,
and ufe of diverfe infirumenls framed chiefiy for that pur¬
pofe. Lond. 1597, 4to. Dedicated to Robert earl
of Eflex. 2. Magneticaladvertifments, or diverfe per¬
tinent obfervations and approved experiments concerning
the nature and properties of the Icadftone, Lond. 1616,
4to. 3. A brief difeevery of the idle animadverjions of
Mark Ridley, M. D. upon a treatife entitled Magne¬
tical advertifements. Lond. 1618, 4to.
Barlow (Thomas), born in 1607, was appointed
fellow of Queen’s college in Oxford in 1633 ’ an<^ two
years after was chofen reader of metaphyfics to the uni-
verfity. He was keeper of the Bodleian library, and
in 1657 was chofen provoft of Queen’s college. After
the reftoration of king Charles II. he was nominated
one ofyhe commiflioners for reftoring the members un-
juftly expelled in 1648. He wrote at that time The
cafe of Toleration in matters of Religion, to Mr R. Boyle.
101675, he was made biftiop of Lincoln. After the
popifti plot, he publifhed feveral trails againft the Ro¬
man-catholic religion ; in which he fliews an uncom¬
mon extent of learning, and ftcill in polemical divinity.
Neverthelefs, when the duke of York was proclaimed
king, he took all opportunities of exprefling his affec¬
tion toward him; but after the revolution he as readily
voted
BAR [ 1017 ] BAR
arlow voted that the king had abdicated his kingdom ; and
II was very vigorous in excluding thofe of the clergy who
jarmas‘ refufed the oaths, from their benefices.
Mr Granger obferves, that “ this learned prelate,
whom nature defigned for a fcholar, and who afted in
conformity with the bent of nature, was perhaps as
great a mafter of the learned languages, and of the
II works of the celebrated authors who have written in
thofe languages, as any man of his age. The greateft
npart of his writings, of which Mr Wood has given ns
a catalogue, are againll Popery ; and his conduit for
fome time, like that of other Calvinifts, appeared to
be in direit oppofition to the church of Rome. But
after'James afcended the throne, he feemed to approach
much nearer to Popery than he ever did before. He
fent the king an addrefs of thanks for his declaration
for liberty of confcience, and is faid to have written
I’® - reafons for reading that declaration. His compliances
were much the fame after the revolution. His mo¬
deration, to call it by the foftell name, was very great;
|H indeed fo great, as to bring thefirmnefs of his charac¬
ter in queftion. But cafuiflry, which was his mod
diftinguilhed talent, not only reconciles feeming con-
tradiifions, but has alfo been known to admit contra-
■ diftions themfelves. Pie was, abftra&ed from this lax¬
ity of principles, a very great and worthy man.” He
died at Buckden, in Huntingdonlhire, on the 8th of
Oddober 1691, in the 85th year of his age.
I • Barlow (Francis), an eminent Englifh painter, was
born in Lincolnlhire. On his coming to London, he
was placed with one Shepherd, a limner; but his ge-
U • nius led him chiefly to drawing of birds, fifli, and o-
ther animals. There are fix books of animals from
his drawings, and he painted fome ceilings with birds
for noblemen and gentlemen in the country.—His
etchings are numerous; his illuftration of Efop is his
greateft work. Pie died in 1702.—There is fomething
pleafing in the compofition and manner of this mafter,
though neither is excellent. His drawing too is very
indifferent ; nor does he charaderive any animal juftly.
His birds in general are better than his beafts.
BARM, the fame with yeft. See Yest.—Barm
is faid to have been firft ufed by the Celtas in the
J| compofition of bread. About the time of Agricola’s
entrance into Lancafhire, a new fort of loaf had been
introduced at Rome; which was formed only of wa¬
ter and flour, and much efteemed for its lightnefs :
and it was called the ruater cake from its Ample com¬
pofition, and the Parthian roll from its original inven¬
tors. But even this was not comparable to the French
See Ale. or Spanifh bread for its lightnefs. The ufe of curmi •J,
and the knowledge of brewing, had acquainted the
I Celtes with an ingredient for their bread, which was
much better calculated to render it light and pleafing,
than the leaven, the eggs, the milk, or the wine and
honey, of other nations. This was the fpume which
arofe on the furface of their curw in fermentation, and
I - which the Welch denominate harm, and we barm. The
Celtes of Gaul, of Spain, and molt probably therefore
of South-Britain, had long ufed it; and their bread
was, in confequence of this, fuperfor in lightnefs to
fP/iKj?, lib. that of any other nation in the world*. See the ar-
t'iu. c. 7, tides Baking and Bread.
BARMAS, an Eaft Indian people, who in 1515
poffefled all the coaft extending from Bengal to Pegu.
It appears alfo, that they were formerly mailers of Barnabas,
Ava, the dominions of which extended as far as China; Barnabins.
and of confequence the Barmas were mailers of molt
of the northern part of the peninfula beyond the Gan¬
ges. Their dominions, however, were afterv/ards re¬
duced to very narrow bounds, and their.king became
tributary to him of Pegu ; but by degrees they not
only recovered their former empire, but conquered the
kingdoms of Pegu, Siam, and feveral others. By the
lateft accounts, their kingdom extends from the pro¬
vince of Yun-nan in China, about 800 miles in length
from north to fouth, and 250 in breadth from eaft to
weft. See the article Pegu.
St BARNABAS’s Day, a Chriftian feftival, cele¬
brated on the 11th of June.—St Barnabas was born at
Cyprus, and defcended of the tribe of Levi, whofe
Jewilh anceftors are thought to have retired thither to
fecure themfelves from violence during the troublefome
times in Judea. His proper name was Jofes; to which,
after his converfion to Chriftianity, the apoftles added
that of Barnabas, fignifying either the Jon ofprophecy,
or the Jon of conflation; the firft refpefting his eminent
prophetic gifts, the other his great charity in felling
his eftate for the comfort and relief of the poor Chri-
ftians. He was educated at Jerufalem, under the great
Jewilh doftor Gamaliel ; which might probably lay
the foundation of that intimate friendlhip which was-
afterwards contradled between this apoftle and St
Paul. The time of his coverfion is uncertain ; but he
is generally efteemed one of the feventy difciples chofen
by our Saviour himfelf *. ther\a<'
At Antioch, St-Paul and St Barnabas had a con- ix.xi~.xiii.
tell, which ended in their reparation : but what fol- xiv. kv,
lowed it, with refpeift to St Barnabas, is not related
in the j4tts of the Apofles. Some fay, he went into
Italy, and founded a church at Milan. At Salami's,
we are told, he fuffered martyrdom ; whither fome
Jews, being come out of Syria, fet upon him, as he
was difputing in the fynagogue, and Honed him to
death. He was buried, by his kinfman Mark, whom
he had taken with him,, in a cave near that city. The
remains of his body are faid to have been difcpvered in
the reign of the emperor Zeno, together with a copy
of St Matthew’s gofpel, written with his own hand,
and lying on his breaft.
St Barnabas’s Epiftle, an apocryphal work r.fcribed
to St Barnabas, and frequently cited by St Clement
of Alexandria and Origen.—It was iirft publilhed in
Greek, from a copy of father Hugh Menard a Bene-
di&ine monk. An ancient verfion of it was found in
a manufcript of the abbey of Coebey, near a thoufand
years old. Voffius publilhed it, in the year 1656,
together with the epiftles of St Ignatius.
St Barnabas’s Gofpel, another apocryphal' work,
afcfibed to St Barnabas the apoftle, wherein the hi-
ftory of Jefus Chrilt is related in a manner very different
from the account given us by the four Evangelifts.
The Mahometans have this gofpel in Arabic, and it
correfponds very well with thofe traditions which Ma¬
homet followed in his Koran. It was, probably, a
forgery of fome nominal Chrifttans ; and afterwards
altered and interpolated by the Mahometans, the better
to ferve their purpofe.
BARNABITES, a religious order, founded in the
16th century by three Italian gentlemen, who had been
advifed
* See Anas.
BAR F 1018 1 BAR
advlfed by a famous preacher of thofe days to read
carefully the epiftles of St Paul. Hence they were
called ckrh of St Paul; and Barnabites, becaufe they
performed their firft exercife in a church of St Barna¬
bas at Milan. Their habit is black; and their office
is to indraft, cathechife, and ferve in miflion.
BARNACLE, in ornithology, a fpeciesof goofe*.
BANACLES, in farriery, an inftrument compofed
of two branches joined at one end with a hinge, to put
upon horfes nofes when they will not ftand quietly to
be (hod, blooded, or dreffed.
BARNARD, or Bernard, (John), the fon of John
Barnard, gent, was born at Caftor, in Lincolnfhire,
and educated at Cambridge. After feveral preferments,
he was made a prebendary of the church of Lincoln.
He wrote Cenfura Clerior, againft fcandalous minitters
not fit to be reftored to church livings ; the Life of Dr
Heylyn ; and a few other works. He died at Newark,
Auguft 17. 1683.
BARNARD-castle, a town of the county of
Durham, in England, feated on the river Tees. It is
indifferently large, and has a manufafture of dockings.
W. Long. 1. 45. N. Lat. 54. 35.
BARNES (Jofhua), profedbrof the Greek language
at Cambridge, in the beginning of the 18th century.
He was chofen queen’s profeffor of Greek in 1695, a
language he wrote and fpoke with the utmod facility.
His fird publication was a whimfical traft, intitled
Gerania, or a new Difcovery of the little fort of people
called Pygmies. After that appeared his Life of Ed¬
ward III. in which he introduces his hero making
long and elaborate fpeeches.—In the year 1700, when
he publifhed many of his works, Mrs Mafon, of Hem-
mingford, in Huntingdonflrire, a widow lady of be¬
tween 40 and 50, with a jointure of L. 200 per annum,
who had been for fome time a great admirer of him,
came to Cambridge, and defired leave to fettle L. 100
a-year upon him after her death ; which he politely
refufed, unlefs die would likewife condefcend to make
him happy with her perfon, which was not very enga¬
ging. The lady was too obliging to refufe any thing
to .Jofhua, for whom, die faid, “ the fun flood dill;”
and they were accordingly married. Mr Barnes wrote
feveral other books befides thofe abovementioned, par¬
ticularly, Sacred poems ; The Life of .Oliver Cromwell,
the Tyrant ; feveral dramatic pieces; A poetical Para-
phrdfe on the Hiflory of Efker, in Greek verfe, with a
Latin trandation, &c.; and he publidied editions of
Euripides, Anacreon, and Homer's Iliad and Odyffey,
with notes and a Latin trandation. He wrote with
greater eafe in Greek than even in Englidi, and yet is
generally allowed not to have underdood the delicacies
of that language. He was of fuch a humane difpofi-
tion, and fo unacquainted with the world, that he gave
his only coat to a vagrant begging at his door. This
excellent man died on the 3d of Augud 1712, in the
58th year of his age.
BARNEVELDT (John d* Olden), the celebrated
Dutch datefman, and one of the . founders of the civil
liberty of Holland. His patriotic zeal inducing him
to limit the authority of Maurice prince of Orange
the fecond dadtholder of Holland, the partifans of that
prince falfely accufed him of a defign to deliver his
country into the hands of the Spanifh monarch. On
this abfurd charge he was tried by 26 commiflaries
deputed from the feven provinces, condemned, and be¬
headed in 1619. His fons William and Rene, with
a view of revenging their father’s death, formed a con- .
fpiracy againd the dadtholder, which was difcovered.
William fled : but Rene was taken and condemned to
die; which fatal circumdance has immortalized the
memory of his mother, of whom the following anecdote
is recorded. She folicited a pardon for Rene; upon
which Maurice expreffed his furprife that die diould do
that for her fon, which die had refufed for her hufliand.
To this remark, die replied with indignation, “ I
would not alk a pardon for my hufliand, becaufe he
was innocent. I folicit it for my fon, becaufe he is
guilty.”
BARNET, a town partly in Middlefex, and partly
in Hertfordfliire. It is a great thorough-fare, and the
market is very remarkable for hogs. W. Long. o. 5.
N. Lat. 51. 42.
BARNSLEY, or Black Barnsley, a town of the
wed riding of Yorkdiire, feated on the fide of a hill,
and five furlongs in length. W. Long. 1. 20. N. Lat.
53-35-
BARNSTABLE, a fea-port town of Devondiire,
feated on the river Tau, over which there is a good
bridge. It is a corporation town, and fends two mem¬
ber to Parliament. W. Long. 4. 5. N. Lat. 51. 15.
BARO, or Baron, (Peter), profefibr of divinity in
the univerfity of Cambridge, in the 16th century, was
born at Edampes in prance, and educated in the uni¬
verfity of Bourges, where he was admitted a licentiate
in the law : but being of the Protedant religion, he
was obliged to leave his native country to avoid perfe-
cutiqn; and, withdrawing into England, was kindly en¬
tertained by lord Burleigh. He afterwards fettled at
Cambridge; and, by the recommendation of his noble
patron, was, in 1574, chofen lady Margaret’s profefibr
there. For fome years he quietly enjoyed his profef-
forfliip: but there was at lad raifed a redlefs faftion
againd him, by his oppofing the doftrine of abfolute
prededination ; which rendered his place fo uneafy to
him, that he chofe to leave the univerfity, and to fettle
in London. He wrote, 1. In Jonam Prophetam Prte¬
le (Hones xxxix. 2. De Prajlantia Dignitate Divince
Legis; and other pieces. He died in London, about
the year 1600.
BAROCCI (Frederic), a celebrated painter, was
born at Urbin, where the genius of Raphael infpired
him. In his early youth he travelled to Rome; where
he painted feveral things in frefco. He then returned
to Urbino; and giving himfelf up to intenfe ftudy,
acquired a great name in painting. His genius parti¬
cularly led him to religious fubjefts. At his leifure
hours, he etched a few prints from his own defigns ;
which are highly finidied, and executed with great foft-
nefs and delicacy. The falutation is his capital per¬
formance; of which we feldom meet with>any impref-
fions, but thofe taken from the retouched plate, which
are very harfh. He died at Urbino in 1612, aged 84.
BAROCHE; a town of Cambaya, in the domi¬
nions of the Great Mogul; it is walled round, and was
formerly a place of great trade. It is now inhabited
by weavers, and fuch mechanics as manufafture cotton
cloth. Here they have the beft cotton in the world,
and of confequence the beft baftas are manufaftured in
this place. The Englifh and Dutch had formerly fac¬
tories
Barm
J
i
Si Spies
Odjs ba¬
re :er.
p
i|'ge ^y-
Hpfis of
BAR [
tones here, which are now abandoned. E. Long. 72. 5.
N. Lat. 22. 15.
BAROCO, in logic, a term given to the fourth
mode of the fecond figure of fyllogifms. A fyllogifm
in baroco has the firft propofition univerfal and affirma¬
tive, but the fecond and third particular and negative,
and the middle term is the predicate in the two firft
propofitions. For example,
Nullus homo non eft bipes:
Non omne animal eft bipes :
Non omne animal ejl homo.
BAROMETER, (from fat®1 •weight, and /tfr^ov
me a fare), an inftrument for meafuring the weight of the
atm'ofphere, and of ufe in foretelling the changes of the
weather, and alfo for meafuring the height of moun¬
tains, &c.
The common barometer confifts of a glafs tube her¬
metically fealed at one end, and filled with quickfilver
well defecated and purged of its air. The finger being
then placed on the open end, in immediate contact with
the mercury, fo as not to admit the leaft particle of
air, the tube is inverted, and the lower end plunged
into a bafon of the fame prepared mercury ; then, upon
removing the finger, the mercury in the tube will join
that in the bafon, and the mercurial column in the tube
will fubfide to the height of 29 or 30 inches, according
to the ftate of the atmofphere at that time. This is the
principle on which all barometers are conftru&ed. Of
their invention, the different kinds of them, and the
theories by which their phenomena are folved, we fhall
proceed to give an hiftorical account.
In the beginning of the laft century, when the doc¬
trine of a plenum was in vogue, philofophers were of
opinion, that the afeent of water in pumps was owing
to the abhorrence of a vacuum ; and that, by means of
fuftion, fluids might be raifed to any height whatever.
ButGalilseo, who flouriffied about that time, difeovered
that water would not afeend in a pump unlefs the fucker
reached within 33 feet of itsfurface in the well. From
hence he concluded, that not the power of fuftion, but
the preffure of the atmofphere was the caufe of the af¬
eent of water in pumps; that a column of water 33
feet high was a counterpoife to one of air of an equal
bafe, whofe height extended to the top of the atmo¬
fphere ; and that for this reafon the water would not
follow the fucker any farther. From this Torricelli,
Galilaso’s difciple, took the hint; and confidered, that
if a column of water of about 33 feet in height was
equal in weight to one of air having the fame bafe, a
column of mercury no longer than about 29-!- inches
would be fo too, becaufe, mercury being about 14 times
heavier than water, a column of mercury muft be 14
times ffiorter than one of water equally heavy. Ac¬
cordingly, having filled a glafs tube with mercury, and
inverted it into a bafon of the fame, he found the mer¬
cury in the tube to defeend till it flood about 291-
inches above the furface of that in the bafon.
Notwithftanding this clear proof of the preffure of
the atmofphere, however, the affertors of a plenum left
no means untried to folve the phenomena of the Tor¬
ricellian experiment by fame other hypothefis. The
moft ridiculous folution, and which at the fame time gave
the adverfe party the greateft difficulty to overthrow it,
was that of Linus. He contended, that, in the upper
part of the tube, there is a film, m rope of mercury, ex-
1019 ] BAR
tended through the feeming vacuity; and that, by this Barometer,
rope, the reft of the mercury was fufpended, and kept ~ "
from falling into the bafon. Even this fo abfurd hy- Experi-
pothefis he pretended to confirm by the following ex- merits in
periments. Take, fays he, a fmall tube, open at both
ends, fuppofe about 20 inches long ; fill this tube with
mercury, flopping the lower orifice with your thumb:
Then clofing the upper end with your finger, and im-
merging the lower in ftagnant mercury, you ffiall per¬
ceive, upon the removal of your thumb, a manifeft
fu&ion of your finger into the tube ; and the tube and
mercury will both flick fo clofe to it, that you may carry
them about the room. Therefore, fays he, the inter¬
nal cylinder of mercury in the tube is not held up by
the preponderant air without; for if fo, whence comes
fo ftrong a fusion, and fo firm an adhefion of the tube
to the finger ?—The fame effeft follows, though the
tube be not quite filled with mercury ; for if a little
fpace of air is left at the top, after the tube is im-
merged in the ftagnant mercury, there will be a confi-
derable fu&ion as before. ;
Thefe experiments, which are themfelves clear proofs Refined,
of the preffure of the air, fupported for fome time the
funicular hypothefis, as it was called, of Linus. But
when it was difeovered, that if the tube was carried to the
top of an high mountain the mercury flood lower than
on the plain, and that if removed into the vacuum of
an air-pump it fell out altogether, the hypothefis of 6
Linus was rejefted by every body.—There are, how- Remark-
ever, two experiments which create a confiderable dif- able exPer**
ficulty. One is mentioned by Mr Huygens, viz. that jv^Huy-
if a glafs tube 75 inches long, or perhaps longer, is gcns.
filled with mercury well purged of its air, and then in¬
verted, the whole will remain fufpended ; whereas, ac¬
cording to the Torricellian experiment, it ought to fub¬
fide immediately to the height of 29 or 30 inches. It
is true indeed, that, upon fhaking the tube, the mercury
prefently fubiides to that height; but why it fhould re¬
main fufpended at all, more than twice the height to
which it can be raifed by the preffure of the moft denfe
atmofphere, feems not ealily accounted for; and ac- y
cordingly, in the Philofophical Tranfa&ions, we find Unfatisfac- •
attempts to account for it by the preffure of a medium ac"f ^
more fubtle than the common air, and capable of per-
vading both the mercury and glafs. We find there lofophical
alfo another very furprifing fadl of the fame kind men- Tranfac-
tioned ; viz. that a pretty large tube under 29 inches tlGns-
in length, filled with mercury, and inverted into a ba¬
fon of the fame, will remain full, though there be a*
fmall hole in the top. This, too, is there accounted
for by the preffure of a medium more fubtile than com¬
mon air; but by no means in a fatisfadfory manner. Mr 3
Rowning, who mentions the phenomenon of the 75 inch Mr Ro« -
tube, accounts for it in the following manner. “ The ningisfolu-
caufe of this phenomenon feems to be, that by the greattl0n'
weight of fo long a column of mercury, it was preffed
into fo clofe contadl with the glafs in pouring in, that,
by the mutual attraction of cohefion between the mer¬
cury and the glafs, the whole column was fuftained af- Q
ter the tube v/as inverted.”—Here, however, we muft infuffic'cr.r.
obferve, that this folution feems equally uufatisfadlory
with that of the fubtile medium already mentioned; be¬
caufe it is only one end of the column which fuftains
fo great a preffure from the weight of the mercury; and
therefore, though five or fix inches of the upper part of
the
BAR
1020
B A R
experiment
Solutio
K,i'-ometer. {]ie tube, where the preffure had been ftrongeft, might tion, they are then faid to be eiettrified. Now, though
thus remain full of mercury, yet the reft ought to fall we are certain, that the fri&ion of glafs by mercury
down. Befides, it is only the outfide of the mercurial does fet in motion the ele&ric fluid contained in the
column that is in contact with the glafs, and confc- mercury, or in the glafs ; yet, when the tube is filled
quently thefe parts only ought to be attrafted. There- with the metallic fluid, whatever quantity has been
fore, even granting the prefiure to be equally violent, extricated, either from the glafs or mercury, during
on the inverfion of the tube, all the way from 291075 the time of filling, will be reabforbed by the me-
inches, yet the glafs ought to be only as it were filvered tal, and conveyed to the earth, during the time of in-
over by a very thin film of mercury, while the middle verfion ; and confequently the mercurial tube, when
parts of the column ought to fall out by reafon of their inverted, will not be eledlrified, but both glafs and
fluidity. mercury will be in their natural flate. Here, then, the
The other experiment hinted at, is with regard to preffure of the eledlrical fluid is kept off iu fome mea-
fiphons ; which though it belongs more properly to the fure from the upper part of the mercury by the glafs,
article Hydrostatics, yet feems necefiary to be men- which it cannot penetrate, eafily at lead. To the
tioned here. It is this : That a fiphon, once fet a run- mercury in the bafon it has free.accefs, and therefore
hing, will continue to do fo though fet under the re- preffes more upon the lower than the upper part; the
ceiver of an air-pump and the air exhaufled in the mofl confequence of which is a fufpenfion of the mercury,
perfedl manner ; or if a fiphon is filled, and then fet It is true, this fluid very eafily penetrates the metallic
under a receiver and the air exhaufted, if by any con- matter; but it muft be confidered, that the eledtric fluid
trivance the end of the lower leg is opened, it will im- itfelf is in fome meafure entangled in the particles of
mediately begin to run, anddifcharge the water of any the quickfilver, and cannot be extricated without mo-
veffel in which the other leg is placed, as though it was tion. As-foon therefore as the tube is fhaken, fome
in the open air. The caufe of this phenomenon, as part of the eledtricity is extricated, and the mercury
well as the former, feems very difficult to be invefti- begins to defcend. The fubtilty of the medium is fuch,
by gated. In Chambers’s Didtionary, under the word that no fooner has it begun to extricate itfelf, than, by
Mr Cham- Siphon, we have a folution fomething fimilar to the fu- the motion of the metal downwards, it iffues forth in
CIS' nicular hypothefis of Linus abovementioned ; namely, great quantities, fo as to become vifible, like a blue
that “ fluids in fiphons feem as it were to form one con- flame, in the dark. The equilibrium is therefore de-
tinued body ; fo that the heavier part, dcfcending, like ftroyed in an inftant, as it would be were we to admit
a chain pulls the lighter after it.” This might be air to the top of the barometer ; nay, in a more effec-
ji deemed a fufficient explication, if the fiphon was only tual manner. For if a fmall quantity of air was ad-
Infufficient. to empty the water it at firft: contains in itfelf: but mitted to the top of a barometer, the mercury would
when we confider that the water in the veflel, which only defcend in proportion to the quantity of air ad-
much exceeds the quantity contained in the fiphon, mitted ; but here, no fooner is a quantity of eledtric
is likewife evacuated, Mr Chambers’s hypothefis can matter admitted, than it procures admiffion for a vafl:
by no means be admitted ; becaufe this would be like deal more, and confequently the mercury defcends with
the lighter part of a chain pulling the heavier after it. accelerated velocity.— On this principle the afcent of
Another Concerning the caufe of thefe Angular phenomena, water in the fiphon while in vacuo is fo eafily accounted
Solution we can only offer the following conjedlure. The ex- for, that we need not take up time in explaining it far-
from the Jftence of a medium much more fubtile than air, and ther.—But why an inverted glafs tube fliould remain
" which pervades the vacuum of an air-pump with the full of mercury when it has a hole either great or fmall
utmofl facility, is now fufficiently afcertained in the in the top, is more difficult to be accounted for, and
phenomena of eledlricity. It is alfo well known, that requires this farther circumftance to be taken into con-
this fluid furrounds the whole earth to an indeterminate fideration, viz. that though all folid bodies will, by
height. If therefore this fluid eitherJs the power of the aclion of gravity, or by any other impulfe, eafily
gravity itfelf, or is afted upon by that power, it muft approach very near to one another, yet they cannot be
neceffarily prefs upon all terreftrial bodies in a man- brought into abfolute contaft without a very confider-
ner fimilar to the preffure of the atmofphere. If then able force, much greater than is fufficient to overcome
we could from any veflel entirely exclude this fubtile their gravity y and thus it appears from fome experi-
fluid, and form an eleftrical vacuum, as well as we can ments, that the links of a chain are by no means in
do an aerial one by means of the air-pump, we would contadt with one another, till the chain has a confider-
in that cafe fee fluids as evidently raifed by the preffure able weight appended to it. This may be the cafe
of the eledtric matter, as we now fee them raifed by with the tube in queftion. The air by its gravity de-
that of the air. But tho’ this cannot be done, we are fcends upon it, and is ready to enter the fmall hole in the
affured that there are certain fubftances, of which glafs top ; but, by a repulfive power from the glafs, its ac-
Js one, through which the ele&ric matter cannot pafs tion is prevented, fo that the mercury cannot fall,
but with difficulty. We are likewife certain, that tho’ It was, however, fome time after the Torricellian ex-
the eledlric matter pafles through the pores of water, periment had been made, and even after it had been
metals, &c. with very great facility, yet it ftill muft univerfally agreed that the fufpenfion of the mercury
meet with fome refiftance from their folid and impene- was owing to the weight of the atmofphere, before it
trable parts, which cannot be pervaded by any material was difcovered that this preflure of the air was different
fubftance. We know alfo, that all fubftances do na- at different times though the tube was kept in the
turally contain a certain quantity of this eleftric mat- fame place. But the variations of altitude in the mer-
ter, which they are not always ready'to part with; and curial column were too obvious to remain long unob-
when by any means the fluid they contain is fet in mo- ferved; and accordingly philofophers foon became care¬
ful
ufed for
prognoft
eating tli
weather.
p-§j |
BAR [ 1021 ] BAR
r. fill enough to mark them. When this was done, it tube, which prevents the free motion of it till it is dif-
“ was impoffible to avoid obferving alfo, that the changes engaged by the ihock : and therefore, when an ob-
in the height of the mercury were accompanied, or fervation is to be made with fuch a tube, it ought al-
very quickly tucceeded, by changes in the weather, ways to be ihaken firft; for fometimes the mercury will
Hence the inftrument obtained the name of the ‘ivea- not vary of its own accord, till the weather it ought
tber-gLafsy and was generally made nfe of with a view to have indicated is prefent.”
to the foreknowledge of the weather. In this charac- Here we mu-ft obferve, that the abovementioned pbe-
ter,. Its principal phenomena are as follow. nomena are peculiar to places lying at a oowfidernble di-
i. The rifing of the mercury prefages, in general, fair ftancefrom the equator; for, in the torrid zone, the mer-
weather; and its falling, foul weather, as rain, fnow, eury in the barometer feldom either rifes or falls much,
high wands, and ftorms. In Jamaica, it is obferved by Sir William Beefton *, that
t. 2. In very hot weather, the falling of the mercury the mercury in the morning conftantly flood at one de-
forefliows thunder. gree below changeable, and at noon funk to one degree
3. In winter, the rifing prefages fro ft; and in frofty above rain; fo that the whole fcale of variation there
weather, if the mercury falls three or four divifions, was only of an inch. At St Helena, too, where
there will certainly foWow a thaw. But in a continued Dr Halley made his obfervations, he found the mer-
froft, if the mercury rifes, it will certainly fnow. cury to remain moftly ftationary whatever weather hap-
4. When foul weatlier happens foon after the falling pened. Of thefe phenomena, their caufes, and why
of the mercury, expeft but little of it; and, on the the barometer indicates an approaching change of w'ea-
contrary, expe<9: but little fair weather when it proves thcr, the Doflor gives us the following account.
fair fliortly after the mercury has rifen. “ 1. In calm weather, wdien the air is inclined to
5. In foul weather, when the mercury rifes much and rain, the mercury is commonly low.
high, and fo continues for two or three days before the “ 2. In ferene, good, and fettled weather, themer-
foul weather is quite over, then expeft a continuance cury is generally high.
of fair weather to follow. “ 3. Upon very great winds, though they be not
6. In fair weather, when the mercury falls much and accompanied with rain, the mercury finks loweft of all,
low, and thus continues for two or three days before with relation to the point of the compafs the wind blow's
Thefe phe¬
nomena pe¬
culiar to the
and frigid
z°phucr.
Tran fait.
Phenomena
of the baro¬
meter fol-
ved by Dr
Halley.
the rain comes; then expedl a great deal of wet, and upon,
probably high winds.
y. The unfettled motion of the mercury denotes un¬
certain and changeable weather.
8. You are not fo ftriftly to obferve the words en-
: 4. Cceteris paribus, the greateft heights of the
mercury are found upon eafterly, or north-eafterly
winds.
“ 5. In calm frofty weather, the mercury generally
* arks
:rRou-
graved on the plates, (though in general if will agree ftands high,
with them) as the mercury’s rifing and falling. For if it “ 6. After very great ftorms of wind, when the mer-
ftands at Much rain, and then riles up to changeable, it cury has been very low, it generally rifes again very
prefages fair weather; though not to continue fo long fall.
as if the mercury had rifen higher: and fo, on the con- 7. The more northerly places have greater alte-
trary, if the mercury ftood at fair, and falls to change- rations of the barometer than the more foutherly.
able, it prefages foul weather; though not fo much of “ 8. Within the tropics, and near them, thofe ac-
it as if it had funk lower. counts we have had from others, and my own obferva-
Thefe are the obfervations of Mr Patrick, on which tions at St Helena, make very little or no variation of
Mr Rowning makes the following remarks. “ From the height of the mercury in all weathers,
thefe obfervations it appears, That it is not fo much “ Hence I conceive that the principal caufe of the
the height of the mercury in the tube, that indicates rife and fall of the mercury is from the variable winds
the weather, as the motion of it up and down: where- which are found in the temperate zone, and whofe great
fore, in order to pafs a right judgment of what weather inoouftancy, here in England, is notorious,
is to be expefited, we ought to know whether the mer- “ A fecond caufe is, the uncertain exhalation and
cury is a&ualiy rifing or falling; to which end the fol- precipitation of the vapours lodging in the air, where-
lowing rules are of ufe. by it comes to be at one time much more crowded than
1. “ If the furface of the mercury is convex, ftand- at another, and confequently heavier; but this latter
ing higher in the middle of the tube than at the Tides, depends in a great tneafure upon the former. Now
it is generally a fign that the mercury is then rifing. from thefe principles I fiiall endeavour to explicate the
2. “ If the furface is concave, it is then finking) feveral phenomena of the barometer, taking them in the
and, fame order I have laid thcm down. Thus,
3. “ If it is plain, the mercury is ftationary, or ra- “ 1. The mercury’s being low inclines it to rain,
ther if it is a little convex; for mercury being put into becaufe the air being light, the vapours are no longer
a glafs tube, efpecially a fmall one, will naturally have fupported thereby, being become fpecifically heavier
its furface a little convex, becaufe the particles of mer- than the medium wherein they floated; fo that they
cury attraft one another more forcibly than they are defeend towards the earth, and, in their fall, meeting
attrafled by glafs. Further, with other aqueous particles, they incorporate toge-
4. “ If the glafs is fmall, ftiake the tube; and if ther, and form little drops of rain : but the mercury’s
the air is grown heavier, the mercury will rife about being at one time lower than another, is the effe<ft. of
half the tenth of an inch higher than it ftood before ; two contrary winds blowing from the place where the
if it is grown lighter, it will fink as much. This pro- barometer ftands; whereby the air of that place is car-
ceeds from the mercury’s flicking to the fides of the ried both ways from it, and confequently the incumbent
Vol. II. , 6 N cylinder
BAR [ 1022 ] BAR
Barometer, cylinder of air is diminifhed, and accordingly the mer- mulated by the oppofition of the wefterly wind blow- Baromet|t -
cury links: As, for inftance, if in the German ocean it ing in the ocean, the mercury muft needs be preffed ^
Ihould blow a gale of wefterly wind, and, at the fame to a more than ordinary height ; and as a concurring
time, an eafterly wind in the Irifh Sea ; or, if in France caufe, the ftirinking of the lower parts of the air into
it Ihould blow a northerly wind, and in Scotland 'a lefler room by cold, muft needs caufe a defcent of the
foutherly; it muft be granted, that that part .of the upper parts of the atmofphere, to reduce the cavity
atmofphere impendant over England would thereby be made by this contra&ion to an equilibrium,
exhaufted and attenuated, and the mercury would fub- • “ 6. After great ftorms, when the mercury has been
fide, and the vapours which before floated in thefe parts very low, it generally rifes again very fall: I once obfer
of the air of equal gravity with themfelves would fink
to the earth.
“ z. The greater height of the barometer is occa-
fioned by two contrary winds blowing towards the
ved it to rife one inch and an half in lefs than fix hours
after a long continued ftorm of fouth-weft wind. The
reafon is, becaufe the air being very much rarefied by
the great evacuations which fuch continued ftorms
place of obfervation, whereby the air of other places is make thereof, the neighbouring air runs in the mon
brought thither and accumulated ; fo that the incum¬
bent cylinder of air being increafed both in height and
weight, the mercury prefied thereby muft needs Hand
high, as long as the winds continue fo to blow ; and
then the air being fpecifically heavier, the vapours are
fwiftly to bring it to an equilibrium ; as we fee wa¬
ter runs the falter for having a greater declivity.
“ 7. The variations are greater in the more north¬
erly places, as at Stockholm greater than at Paris
(compared by M Pafchal); becaufe the more northerly
better kept fufpended, fo that they have no inclination parts have ufually greater ftorms of wind than the more
to precipitate and fall down in drops, which is the rea- foutherly, whereby the mercury ftiould fink lower
fon of the ferene good weather which attends the greater that extreme ; and then the northerly winds bringing
heights of the mercury.
the more denfe and ponderous air from the neigh-
“ 3. The mercury finks the lowed of all by the very bourhood of the pole, and that again being checked
rapid motion of the air in ftorms of winds. For the by a foutherly wind at no great diftance, and fo heaped,
traff or region of the earth’s furface, wherein the winds
rage, not extending all round the globe, that ftagnant
air which is left behind, as likewife that on the jides,
cannot come in fo fall as to fupply the evacuation made
by fo fwift a current, fo that the air muft neceflarily
muft of neceffity make the mercury in fuch cafe ftand
higher in the other extreme.
“ 8. Laftly, this remark, that there is little or no
variation near the equinoctial, does above all others
confirm the hypothefis of the variable winds being the
be attenuated, when and where the faid winds continue caufe of thefe variations of the height of the mercury;
to blow, and that more or lefs according to their vio¬
lence : add to which, that the horizontal motion of the
air being fo quick as it is, may in all probability take
off fome part of the perpendicular preffure thereof;
for in the places above named, there is always an eafy
gale of wind blowing nearly upon the fame point, viz.
E. N. E. at Barbadoes, and E. S. E. at St Helena,
fo that there being no contrary currents of air to e
and the great agitation of its particles is the reafon hauft or accumulate it, the atmofphere continues much
why the vapours are difftpated, and do not condenfe in the fame ftate : however, upon hurricanes, the
into drops fo as to form rain, otherwife the natural
confequence of the air’s rarefaCtion.
“ 4. The mercury (lands higheft upon the eafterly
and north-eafterly wind ; becaufe in the great Atlantic
ocean, on this fide the 35th degree of north latitude,
the winds are almoft always wefterly or fouth-wefterly;
fo that whenever here the wind comes up at eaft and
north-eaft, it is fure to be checked by a contrary gale
as foon as it reaches the ocean; wherefore, according
to our fecond remark, the air muft needs be heaped
over this illand, and confequently the mercury muft
ftand high, as often as thefe winds blow. This holds
true in this country; but is not a general rule for others,
moft violent of ftorms, the mercury has been obferved
very low; but this is but once in two or three years,
and it foon recovers its fettled ftate, about 294- inches.”
This theory we find controverted by Mr Chambers, ObjeOi^
in his Dictionary, under the word Barometer. The by
principal objections are, That if the wind was the foie ^larafi®
agent in raifing or depreffing the mercury, the altera¬
tions of its height in the barometer would be only re¬
lative or topical ; there would (till be the fame quan¬
tity fupported at feveral places taken collective!y : thus
what a tube at London loft, another at Paris, Pifa, or
Zurich, &c. would gain. But the contrary is found
to be the cafe ; for, from all the obfervations hitherto
where the winds are under different circumftances : made, the barometers in feveral diftant parts of the
and I have fometimes feen the mercury here as low as
29 inches upon an eafterly wind; but then it blew ex¬
ceedingly hard, and fo comes to be accounted for by
what was obferved in the third remark.
“ 5. In calm frofty weather the mercury generally
(lands high; becaufe (as I conceive) it feldom freezes
but when the winds come out of the northern and north-
eattern quarters : or at lead, unlefs thofe winds blow
at no great diftance off. For the north parts of Ger¬
many, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, and all that trad
from whence north-eaftern winds come, are fubjed to
almoft continual froft all the winter: and thereby the
lower air is very much condenfed, and in that ftate is
brought hitherward by thofe winds, and, being accu-
dobe rife and fall together. This is a very furprifing
faCt; and deferves to be well examined. Again, fetting
afide all other objections, it is impoffible, on Dr Hal¬
ley’s hypothefis, to explain the mercury’s fall before,
and rife after, rain. For fuppofe two contrary winds
fweeping the air from over London ; we know that
few if any of the winds reach above a mile high ; all
therefore they can do will be to cut off a certain part
of the column of air over London : if the confequence
of this be the fall of the mercury, yet there is no ap¬
parent reafon for the rains following it. The vapours
indeed may be let lower ; but it will only be till they
come into an air of the fame fpecific gravity with them¬
felves, and there they will (tick as before. Laftly, it
BAR [ 1023 ] BAR
rometer. is impoffiblc, according to the laws of fluids, that the
air above any place could be exhaufted by the blowing
of two contrary winds from it : for, fuppofe a north-
eaft and louth-welt wind both blow from London at
• the fame time, there will be two others at the fame
time blowing towards it from oppolite points, viz. a
N. W. and S. E. one, which will every moment re-
flore the equilibrium, fo that it can never be loll in
10 any confiderable degree at leaft.
U sothc is ^ Leibn;tz accounted for the finking of the mer-
.dlinitz. cury before rain upon another principle, viz. That as
a body fpecifically lighter than a fluid, while it is fuf-
pended by it, adds more weight to that fluid, than
when, by being reduced in its bulk, it becomes fpe¬
cifically heavier, and defcends; fo the vapour, after
it is reduced into the form of clouds, and defcends,
tl adds lefs weight to the air than before ; and therefore
.11 uted. the mercury falls. To which it is anfwered, 1. That
when a body defcends in a fluid, its motion in a very
little time becomes uniform, or nearly fo, a farther
acceleration of it being prevented by the refillance of
the fluid ; and then, by the third law of nature, it
forces the fluid downwards with a force equal to that
whereby it tends to be farther accelerated, that is,
with a force equal to its whole weight. 2. The mer¬
cury by its defcent foretells rain a much longer time
before it comes, than the vapour after it is condenfed
into clouds can be fqppofed to take up in falling.
3. Suppofing that as many vapours as fall in rain du-
H 1 ring a whole year were at once to be condenfed into
clouds, and even quite ceafe to gravitate upon the air,
its gravity would fcarce be diminiihed thereby fo much
as is equivalent to the defcent of two inches of mer¬
cury in the barometer. Befides, in many places be¬
tween the tropics, the rains fall at certain feafo'ns in
very great quantities, and yet the barometer {hews
there very little or no alteration in. the weight of the
j: u, atmofphere.
a ufficient Mr Chambers gives an hypothefis fomewhat fimilar
Ij 1^t*Iefis to that of Leibnitz: but as it is liable to the objedf ions
d ambers J11^ now mentioned, efpecially the laft, we forbear to
give any particular account of it; and (hall attempt,
upon other principles, to give a fatisfa&ory folution
f a3 of this phenomenon.
<t bother The neceffary preliminaries to our hypothefis are,
pory. j. That vapour is formed by an intimate union between
the element of fire and that of water, by which the fire
or heat is fo totally enveloped, and its a&ion fo entirely
fufpended by the watery particles, that it not only lofes
its properties of giving light and burning, but becomes
H incapable of affeding the moft fenfible thermometer ;
in which cafe, it is faid by Dr Black, the author of
this theory, to be in a latent ftate. For the proofs of
this, fee the articles Evaporation, Cold, Congel¬
ation, &c. 2. If the atmofphere is affeded by any
unufua) degree of heat, it thence becomes incapable of
fupporting fo long a column of mercury as before,
for which reafon that in the barometer finks. This
appears from the obfervations of Sir William Beefton
I already mentioned ; and likewife from thofe of De Luc,
which {hall be afterwards taken notice,of.
Thefe axioms being eftablifiied, it thence follows,
that as vapour is formed by an union of fire with water,
or if we pleafe to call it an eleftive attra&ion between
them, or folution of the water in the fire, it is impof-
fible that the vapour can be condenfed until this un- Barometer,
ion, attradion, or folution, be at an end. The be¬
ginning of the condtnfation of the vapour then, or the
firfl: fymptoms of an approaching rain, mull: be the fe-r
paration of the fire which lies hid in the vapour. This
may be at firft flow and partial, or it may be hidden
and violent: in the firft cafe, the rain will come on
flowly, and after a confiderable interval ; and in the
other, it will be very quick, and in" great quantity.
But Dr Black hath proved, that when fire quits its
latent ftate, however long it may have lain dormant
and infenfible, it always afliimes its proper qualities
again, and affeds the thermometer as though it had
never been abforbed. The confequence of this mult
be, that in proportion as the latent heat is difcharged
from the vapour, it muft fenfibly affed thofe parts of
the atmofphere into which it is difcharged; and in pro¬
portion to the heat communicated to thefe, they will
become fpecifically lighter, and the mercury fink of
caurfe. Neither are we to imagine that the quantity
of heat difcharged by the vapour is inconfiderable;
for Dr Black hath {hewn, that when any quantity of
water, a pound for inftance, is condenfed from the
vapour of a common ftill, as much heat is communicated
to the head and refrigeratory as would have been fuf-
ficient to heat the pound of water red hot, could it
have born that degree of fenfible heat.
The caufes by which this feparation between the
fire and w^ater is, or may be, effeded, come to be con-
fidered under the articles Rain, Condensation, Va¬
pour, &c. Here we have only to obferve, that as the
feparation may be gradual and flow, the barometer may
indicate rain for a confiderable time before it happens :
or if the fenfible heat communicated from the vapour
to the atmofphere ftvall be abforbed by the colder
parts, or by any unknown means carried off, or pre¬
vented from affeding the fpecific gravity of the air,
the barometer will not be affeded ; and yet the water
being deprived of the heat neeeffary to fultain it, muft
defcend in rain; and thus it is found that the indica¬
tions of the barometer do not always hold true. Hence
alfo it appears, that tho’ the fpecific gravity of the air
is diminilhed, unlefs that diminution proceeds from a
difcharge of the latent heat contained in the vapours,
no rain will follow; and thus the finking of the baro¬
meter may prognofticate wind as well as rain, or fome-
times nothing at all.
The difficulty, however, on this hypothefis, is to ac¬
count for the barometer being ftationary in all weathers
between the tropics ; whereas it ought to move up and
down there as well as here, only more fuddenly, as the
changes of weather there are more fudden than here.
But it muft be confidered, that in thefe climates, during
the day-time, the adtion of the fun’s rays is fo violent,
that what is gained by the difcharge of latent heat
from the vapour, is loft by the interpolition of the
clouds betwixt the fun and earth; and in the night, the
cold of the atmofphere is fo much increafed, that it
abforbs the heat as fall as the vapour difeharges it, fo
that no fenfible effeft can be produced; for in warm
climates, tho’ the day is exceffively hot, the night is
obferved to be vaftly colder in proportion than it is
with us. This, however, does not prevent the baro¬
meter from being affedled by other caufes, as well as
with us; for Dr Halley obferves, that in the time of
6 N 2 hur-
.Barometer.
14
Different
kinds of
barometers
tieicribed.
Plate LVI.
BAR [ 1024 1 BAR
hurricanes it links very low.
Having thus given an account of the feveral phe¬
nomena of the barometer confidered as a weather-
glafs, and likewife endeavoured to account for them in
the moll fatisfaftory manner, we now proceed to give
a particular defcription of the barometers mod com¬
monly made ufe of, with various fchemes for their
improvement.
Fig. V. N° 1. reprefents the common barometer,
fuch as was invented by Torricelli, and fuch as we
have already given a general defcription of. AB re¬
prefents a tube of glafs, a quarter of an inch in dia¬
meter, and 34 inches long, hermetically fealed at A.
This tube being fuppofedto be lilled with mercury, is
then inverted into the bafon CD; upon which the mer¬
cury in the tube falls down to GH, fomewhat above
28 inches, while that in the bafon rifes to CF. The
lowed dation of the mercury in this country is found
to be 28 inches, and the higheft 31. From the furface
of the mercury CF, therefore, 28 inches are to be mea-
fured on the tube AB, which foppofe to reach to the
point K. This point, therefore, is the lowed of the
fcale of variation, and in the common barometers is
marked ftormy.. In like manner, the higheft point of
the fcale of variation I, is placed 31 inches above EF ;
and is marked very dry on one fide for the dimmer, and
very hard frojl on the other for the winter. The
next half inch below is marked fetfair on the one fide,
and fet froft on the other. At 30 inches from CF is
marked the word fair on one fide, and frojl on the
other. Half an inch below that, is wrote the word
changeable, which anfwers both for dimmer and winter.
At 29 inches is rain on the one fide, and fnow on the
other; and at 284-, are the words much rain on the one
fide, and much flow on the other. Each of thefe large
divifions is ufually fubdivided into ten ; and there is a
fmall Hiding index fitted to the inftrument, by which
the afcent or defcent of the mercury to any number of
divifions is pointed out.
This kind of barometer is the moft common, and
perhaps the moft ufeful of any that hath yet been in¬
vented ; but as the fcale of variation here is only three
inches, and it is naturally wilhed to difcover more mi¬
nute variations than can thus be perceived, feveral im¬
provements have been thought of.
The improvement moft generally adopted is the dia¬
gonal barometer reprefented N° 2. in which the fcale
of variation, inftead of three inches, may be made as
many feet, by bending the tube fo as to make the up¬
per part of it the diagonal of a parallellogram of which
the fhorteft fide is the three-inches fcale of variation of
the common barometer. This, however, has a very great
inconvenience : for not only is the fri&ion of the mer¬
cury upon the glafs fo much increafed that the height
doth not vary with every flight change of air but the
column of mercury is apt to break in the tube, and part
of it to be left behind, upon any confiderable defcent.
N° 3. is the re&angular barometer ; where AC re¬
prefents a pretty wide cylinder of glafs, from which
proceeds the tube CDF bent into a right angle at D.
Suppofe now the cylinder A C to be four times larger
than the tube C D, fo that every inch of the cylinder
from C to A Ihould be equal in capacity to four inches
of the tube CD. The whole being then filled with
mercury, and. inverted, the mercury will fubfide from
A to B, at the fame time that it cannot run out at the
open orifice F, becaufe the air preffes in that way. If
any alteration then happens in the weight of the air,
fuppofe fuch as would be fufficient to raife the mer¬
cury an inch from B towards A, it is evident that
this could not be done without the mercury in the ho¬
rizontal leg retiring four inches from E towards D ;
and thus the fcale of variation counted on the horizon¬
tal leg would be 12 inches. But the inconveniences of
fri&ion are much greater here than in the diagonal ba¬
rometer; and befides, by the leaft accident the mercury
is apt to be driven out at the open orifice F.
The pendant barometer (N° 4.) confifts of a fingle
tube, fufpended by a firing faftened to the end A.
This tube is of 3 conical or tapering figure, the end
A being fomewhat lefs than the end B. It is herme¬
tically fealed at A, and filled with mercury : then will
the mercury fink to its common ftation, and admit of
a length of altitude CD, equal to that in the common
barometers. But from the conical bore of the tube
the mercury will defcend as the air grows lighter, till it
reaches its lowed altitude, when the mercury will Hand
from the lower part of the tube B to E, fo that BE
will be equal to 28 inches : confequently the mercury
will, in fuch a tube, move from A to E, or 32 inches,
if the tube be five feet, or 60 inches; and therefore
the fcale AE is here above ten times greater than in
the common barometer : but the fault of this barome¬
ter is, that the tube being of a very fmall bore, the
fridlion will be confiderable, and prevent its moving
freely; and if the tube is made of a wider bore, the
mercury will be apt to fall out.
N° 5. is an invention of Mr Rowning, by which
the fcale of variation may he increafed to any length,
or even become infinite. ABC is a compound tube
hermetically fealed at A, and open at C, empty from
A to D, filled with mercury from thence to B, and
from thence to E with water. Let GBH be a hori¬
zontal line ; then it is plain from the nature of the
fyphon, that all the compound fluid contained in the
part from H to G, will be always in (equilibria with
itfelf, be the weight of the air what it will, becaufe
the preffure at H and G muft be equal. Whence it
is evident, that the column of mercury DH is in
xquilibrio with the column of water GE, and a column
of air taken conjointly, and will therefore vary with
the fum of the variations of thefe. That the variation
in this barometer may be infinite, will appear from the
following computation. Let the proportion between
the bores of the tube AF and FC be fuch, that when
HD, the difference of the legs wherein the mercury is
contained, is augmented one inch, GE, the difference
of the legs wherein the water is contained, fhall be di-
minifhed 14 : then, as much as the preffure of the mer¬
cury is augmented, that of the water will be diminilhed,
and fo the preffure of both taken together will remain
as it was ; and confequently, after it has begun to rife,
it will have the fame tendency to rife on, without ever
coming to an equilibrium with the air.
N° 6. reprefents Dr Hook’s wheel-barometer. Here
ACDG is a glafs tube, having a large round head at
A, and turned up at the lower end F. Upon the fur-
face of the mercury in the bent leg is an iron ball G,
with a firing going over a pulley CD. To the other
end of the firing is faflened a fmaller ball H, which as
the
BAR [ 1025 J BAR
r. the mercnry n'fes in the leg FG, turns the index KL
“ from N towards M, on the graduated circle MNOP;
as it rifes in the other leg, the index is carried the con¬
trary way by the defcent of the heavier ball G, along
with the mercury. The friction of this machine, how¬
ever, unlefs it is made with very great accuracy, renders
it ufelefs.
N° 7. is another barometer inventedby Mr Rowning,
in which alfo the fcale may be infinite. ABCD is a
cylindrical velfel, filled with a fluid to the height W,
in which is immerged the barometer SP conlirting of
the following parts : The principal one is the glafe
tube TP, (reprefented feparately at ip), whofe upper
end T is hermetically fealed : this end does not appear
to the eye, being received into the lower end of a tin
pipe GH, which in its other end G receives a cylin-
dric rod or tube ST, and thus fixes it to the tube TP.
This rod ST may be taken off, in order to put in its
Head a larger or a lefler as occafion requires. S is a
ftar at the top of the rod ST; and ferves as an index
by pointing to the graduated fcale I>A, which is fixed
to the cover of the vefiel ABCD'. MN is a large cy¬
lindrical tube made of tin, (reprefented feparately at
«?«), which receives in its cavity the fmaller part of the
tube TP, and is well cemented to it at both ends, that
none of the fluid may get in. The tube TP, with this
apparatus, being filled with mercury, and plunged into
the bafon MP, which hangs by two or more wires upon
the lower end of the tube MN, muft. be fo poifed as to
float in the liquor contained in the vefiel ABCD; and
then the whole machine rifes when the atmofphere be¬
comes lighter, and vice verfa. Let it now be fuppofed,
that the fluid made ufe of is water; that the given
variation in the weight of the atmofphere is fuch, that,
by prefling upon the furface of the water at W, the
furface of the mercury at X may be railed an inch
higher, (meafuring from its furface at P), than before ;
and that the breadth of the cavity of the tube at X,
and of the bafon at P, are fuch, that, by this afeent of
the mercury, there may be a cubic inch of it in the
cavity X more than before, and confequently in the
bafon a cubic inch lefs. Now, upon this fuppoiition,
there will be a cubic inch of water in the bafon more
than there was before ; becaufe the water will fucceed
the mercury, to fill up its place. Upon this account
the whole machine will be rendered heavier than before
by the weight of a cubic inch of water; and therefore
will fink, according to the laws of hydrollatics, till
a cubic inch of that part of the rod WS, which was
above the furface of the water at W, comes under it.
Then, if we fuppofe this rod fo fmall, that a cubic
inch of it lhall be 14 inches in length, the whole ma¬
chine will fink 14 inches lower into the fluid than, be¬
fore ; and confequently the furface of the mercury in
the bafon will be prefied, more than it was before, by
a column of water 14 inches high. But the preffure of
14 inches of water is equivalent to one of mercury; this
additional preflure will make the mercury afeend at X
as much as the fuppofed variation in the weight of the
air did at firft. This afeent will give room for a
fecond cubic inch of water to enter the bafon ; the ma¬
chine will therefore be again rendered fo much heavier,
and will fubfide 14 inches farther, and fo on in infim-
turn.- If the rod was fo fmall that more than fourteen
inches of it were required to make a cubic, inch, the
variation of this machine would be negative with refpeft
to the common barometer; and inftead of coming nearer
to an equilibrium with the air by its afeent or defcent,
it would continually recede farther from it: but if lefs
than 14 inches of rod were required to make a cubic
inch, the fcale of variation would be finite, and might
be made in any proportion to the common one. Neither
this nor the other infinite barometer have ever been
tried, fo that how far they would anfwer the purpofes
of a barometer is as yet unknown.
N® 8. reprefents another contrivance for enlarging the
fcale of the barometer to any fize.—AB is the tube of a
common barometer open at B and fealed at A, fufpended
at the end of the lever which moves on the fulcrum E.
—CD is a fixt glafs tube, which ferves in place of the
ciftern. This lafi tube muft be fo wide as to allow the
tube AB to play up and down within it.—AB being
filled with mercury, is nearly counterbalanced by the
long end of the lever. When the atmofphere becomes
lighter, the mercury defeends in the long tube, and the
furface of the mercury riling in the ciftern pulhes up
the tube AB, which at the fame time becoming lighter,
the lever preponderates, and points out the molt mi¬
nute variations. Here too the fri&ion occafions incon-
veniencies ; but this may be in fome meafure reme¬
died by a fmall. lhake of the apparatus at each infpec-
tion.
In the Philofophical. Tranfa&ions, Mr Cafwell gives-
the following account of a barometer, which is recom¬
mended by Mr Chambers as the mofb exa£t hitherto
invented. “ Let ABCD (N° 9.) reprefent a bucket
of water, in which is the barometer e r e zos ni, which
confifts of a body e rs m, and a tube e zy o: the body
and tube are both concave cylinders communicating
with one another, and made of tin the bottom of the
tube zy, has a lead weight to fink it fo that the top of
the body may juft fwim even with the furface of the wa¬
ter by the addition of fome grain weights on the top.
The water, when the inftrument is forced with its mouth
downwards, gets up into the tube to the height y it.
There is added on the top a fmall concave cylinder,
which I call the pipe to diitinguilh it from the bot¬
tom fmall cylinder which I call the tube. This pipe is
to fuftain the inftrument from finking to the bottom :
md is a wire; ms, de, are two threads oblique to the
furface of the water, which threads perform the office
of diagonals : for that while the inftrument finks more
or lefs by the attradrion of the gravity of the air, there
where the furface of the water cuts the thread, is formed
a fmall bubble; which bubble afeends up the thread, as
the. mercury in the common barometer afeends.”
The dimenfions of this inftrument given there arc,
21 inches for the circumference of the body, the alti¬
tude 4, each bafe having a convexity of 64- inches.
The inner circumference of the tube is 5.14 inches,
and its length 44 ; fo that the whole body and tube
will contain almoft 24 quarts. The circumference of
the pipe, that the machine may not go to the bottom
on every fmall alteration of the gravity of the air, is
2.14 inches; according to which dimenfions, he cal¬
culates that it will, require 44 grains to fink the body
to the bottom, allowing it only four inches to defeend;
at the fame time that it is evident, that the fewer grains,
that are required to fink it to this depth, the more
nice the barometer will be. He alfo calculates, that
when.
Barometer;
BAR [ 1026
Barometer, when the mercury in the common barometer is 30-I-
inches high, the body with a weight of 44 grains on
its top will be kept in (equilibria with the water; but
when the mercury (lands at 28 inches, only 19 grains
can befupported: and laftly, by computing the lengths
of the diagonal threads, &c. he finds, that his inftru-
ment is 1200 times more exa6t than the common ba¬
rometer. The following are his obfervations on the ufe
of it.
“ 1. While' the mercury of the common barometer
is often known to be ftationary 24 hours together, the
bubble df the new barometer is rarely found to Hand
Hill one minute.
“ 2. Suppofe the air’s gravity increafing, and ac¬
cordingly the bubble afcending ; during the time that
] BAR j
warmth, but by the various weight of the atmofphere. Barom<
Therefore, keeping the fpirit thermometer as a ftan-
dard, the excels of the afcent or defcent of the other
above it would point out the increafe or decreafe of the
fpecific gravity of the atmofphere. This inftrument is Recom- 11
Mr Caf-
well’s ob¬
fervations
with his
barometer.
it amends 20 inches, it will have many (hort defcents
of the quantity of half an inch, one, two, three, or
more inches ; each of which being over, it will afcend
again. Thefe retroceffions are frequent, and of all va¬
rieties in quantity and duration, fo that there is no
judging of the general courfe of the bubble by a fingle
infpedtion, though you fee it moving, but by waiting a
little time.
“ 3. A fmall blaft of wind will make the bubble de-
fcend ; a blaft that cannot be heard in a chamber of the
town will fenfibly force the bubble downward. The
blafts of wind fenfible abroad, caufe many of the above-
mentioned retroceffions, or accelerations in the general
recommended by Dr Halley, who fpeaks of it as fol-
lows. “ It has been obferved by fome, that, in long r a e '
keeping this inftrument, the air included either finds a
means to efcape, or depofits fome vapours mixed with
it, or elfe for fome other caufe becomes lefs elaftic,
whereby in procefs of time it gives the height of the
mercury fomewhat greater than it ought; but this, if
it fhould happen in fome of them, hinders not the ufe-
fulnefs thereof, for that it may at any time very eafily
be corrected by experiment, and the riling and falling
thereof are the things chiefly remarkable in it, the juft
height being barely a curioiity.
“ I had one of thefe barometers with me in my late
fouthern voyage, and it never failed to prognofticate
and give early notice of all the bad weather we had, fo
that I depended thereon, and made provifion accord-
ingly ; and from my own experience I conclude, that
a more ufeful contrivance hath not for this long time
been offered for the benefit of navigation.” 2g
A new kind of marine barometer hath lately been Marine
invented by Mr Nairne. It differs from the common lometerJ
one in having the bore of the tube fmall for about two Mr ^
feet in its lower part ; but above that height it is en
courfe ; as I found by carrying my barometer to a place larged to the common fize. Through the fmall part of
where the wind was perceptible.
“ 4. Clouds make the bubble defcend. A fmall
cloud approaching the zenith, works more than a great
cloud near the horizon. In cloudy weather, the bubble
defcending, a break of the clouds (or clear place) ap¬
proaching to the zenith, has made the bubble to afcend;
and after that break had paffed the zenith a confider-
able fpace, the bubble again defcended.
“ 5. All clouds (except one) hitherto by me ob¬
ferved, have made the bubble to defcend. But the o-
ther day, the wind being north, and the courfe of the
bubble defcending, I faw to the windward a large thick
cloud near the horizon, and the bubble dill defended:
but as the cloud drew near the zenith, it turned the way
of the bubble, making it to afcend ; and the bubble
continued afcending till the cloud was all paffed, af¬
ter which it refumed its former defcent. It was a
cloud that yielded a cold fhower of fmall hail.'’
Th^fe are the mod remarkable contrivances for the
improvement of the common barometer: and indeed
we muft agree with Mr Chambers, that the laft, on ac¬
count of its being fo exceedingly fenfible, and likewife
eafy of conftru&ion, and portable, feems to deftrve at¬
tention muchmorethan the others, which are always the
more unexail, and the lefs eaftly moved, according to
16 the enlargement of their fcale ; whereas this is feemingly
Marine ba- fubje£l to no fuch inconvenience. It is evident, how-
ever, that none of thefe could be ufed at fea,
Mr Hook.
count of the mifteady motion of the (hip : for which
the inftrument, the mercury is prevented from afcend¬
ing too haftily by the motion of the fhip ; and the mo¬
tion of the mercury in the upper wide part is confe-
qnently leffened. Much is found to depend on the pro¬
per fufpenlion of this inftrument; and Mr Nairne has
fince found, by experiment, the point from which it
may be fufpended fo as not to be affedled by the mo¬
tion of the (hip.
We muft now fpeak of the barometer in its fecond Baromeu
character, namely, as an inftrument for meafuring ac- applied‘'
ceffible altitudes. This method was firft propofed by
M. Pafcal; and fucceeding philofophers have been at aldtudesa
no fmall pains to afcertain the proportion between the
finking of the mercury, and the height to which it is
carried. For this purpofe, however, a new improve¬
ment in the barometer became neceffary, viz. the ma¬
king of it eafily portable from one. place to another,
without danger of its being broken by the motion of
the mercury in the tube. The common portable ba¬
rometer is conftrudted as follows. ^
The tube containing the mercury, inftead of having Portable ^
its lower end immerged in a vefftl of that fluid, has it barometej
tied up in a leathern bag not qu'te full of mercury :
and though the external air cannot get into the bag to
fufpend the mercury in the tube by puffing on its fur-
face as in the common one ; yet it has the fame effedl,
by preffing on the outfide of the bag; which being
pliant, yields to the preffure, and keeps the mercury
fufpended in the tube at its proper height. This bag
reafon Dr Hook thought of conftrudling a barometer is generally inclofed in a little box, through the bottom
upon other principles.
His contrivance was no other than two thermome¬
ters. The one was the common fpirit-of-wine thermo¬
meter, which is affe&ed only by the warmth of the air:
of which paffes a fcrew: with this fcrew the bag may
be compreffed fo as to force the mercury up to the top
of the tube ; which keeps it fteady, and hinders it
from breaking the tube by dalhing againft the top
the other, which a£ls by the expanfion of a bubble of when it is carried about, which it is othervvife apt to do. .3
air included, is affefted not only by the external Among the number of portable barometers we may statical fa
perhaps roracter.
trfie ba-
n :ter.
BAR [ .
tt'rneter. perhaps reckon what Mr Boyle called his Statical ba-
rometer. It confided of a glafs bubble, about the fize
of a large orange, and blown very thin, fo as to weigh
only 70 grains. This being counterpoifed by brafs
weights in a pair of. fcales that would turn with the
thirtieth part of a grain, was found to aft as a baro¬
meter. The reafon of this was, that the furface of
the bubble was oppofed to a vaftly larger portion of
air than that of the brafs weight ; and confequently
behoved to be affefted by the various fpecific gravity
of the atmofphere : thus when the air became fpecx-
fically light, the bubble defcended, and vice verfa ; and
thus, he fays, he could have percieved variations of the
atmofphere no greater than would have been fufficient
to raife or lower the mercury in the common barometer
jp* an eighth part of an inch.
5 eafHr! ^ PortaWe barometer, as already obferved, has
jU Slits ]°ng becn in ufe for the menfuration of acceffible alti-
■ tudes; and, in fmall heights, was found to be more ex-
aft than a trigonometrical calculation, the mercury de-
fcending at the rate of about one inch for 800 feet of
height to which it was carried: but, in great heights,
the moft unaccountable differences were found between
the calculations of the moft accurate obfervers; fo that
the fame mountain would fometimes have been made
thoufands of feet higher by one perfon than another ;
M loved nay, by the fame perfon at different times. All thefe
05 d. De anomalies M. de Luc of Geneva undertook to ac¬
count for, and to remove; and in this undertaking he
perfifted with incredible patience for 20 years. The
refult of his labour is as follows.
The firft caufe of irregularity obferved was a fault
in the barometer itfelf. M. de Luc found, that two
barometers, though perfeftly alike in their appearance,
did not correfpond in their aftion. This was owing
to air contained in the tube. The air was expelled by
boiling the mercury in them ; after which, the motions
fqvboded ^ecame Perfe&ly confonanti That the tubes
** Tubes may kear boiling, they muft not be very thick, the
thicknefs of the glafs not above half a line, and the
diameter of the bore ought to be from two and an half
to three lines. The operation is performed in the fol¬
lowing manner ; A chafing difti with burning coals is
placed on a table; the tube, hermetically fealed at one
end, is inverted and filled with mercury within two
inches of the top ; the tube is gradually brought near
the fire, moving it obliquely up and down, that the
whole length of it may be heated ; and advancing it
nearer and nearer, till it is aftually in the flame, the
globules of air begin to move vifibly towards the top.
The boiling at laft commences; and it is eafy to make
it take place .from one end to the other, by caufing
the feveral parts of the tube fuccefiively pafs with ra¬
pidity through the flame.
The next caufe of variation, was a difference of tem-
 of perature. To difcover the effefts of heat on the mer-
|fle height cury, feveral barometers were chofen that for a long
14 the mer- t}me been perfeftly confonant in their motions.
h ^ One of thefe was placed in an apartment by itfelf, to
mark the change in the external air, if any fliouldhap-
| pen. The reft were fituated in another apartment,
along with three thermometers, graduated according
to the fcale of M. De Reamur, and exaftly corre-
fpondent with one another. The point at which the
mercury flood when the experiment began, was care-
1 -ss-
027 ] BAR
fully noted, and alfo the precife height of the thermo- Barometer,
meters. The latter apartment then was gradually —
heated; and with fo much uniformity, that the ther¬
mometers continued ftill to agree. When the heat had
been augmented as much as pofiible, the altitudes both
of the barometers and thermometers were again accu¬
rately marked, to afcertain the differences that cor-
refponded to one another. This experiment was re¬
peated feveral times with next to no variation ; and
from the barometer in the firft apartment it appeared,
that no fenfible alteration had taken place in the ex¬
ternal air. Hence M. De Luc found, that an increafe
of heat fufficient to raife the thermometer from the
point of melting ice to that of boiling water, aug¬
ments the height of the mercury in the barometer pre-
cifely fix lines ; and therefore, dividing the diftance
between thefe two points on the thermometer into 96
equal parts, there will be -rg-th of a line to add to, or
fubtraft from, the height of the mercury in the baro¬
meter, for every degree of variation of the thermometer
fo graduated. A fcale of this kind, continued above
boiling or below freezing water, accompanies his port¬
able barometer and thermometer.—So accurate, he
fays, did long praftice make him in barometrical ob-
fervations, that he could diftinguifti a variation of y5* of
a line in the height of the mercury. He allows of no
inclination of the tube, or other means to augment the
fcale, as all thefe methods diminhh the accuracy of the
inftrument. Two obfervations are always required to
meafure the altitude of a mountain : one with a baro¬
meter left on the plain, and another on the fummit;
and both muft be accompanied with a thermometer.
His portable barometer confifts of two tubes, one M. De
of 34 French inches in length; and from the top, for Luc’s port--
this length, perfeftly ftraight; but, below this, it is meter3™*
bent round, fo that the lower end turns up for a ffiort
fpace, parallel to the ftraight part. On this open end
is fixed a cock; and on the upper fide of this cock, is
placed another tube, of the fame diameter with the
former, eight inches in length, open at both ends, and
communicating with the long tube, through the cock.
When the barometer is carried from one.place to an¬
other, it is inverted very flowly, to hinder any air get¬
ting in ; the quickfilver retires into the long tube on
which the key of the cock is turned ; and to preferve
the cock from too great preffure of the mercury, the
barometer is conveyed about in this inverted pofture.
When an obfervation is to be made, the cock is firft
opened; the tube is then turned upright, very flowly,
to prevent, as much as poffible, all vibration of the
mercury, which difturbs the obfervation ; and, ac¬
cording to the weight of the atmofphere, the mercury
falls in the longer branch, and-rifes up through the
cock, into the {hotter.
The whole of the cock is made of ivory, except the
key. The extremities of the tubes are wrapped round
with the membrane employed by the gold-beaters,
done over with fifh-glue, in order to fix them tight,
the one in the lower, and the other in the upper, end
of the perpendicular canal of the cock. The part of
the key that moves within the cock is of cork, and the
outward part or the handle is of ivory. The cork is
faftened firmly to the ivory by means of a broad thin
plate of fteel, which cuts both the ivory and cork,
length-wife, through the centre, and reaches inward.
BAR.
Barometer, to the We of the key. This plate alfo counterafifs the
flexibility of the cork, and makes it obey the motion
of the handle, notwithftanding it is very confiderably
comprefled by the ivory, to render it tight. That this
compreflion may not abridge the diameter of the hole
of the key, it is lined with a thin hollow ivory cylinder,
of the fame diameter with the tubes.
On the upper end of the fhorter tube is fixed, in the
intervals of obfervation, a kind of funnel, with a fmall
hole in it, which is fluit with an ivory ftopple. The
ufe of it is to keep the tube clean, to replace the mer¬
cury that may have made its way thro’the cock in con-
fequence of any dilatation, and likewife to replace the
mercury taken out of the fhorter tube, after {hutting the
Cock, on finifhing an obfervation ; becaufe, when the
-mercury is left expofed to the air, it contrafts a dark
pellicle on its furface, that fullies both itfelf and the tube.
The fhorter tube fhould be wiped from time to time,
by a little brufh of fpunge fixed on the end of a wire.
The barometer, thus conftrufted, is placed in a long
box of fir, the two ends of which are lined on the in-
fide with cufhions of cotton, covered with leather.
This box may be carried on a man’s back, like a qui¬
ver, either walking or riding ; and fhould have a cover
of wax-cloth, to defend it againft rain. It fhould be
kept at forme diftance from the body of the man, and
be protected from the fun by an umbrella, when near
the place of obfervation, to prevent its being affbfitod
by any undne degree of heat. The barometer fhould,
farther, be attended with a plummet, to determine the
perpendicular polition of it; and a tripod, to fupport
it firm in that pofition at the time of ohfervation.
The fcale of the barometer begins on the long tube,
at a point on a level with the upper end of the fliort one;
and rifes, in the natural order of the numbers, to 21
inches. Below the above point, the fcale is transferred
to the fhort tube; and defeends on it, in the natural
order of the numbers, to 7 inches. The whole length
of the fcale is 28 French inches ; and fince, as the
mercury falls in the one tube, it mufl. rife in the other;
the total altitude will always be found by adding that
part of the fcale, which the mercury occupies in the long
tube, to that part of it which the mercury does not
occupy in the fhort one. In eftimating, however, the
total fall or rife on the long tube, every fpace mufl be
reckoned twice ; becaufe, of barometers of this con-
firu&ion, half the real variation only appears in one of
the branches.
Near the middle of the greater tube, is placed the
thermometer abo'vementioned, for afeertaining the cor-
reftions to be made on the altitude of the mercury, in
confequence of any change in the temperature of the
air. It is placed about the middle of the barometer,
that it may partake as much as poffible of its mean
heat. The ball is nearly of the fame diameter with
the tube of the barometer, that the dilatations or con-
denfations of the fluids they contain may more exaftly
correfpond. The fcale is divided into 96 parts; be¬
tween the points of boiling water and melting ice, and
the term of o, is placed one eighth part of this interval
above the lower point; fo that there are 12 degrees
below, arid 84 above, it. The reafon for placing o here
is, that, as 27 French inches are about the mean height
of the barometer, fo the 12th degree above freezing is
nearly the mean altithde of the thermometer. Hence,
BAR
by taking thefe two points, the one for the mean alti¬
tude, and the other for the mean heat, there will be
fewer corre&ions neceffary to reduce all obfervations to
the fame flate, than if any higher or lower points had
been fixed upon.
If then the barometer remain at 27 inches, and the
thermometer at o, there are no corredlions whatever to
be made. But if, while the barometer continues at 27
inches, the thermometer fhall rife any number of de-
Jpees above o, fo many fixteenths of a line mull be
ubtrafted from the 27 incites, to obtain the true height
of the barometer, produced by the weight of the at-
mofphere, and to reduce this obfervation to the ilate
of die common temperature. If, on the other hand,
tire thermometer fiiall fall any number of degrees below
o, while the barometer flill flands at 27 inches, fo many
fixteenths mull be added to that height, to obtain the
true altitude.
Nothing is more Ample than thefe corre&ions, when
the barometer is at or near 27 inches of height. If,
however, it fall feveral inches below this point, as the
portable barometer very frequently mull, the dilata¬
tions will no longer keep pace with the degrees of heat,
after the rate of of a line for every degree of the
thermometer ; becaufe, the columns of mercury being
fhortened, the quantity of fluid to be dilated will be di-
minifhed. The truth is, the quantity of the dilata¬
tions for the fame degree of heat is juft as much dimi-
minifhed as the column is fhortened. If, then, it fhall
flill be found convenient to reckon the dilatations by
fixteenths of a line, thefe fixteenths mufl be counted on
a fcale, of which the degrees fhall be as much longer
than the degrees of the firfl fcale, as the fhortened co¬
lumn of mercury is lefs than 27 inches, the height to
which the length of the degrees of the firfl fcale was
adapted. Forinfl’ance, let the mercury defoend to 134-
inches, half the mean column, and let the thermome¬
ter afeend 10 degrees above the mean heat ; 10 fix¬
teenths fhould be deduced from the mean column, for
this temperature, according to the rule ; but 10 half-
fixteenths only, or 5 whole fixteenths, mufl' be fubtrac-
ted from the column of 13^- inches, becaufe the fum
of its dilatations will be half that of the former, the
quantities of fluid being to one another in that propor¬
tion.
It would caufe confiderable embarrafiment if the fix¬
teenths of corredlion were always to be fubdivided into
lefs fra£lions, proportional to every half inch of de-
feent of the barometer; and the fame end i? obtained
in a very eafy manner, by reckoning the correclions on
different feales of the fame length, but of which the
degrees are longer according as the columns of the
barometer are fhorter. For example, the degrees of
corredlion on the fcale applicable to the column of 134-
inches, will be double in length what the fame de¬
grees are for the column of 27 inches ; and, of courfe,
the number of corredlions will be reduced fikewife one
half, which we have feen by the rule they ought to be.
The author conflrudted, on a piece of vellum, feales
with thefe properties, for no lefs than 23 columns of
mercury, being all thofe between 18 inches and 29 m-
clufive, counting from half inch to half inch ; within
which extremes, every practical cafe will be compre¬
hended. He wrapped this vellum on a fmall hollow
cylinder, including a fpring, like a fpring-curtain, and
fixed
[ 1028 ]
Earonyia
BAR
BAR [ 1029 ]
ter. fixed it on the right fide of the thermometer. The vel- morning. Barometer
lum is made to pafs from right to left, behind the tube The following theory feems to account in a fatis-
of the thermometer, and to graze along its furface. fa&ory manner for this phenomenon. When the fun Accounted
The obferver, to find the corrections to be made, pulls rifes above the horizon of any place, his beams pene- for.
out the vellum till the fcale correfponding to the ob- trate the whole of the feCtion of the atmofphere of
ferved altitude of the barometer comes to touch the which that horizon is the bafe. They fall, however,
thermometer, and on that fcale he counts them. The very obliquely on the greater part of it, communicate
vellum is then-let go, and the ferew gently furls it up. little heat to it, and^onfequently produce little dila-
opera- having now, as he imagined, completely tation of its air. As the fun advances, the rays be-
finilhed the inftruments neceflary for the accurate men- come more direCt, and the heat and rarefaClion of courfe
itf jleve. furation of heights; proceeded to eftablifh, by expe- increafe. But the greateft heat of the day is not felt
riment, the altitudes correfponding to the different de- even when the rays are molt direCt, and the fun is in
fcenls of the mercury. Much had been written, and the meridian. It increafes while the place receives
many rules had been given, on this fubject, by different more rays than it lofes, which it will do for a confider-
eminent philofophers, fince the days of Pafcal, who able time after mid-day ; in like manner, as the tide
firft broached it : but thefe difagreed fomuch with one attains not its higheft altitude till the moon has ad-
another, and prefented fo little good reafbn why any vanced a confiderable way to the wefl of the meridian,
one of them Ihould be preferred, that no condufion The heat of the atmofphere is greateft at the furface of
could, with confidence, be deduced from them. It the earth, and feems not to afeend to any great di-
became requifite, therefore, to lay them all alkie, and fiance above it. The dilatations, for this reafon, of
to endeavour to difeover, by pradice, what could not the air, produced by the fun, will be found chiefly, if
be afeertained by theory. Saleve, a mountain near not folely, near the earth. A motion muff take place,
Geneva, was chofen for the feene of thefe operations, in all directions, of the adjacent air, to allow the
This mountain is near 3000 French feet high. The heated air to expand itfelf. The heated columns ex¬
height of it was twice meafured by levelling, and the tending themfelves vertically, will become longer, and
refults of the menfurations differed only io^- inches; at the fame time fpecifically lighter, in confequence of
tho’ there intervened fix months between them, and the the rarefaftion of their inferior parts. The motion of
total altitude was fo confiderabie. On this mountain air, till it rifes into wind, is not rapid ; thefe length-
were chofen no lefs than 15 different ftations, rifing af- ened columns, therefore, will take fome time to diffi-
ter the rate of 200 feet, one above another, as nearly pate their fummits among the adjacent lefs rarefied co-
as the ground would admit. At thefe ftations, it was lumns that are not fo high ; at leaft, they will not do
propofed to make fuch a number of obfervations as this as fall as their length is increafed by the rarefac-
might be a good foundation, either for eftablifhing a tion of their bafes.
new rule of proportion between the heights of places The reader,-we prefume, anticipates the application
and the defeents of the mercury, or for preferring fome of this theory to the folution of the phenomenon in
53 one of thofe formerly difeovered. queftion. The barometer on the plain begins to fall
ange a- Little progrefs was made in this plan, when a phe- a little after morning, becaufe the column of air that
Ji malies of nomenon, altogether unexpected, prefented itfelf. The fupports it becomes fpecifically lighter on account of
I barometer being obferved, at one of the ftations, twice the rarefaCtion arifing from the heat of the fun. It
I rerent in one ^3y> was found to ftand higher in the latter ob- continues to fall for the firft three quarters of the day ;
of the fervation than in the former. This alteration gave becaufe, during that time, the heat, and confequently
little furprife, becaufe it was naturally, imputed to a the rarefaClion, are gradually increafing. It rifes again,
change of the weight of the atmofphere, which would after this period ; becaufe the cold, and of courfe the
affeCt the barometer on the plain in the fame manner, condenfation, coming on, the fpecific gravity is aug-
But it produced a degree of aftonifliment, when, on mented by the rufhing in of the adjacent air. The e-
examining the ftate of the latter, it was found, inftead quilibrium is reftored, and the mercury returns to the
of correfponding with the motions of the former, to altitude of the morning.
have held an oppofite courfe, and to have fallen while The barometer on the eminence rifes after morning,
the other rofe. This difference could not proceed from and continues to do fo for three fourths of the day,
any inaccuracy in the obfervations, which !had been for two reafons. The denfity of the columns of air
taken with all imaginable care ; and it was fo confi- is greateft near the earth, and decreafes asthediftance
derable as to deftroy all hopes of fuccefs, Ihould the from it increafes. The higher, for this reafon, we
caufe not be detefted and compenfated. afeend in the atmofphere, we meet with air fpecifically
The experiment was repeated feveral times, at in- lighter. But by the rarefa&ion of the bafe of the co-
tervals, that no material circumftance might efcape no- lumn that fupports the mercury of the barometer on
tice. An obferver on the mountain, and another on the eminence, the denfer parts of that column are railed
the plain, took their refpe&ive ftations a^ the rifing of higher than naturally they would be if left to the o-
the fun, and continued to mark an obfervation, every peration of their own gravity. On this account, the
quarter of an hour, till it fet. It was found, that the higher barometer is preffed with a weight, nearly as
lower barometer gradually defeended for the firft three great as it would fuftain, were it brought down, in
quarters of the day, after which it re-afeended, till, in the atmofphere, to the natural place of that denfer air
the evening, it flood at nearly the fame height as in the now raifed above it by the prolongation of the bafe of
morning ; that the higher barometer afeended for the the column. The other reafon is, that as the rarefac-
firft three fourths of the day, and then defeended, fo as tion does not take place at any great diftance from the
to regain likewife, about funfet, the altitude of the earth, little change is produced in the fpecific gravity
Vol. II. 6 0 of
FAR [ 1030 ] BAR
Barometer. Df the portion of the column that prefles on the higher
barometer, and the fummit of that column diffipates
itfelf more flowly than it increafes. Thus, we fee
how this barometer mud afcend during the firft three
fourths of the day, and purfue a courfe the reverfe
of that on the plain. The condenfations returning af¬
ter this time, the denfer air fubfides, the equilibrium
takes place, and the mercury defcends to its firft pofi-
40 tion.
Render an- This phenomenon prompted the idea of a fecond pair
oMhermo t^ermometers> to nneafure the mean heat of the co¬
meters ne-' lumn a*r intercepted between the barometers. Thefe
ecflary. thermometers arc extremely delicate and fenfible. The
tubes are the lined capillary, the glafs very thin, and
the diameters of the balls only three lines. The balls
are infulated, or detached from the fcales, which are
fixed to the tubes only, by ligatures of fine brafs-wire
covered with filk. The air, by this contrivance, has
free communication with the balls on all fides; and, if
the dire& rays of the fun be intercepted at fome di-
ftance by a bit of paper, or even the leaf of a tree, the
thermometers will quickly mark the true temperature
4, of the air.
Method of The reader, perhaps, will aflc here. Could not this
computing end have been gained by the fird pair of thermome-
the alti- ters ? But we mud requed him to fufpend his judg-
Iu es‘ ment, till we have explained the theory of computing
the altitudes from the defcents of the mercury. He
will then find the fcales of thefe thermometers fo dif¬
ferent, that neither of them could,without much incon-
veniency, ferve the purpofe of the other.
The altitudes are computed by logarithms. A table
of logarithms contains two feries of numbers, running
parallel to one another. The fird has its terms in geo¬
metrical progreffion, and the feeond its terms in arith¬
metical. The natural numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, &c. form
the fird feries; which, though in arithmetical progref¬
fion when danding detached, are in geometrical in
regard of the fecond feries; whofe terms are in arith¬
metical progreffion, and are called logarithms^ becaufe
they exprefs the didance of their correfpondent terms
of the geometrical progreffion from the beginning of
the feries.
To apply this table to the prefent purpofe: let us
fuppofe the whole atmofphere divided into concentric
fpherical fe&ions, whofe common centre is that of the
earth. Suppofe, alfo, all thefe fettions of equal thick-
nefs, namely, 12.497 toifes, which is found ,to be the
thicknefs of the lowed fe&ion, and balances a line of
mercury, when the barometer dands at 348 lines or
29 inches. Add, then, all thefe fe&ions together; and
we fhall have the total altitude of the atmofphere ex-
prefled in an arithmetical progreffion, whofe common
difference is 12.497 toifes. Confequently, in this view,
the heights are proportional to the logarithms.
It remains only to find the defcents of the mercury,
which meafures the weights of the refpedive feftions,
in geometrical proportion, in order to judify the ap¬
plication of the logarithmic table to the computation
of the altitudes. Now, it is eafy to prove, in a very
fatisfaftory manner, that the mean denfities of thefe fec-
tions, which are in proportion of their weights, mud
be in geometrical progreffion, when the altitudes are
in arithmetical; confequently, it is with great propriety
and convenience that the logarithms are employed in
the computation of the altitudes correfponding to the Baromet
defcents of the mercury. For, to find the vertical di- ' •
dance between two barometers, at different heights, no
more is neceffary than to look, in a table of logarithms, t
for the numbers that exprefs in lines, or fixteenths of a
line, the altitudes of the two columns of mercury, and
take the logarithms of thefe numbers, whofe difference
will give this didance accurately, in thoufandth parts of
a toife. Multiply the toifes by 6, which will furnilh
the altitudes in French feet.
The author made about 500 different obfervations at
the feveral dations on the mountain of Saleve, which
both fuggeded and verified the computation by loga¬
rithms. Many, however, of thefe obfervations, pro¬
duced conclufions that deviated confiderably from the
refults of the a&ual menfuration, on account of the dif- , (
ferent temperatures in which they were taken. It was
the defign of the fecond pair of thermometers to point 5
out the corrections of thefe deviations. In fettling the
fcales neceffary for this end, the fird objeft was, to
mark the temperature of all the obfervations where ^
the logarithms gave the altitudes exaftly, or nearly e- ; j
qua! to what they were found to be by levelling. This
temperature correfponded to i6| on the fcale of Reau¬
mur, and to 70 on that of Fahrenheit, and at it was fixed
the term o. The next dep was, to determine the cor- i
reftions of the heights that became neceffary, accord¬
ing as the date of the air was warmer or colder than
the fixed point. With this view, all the remaining ob¬
fervations were colle&ed, and compared with the dif¬
ferent temperatures in which they were taken ; and
from an attentive examination of thefe circumdances,
it was difcovered, that for every 215 feet of height fur-
niihed by the logarithms, one foot of corre&ion mud
be added or fubtra&ed, for every degree of the ther¬
mometer, according as it dood above or below the
term o.
The fcale of Reaumur did not conveniently exprefs
this correCtion of 1 to 215. The author widied to adopt
the ratio of 1 to xooo, in forming a new fcale for that
purpofe; but the diviiions would have been too fmall.
He employed, therefore, that of 1 to 500; becaufe,
by doubling the degrees of the higher thermometer a-
bove or below o; or, which amounted nearly to the
fame thing, by doubling the mean heat of the column
of air in taking the fum of the degrees of both thermo¬
meters, there refulted the ratio of 1 to 1000. The new
fcale, then, was divided by the following proportion:
As 215, the lad term of the ratio found by Reaumur’s
fcale, is to 500, the lad term of the ratio to be applied
on the new fcale; fo is 80, the parts between the fixed
points of the fird fcale, to 186, the number of parts be¬
tween the fame points on the fecond. And as 80 is to
186, fo is 16Jp the point on Reaumur’s fcale at which
the logarithms give the altitudes without correction,
to 39, the point at which they give them on the new
fcale. The term o is placed at this point, 39 at melt¬
ing ice, and 147 at that of boiling water. To reduce
all obfervations to the fame temperature by this fcale,
nothing more is neceffary than to multiply the heights
found from the logarithms, by the fum of the degrees
of both thermometers above or below o, and to divide
the produCf by 1000. The quotient mud be added to,
or fubtrafted from, the logarithmic height, according
as the temperature, is pofitive or negative.
BAR [ 1031 ] BAR
iromcter, As a fpeclmen of the author’s method, we fhall now parliament: till about the reign of that prince the con-
r jtiaron. prefent our readers with the refult of his operations at flux of them became fo large and troublefome, that
the 15 ftations on Saleve. In one column are marked the king was obliged to divide them, and fummon only
the heights found by levelling, and oppofite to them the greater barons in perfon; leaving the fmall ones to
the fame heights found by the barometer; to the latter be fummoned by the (heriff, and (as it is faid) to fit by
I are prefixed the number of obfervations of which they reprefentation in another houfe; which gave rife to the
Stations.
Heights by Number of Heights by
levelling. obfervations. barometer.
216
428
586
728
917
1218
1420
1800
1965
2211
2333
2582
27.00
27+2
2926
13
13
21
24
27
23
17
T7
17
*7
16
15
feet.
2 3°T
435-tt
59Iif
732 T
9i9t|
122ItV
141844
1 798tt
19^2 3
2210
233 ITT
2J8344
27°3A-
2741 f
29244-r
feparation of the two houfes of parliament. By de¬
grees the title came to be confined to the greater ba¬
rons, or lords of parliament only; and there were no
other barons among the peerage but fitch as were fum¬
moned by writ, in refpeft of the tenure of their lands
or baronies,^ till Richard II. firfl: made it a mere title
of honour, by conferring it on divers perfons by his let¬
ters patent. See Law, Part III. N0 clviii. 12, 13, 14.
Baron by ‘Tenure, one who held certain territories
of the king, who ftill retained the tenure in chief to
himfelf.
Barons of the Exchequer, the four judges to whom
the adminiftration of juftice is committed, in caufes be¬
tween the king and his fubje&s, relating to matters
concerning the revenue. They were formerly barons of
the realm, but of late are generally perfons learned in
the laws. Their office is alfo to look into the accounts
of the king, for which reafon they have auditors under
them. See Auditor.
Barons of the Cinque-ports are members of the houfe
From this table, we prefume the reader will be in- of commons, elefted by the five ports, two for each
dined to entertain the moft favourable opinion of the port. See the article Cinque-ports.
abilities and induftryof the author; but his barometer Baron and Feme, in the Englilh law, a term ufed
is probably fufceptible of improvement. It feems too for hufband and wife, in relation to each other: and
bulky and complex, and liable to accidents, and will they are deemed but one perfon; fo that a wife cannot
require long practice to render other obfervers equally be witnefs for or againft her hufband, nor he for or a-
accurate and dextrous with him in its ufe. We hear, gainft his wife, except in cafes of high treafon.
however, that the ingenious Mr Ramfden of London, Baron and Feme, in heraldry, is when the coats of
optician, has a&ually invented and conftru&ed a port- arms of a man and his wife are borne par, pale in the fame
able barometer, as Ample and light, almoft, as the com- efcutcheon, the man’s being always on the dexter fide,
mon ftationary one. It is little apt to be difarranged and the woman’s on the finifter; but here the woman
by motion; and is capable, by the help of a Nonius is fuppofed not an heirefs, for then her coat mull be
index, to mark diftinftly a variation of the mercury to borne by the hufband on an efcutcheon of pretence *. * See Vale,
the thoufandth part of an inch, which correfponds, on BARON (Robert), a dramatic author, who antl
the furface of the earth, to nearly 6 inches of height. lived during the reign of Charles I. and the Pro- fPre-
BARON, a degree next below a vifcount, and the teftorfhip of Oliver Cromwell. He received the ear- mC‘'
loweft of nobility. See Nobility. lier parts of his education at Cambridge, after which
A baron’s is the mofl: general and univerfal title of he became a member of the honourable fociety of
nobility; for originally every one of the peers of fupe- Gray’s-Inn. During his refidence at the univerfity,
rior rank had alfo a barony annexed to his other titles, he wrote a novel called the Cyprian Academy, in which
But it hath fometimes happened, that, when an ancient he introduced the two firft of the dramatic pieces men-
baron hath been raifed to a new degree of peerage, in tioned below. The third of them is a much more
the courfe of a few generations the two titles have de- regular and perfect play, and was probably written
fcended differently ; one perhaps to the male defcend- when the author had attained a riper age. The names
ants, the other to the heirs general; whereby the earl- of them are, I. Deorum Dona, a mafque. 2. Gripus
dom or other fuperior title hath fubfifted without a and Hegio, a paftoral. 3. Mirza, a tragedy. Mr Ba-
barony: and there are alfo modern inflances, where ron had a great intimacy with the celebrated Mr James
earls and vifcounts have been created without annexing Howell, the great traveller, in whofe colle&ions of Let-
a barony to their other honours: fo that now the rule ters * there is one to this gentleman, who was at that * Vol. Iir.
doth not hold univerfally, that all peers are barons, time at Paris. To Mr Howel in particular, and to all Let> 4i8.
The original and antiquity of baronies has occafioned the ladies and gentlewomen in England in general, he
great inquiries among our Englifh antiquarians. The has dedicated his romance.
moil probable opinion feems to be, that they were the BARON (Michael), an excellent comedian of Paris,
fame with our prefent lords of manors; to which the was the fon of Michael Baron another comedian who
name of court baron (which is the lord’s court, and was a native of HToudun. He wrote fome poems, and
incident to every manor) gives fome countenance. It feveral theatrical pieces, which are printed together in
may be colledled from king John’s magna charta, that 2 vols i2mo. He died at Paris in 1729, aged 77.
originally all lords of manors, or barons, that held of BARONET. This is a modern degree of honour,
the king in capite, had feats in the great council or inflituted by king James I. on the 22d of May, 1611,
. - . 6 0 2 and
BAR [ 1032 ] BAR
Baj-onet, and the 9th year of his reign 7 who made it hereditary
8arom- in the male line, as an encouragement to thofe of his
fubje&s who affifted in the reduftion of the province of
Ulller in Ireland. The number of baronets was rirll
reftridted to 200; but it is now enlarged at the king’s
pleafure, without limitation. The title of baronet is
conferred by patent under the great feal; and, like other
knights, he is diflinguilhed by the appellative Sir, pre¬
fixed to his Chriftian name, in {peaking and writing.
No perfon could be admitted into this order, unlefs
he was a gentleman of unblemilhed morals, and poflef-
fed of an yearly income of icool. in land; and the
exprefs condition of his admiflion was, that he fhould
pay 1095 1. for the maintenance of 30 foldiers, for three
years on the military ellablilhment of Ireland. As an
armorial badge of diftinidion, a baronet wears, in a
canton or efcutcheon, the arms of Ulfter, viz. Argent,
a ftnifter Hand eouped at the •wrijl, Gules.
Baronet of Scotland. The order of baronets in
Scotland was alfo proje&ed by king James I. for the
plantation and cultivation of the province of Nova
Scotia, in America ; and his fon king Charles I. ex¬
ecuted his royal father’s plan by inilituting this or¬
der foon after his acceffion to the throne: the firft per¬
fon dignified with this title was Sir Robert Gordon,
of Gordonftone, a younger fon of the earl of Suther¬
land, whole patent bears date the 2 8:h of May 1625.
— His majefty king Charles I. was fo defirous of add¬
ing every mark of dignity to this his favourite order,
that, four years after its inftitution, he iffued a royal
warrant, granting them the privilege of wearing an
orange ribbon and a medal; which laft was prefented
to each of them by the king himfelf, according to the
words of the warrant. All the privileges of the order,
particularly this of wearing the medal, were confirmed
at the king’s requeft by the Convention of Eftates, in
the year 1630; and in order to eftablifh them on the
mod folid foundation, they were again confirmed by
an aft of the parliament of Scotland, in the year 1633.
This mark of diftinftion fell to the ground with all the
other honours of this country, during the ufurpation of
of the long parliament and of Oliver Cromwell. It con¬
tinued in general, though not total, difufe, after the Re-
ftoration. There have been former meetings of the
order to revive the ufe of it, one in the year 1721, and
another in 1734. Thefe meetings proved ineffeftual,
becaufe the proper fteps towards its revival were not
taken ; but, under the aufpices of our illuilrious mo¬
narch George III. fuch meafures were concerted in the
year 1775, as have effeftually eftablilhed this honour¬
able dignity.
Baronet of Ireland. This order was likewife infii-
tuted by king James I. in the 18th year of his reign,
for the fame purpofe and with the fame privileges within
the kingdom of Ireland, as he had conferred on the like
order in England; for which the Irifii baronets paid
the fame fees into the treafury of Ireland. The firit of
that kingdom that was advanced to this hereditary dig¬
nity was Sir Francis Blundell, then fecretary for the
affairs of Ireland. Since his time, feveral have been
created, no number being limited.
BARONI (Leonora), a celebrated finger andcom-
pofer, was born at Naples, but fpent the greateft part
of her life at Rome. She was daughter of Adriana
Baaroni of Mantua, baronefsof Pian-caretta; a lady alfo
diftinguilhed for her mufical talents, and for her beauty Barosiiw
firnamed the fair. Leonora had lefs beauty than her Baroa’u|ff
mother; but excelled her in her profound ikill in mufic,
the fineuefs of her voice, and the charmingnefs of her
manner. She is faid by Mr Bayle to have been one of
the fineft fingers in the world. She was, as well as her
mother, celebrated by the wits, who drove to excel
each other in recording, her praifes ; and in 1639 there
was publifhed, at Bracciano, a eolleftion of Latin,
Greek, Italian, Spanifh, and French poems made upon
her, under this title, Applaufi Poetici alle Glorie della
Signora Leonora Baroni. Among the Latin poems of
Milton are no fewer than three entitled ‘ Ad Leonoram
Romse canentem,’ wherein this lady is celebrated for
her finging, with an allufion to her mother’s exquifite
performance on the lute. A fine eulogium on this ac-
complhhed woman is contained in a difcourfe on the
Mufic of the Italians, printed with the life of Mal¬
herbe, and fome other treatifes at Paris, 1672, in i2mo.
This difcourfe was compofed by Mr Maugars, prior of
St Peter de Mac, the king’s interpreter of the Englifli
language, and befides fo famous a performer on the viol,
that the king of Spain and feveral other fovereign princes
of Europe defired to hear him. The charafter given by
this perfon of Leonora Baroni is as follows: “ She is
endowed with fine parts; (he has a very good judg¬
ment to diftinguifh good from bad mufic; {he under-
ftands it perfeftly well ; and even compofes, which
makes her abfolute miltrefs of what file fings, and gives
her the moil exaft pronunciation and expreffion of the
fenfe of her words. She does not pretend to beauty,
neither is- file difagreeable, or a coquet. She fings with
a bold and generous modeily, and an agreeable gra¬
vity ; her voice reaches a large compafs of notes, and
is exaft, loud, and harmonious; file foftens and raifes
it without ftraining or making grimaces. Her raptures
and fighs are not lafcivious; her looks have nothing
impudent, nor does file tranfgrefs a virgin modefty in
her geftures. In palling from one key to another, file
fhews fometimcs the divifions of the enharmonic and
chromatic kind with fo much art and fweetnefs, that
every body is ravifiied with that fine and difficult me¬
thod of finging. She has no need of any perfon to af-
fift her with a theorbo or viol, one of which is necef-
fary to make her finging complete; for file plays per¬
feftly well herfelf on both thefe inftruments. In fhort,
I have had the good fortune to hear her fing feveral
times above 30 different airs, with fecond and third
ftanzas compofed by herfelf. I muft not forget to tell
you, that one day (he did me the particular favour to
fing with her mother and her lifter. Her mother played
upon the lute, her filler upon the harp, and herfelf up¬
on the theorbo. This concert, compofed of three fine
voices, and of three different inftruments, fo powerfully
tranfported my fenfes, and threw me into fuch rap¬
tures, that I forgot my mortality, and thought myfelf
already among the angels enjoying the felicity of the
bleffed.”
BARONIUS (Casfar), a pious and learned cardi--
nal, was born at Sore in 1538. He ftudied at Rome,
and put himfelf under the difcipline of St Philip de Ne-
ri. In 1593, he was made general of the congregation
of the Oratory by the refignation of the founder Phi¬
lip deNeri. Pope Clement VIII. made him his confef-
for, and created him a cardinal in 1596. He was after¬
wards
n
BAR
I'ony wards made librarian to the Vatican; and died in 1605,
I at 68 years of age. He wrote feveral works, the prin-
^ “er? cipal of which is his dnnales Ecclejiaftici, from A. D.
1 to 1198, in 12 vols folio; which has been abridged
by feveral perfons, particularly by Henry Spondseus,
Bzovius, and Ludovico Aurelio.
BARONY, the honour and territory which gives
title to a baron, whether he be a layman or a bifhop.
BARRA, in commerce, a long-meafure ufed in
Portugal and fome parts of Spain, to meafure woollen
cloths, linen cloths, and ferges. There are three forts;
the barra of Valencia, 13 of which make 12^-yards
Englilh meafure; the barra of Caftile, 7 of which make
64- yards; and the barra of Aragon, 3 of which make
24 yards Englilh.
BARRABA, (defart of); a traft of land in Sibe¬
ria, lying between the rivers Irtis and Oby, in the pro¬
vince of Tobolfk. It is uninhabited, but not thro’ any
deficiency of the foil; for that is excellent for tillage,
and part of it might alfo be laid out in meadows and
paftures. It is interfperfed with a great number of lakes,
which abound with a fpecies of carp called by the neigh¬
bouring people karcvwfchen; and the country produces
great numbers of elks, deer, foxes, ermine, and fquirrels.
Between the Irtis and Oby are fome rich copper-mines;
particularly on a mountain called Piftoway from the
pitta or white firs that grow upon it. Every hundred
weight of the ore found here yields 12 pounds of pure
copper ; and there is no occafion for digging deep in
| order to come at it. Moft of thefe ores, befides being
I very rich in copper, yield a great deal of filver, which
affords fo much gold as makes rich returns for the
trouble and expence of extra&ing it.
BARRACAN, in commerce, a fort of fluff, not dia¬
pered, fomething like camblet, but of a coarfer grain.
It is ufed to make cloaks, furtouts, and fuch other gar¬
ments, to keep off the rain.—The cities where the
moft barracans are made in France are, Valenciennes,
Lifle, Abbeville, Amiens, and Roan. Thofe of Va¬
lenciennes are the moft valued; they are all of wool,
both the warp and the woof. '
BARRACKS, or Baracks, places for foldiers to
lodge in, efpecially ingarrifons.—Barracks, when damp,
are greatly prejudicial to the health of the foldiers
lodged in them ; occafioning dyfeateries, intermitting
fevers, coughs, rheumatic pains, &c. For which reafon,
quarter-mafters ought to be careful in examining every
barrack offered by the magiftrates of a place ; rejec¬
ting all ground-floors in houfes that have either been
uninhabited, or have any figns of moifture.
BARRATIERE (Philip), a moft extraordinary
|. inftance of the early and rapid exertion of mental facul¬
ties. This furprifing genius was the fon of Francis Bar-
ratiere, minifter of the French church at Schwobach
I s near Nuremberg, where he was born Jan. io'1’ 1721.
The French was his mother tongue, together with fome
words of High Dutch ; but by means of his father
infenfibly talking Latin to him, it became as familiar to
him as the reft ; fo that, without knowing the rules of
grammar, he at four years of age talked French to his
mother, Latin to his father, High Dutch to the maid
or neighbouring children ; and all this without mixing
or confounding the refpeftive languages. About the
middle of his fifth year he acquired Greek in like man¬
ner; fo that in 15 months he perfe&ly underftood all
BAR
the Greek books in the Old and New Teftament, Burmierc,
which he readily tranflated into Latin. When he was Barrator,
five years and eight months old, he entered upon He-
brew; and in three years time was fo expert in the He¬
brew text, that from a bible without points, he could
give the fenfe of the original in Latin or French ; or
tranflate extempore the Latin or French verfions into
Hebrew, almoil word for word ; and had all the He¬
brew pfalms by heart. He compofed at this time a
didlionary of rare and difficult Hebrew words, with
critical remarks and philological obfervations, in about
400 pages in 410; and, about his tenth year, amufed
himfelf for twelve months with the rabinical wri¬
ters. With thefe he intermixed a knowledge of the
Chaldaic, Syriac, and Arabic; and acquired a tafte
for divinity and ecclefiaftical antiquity, by ftudying
the Greek fathers, and councils of the firft four ages
of the church. In the midft of thefe occupations, a
pair of globes coming into his poffeffion, he could in
8 or to days time refolve all the problems on them; and
in about three months, in Jan. 1735, thwifed his pro-
jedl for the difeovery of the longitude, which he com¬
municated to the Royal Society at London and the
Royal Academy of Sciences at Berlin. In June 173 r,
he was rpatriculated in the univerfity of Altorf; and at
the clofe of the year 1732, he was prefented by his fa¬
ther at the meeting of the reformed churches of the
circle of Franconia ; who, aftonifhed at his wonderful
talents, admitted him to affift in the deliberations of
the fynod : and to preferve the memory of fo Angular
an event, it was ordered to be regiftered in their a&s.
In »734, the Margrave of Brandenburgh Anfpach
ranted this young fcholar the ufe of whatever books
e wanted from the Anfpach library, together with a
penfion of 50 florins, which he enjoyed three years;
and his father receiving a call to the French church at
Stetin in Pomerania, young Barratiere was, on the jour¬
ney, admitted mailer of arts, with univerfal applaufe,
at the univerfity of Hall: at Berlin he was honoured
with feveral converfations with the king of Pruflia, and
was received into the royal academy. Towards the
clofe of his life he acquired a tafte for medals, inferip-
tions, and antiquities ; metaphyfical inquiries, and ex¬
perimental philofophy, intervening occafionally bet ween-
thefe ftudies. He wrote feveral effays and differta-
tions; made aftronomical remarks, and laborious calcu¬
lations ; took great pains toward a hillory of the hc-
relies of the anti-trinitarians, and of the 30 years war
in Germany : his laft publication, which appeared in
1740, was on the fucceffion of the bifhops of Rome.
The final work he engaged in, for which he had ga¬
thered large materials, was Inquiries concerning the
Egyptian Antiquities. But the fubftance of this bla¬
zing meteor was now almoft exhaufted : he was always
weak and fickly; and died Oftober 5. 1740, aged 19
years 8 months and 16 days. He publiflied eleven
different pieces, and left 26 MSS. on various fubje&s,
the contents of which may be feen in his life written
by M. Formey profeffor of philofophy at Berlin.
BARRATOR, or Barretor, in law, a perfom
guilty of barretry. See Barretry.
Lambert derives the word barretor from the Latin
balatro, a vile knave; but the proper derivation is from
the French barrateur, i. e. a deceiver ; and this agrees
with the defeription of a common barretor in my Lord
Coke’s
[ IO33 ]
BAR [ 1034 ] BAR
Barratry Coke’s report, viz. that he is a common mover and
„ " maintainer of fuits in difturbance of the peace, and in
... ll_ taking and detaining the poffeflion of houfes and lands
or goods by falfe inventions, &c. And therefore it
was adjudged, that the indi£tment againft him ought
to be in thefe words, viz. That he is coi?imunis male-
fattor, calutnniator et feminator litium et difcordiarum
inter vicinos fuos, et pads regis perturbator, &c. And
there it is faid that a common barretor is the moft dan¬
gerous opprdfor in the law, for he oppreffeth the inno¬
cent by colour of law, which was made to proteft
them from oppreffion.
BARRATRY, in law. See Barretry.
Barratry, in a {hipmafter, is his cheating the own¬
ers. If goods delivered on fliip-board are embezzled,
all the mariners ought to contribute to the fatisfaftion
of the party that loll his goods, by the maritime law;
and the caufe is to be tried in the admiralty. In a cafe
where a Ihip was infured againft the barratry of the
mafter, &c. and the jury found that the fliip was loft
by the fraud and negligence of the mafter, the court
agreed, that the fraud was barratry, tho’ not named
in the covenant; but that negligence was not.
BARRAUX, a fortrefs of Dauphiny belonging to
France. It Hands in the valley of Grefivaudan, and
was built by a duke of Savoy in 1597. The French
took it in 1598, and have kept it ever fince. It is
feated on the river Ifer, in £. Long. 4. 35. N. Lat.
45. o.
BARRAY, one of the Hebrides, or Weftern ifles
of Scotland, fitcrated in W. Long. 6. 30. N. Lat. 56.
55.—Of this ifland Mr Smollet gives the following de-
fcription. “ About two leagues and a half to the fouth-
weft of South Vift appears the ifle of Barray, or Bar¬
ra, five miles in length and three in breadth, partly
mountainous, and partly capable of cultivation, having
the advantage of a commodious harbour on the eaft
fide, and a good fiftiery of cod, ling, and falmon ;
which laft are fpeckled, furprifingly nimble and ifhy,
infomucb that the fiftiermen are obliged to ufe three
nets within one another, that, if the fifh fprings over
two, it may be caught in the third. In the fouth end
of Barray, there is an orchard planted with fruit-trees,
though few of them produce fruit: but all forts of
pot-herbs and roots grow here in great perfe&ion ; nay,
the natives even railed tobacco ; but it never anfwered
their purpofe or expedftation. This ifland, together
with the adjacent fmaller ifles, belongs to the laird of
Macneil, faid to be the 36th in lineal defcent from him
of the fame name who firft pofleffed this eftate. He
holds it, however, in vaflalage, from Macdonald of
Slate, to whom he pays a yearly quit-rent. In the
little ifle of Kermul, about a quarter of a mile to the
fouthward of Barry, is the family-feat, furnifhed with
a watch-tower, and furrounded by a kind of fortifica¬
tion. The cockman, or watchman, is conftantly on
the tower to j-econnoitre and prevent furprize ; and the
goverment of the caftle is vefted in a conftable, who is
very cautious of admitting any ftrangerin the abfence
of Macneil.or his lady. The church of this ifland is
dedicated to St Barr, a wooden image of whom (lands
on the altar, and of this patron they recite a legend of
miracles : hard by is a little chapel in which Macneil
and his defcendants are interred. The inhabitants are
very courteous and hofpitable : as foon as any ftranger
lands on the ifland, they oblige him to eat, on the
fuppofition that the keen air of the ocean muft have II |i
(harpened his appetite. When three or four guefts Barfet|111
arrive, each, by ancient cuftom, is lodged in a feparate
houfe ; and thus man and wife are very often parted. m
The natives chiefly employ themfelves in fiftiing, and ffi
climbing rocks for eggs and fea-fowl. The chief
climber is diftinguifhed by the name of gingich, or hero;
and pays dear for his pre-eminence. When the boat
approaches the rock, the gingich firft leaps upon it, and, jtt
with the afiiftance of an horfe-hair rope, draws his
companions after him from one precipice to another. ft
At their return to the boats with their booty of eggs
and fowls, the gingich, at the hazard of his life, jumps
into the veflel, which is generally tofled by a violent
agitation of the fea, and keeps her fteady to the rock,
until the reft enter : in compenfation for his courage
and dexterity, he is gratified with a larger proportion S : |
of their plunder.
When a tenant’s wife dies, the hufband makes ap¬
plication to Macneil, defiring him to recommend ano¬
ther helpmate, and his requeft'is immediately granted: Jl
then he vifits her, carrying along with him a bottle of w
ftrong waters for the celebration of the marriage, which
is confummated without further ceremony. When the
huftjand dies, the widow prefents the fame petition,
and is accommodated in the fame manner. Should a
tenant lofe his milk cows by the feverity of the feafon,
or any other misfortune, Macneil is obliged to fupply ||
him with the like number; and when an old man is |j
paft his labour, the laird maintains him in his own fa- ;JS
mily, for the remaining part of his life.
BARRE (Louis Francois Jofeph de la) of Tour-
nay, author of feveral works printed at Paris. Amongft
others, Imper. Orientale, Recueil des Medailles, des em-
pereurs, “ Memoirs for the hiftory of France, kc.’*
He died in 1738.
BARREL, in commerce, a round veflel, extending
more in length than in breadth, made of wood, in form
of a little tun. It ferves for holding feveral forts of
merchandize.
Barrel is alfo a meafure of liquids. The Engliftt
barrel, wine-meafure, contains the eighth part of a
tun, the fourth part of a pipe, and one half of a hogf-
head ; that is to fay, it contains 314 gallons : a barrel,
beer-meafure, contains 36 gallons; and, ale-meafure,
32 gallons. The barrel of beer, vinegar, or liquor
preparing for vinegar, ought to contain 34 gallons,
according to the ftandard of the ale-quart.
Barrel alfo denotes a certain weight of feveral mer¬
chandizes, which differs according to the feveral com¬
modities. A barrel of Effex butter weighs 106 pounds;
and of Suffolk butter, 256 pounds. The barrel of
herrings ought to contain 32 gallons wine-meafure,
which amount to about 28 gallons old ftandard, con¬
taining about 1000 herrings. The barrel of falmon
muft contain 42 gallons ; the barrel of eels the fame.
The barrel of foap muft weigh 256 lb.
Barrel, in mechanics, a term given by watch-ma¬
kers to the cylinder about which the fpring is wrapped;
and by gun-fmiths to the cylindrical tube of a gun,
piftol, &c. through which the ball is difcharged.
Barrel, in anatomy, a pretty large cavity behind |
the tympanum of the ear, about four or five lines deep, |
and five or fix wide.
rhun-
BAR
BAR f 1035 ]
Thundering Barrels, in the miJitary art, are filled
with bombs, grenades, and other fire-works, to be
rolled down a breach.
BARRENNESS, the fame with fterility *.
BARRETRY, in law, is the offence of frequently-
exciting and ftirring up fuits and quarrels between his
majefty’s fubje&s, either at law or otherwife. The
punifhment for this offence, in a common perfon, is by
fine and imprifonment: but if the offender (as is too
frequently the cafe) belongs to the profeffion of the
law, a barretor who is thus able as well as willing to
do mifchief ought alfo to be difabled from pradtifing
for the future. And indeed it is enafted by ftatute
12 Geo. I. c. 29. that if any one, who hath been con-
vi&ed of forgery, perjury, fubornation of perjury, or
common barretry, fhall praftife as an attorney, folici-
tor, or agent, in any fuit; the court, upon complaint,
fhall examine it in a fummary way ; and, if proved,
fhall direft the offender to be tranfported forfeven years.
Hereunto alfo may be referred another offence, of equal
malignity and audacioufnefs ; that of filing another in
the name of a fi&itious plaintiff, either one not in be¬
ing at all, or one who is ignorant of the fuit. This
offence, if committed in any of the king’s fuperior
courts, is left, as a high contempt, to be punifhed at
their difcretion. But .in courts of a lower degree,
where the crime is equally pernicious, but the authority
of the judges not equally extenfive, it is direfted by
ftatute 8 Eliz. c. 2. to be punifhed by. fix months im¬
prifonment, and treble damages to the party injured.
BARRICADE, or Barricado, a military term
for a fence formed in hafte with veffels, bafkets of earth,
trees, pallifades, or the like, to preferve an army from
the fhot or affault of the enemy.—The moft ufual ma¬
terials for barricades confift of pales or flakes, croffed
with battoons, and fhod with iron at the feet; ufually
fet up in paffages or breaches.
Barricade, in naval architefture, a ftrong wooden
rail, fupported by ftanchions, extending acrofs the
foremoft part of the quarter-deck. In a veffel of war,
the vacant fpaces between the ftanchions are commonly
filled with rope-matts, cork, or pieces of old cable;
and the upper part, which contains a double rope-net¬
ting above the rail, is fluffed with full hammocks to
intercept the motion, and prevent the execution of
fmall-fhot in time of battle.
BARRIER, in fortification, a kind of fence made
at a paffage, retrenchment, tec. to flop up the entry
thereof. It is cdmpofed of great flakes, about four
or five feet high, placed at the diftance of eight or ten
feet from one another, with tranfums, or over-thwart
rafters, to flop either horfe and foot, that would enter
or rufh in with violence : in the middle is a moveable
bar of wood, that opens or fhuts at pleafure. A barrier
is commonly fet up in a void fpace, between the cita¬
del and the town, in half moons, &c.
Barriers, fignifies that which the French call jett
de barres, i. e. p at aft r a; a martial exercife of men
armed and fighting together with fhort fwords, within
certain bars or rails which feparated them from the fpec-
tators : it is now difufed in this country.
BARRING a Vein, in farriery, an operation per¬
formed upon the veins of a horfe’s legs, and other
parts of his body, with intent to flop the courfe, and
leffen the quantity, of the malignant humours that pre¬
vail there. Barrington
BARRINGTON. See Shuts.
BARRISTER, is a counfellor learned in the law, ^arf0W‘
admitted to plead at the bar, and there to take upon
him the protedlion and defence of clients. They are
termed jurifconfulti ; and in other countries called li-
ce?itiati in jure: and anciently barrifters at law were
called apprentices of the law, in Latin apprentic'u
juris nobiliores. The time before they ought to be
called to the bar, by the ancient orders, was eight
years, now reduced to five ; and the exercifes done by
them (if they were not called ex gratia) were twelve
grand moots performed in the inns of Chancery in the
time of the grand readings, and 24 petty moots in the
term times, before the readers of the refpe&ive inns:
and a barrifter newly called is to attend the fix (or four)
next long vacations the exercife of the houfe, viz. in
Lent and Summer, and is thereupon for thofe three
(or two) years ftyled a vacation barrifter. Alfo they
are called utter barrifters, i. e. pleaders oufter the bar,
to diftinguifh them from benchers, or thofe that have
been readers, who are fometimes admitted to plead
within the bar, as the king, queen, or prince’s counfel
are.
BARROS (John), a celebrated Portuguefe hifto-
rian, born at Vifco, in 1496. He was educated at
the court of king Emanuel, among the princes of the
blood, and made a great progrefs in Greek and Latin.
The Infant John, to whom he attached himfelf, and
became preceptor, having fucceeded the king his fa¬
ther in 1521, Barros obtained a place in this prince’s
houfehold; and in 1522, was made governour of St
George del Mina, on the coaft of Guinea. Three
years after, the king having recalled him to court,
made him treafurer of the Indies, and this poll infpi-
red him with the thought of writing his hiftory ; for
which purpofe he retired to Pompas, where he died-, in
1570. His hiftory of Afia and the Indies is divided
into decades; the firft of which he publiftied in 1552,
the fecond in 1553, and the third in 1563,; but the
fourth decade was not publiftied till the year 1615,
when it appeared by order of King Philip III; who
had the manufcript purchafed of the heirs of John Bar¬
ros. Several authors have continued it, fo that we have
at prefent 12 decades. He left many other works ;
fome of which have been printed, and others remain in
manufcript.
BARROW (Ifaac), an eminent mathematician and
divine, of the laft century, was the fon of Mr Thomas
Barrow a linen draper in London, where he was
born, in 1630. He was at firft placed at the charter-
houfe fchool, for two or three years ; where his beha¬
viour afforded but little hopes of fuccefs in the profef¬
fion of a fcholar, he being fond of fighting, and pro¬
moting it among his fchool-fellows: but being removed
from thence, his difpofition took a happier turn ; and
having foon made a great progrefs in learning, he was
admitted a penfioner of Peter houfe, in Cambridge.
He now applied himfelf with great diligence to the
ftudy of all parts of literature, efpecially to that of
natural philofophy. He afterwards turned his thoughts
to the profefiion of phyfic, and made a confiderable
progrefs in anatomy, botany, and chemiftry; after
this he ftudied chronology, aftronomy, and geometry.
He then travelled into France and Italy, and in a voy-
age
age from Leghorn to Smyrna, gave a proof of his
bravery; for the fhip being attacked by an Algerine
pirate, he ftaid upon deck, and with the greateft in¬
trepidity fought, till the pirate, perceiving the flout
fefiftance the {hip made, flieered off and left her (b).
At Smyrna he met with a moft kind reception from
Mr Bretton, the Englilh conful, upon whofe death he
afterwards wrote a Latin elegy. From thence he pro¬
ceeded to Conftantinople, where he received the like
civilities from Sir Thomas Bendifh the Englifh ambaf-
fador, and Sir Jonathan Dawes, with whom he after¬
wards preferved an intimate friendfliip. At Conftanti¬
nople he read over the works of StChryfoftom, once
biflvop of that fee, whom he preferred to all the other
fathers. When he had been in Turkey fomewhat
more than a year, he returned to Venice. From
thence he came home in 1659, through Germany and
Holland; and was epifcopally ordained by biftiop
Brownrig. In 1660, he was chofen to the Greek
profefforftu’p at Cambridge. When he entered upon
this province, he intended to have read upon the tra¬
gedies of Sophocles; but he altered his intention, and
made choice of Ariftotle’s rhetoric. Thefe le&ures
having been lent to a friend who never returned them,
are irrecoverably loft. July the lb111, 1662, he was
eledted profeffor of geometry in Grefham college, by
the recommendation of Dr Wilkins, mafter of Trinity-
college, and afterwards biftiop of Chefter. Upon the
20th of May, 1663, he was defied a fellow of the
Royal Society, in the firft choice made by the council
after their charter. The fame year the executors of
Mr Lucas having, according to his appointment,
founded a mathematical le&urc at Cambridge, they
fixed upon Mr Barrow for the firft profeffor ; and tho’
his two profefforftiips were not inconfiftent with each
other, he chofe to refign that of Grefliam college,
which he did May the 20th, 1664. In 1669, he re-
figned his mathematical chair to his learned friend
Mr Ifaac Newton, being now determined to give up
the ftudy of mathematics for that of divinity. Upon
quitting his profefforfhip, he was only a fellow of
Trinity college, till his uncle gave him a fmall fine-
cure in Wales, and Dr Seth Ward bifhop of Salif-
bury conferred upon him a prebend in his church.
In the year 1670, he was created doflor in divinity by
mandate; and, upon the promotion, of Dr Pearfon
mafter of Trinity college to the fee of Chefter, he was
appointed to fucceed him by the king’s patent bear¬
ing date the 13th of February 1672. When the king
advanced him to this dignity, he was pleafed to fay,
“ he had given it to the beft fcholar in England.”
Hismajefty did not fpeak from report, but from his own
knowledge ; the doftor being then his chaplain, he ufed
often to converfe with him, and in his humourous way,
to call him an “ unfair preacher,” becaufe he exhaufted
every fubjeft, and left no room for others to come af¬
ter him. In 1675, he was chofen vicechancellor of the
univerfity,—The dodlor’s works are very numerous,
and fuch as do honour to the Englifh nation. They
are, 1. Euclid’s Elements. 2. Euclid’s Data. 3. Op¬
tical Letters, read in the public fchool of Cambridge.
4. Thirteen Geometrical Letters. 5. The Works of
Archimedes, the four Books of Appolonius’s Conic
Sections, and Theodofius’s Spherics explained in a
new Method. 6. A Ledture, in which Archimedes’s
Theorems of the Sphere and Cylinder are inveftigated
and briefly demonftrated. 7. Mathematical Ledlures,
read in thepublic fchoolsof the univerfity of Cambridge:
the above were all printed in Latin ; and as to his Eng-
lifli works, they are printed together in four volumes
folio.—“ The name of Dr Barrow (fays the reverend
and learned Mr Granger) will ever be illuftrious for a
ftrength of mind, and a compafs of knowledge that did
honour to his country. He was unrivalled in mathe¬
matical learning, and efpecially in the fublimc geome¬
try; in which he has been excelled only by one man,
and that man was his pupil, the great Sir Ifaac New¬
ton. The fame genius that feemed to be bom only to
bring hidden truths to light, to rife to the heights or
defcend to the depths of fcience, would fometimes a-
mufe itfelf in the flowery paths of poetry, and he com-
pofed verfes both in Greek and Latin. He at length
gave himfelf up entirely to divinity ; and particularly
to the moft ufeful part of it, that which has a ten¬
dency to mak£ men wifer and better. He has, in his
excellent fermons' on the Creed, folved every difficulty
and removed every obftacle that oppofed itfelf to our
faith, and made divine revelation as clear as the de-
monftrations in his own Euclid. In his fermons he
knew not how to leave off writing till he had exhaufted
his fubjeft ; and his admirable Difcourfeon the Duty
and Reward of Bounty to the Poor, took him up three
hours and an half in preaching. This excellent per-
fon, who was a bright example of Chriftian virtue, as
well as a prodigy of learning, died on the 4th of May
1677, in the 47th year of his age ;” and was interred
in Weftminfter abbey, where a monument, adorned
with his bull, was foon after eredted, by the contribu¬
tion of his friends.
BARP.OWS, in Britifh topography, artificial hil¬
locks or mounts, met with in many parts of Britain,
and fuppofed to have been Roman tumuli, or fepulchral
monuments of the ancient Britons. They are either
of ftones heaped up, or of earth. For the former,
more generally known by the name of cairns, fee
Cairns.—Of the latter Dr Plott takes notice of two
forts in Qxfordlhire : one placed on the military ways;
the other in the fields, meadows, or woods; the firft
fort doubtlefs of Roman ere&ion, the other more pro¬
bably eredted by the Britons or Danes. We have an
exa-
(b) There is another anecdote told of him, which not only (hewed his intrepidity, but an uncommon goodnefs of
difpofition, in circumftances where an ordinary fhare of it would have been probably extinguiffied. He was once in
a gentleman’s houfe in the country, where the neceflary was at the end of a long garden, and confequently at a great
diftance from the room where he lodged : as he was going to it before day, for he was a very early rifer, a fierce rna-
ftiff, who ufed to be chained up all day, and let loofe at night for the fecurity of the houfe, perceiving a flxange per-
fon in the garden at that unfeafonable time, fet upon him with great fury. The dodtor catched him by the throat,
threw him, and lay upon him; and whilft he kept him down, confidered what he ftiould do in that exigence: once he
had a mind to kill him; but he altered this refelution, upon recolleding that this would be unjuft, fince the dog did
only his duty, and he himfelf was in fault for rambling out of his room before it was light. At length he called out
fo loud, that he was heard by fome of the houfe, who came prefently out, and freed the doctor and the dog from the
danger they were .both in.
BAR [ 1037 ] BAR
examination of the barrows in Cornwall by Dr Wil¬
liams, in the Phil. Tranf. N° 45B. from whofe ob-
. fervations we find that they are compofed of foreign or
adventitious earth ; that is, fuch as does not rife on the
place, but is fetched from feme diftance. Monuments
of this kind are alfo very frequent in Scotland. On dig¬
ging into the barrows, urns Jiave been found in fome
of them, made of calcined earth, and containing burnt
bones and afhes ; in others, ftone chefts containing
bones entire ; in others, bones neither lodged in chefts
nor depofited in urns. Thefe tumuli are round, not
greatly elevated, and generally at their bafis furrounded
with a fofs. They are of different fizes ; in proportion,
it is fuppofed, to the greatnefs, rank, and power, of the
deceafed perfon.
Ancient Greece and Latium concurred in the
fame praftice with the natives of this ifland. Patro-
clus among the Greeks, and Hedtor among the Tro¬
jans, received but the fame funeral honours with our
Caledonian heroes; and the afties of Dercennus the
Laurentine monarch had the famtf fimple protedlion.
The urn and pall of the Trojan warrior might perhaps
be more fuperb than thofe of a Britilh leader: the ri-
fing monument of each had the common materials from
our mother earth.
The fnowy bones his friends and brothers place.
With tears collefted, in a golden vafe.
The golden vafe in purple palls they roll’d
Of fofteft texture and inwroOght with gold.
Taft o’er the urn the facred earth they fpread,
And rais’d a tomb, memorial of the dead.
Pope's Homer’s Iliad, xxiv. 1003.
Or, as it is more ftrongly expreffed by the fame ele¬
gant tranflator, in the account of the funeral of Pa-
troclus;
High in the midft they heap the fwelling bed
Of riling earth, memorial of the dead. J7;. xxiii. 319.
Barrow, in the falt-works, are wicker-cafes, almoft
in the fhape of a fugar-loaf, wherein the fait is put to
drain.
BARRULET, in heraldry, the fourth part of the
bar, or the one half of the clofl'et: an ufual bearing in
coat-armour.
B ARRULY, in heraldry, is when the field is divided
bar-ways, that is, acrofs from fide to fide, into feveral
parts.
BARRY (Girald), commonly called Giraldus Catn-
brenfis, i. e. Girald of Wales, an hiftorian and eccle-
fiaftic in the reigns of Henry II. and Richard I. was
born at-the caftle of Mainarper, near Pembroke, A. D.
1146. By his mother he was defeended from the prin¬
ces of South Wales ; and his father, William Barry,
was one of the chief men of that principality. Being
a younger brother, and intended for the church, he was
fent to St David’s, and educated in the family of his
uncle, who was bilhop of that fee. He acknowledges,
in his hiftory of his own life and aftions, that in his
early youth he w,as too playful; but being feverely re¬
proached for it by his preceptors, he became a very
hard (Indent, and greatly excelled all his fchool-fellows
in learning. When he was about 20 years of age, he
was fent, A. D. 1166, for his further improvement, to
the univerfity of Paris; where he continued three years,
and became, according to his own account, a moft ex¬
cellent rhetorician ; which rendered him very famous.
VOL. II.
On his return into Britain, he entered into holy orders,
and obtained feveral benefices both in England and
Wales. Obferving, with much concern, that his coun¬
trymen, the Welfti, were very backward in paying the
tithes of wool and cheefe, which he was afraid would
involve them in eternal damnation,he applied to Richard
archbiftiop of Canterbury, and was appointed his le¬
gate in Wales for reftifying that diforder, and for other
purpofes. He executed this commiflion -with great
fpirit; excommunicating all, without diffindion, who
refufed to fave their fouls by furrendering the tithes
of their cheefe and wool. Not fatisfied with enriching,
he alfo attempted to reform, the clergy ; and dilated the
archdeacon of Brechin to the archbifliop, for the un¬
pardonable crime of matrimony; and the poor old man,
refufing to put away his wife, was deprived of his arch¬
deaconry ; which was beftowed upon our zealous le¬
gate. In difeharging the duties of this new office, he
a&ed with great vigour, which involved him in many
quarrels; but, if we may believe himfelf, he was al¬
ways in the right, and always vi&orious. His uncle,
the bifhop of St David’s, dying A. D. 1176, he was
ele&ed his fucceffor by the chapter : but this ele&ion
having been made without the permiffion, and contrary
to the inclination of Henry II. our author prudently
declined to infill upon it, and went again to Paris to
profecute his ftudies, particularly in the civil and canon
law, and theology. He fpeaks with great raptures of
’the prodigious fame he acquired by his eloquent decla¬
mations in the fchools, and of the crowded audiences
who attended them, who were at a lofs to know whe¬
ther the fweetnefs of his voice, the beauty of his lan¬
guage, or the irrefiftible force of his arguments, were
moft to be admired. Having fpent about four years at
Paris, he returned to St David’s ; where he found e-
very thing in confufion ; and the bifhop being expelled
by the people, he was appointed adminiftrator by the
archbiftiop of Canterbury, and governed the diocefe in
that capacity to A. D. 1184, when the bifhop was re-
ftored. About the fame time he was called to court
by Henry II. appointed one of his chaplains, and fent
into Ireland, A. D. 1185, with Prince John. By this
prince he was offered the united bifhdprics of Femes
and Leighlin ; but declined them, and employed his
time in colle&ing materials for his Topograghy of Ire¬
land, and his Hiftory of the conqueft of that ifland.
Having finilhed his Topography, which confided of
three books, he publifhed it at Oxford, A. D. 1187,
in the following manner, in three days. On the firft
day he read the firft book to a great concourfe of peo¬
ple, and afterwards entertained all the poor of the
town ; on the fecond day he read the fecond book, and
entertained all the doftors and chief fcholars; and, on
third day, he read the third book, and entertained the
younger fcholars, foldiers, and burgeffes. “ A moft
glorious fpe&acle ! (fays he) which revived the ancient
times of the poets, and of which no example had been
feen in England.” He attended Baldwin archbifliop
of Canterbury, in his progrefs through Wales, A. D.
1186, in preaching a cfoifade for the recovery of the
Holy Land; in which, he tells us, he was far more
fuccefsful than the primate ; and particularly, that the
people were prodigioufly affedled with his Latin fer-
mons, which they did not underftand, melting into
tears, and coming in crowds to take the crofs. Al-
6 P though
Barfilli.
BAR [ 1038 ] BAR
though Henry II. as our author afiures us, entertained
the higheft opinion of his virtues and abilities ; yet he
never would advance him to any higher dignity in the
church, on account of his relation to the princes and
great men of Wales. But on the accefiion of Richard I.
(A. D. 1189), his profpedts of preferment became bet¬
ter : for he was fent for by that prince into Wales to
preferve the peace of that country, and was even joined
in commiffion with William /Longchamp, bilhop of
Ely, as one of the regents of the kingdom. He did
not, however, improve this favourable opportunity ;
refufing the bifhoprick of Bangor in A. D. 1190,
and that of Landaff the year after, having fixed his
heart on the fee of St David’s, the bifhop of which was
very old and infirm. In A. D. 1192, the ftate of pu¬
blic affairs, and the courfe of intereft at court, became
fo unfavourable to our author's views, that he determi¬
ned to retire. At firft he refolved to return to Paris to
profecute his ftudies ; but meeting with fome difficul¬
ties in this, he went to Lincoln, where William de
Monte read leftures in theology with great applaufe.
Here he fpent about fix years in the ftudy of divinity,
and in compofing feveral works. The fee of St Da¬
vid’s, which had long been the great object of his am¬
bition, became vacant, A. D. 1198, and brought him
again upon the ftage. He was unanimoufly elt&ed by
the chapter ; but met with fo powerful an adverfary in
Hubert archbifhop of Canterbury, (who oppofed his
promotion with great violence), that it involved him in
a litigation, which lafted five years, coft him three
journeys to Rome, at a great expence, and in which
he was at laft defeated, A. D. 1203. Soon after this
he retired from the world, and fpent the laft 17 years
of his life in a ftudious privacy, compofing many
books, of which we have a very correft catalogue in
the Biographia Britannica. That Girald of Wales
was a man of uncommon a&ivity, genius, and learning,
is undeniable ; but thefe and his other good qualities
were much tarnifhed by his infufferable vanity, which
muft have been very offenfive to his contemporaries, as
it is highly difgufting to his readers.
BARRY, in heraldry, is when an efcutcheon is di¬
vided bar-ways, that is, acrofs from fide to fide, into
an even number of partitions, confiftingof two or more
tinftures, interchangeably difpofed : it is to be expref-
fed in the blazon by the word harry, and the number
of pieces muft be fpecified ; but if the divifions be odd*
the field muft be firft named, and the number of bars
expreffed.
IhxviKX-Bendy is when an efcutcheon isdividedevenly,
bar and bend-ways, by lines drawn tranfverfe and dia-
'gonal, interchangeably varying the tin&ures of which
it confifts.
BARRY-PZ/y is wheu a coat is divided by feveral lines
drawn obliquely from fide to fide, where they form
acute angles.
BARSALLI, a kingdom of Africa, bordering on
the river Gambia, inhabited by a tribe of negroes called
Jaloffi. The government of this kingdom is a moft
defpotic monarchy ; all people being obliged to pro-
ftrate themfelves- on the earth when any of the royal
family makes his appearance. In time of war, every
foldier has his ftrare of the booty, and the king but a
certain proportion, which is moderate, confidering that
if he pleafed he might keep the whole. The kingdom
is divided into a number of provinces, over which go- Barfail!
vernors called are appointed by the king. Thefe Barfa4jfc
bumeys are abfolute within their jurifdidtions; but they
feldom carry their prerogative fo far as to incur the JK
difiike of the people, which would quickly prove fatal
to them. The Mahometan religion is profeffed by the
king and his court; thoqgh little regard is paid to that jV
part of the impoftor’s creed which forbids the ufe of H
wine ; for the king cannot live without brandy, nor is - 11
he ever more devout than when he is drunk. When his
majefty is in want of brandy or other necefiaries, he
fends to beg of the governor of James-fort that he will
difpatch a boat with the merchandize he has occafion ||
for; and to purchafe this he plunders the neighbour- ||
ing towns, and feizes a certain number of his fubje&s |
whom he fells for flaves to the Europeans in exchange | [
for their commodities. This is his method of fupply- 11
ing himfelf if he happens to be at peace with his 11
neighbours ; for which reafon the people are never fo
happy as when at war ; and hence they purfue war
with great vigour, and continue it with obftinacy.— .11
The general drefs of the people is a kind of loofe calli- 1
coe furplice, that hangs down below the knee ; which
they fometimes plait about the waift in a very agreeable 11
manner. They wear a great number of gold trinkets
in their hair, ears, nofes, and round their necks, arms,
and legs ; but the women efpecially are fond of thefe
ornaments.. The king of Barfalli, whom Moore faw J[
in 1732, had a prodigious number of women: but
when he went abroad he was feldom attended by more
than two, who feemed to be drefled out in the whole
finery and jewels of the feraglio. He had like wife a
number of brethren; but it was feldom that he deigned
to fpeak to them: if ever he did them that honour,
they were forced to treat him with the fame refpedl as
other fubje&s, and fall proftrate on the earth the mo¬
ment they came into his prefence, notwithftanding
they were the prefumptive heirs of the crown. It is
indeed ufual for the king’s children to difpute the right . 1
of fucceffion with his brethren, and the longeft fword
generally carries away the prize.
BARSANTI (Francifco), an eminent mufical per¬
former and compofer, was born at Lucca about the
year 1690. He ftudied the civil law in the univerfity
of Padua; but, after a ftiort ftay there, chofe mufic
for his profc-ffion. Accordingly he put himfelf under
the tuition of fome of the ableft mafters in Italy; and fl
having attained to a confiderable degree of proficiency 1
in the fcience of pra&ical compofition, took a refolu-
tion to fettle in England, and came thither with Ge- ,1
miniani, who was alfo a Luccefe, in the year 1714. -1
He was a good performer on the hautboy, and alfo
on the flute ; in the former capacity he found employ-
. ment in the opera band, and in the latter derived
. confiderable advantages by teaching. He publifhed,
with a dedication to the earl of Burlington, fix folos for »|
a flute with a thorough-bafs, and afterwards fix folos a-;
for a German flute and a bafs. He alfo made into fo- a|
natas, for two violins and a bafs, the firft fix folos of
Geminiani. He continued many years a performer at <1;
the opera-houfe: at length, reflecting that there was a
profpeCt of advantage for one of his profeffion in Scot¬
land, he went thither; and, with greater truth than
the fame is afferted of David Rizzo, may be faid to j
have meliorated the mufic of this country, by collec-
BAR [ 1039 ] BAR
ting and making bafifes to a great number of the mod
popular Scots tunes. About the year 1750 Barfanti
returned to England; but, being advanced in years,
he was glad to be taken into the opera band as a per¬
former on the tenor violin; and in the fummer feafon
into that of Vauxhall. At this time he publifhed 12
concertos for violins; and Ihortly after, Sei Antifone,
In which he endeavoured to imitate the ftyle of Pa-
leftrina, and the old compofers of motets: but from
thefe publications fo little profit refulted, that, to¬
wards the end of his life, the induftry and ceconomy
of an excellent wife, whom he had married in Scot¬
land, and the ftudies and labours of a daughter, whom
he had qualified for the profeffion of a finger, but who
is now an a&refs at Covent-Garden, were his chief
fupport.
BART AS (William de Salufte du), a French poet,
who lived in the i6rh century. He was employed by
Henry IV. of France in England, Denmark, and Scot¬
land ; and commanded a troop of horfe in Gafcony,
under the marechal de Martignan. He was a Calvi-
nift ; and died in 1590, aged 46. He wrote a great
number of poems; the moll famous of which are, 1. The
Week, or the Creation of the World, in feven books.
2. The Poem of Judith; and 3. The Battle of Tvry,
gained by Henry IV. in 1590. Du Bartas wrote in a
bombait llyle.
BARTER, or Truck, is the exchanging of one
commodity for another. The word comes from the
Spanilh barator, to deceive or circumvent in bargaining,
perhaps becaufe thofe who deal this way ufually en¬
deavour to over-reach one another.
To tranfaft properly, the price of one of the com¬
modities, and an equivalent quantity of the other, muft
be found either by praftice, or by the rule of three.
Queji. 1. How many pounds of cotton, at 9 d. per
tb. muft be given in barter for 13 C. 3 14 ft). of
pepper, at 2 1. 16 s. per C. ?
Firfi. Find the price or value of the commodity
whofe quantity is given as follows.
C. lb. L. s.
13 3 14 at 2 16
26
10 8
1 8
H
7
L.38 17
Secondly, Find how much cotton, at 9 d. per lb.
38 1. 17 s. will purchafe, as under.
d. lb. L. s.
If 9 : 1 :: 38 17
20
777 ..
9)9324(
  C. &
Anf. 1036#. =.9 1
If the above queftion be wrought decimally, the
2I.
16s.
2CL
I cl
14 lb.
operation may ftand as follows :
C. L. C.
If x : 2. 8 :: 13.875
2.8
111000
27750
 lb. C.
•°375)3^-85oo( 1036=9 x Anf.
37- 5- • •
I35°
1125
2250
2250
The value or price of the goods received and deli¬
vered in barter being always equal, it is obvious that
the produdl of the quantities received and delivered,
multiplied in their refpedlive rates, will be equal.
Hence arifes a rule which may be ufed with advan¬
tage in working feveral queftions; namely, Multiply
the given quantity and rate of the one commodity, and
the produft divided by the rate of the other commodity
quotes the quantity fought; or divided by the quan¬
tity quotes the rate.
Quejl. 2. How many yards of linen, at 4 s. per
yard, ftiould I have in barter for 120 yards of velvet,
at 15 s. 6d.?
Yds. Sixp. Sixp. Yds.
120 X 31 = 3720, and 8)3720(459^/
BARTH, or Bart (John), a brave filherman of
Dunkirk, who rofe to the rank of an admiral; and is
celebrated for his fignal valour and naval exploits, in
the annals of France. He died in 1702, aged 51.
BARTHIUS (Gafpar), a very learned and copi¬
ous writer, born at Cuftrin in Brandenburg, the 22J of
June 1576. Mr Baillet has inferted him in his En-
fans Celebres; where he tells us, that at 12 years of age
he tranflated David’s Pfalms into Latin verfe of every
meafure, and publifhed feveral Latin poems. Upon the
death of his father (who was profellor of civil law at
Francfort, counfellor to the ele&or of Brandenburg,
and his chancellor at Cuftrin), he was fent to Gotha,
then to Eifenach, and afterwards, according to cuftom,
went through all the different univerfities in Germany.
When he had finifhed his ftudies, he began his travels;
he vifited Italy, France, Spain, England, and Holland,
improving himfelf by the converfation and works of
the learned in every country. He ftudied the modern
as well as ancient languages, and his tranflations from
the Spanifh and French fhew that he was not content
with a fuperficial knowledge. Upon his return to Ger¬
many, he took up his refidence at Leipfic, where he led
a retired life, his paffion for ftudy having made him re¬
nounce all fort of employment. He wrote a vaft num¬
ber of books; the principal of which are, 1. His Ad-
verfaria, a large volume in folio; the fecond and third
volumes of which he left in manufeript. 2. A Tranf-
lation of ^Eneas Gazseus. 3. A large volume of Notes
upon Claudian, in 410. 4. Three large volumes upon
Statius; <bc. He died at Leipfic, in 1658, aged 71.
BARTHOLINUS (Cafpar), a learned phyfician
and anatomift in the 17th century, was born at Malmoe,
6 P 2 a
Barter
Bartholimi*
BAR [ 1040 ] BAR
a town in the province of Schonen, which then be¬
longed to Denmark. At three years of age he had
fuch a quick capacity, that in 14 days he learned to
read; and in his 13th year he compofed Greek and La¬
tin orations, and pronounced them in public. When he
was about 18, he went to the univerlity of Copenhagen,
and afterwards ftudied at Roftock and Wirtemberg.
He next fet out upon his travels; during which he ne-
gle&ed no opportunity of improving himfelf at the dif¬
ferent univerfities to which he came, and every where
receiving marks of refpeft. He was in 1613 chofen
profeflbr of phyfic in that univerfxty, which he enjoyed
11 years; when, falling into a dangerous illnefs, he
made a vow, that if it fhould pleafe God to reftore him,
he would folely apply himfelf to the ftudy of divinity.
He recovered, and kept his word ; and fpon after ob¬
tained the profeflbrfhip of divinity, and the canonry of
Rofchild. He died on the 13th of July 1629, after
having written feveral fmall works, chiefly on metaphy-
fics, logic, and rhetoric.
BARTHOLINUS (Thomas), a celebrated phyfi-
cian, fon of the former, was born at Copenhagen in
1616. After ftudying fome years in his own country,
he in 1637 went to Leyden, where he ftudied phyfic
during three years. He then travelled into France;
and refided two years at Paris and Montpelier, in or¬
der to improve himfelf under the famous phyficians of
thofe univerfities. Afterwards going to Italy, he con¬
tinued three' years at Padua; and at length went to
Bafil, where he obtained the degree of do<9:or of phi-
lofophy. Soon after, he returned to Copenhagen ;
where, in 1647, he was appointed profeflbr of the ma¬
thematics; and next year was nominated to the anato¬
mical chair, an employment better fuited to his genius
and inclination; which he difcharged with great affi-
duity for 13 years, and diftinguifhed himfelf by making
feveral difcoveries with refpect to the lafteal veins and
lymphatic vefiels. His clofe application, however, ha¬
ving rendered his conftitution very infirm, he, in i6(5l,
refigned his chair; but the king of Denmark allowed
him the title of honorary profejjbr. He now retired to
a little eftate he had purchafed at Hagefted, near Co¬
penhagen, where he hoped to have fpent the remain¬
der of his days in peace and tranquillity; but his houfe
being burnt in 1650, his library, with all his books and
manufcripts, was deftroyed. In confideration of this
lofs the king appointed him his phyfician, withahand-
fome falary, and exempted his land from all taxes; the
univerfity of Copenhagen alfo appointed him their li¬
brarian; and, in 1675, t^le king did him the honour
to give him a feat in the grand council of Denmark.
He wrote, 1. Anatornia Cafpari Bartholini Parentis
novis Obfervationibus primum locupletata, 8vo. 2. De
Monjiris in Natura h Mediclna, 410. 3. De Armillis
Veterum, prafcrtim Danorum Schedion, 8vo; and fe¬
veral other works. This great man died on the 4th of
December 1680.
St BARTHOLOMEW’S dav, a feftival of the
Chriftian church, celebrated on the 24th of Auguft. St
Bartholomew was one of the twelve Apoftles; and is
efteemed to be the fame as Nathanael, one of the firft
difciples that came to Chrift.
It is thought this apoftle travelled as far as India,
to propagate the gofpel; for Eufebius relates, that a
famous philofopher and Chriftian, named Pant anus.
defiring to imitate the apoftolical zeal in propagating
the faith, and travelling for that purpofe as far as In¬
dia, found there, among thofe who yet retained the
knowledge of Chrift, the gofpel of St Matthew, writ- -
ten, as the tradition aflerts, by St Bartholomew, one
of the twelve apoftles, when he preached the gofptl in
that country. From thence he returned to the more
northern and weftern parts of Afia, and preached to the
people of Hierapolis; then in Lycaonia; and laftly at
Albania, a city upon the Cafpian Sea; where his en¬
deavours to reclaim the people from idolatry were
crowned with martyrdom, he being (according to fome
writers) flea’d alive, and crucified with his head down¬
wards.—There is mention made of a Gofpel of St Bar¬
tholomew, in the .preface to Origen’s Homilies on St
Luke, and in the preface to St Jerom’s commentary
on St Matthew: but it is generally looked upon as fpu-
rious, and is placed by pope Gelafius among the apo¬
cryphal books.
Bartholomew (St), one of the Caribbee iflandg
belonging to the French, who fent a colony thither in
1648. It is about 24 miles in compafs, and has a good
haven. W. Long. 62. 15. N. Lat. 18. 6.
BARTHOLOMITES, a religious order founded
at Genoa in the year 1307 ; but the monks leading
very irregular lives, the order was fupprefi’ed by pope
Innocent X. in 1650, and their effedls were confifcated.
In the church of the nionaftery of this order at Genoa
is preferved the image which it is pretended Chrift fent
to king Abgarus. See Abgarus.
BARTOLOCCI (Julius), a learned monk, and
profeflbr of Hebrew at Rome, was born at Celeno, in
1613 ; and diftinguilhed himfelf by writing an ex¬
cellent Hebrew and Latin catalogue of the Hebrew
writers and writings, in 4 vols folio, a continuation of
which was performed by Imbonati his difciple. He
died in 1687.
BARTOLOMEO (Francifco), a celebrated pain¬
ter, born at SaVignano, a village 10 miles from Flo¬
rence, in the year 1469, was the difciple of Cofimo
RofTelli, but was much more beholden to the works of
Leonarda da Vinci for his extraordinary fkill in paint¬
ing. He was well verfed in the fundamentals of defign.
Raphael, after quitting the fchool of Perugino, ap¬
plied to this mafter; and under him ftudied the rules
of perfpe&ive, with the art of managing and uniting
his colours. ~ In the year 1500, he turned Dominican
friar; and fome time after was fent by his fuperiors to
the convent of St Martin, in Florence. He painted
both portraits and hiftories; but his fcrupulous con-
fcience would hardly ever fuffer him to draw naked fi¬
gures, though no body underftood them better. Pie
died in 1517, aged 48.
BARTON, a town of Lincolnlhire, feated on the
river Humber, where there is a confiderable ferry to pals
over into Yorklhire. W. Long. o. 10. N. Lat. 53. 40.
BARTSIA, painted cup; a genus of theangiofper-
mia order, belonging to the didynamia clafs of plants.
Of this there are two fpecies: the vilcofa, or marlhy;
and the alpina. The firft, called alfo yellow marjh eye-
bright, was found by Mr Lightfoot in bogs and marlhy
places about Lpch-Goyl, near Loch-Long in the di-
ftrift of Cowal in Argyklhire. The plant is about
ten or twelve inches high, with an erebt ftalk downy
and unbranched: the leaves are feflile, fpear-lhaped, and
BAS [ 1041 ] BAS
|ucI> a little vifcous; the flowers are yellow, and the plant that called the Giant's Caufeway, in Ireland; and Staffs, Bafaltes,
hiites. black. It is likewife found in marfhy places in one of the Weftern ifles of Scotland. In Ireland it rifes Bafan-
-—’ Cornwall in England. The alpina, or mountain eye- far up in the country, runs into the fea, crofles its hot- ~
bright cow-wheat, hath heart-fhaped leaves placed op- tom, and rifes again on jhe oppofite land.’ See Giants
polite, and bluntly ferrated, with purple bloflbms in Caufeway, and Staffa.
leafy fpikes. It is likewife a' native of Britain, and is The origin and formation of bafaltes has much puz-
found near rivulets in hilly countries. Sheep and goats zled the world ; but we may confider, that many of the
eat it. known fofiil bodies have a property, like falls, of ar-
BARUCH (the prophecy of), one of the apocry- ranging themfelves into different figures at the time of
phal books, fubjoined to the canon of the Old Tefta- their firft coalefcence into a mafs. This is from the
ment. Baruch was the fon of Neriah, who was the dif- fame laws in nature with that of falls ; and we are well
ciple and amanuenfis of the prophet Jeremiah. It has afiured by daily experience, that cryffal and fpar, ac-
been reckoned part of Jeremiah’s prophecy, and is of- cording to this natural determination, ever form regu-
ten cited by the ancient fathers as fuch. Jofephus tells larly angular figures, when all the'proper accidents
us, Baruch was defcended of a noble family; and it is have concurred to their concretion. The moll common
faid, in the book itfelf, that he wrote this prophecy at figures of cryflals are thehexangular columns; andthofe
Babylon; but at what time is uncertain. It is difficult of fpar, either trigonal columns or parallellopipeds.
to determine in what language this prophecy was ori- The combinations and mixture of thefe, in different
ginally written. There are extant three copies of it; degrees, may naturally produce mixed figures, accor-
one in Greek, the other'two in Syriac; but which of ding to thefe degrees; and a third fubftance, though
thefe, or whether any one of them, be the original, is in itfelf not difpofed by nature to afilime or arrange
uncertain. itfelf into any particular figure, if mixed with thefe,
BARULES, in church-hiflory, certain heretics, may be able to fpread, extend, and enlarge the figures
who held, that the Son of God had only a phantom of they concrete into, or otherwife alter'them. A mix-
a body; that fouls were created before the world, and ture of three bodies is, therefore, capable of producing
that they lived all at one time. a fourth, of a figure different from any one of the
BARUTH, an ancient town of Turky in Syria, three above; and we find alfo, by many parallel in-
with a Chriftian church of the Nefforian perfuafion. It ftances, that the quicker or flower palling off of the
is fituated in a fine fertile foil, but is inconfiderable fluid from whence bodies are concreted, is capable of
now to what it was formerly. E. Long. 34. 20. N. altering their figures.
Lat. 33. 30. _ The marble of the Giants-caufeway, or any other
Baruth, an Indian meafure, containing 17 gantans: columns of bafaltes, is found to be compofed of an ad¬
it ought to weigh about three pounds and an half En- mixture of cryftal, fpar, and earth. The fpar may be
glilh avoirdupois. _ procured in its own form; and the remaining mafs,
BARYTONUM, in the Greek grammar, denotes after the feparation of the fpar, is found to be pure
a verb, which having no accent marked on the lafl: fyl- cryftal, and an earth of the clay kind, feeming the
lable, a grave accent is to be underftood. In Italian fame with the black pipe-clay of Northampton (hire
mufic, barytono anfwers to our common pitch of bafs. and fome other places, only much blacker. We know
BAS chevalier. See Bachelor. very well what would be the figures of thefe bodies
H^s-Relief. See Basso-/Je/Zet.'s. concreted alone; and may thence deduce what may
BASALTES, in natural hiftory, is a heavy hard be the pofiible confequences of their union, and the
ftone, chiefly black or green, confifting of prifmatic different accidents attending their concretions. But
cryftals, the number of the fides of which is uncertain, the opinion which feems moll likely to prevail at pre-
It is called by Englilh miners cockle, and by Germans fent is, that this fubftance is a cryttallization from fome
fchorl. Its fpecific gravity is to that of water, as 3000 kinds of volcanic lava. See Volcano,
or upwards to 1 oco. It is confidered by Wallerius as BASAN, (anc. geog.), a territory beyond Jordan,
a fpecies of the comens, or horn-rock. Cronlledt enu- mentioned in feripture. By Jofephus, Eufebius, and
merates it among the earths'which he called garnet Jerom, it is called Bata?iaa. On the entering of the
earths. Bafaltes frequently contains iron; and coniills Ifraelites into the land of Canaan, the whole of the
either of particles of an indeterminate figure, or of a country beyond Jordan, from that of the Moabites, or
fparry, flriated, or fibrous texture. Black bafaltes is Arabia, as far as mount Hermon and Lebanon, was
{tailed lapis lydius, and is ufed as a touchftone to fliew divided into two kingdoms, viz. that of Sihon king of
the colours of metals. Bafaltes has a flinty hardnefs, the Amorites, and of Og king of Bafan ox-BaJhan;
is infoluble by acids, and is fufible by fire *—The the former to the fouth, and the latter to the north*,
moll remarkable quality of this is its figure, being The kingdom of Sihon extended from the river Arnon
never found in llrata, like other marbles ; but always and the country of Moab, to the river Jabbok; which
{landing up in the form of regular angular columns, running in an oblique courfe from the eaft, was at the
compofed of a number of joints, one placed on and fame time the boundary of the Ammonites, as appears
nicely fitted to another, as if formed by the hands of from Numb. xxi. 24. and Deuteron. ii. 37. and iii. 16.
a Ikilful workman. See Plate LV. fig. 9. The bafaltes The kingdom of Sihon fell to the lot of the Reuben-
was originally found in columns in Ethiopia, in frag- ites and Gadites, and Bafan to the half-tribe of Ma-
ments in the river Tmolus, and fome other places: we naffeh. To this was annexed a part of the hilly coun-
now have it frequently, both in columns and final! try of Gilead, and the diftricl of Argob ; yet fo that
pieces, in Spain, Ruffia, Poland, near Drefden, and Bafan continued to be the principal and gr^ateft part;
in Silefia ; but thenobleft {lore in the world feem to be but, after the Babyloniih captivity, Bafan was fubdi-
vided ;
BAS [ 1042 ] BAS
BaTartfclikk vided; fo tliat only a part was called Batanca, or Bafan,
ll another Trackonitis, a third Aurunitis, or Ituraa,
ilfe'  and fome part alfo Gaulonitis; but to fettle the limits
of each of thefe parts is a thing now impoffible.—
Balhan was a country famous for its paftures and
breed of large cattle.
BASARTSCHICK, a confiderable town of Ro¬
mania in Turky of Europe. It is pretty well built,
and hath clean and broad ftreets; has a great trade;
and is fituated on the river Meritz, in E. Long. 24.
30. N. Lat. 41.49.
BASARUCO, in commerce, a fmall bafe coin in
the Eaft Indies, being made only of very bad tin.
There are, however, two forts of this coin, a good
and a bad ; the bad is one fixth in value lower than the
good.
BASE, in geometry, the lowed; fide of the peri¬
meter of a figure: Thus, the bafe of a triangle may
be faid of any of its fides, but more properly of the
loweft, or that which is parallel to the horizon. In
redangled triangles, the bafe is properly that fide op-
pofite to the right angle.
Base of a Solid Figure, the loweft fide, or that on
which it Hands.
Base of a Conic Settion, a right line in the hyperbola
and parabola, arifing from the common interfedion of
the fecant plain and the bafe of the cone.
Base, in architedure, is ufed for any body which
bears another, but particularly for the lower part of a
column and pedeftal.—The ancients, in the early times
of architedure, ufed no bafes. The Doric columns
in the temple of Minerva at Athens have none, but
ftand immediately upon the floor of the porch. Co¬
lumns afterwards came to be fupported on fquare pieces
called plinths, and after that on pedeftals. When we
fee a column, of whatfoever order, on a pedeftal, the
bafe is that part which comes between the top of the
pedeftal and the bottom of the ftiaft of the column;
when there is no pedeftal, it is the part between the
bottom of the column and the plinth : fome have in¬
cluded the plinth as a part of the bafe; but it is pro¬
perly the piece on which the bafe Hands, as the column
Hands upon that.—The pedeftal alfo has its bafe as
well as the column, and the pilafter. The bafe of co¬
lumns is differently formed in the different orders; but
in general it is compofed of certain fpires or circles, and
was thence in early times called the fpire of a column.
Thefe circles were in this cafe fuppofed to reprefent the
folds of a fnake as it lies rolled up ; but they are pro¬
perly the reprefentations of feveral larger and fmaller
rings or circles of iron, with which the trunk of trees
which were the ancient columns were furrounded to
prevent their burfting : thefe were rude and irregular,
but the fculptor who imitated them in ftone found the
way to make them elegant.
Base, in fortification, the exterior fide of the po¬
lygon, or that imaginary line which is drawn from the
flanked angle of a baftion to the angle oppofite to it.
Base, in gunnery, the leaft fort of ordnance, the
diameter of whofe bore is inch, weight 200 pound,
length 4 feet, load 5 pound, fhot i-J- pound wt. and
diameter inch.
Base, in chemiftry. See Basis.
Base, in law. Bafe efate, fuch as bafe tenants
have in their hands. BaJ'e tenure, the holding by vil-
lenage, or other cuftomary fervices; as diftingui/hed Bafelf :3
from the higher tenures in capite, or by military fer- R 1 Jfl
vice. Bafe fee, is to hold in fee at the will of the lord, 3 - i
as diftinguifhed from foccage tenure. Bafe court, any
court not of record.
BASELLA, climbing nightshade from Mala- |j|
bar; a genus of the trigynia order, belonging to the 9
pentandria clafs of plants.
Species. 1. The rubra, with red leaves and Ample
footftalks, has thick, ftrong,_fucculent ftalks and leaves,
which are of a deep purple colour. The plant will
climb to the height of ten or twelve feet, provided it ]|
is kept in a ftove ; but in the open air it will not grow - ji
fo large in this country ; nor will the feeds come to 9
perfedlion in the open air, unlefs in very warm feafons.
The flowers of this plant have no great beauty, but it
is cultivated on account of the odd appearance of its ;
ftalks and leaves. There is a variety of this, with green
ftalks and leaves, and the flowers of a whitiih green
colour tipped with purple. 2. The alba, with oval
waved leaves. This fort hath flaccid leaves, and fmaller i
flowers and fruit than the firft. The plants will climb 1
to a confiderable height, and fend forth a great num- 11
ber of branches; fo they Ihould be trained up to a I
trellis, or faftened to the back of the ftove, otherwife
they will twift themfelves about whatever plants ftand
near them, which will make a very difagreeable ap¬
pearance.
Culture. Thefe plants are propagated from feeds, -H
which fliould be fown on a moderate hot-bed in the fl
fpring; and when the plants are fit to remove, they
ftiould be each planted in a feparate pot, and plunged
into the tan-bed, where they are to be treated like o-
ther tender exotics. They may be alfo propagated
from cuttings, but as they arife fo eafily from the feeds,
the latter method is feldom praftifed.
Ufes. The berries of the firft fpecies are faid to be
ufed for ftaining callicoes in India. Mr Miller affures
us, that he has feen a very beautiful colour drawn from |
them, but which did not continue long when ufed in
painting. He is of opinion, however, that a method I
of fixing the colour might be invented, in which cafe
the plant would be very ufefuh—This, we apprehend, I
might be accompliftied by means of folution of tin in |
aqua regia, which hath a furprifing effedt both in bright- j
ning and giving durability to other vegetable colours.
BASEMENT, in architedlure. See Architecture,
n° 75* ?6-
BASHARIANS, a fedft of Mahometans, being a
branch or fubdivifion of the Motazalites. The Bafha- ]
rians are thofe who maintain the tenets of Bafliar Ebn 1
Motamer, a principal man among the Motazalites,
who varied, in fome points, from the general tenets ■
of the fe£t, as carrying man’s free agency to a great JJ
length, and even to the making him independent.
BASHAW, a Turkilh governor of a province, city, !H
or other diftricf.
A baihaw is made with the folemnity of carrying a
flag or banner before him, accompanied with mufic ' |
and fongs, by the mirialem, an officer on purpofe for
the inveftiture of baftiaws. Bafhann, ufed abfolutely, 1
denotes the prime vizier; the reft of the denomination
being diftinguifhed by the addition of the province,
city, or the like, which they have the command of;
as the bafhaw of Egypt, of Paleftine, &c. The ba¬
ftiaws |
• M-
ijklonks.
BAS [ 1043 ] BAS
fhaws are the emperor’s fpunges. -We find loud com¬
plaints among Chriftians of their.avarice and extortions.
As they buy their governments, every thing is venal
with them. When glutted with wealth, the emperor
frequently makes them a prefent of a bow-ftring, and
^becomes heir to all their fpoils.
The appellation bajha'w'is given by way of courtefy
to almoft every perfon of any figure at the grand fig-
nior s court.
BASIL (St) the Great, one of the moll learned
and eloquent do&ors of the church, was born at Cae-
farea, in Cappadocia, about the year 328 ; and went
to finilh his ftudies at Athens, where he contradfed a
ftrift friendlhip with St Gregory Nazianzen. He re¬
turned to his native country in 355, where he taught
rhetoric. Some time after, he travelled into Syria, E-
gypt, and Lybia, to vifit the monafteries of thefe coun¬
tries ; and the monaftic life fo much fuited his difpo-
fition, that upon his return home he refolved to follow
it, and he was the firft inftitutor thereof in Pontus and
Cappadocia *. His reputation became fo great, that,
upon the death of Eufebius bilhop of Caefarea, in 370,
he was chofen his fucceflbr. It was with fome diffi¬
culty that he accepted of this dignity ; and no fooner
was he raifed to it, than the emperor Valens began to
perfecute him becaufe he refufed to embrace the doc¬
trine of the Arians. Being at length let alone, he be¬
gan to ufe his utmoft endeavours to bring about a re¬
union betwixt the eaftern and weftern churches, who
were then much divided about fome points of faith, and
in regard to Meletius and Paulinus two biffiops of An-
tiochia. But all his efforts were ineffe&ual, this dif-
pute not being terminated till nine months after his
death. Bafil had a {hare in all the difputes which hap¬
pened in his time in the eaft in regard to the doftrine
of the church; and died the Ist of January, 379.—
There have been feveral editions of his works in Greek
and Latin. The beft is that of Father Garnier, printed
in Greek and Latin, in three volumes folio. St Bafil’s
ftyle is pure and elegant, his expreffions grand and
fublime, his thoughts noble and full of majefty ; and
Erafmus places him among the greateft orators of an¬
tiquity.
BASIL, a Canton of Switzerland, which joined the
confederacy in 1501. It is bounded on the fouth by
the canton of Solothurn ; on the north by part of the
margravate of Baden Dourlach, and the territory of
Rheinfelden; on the eaft by Frickthal; and on the weft
by part of Solothurn, the diocefe of Bafil, and the
Sundgare; being upwards of 20 miles in length, and
about 18 in breadth. It is entirely Proteftant; and
contains 27 parifties, and feven bailiwics. The lower
parts of it are fruitful in corn and wine, and alfo fit for
pafture; but the mountains are extremely barren. Here
are many medicinal fprings and baths, and the air is
wholefome and temperate. Both men and women for
the moft part wear the French drefs ; but the language
commonly fpoken is the High-Dutch, tho’ the French
alfo is much ufed. The government is ariftocratical;
and its revenues arife chiefly from fecularized abbeys,
and impofts on goods carried through the country, to
and from France, Italy,, and Germany. Befides the
military eftabliffiment of the city of Bafil, there are two
provincial regiments, confifting each of ten companies,
and a troop of dragoons.—The places of moil note ate
Bafil the capital, Wallenburg, St Jacob, Neue-Haus,
See.
Basil, the capital of the canton of that name, is
the largeft city in all Switzerland, having 220 ftreets,
and fix market-places or fquares. Its environs are ex¬
ceeding beautiful, coniifting of a fine level traft of fields
and meadows. The city is divided into two parts by
the Rhine, over which there is a handfome bridge. It
is thought by fome to have rifen on the ruins of the old
Augufta Rauracorum. For its name of Bafilia it is
indebted to Julian the Apoftate, who would have it fo
called in honour of his mother Bafilina. It is forti¬
fied with walls, moats, towers, and baftions, and con¬
tains feveral churches, befides the cathedral, which is
an old Gothic ftru&ure; a commandery of the order
of St John, and another of the Teutonic order ; a pu¬
blic granary and arfenal; a (lately town-houfe, in
which is an exquifite piece of the fufferings of Chrift,
by Holbein, and a ftatue of Munatius Plancus, a Ro¬
man general, who, about 50 years before Chrift, built
the ancient city of Augufta Rauracorum ; an univerfity,
which was founded in 1459, and has a curious phyfic-
garden, library, and mufeum ; a gymnafium; a {lately
palace, belonging to the margrave of Baden-Dourlach;
befides a chamber of curiofities, feveral hofpitals, &c.
In the arfenal is (hewn the armour in which Charles the
Bald loft his life, with the furniture of his horfe, and
the kettle-drums and trumpets of his army. On the
ftair-cafe of the council-houfe, is a pi&ure of the laft
judgment, in which, though drawn before the refor¬
mation, popes, cardinals, monks, and priefts, are re-
prefented in the . torments of hell. Over-againft the
French church, on a long covered wall, is painted the
dance of death; where the king of terrors is reprefented
as mixing with all ranks and ages, and complimenting
them, in German verfes, on their arrival at the grave.
St Peter’s fquare, planted with elm and lime-trees,
makes a pleafant walk; but a fpot regularly planted
with trees, elofe by the river, and near the minfter,
makes ftill a finer, as commanding a moft beautiful
and extenfive profpedl. The celebrated Erafmus died
here, in 1536, in the 70th year of his age,, and was
buried in the great church. He left his library and
cabinet of rarities to one Amberbach, a learned lawyer
of this city, of whofe heirs they were purchafed by the
univerfity. Befides this cabinet, there are feveral other
curious private ones. The clocks of this city go an
hour fafter than elfewhere, except at Conftance; a cir-
cumftance which fome aferibe to the famous councils
held there, when it was thought the beft expedient to
bring the fathers earlier to the affembly, for the quicker
difpatch of bufinefs ; but others fay, that, in Bafil, it
was owing to a confpiracy being defeated by that means.
Trade ftill flourilhes here, efpeciaHy in filk, ribbons,
and wines; and the police is under excellent regulations.
Moft of the offices are bellowed by lot among well qua¬
lified perfons. No perfon, without the city, muft wear
lace of gold or filver. All young women are prohibited
from wearing filks; and the neareft relations only are
to be invited to a marriage-feaft. For the government
of the city there are feveral councils or colleges, and
officers. Of the laft, the two burgomafters, and two
wardens of trades, are the chief. The great council
is compofed of the reprefentatives of the feveral com¬
panies of the greater and leffer city. Bafil was the fee
1
BAS [ 1044 ] BAS
B.fil 0f a bifltop till the Reformation ; but though there is
i! one that Hill bears the title, he has now no jurifdi&ion
here, and lives at Porentru, near the Upper Alface.
The two BuxtorfFs, father and fon, and the famous
painter Holbein, were natives of this place. The coun¬
cil held here, in 1431, fat in the veftry of the cathe¬
dral.
Basil, in botany. See Ocymum.
Basil, among joiners, the Hoping edge of a chiffel,
or of the iron of a plane, to work on foft wood: they
ufually make the bafil 12 degrees, and for hard wood
18 ; it being remarked, that the more acute the bal'd
is, the better the inftrument cuts ; and the more ob-
tufe, the ftronger, and fitter it is for fervice.
BASILIAN monks; Religious of the order of
St Bafil, That faint, having retired into a defert, in
the province of Pontus, founded a monaftery for the
convenience of himfelf and his numerous followers : and
for the better regulation of this new fociety, he drew
up in writing the orders and rules he would have them
follow. This new order foon fpread all over the call ;
nor was it long before it pafied into the well. The rule
of St Bafil was approved by pope Liberius, the fame
year in which it was written and publifhed ; and after¬
wards by feveral other popes ; and, in thefe laft ages,
by pope Gregory XIII. who approved the abridge¬
ment made of it by cardinal Befiarion, in the pontifi¬
cate of Eugenius IV.—Some authors pretend, that St
Bafil, before he died, faw himfelf the fpiritual father
of more than,9o,ooo monks, in the eaft only. But
this order, which fiourifhed fo greatly for more than
three centuries, was afterwards confiderably diminilhed
by herefy, fchifm, and a change of empire. The
greateft ftorm it felt, was in the reign of Conftantine
Copronymus ; who perfecuted the monks of St Bafil,
imprifoning fome, and banilhing others ; infomuch that
the monafteries were abandoned and fpoiled of all their
goods.
The hiftorians of this order tell us, that it has pro¬
duced 1805 bifliops ; and beatified, or acknowledged as
faints, 3010 abbots, 11,805 martyrs, and an infinite
number of confeffors and virgins. They likewife place
among the religious of the order of St Bafil 14 popes,
fome cardinals, and a very great number of patriarchs,
archbifhops, and bifhops. This order likewife boafts
of feveral emperors and emprefies, kings and queens,
princes and princeffes, who have embraced its rule.
This order was introduced in the weft in 1057; and
was reformed in 1569, by pope Gregory XIII. who
united the religious of this order in Italy, Spain, and
Sicily, into one congregation; of which the monaftery
of St Saviour at Mefiina is the chief, and enjoys pre¬
eminence over the reft. Each community has its par¬
ticular rule, befides the rule of St Bafil, which is very
general, and preferibes little more than the common
duties of a Chriftian life.
BASILIC, or Basilica, in the ancient architec¬
ture, denotes a kind of public hall or court of judica¬
ture, where the princes or magiftrates fat to adminifter
juftice. The word is originally Greek, Gaci*.ixv, q. d.
royal houfe, palace. In after times the denomination
baftlica was alfo given to other buildings of public ufe,
as town-houfes, exchanges, and the like.
Basilic is alfo ufed, in ecclefiaftical writers, for a
church. In which fenfe, this name frequently occurs
in St Ambrofe, St Auftin, St Jerom, Sidonius Apol- Bafilsj
linaris, and other writers of the fourth and fifth cen- | J
turies. It is thought that the name was thus applied,
from many of the ancient churches having been formed ]
of the Roman halls mentioned in the preceding article.
In reality, on the converfion of Conftantine, many of | i
the ancient bafilica were given to the church, and
turned to another ufe, viz. for Chriftian afiemblies to :
meet in, as may be colle£ted from that paflage in Aufo-
nius, where fpeaking to the emperor Gratian, he tells
him, the bafiliue, which heretofore were wont to be
filled with men of bufinefs, were now thronged with
votaries praying for his fafety. By which he muft needs
mean, that the Roman halls or courts were turned into
Chriftian churches : and hence, we conceive, the name
baftlicue came to be a general name for churches in after ^
ages.
Basilics, in literary hiftory, a name fuppofed to 5
have been giyen by the emperor Leo to a colleftion of |
laws in honour of his father Bafilius Macedo, who be¬
gan it in the year 867, and in the execution chiefly ■ ^
made ufe of Sabbathius Protofpatharius, who carried the
work as far as 40 books. Leo added 20 books more,
and publilhed the work in 880. The whole, 30 years I
after, was corrected and improved by Conftantin Por-
phyrogenitus, fon of Leo; whence many have held him
the author-of the bafilica.—Six books of the bafilica
were tranflated into Latin in 1557, by Gentian Her- J
vetus. An edition of the Greek bafilics, with a Latin 1
verfion, has been fince publiftied at Paris, in 1647, by
Annib. Fabrottus, in 7 volumes. There ftill want 19
books, which are fuppofed to be loft. Fabrottus has
endeavoured to fupply, in fome meafure, the defe& from %
the fynopfis of the bafilica, and the glofles ; of which ■*,
feveral had been made under the fucceeding emperors,
and contained the whole Juftinian law, excepting the
fuperfluities, in a new and more conliftent order, toge¬
ther with the later conftitutions of the emperors pofte-
rior to Juftinian.
BASILICA, in anatomy, the interior branch of the
axillary vein, running the whole length of the arm.
BASILICATA, a territory of Italy, bounded on
the north by the Otranto, Bari, and Capitanata ; on
the weft by the Principato, and a fmall part of the
Tufcan fea; on the fouth by Calabria; and on the eaft
by the gulph of Taranto. It is watered by feveral ri¬
vers : but, as it is almoft all occupied by the Apen- *
nine mountains, it is neither very populous nor fertile; :w
however it produces enough to maintain its inhabi¬
tants, and has a fmall quantity of cotton. The prin¬
cipal towns are Cirenza the capital, Mefi, Turfi, Ra-
pollo, Muro, Lavello, Tracarico, Monte Pelofe and
Venefo, which are all epifcopal fees.
BASILICI, a denomination given in the Greek era- %
pire to thofe who carried the emperor’s orders and com¬
mands.
BASILICON, in pharmacy, a name given to fe¬
veral compofitions to be found in ancient medicinal
writers. At prefent it is confined to three officinal 1
ointments, diftinguiffied by the epithets black, yellow,
and green. See Pharmacy, n° 995.
BASILIDIANS, ancient heretics, the followers of
Bafilides, an Egyptian, who lived near the beginning
of the fecond century. He was educated in the Gno-
ftic fchool, over which Simon Magus prefided; with
whom
BAS [ 1045 ] BAS
wdians whom he agreed that Chrift was a man in appearance, nance, thus denominated from its refemblance to the
that his body was a phantom, and that he gave his fuppofed ferpent of that name. The bafiliik throws
 - form to Simon the Cyrenian, who was crucified in hi* an iron ball of 200 pound weight. It was much talked
ftead. We learn from Eufebius, that this herefiarch of in the time of Solyman emperor of the Turks, in
wrote 24 books upon the gofpel, and that he forged the wars of Hungary; but feems now out of ufe.
feveral prophets; to two of which he gave the names Paulus Jovius relates the terrible {laughter made by a
Barcaba and Barcoph. We have ftill the fragment of fingle ball from one of thefe bafililks in a Spanifli fhip;
a Bafilidian gofpel. His difciples fuppofed there were after penetrating the boards and planks in the fiiip’s
particular virtues in names; and taught with Pytha- head, it killed above 30 men. Maffeus fpeaks of ha*
goras and Plato, that names were not formed by fililks made of brafs, which were drawn each by 100
chance, but naturally fignified fomething.—Bafilides, yoke of oxen.—Modern writers alfo give the name £<r-
to imitate Pythagoras, made his difciples keep filence JiHJk to a much fmaller and lizeable piece of ordnance,
for five years. which the Dutch make 15 feet long, and the French
In general, the Bafilidians held much the fame opi- only 10. It carries 48 pounds,
nions with the Valentinians, another branch of the BAS1LIUS, furnamed the Maadonian, emperor
gnoftic family. They afierted, that all the actions of of the Greeks. He was a common foldier, and of an
men are neceffary ; that faith is a natural gift, to which obfeure family in Macedonia, and yet railed himfelf to
men are forcibly determined, and fhould therefore be ’ "
Taved tho’ their lives were ever fo irregular. Irenteus
and others affure us, they afted confiftently with their
principle; committing all manner of villanies and im¬
purities, in confidence of their natural eledlion. They
had a particular hierarchy of divine perfons, or aEons.
Under the name Abraxas, they are faid to have wor-
fliipped the fupreme God, from whom as a principle,
all other things proceeded. There are feveral gems ftill
■ fubfifting inferibed with the name Abraxas, which were
A ufed by the Bafilidians as amulets againft difeafes and
evilfpirits. See Abrasax and Abrax.
BASILIPPUM, (anc. geogr.), a town of Baetica
‘ ~ Spain ; now Cantillana, a citadel of Andalufia, a-
bove Seville on the Guadalquivir. See Cantillana. the Young, who fucceeded Zemifces in 975, and after
BASILISCUS, in zoology, the trivial name of a a reign of 50 years died in 1025.
fpecies of lacerta. See Dacerta. BASINGSTOKE, a corporation town of Hamp-
BASILISK, a fabulous kind of ferpent, faid to kill (hire in England, and a great thoroughfare on the we-
by its breath or fight only. Galen fays, that it is of ftern road. It is feated on a fmall brook, in W. Long,
a colour inclining to yellow; and that it has three little 1. 10. N. Lat. 51. 20.
eminences upon its head, fpeckled with whitifh fpots, BASIOGLOSSUS, a mufcle arifing from the bafe
which have the appearance of a fort of crown. jEIian of the os hyoides. See Anatomy, Tableofthc Mufcles.
fays, that its poifon is fo penetrating, as to kill the
largeft ferpents with its vapour only; and that if it but
bite the end of any man’s flick, it kills him. It drives
away all other ferpents by the noife of its hilling.
Pliny fays, it kills thofe who look upon it.—The ge¬
neration of the bafililk is not lefs marvellous, being faid
BASIS, or base, in geometry. See Base.
Basis, or Bafe, in chemiftry. Any body which is
diflblved by another body, which it receives and fixes,
and with which it forms a compound, may be called the
bafts of that compound. Thus, for example, the bafes of
neutral falts are the alkaljne, earthy, and metallic n
to be produced from a cock’s egg, brooded on by a ters which are faturated by the feveral acids, and form
ferpent. Thefe and other things equally ridiculous with them thefe neutral falts. In this fenfe it is that
are related by Matthiolus, Galen, Diofcorides, Pliny, thefe neutral falts are called falts ’with earthy bafes,
and Erafiftratus. Hirchmayer and Vander Wiel have falts ’with alkaline bafes, falts "with metallic bafes : alfo
given the hiftory of the bafilillt, and detefted the folly the appellations bafs of alum, bafts of nitre, bafts of
and impofture of the traditions concerning it.—In fome Glauber's fait, bafs of vitriol, &c. fignify the argilla-
apothecaries (hops there are little dead ferpents fliewn, ceous earth, which, with the vitriolic acid, forms alum;
which are faid to be bafilifks. But thefe feem rather the vegetable alkali, which, with the nitrous acid, forms
to be a kind of fmall bird, almoft like a cock but with- nitre; the mineral alkali, which, with the vitriolic acid,
out feathers: its head is lofty, its wings are almoft forms Glauber’s fait; and the metal which, with the
like a bat’s, its eyes large, and its neck is very ftiort. vitriolic acid, forms a vitriol; becaufe thefe fubftances
As to thofe which are fhewn and fold at Venice, and are fuppofed to be fixed, una&ive, and only yielding
in other places, they are nothing but little thornbacks to the a&ion of the acids, which they fix, and to which
artificially put into a form like that of a young cock, they give a body and confiftence.
by ftretching out their fins, and contriving them with a Basis, among phyficians, denotes the principal in¬
little head and hollow eyes: and this, Calmet fays, he gredients in compound medicines,
has, in reality, obferved in a fuppofed bafilifk, at an BASKET, a machine made of twigs interwoven
apothecary’s {hop at Paris, and in another at the Je- together, in order to hold fruit, earth, &c. It de-
fuits of Pont-a-Moufibn. notes an uncertain quantity; as, abalket of medlars is
Basilisk, in military affairs, a large piece of ord- two buftiels, of affa fetida from 20 to50 pound weight.
Vol. II. 6 Basket
Bafi!
II
Balk
the throne ; for having pleafed the emperor Michael by
his addrefs in the management of his horfes, he became
his firft equerry, and then his great chamberlain. He
at length affafiinated the famous Bardas, and was af-
fociated to the empire in 849. He held the eighth
general council atConftantinople; depofed the patriarch
Photius, but in 858 reftored him to the patriarchate ;
and declared againft the popes, who refufed to admit
him into their communion. He was dreaded by his
enemies the Saracens, whom he frequently vanquiihed;
and loved by his fubjedts, for his juftice and clemency.
He died in 886. Under his reign the Ruffians em¬
braced Chriftianity, and the dodrine of the Greek
church. He ought not to be confounded with Bafilius
BAS [ 1046 ] BAS
Baskets of Earth, in the military art, called by the
French corbeilles, are fmall balkets ufed in lieges, on
the parapet of a trench, being filled with earth. They
are about a foot and a half high, about a foot and a
half in diameter at the top, and 8 or 10 inches at bot¬
tom ; fo that, being fet together, there is a fort of em-
brafures left at their bottoms, thro’ which the foldiers
fire, without expofing themfelves.
Basket-////?, or Arborefcent Sea-Jlar. Sec Aste-
RI AS.
Basket-^//, that made from falt-fprings, being
purer, whiter, and compofed of finer grains, than the
common brine-falt. See Salt.
BASKING-shark, or Sun-fish of the Irijh. See
Squalus.
BASNAGE (James), a learned and accomplilhed
author, and paftor of the Walloon church at the
Hague, was born at Roan in Normandy, Auguft 8,
1653. He was the fon of Henry Bafnage, one of the
ableft advocates in the parliament of Normandy. At
17 years of age, after he had made himfelf mafter of
the Greek and Latin authors, as wdll as the Englifh,
Spanifh, and Italian languages, he went to Geneva,
where he began his divinity ftudies under Mellrezat,
Turretin, and Tronchin ; and finifhed them at Sedan,
under the profeflbrs Jurieu and Le Blanc de Beaulieu.
He then returned to Roan, where he was received as
minifter, September 1676; in which capacity he re¬
mained till the year 1685, when, the exercife of the
Proteftant religion being fuppreffed at Roan, he ob¬
tained leave of the king to retire to Holland. He
fettled at Rotterdam; and was a minifter penfionary
there till 1691, when he was chofen paftor of the Wal¬
loon church of that city. In 1709, penfionary Hein-
fius got him chofen one of the pallors of the Walloon
church at the Hague, intending not only to employ
him in religious but in ftate affairs. He was employed
in a fecret negociation with marfhal d’Uxelles, plenipo¬
tentiary of France at the congrefs of Utrecht; and he
executed it with fo much fuccefs, that he was after¬
wards entrufted with feveral important commiflidns, all
which he difeharged in fuch a manner as to gain a
great charafter for his abilities and addrefs; a cele¬
brated modern writer has therefore faid of him, that he
was fitter to be minifter of ftate than of a parifh. The
abbe du Bois, who was at the Hague in 1716, as am-
baffador plenipotentiary from his moft Chriftian maje-
fty, to negociate a defenfive alliance between France,
England, and the States General, was ordered by the
duke of Orleans, regent of France, to apply himfelf
to M. Bafnage, and to follow his advice: they accord¬
ingly a£ted in concert, and the alliance was concluded
in January 1717. He kept an epiftolary correfpondence
with feveral princes, noblemen of high rank, and mini-
ilers of ftate, both Catholic and Proteftant, and with
a great many learned men in France, Italy, Germany,
and England. The Catholics efteemed him no lefsthan
the Proteftants; and the works he wrote,, which are
moftly in French, fpread his reputation almoft all over
Europe : among thefe are, 1. The Hiftory of the Re¬
ligion of the Reformed Churches- 2. Jewifli Anti-
quities. 3. The Hiftory of the Old and New Tefta-
ment; and many others. He died Septr 22, 1723.
Basnage (Henry) fieur de Beauval, fecond fon to
Henry Bafnage, and brother to James mentioned in the
laft article. He applied himfelf to the ftudy of the
law, and was admitted advocate in the parliament of
Roan in the year 1679. He did not follow the bar .
immediately upon his admiffion; but went to. Valencia,
where he ftudied under M. de Marville. Upon his re¬
turn from thence, he pra&ifed with great reputation till
the year 1687, when the revocation of the edidl of
Nantz obliged him to fly to Holland, where he com¬
pofed the greateft part of his works, and died there
the 29th of March 1710. His chief work is Hiftoire
des ouvrtiges des Scavans. Rotterd. vol. in duode¬
cimo. This work was begun in the month of Septem¬
ber 1687, and continued till June 1709. When he ar¬
rived in Holland, Mr Bayle, through indifpofition,
had been obliged to drop his Nouvelles de la Republique
deslettres, which induced Mr Bafnage to undertake a
work of the fame kind under a different title.
BASON, in hydraulics, a refervoir of water, ufed
for various purpofes : thus we fay, The bafon of a jet
d'eau, the bafon of a fountain, and likewife the bafon of
a port or harbour.
Bason, in Jewifli antiquities, the laver of the taber¬
nacle, made of the brafs looking-glaffes belonging to
thofe devout women that watched and flood centinels
at the door of the tabernacle.
Bason, in mechanics, a term ufed by glafs-grinders
for a difh of copper, iron, &c. in which they grind
convex glaffes, as concave ones are formed on fpheres :
and by hatters for a round iron mould, in which they
form the matter of their hats ; and alfo for a leaden
one for the brims of hats, having an aperture in the
middle, of a diameter fufficient for the largeft block to
go through.
BASQUES, a fmall territory of France, towards
the Pyrenean mountains. It comprehends Labour,
Lower Navarre, and the diftridl of Soule.
BASS, the lovveft in the four parts of mufic : of
uncertain ‘etymology; whether from the Greek word
- pa<n() a foundation; or from the Italian adjective bajjb,
fignifying loon. Of all the parts it is the moft import¬
ant, and it is upon this that the chords proper to con-
ftitute a particular harmony are determined. Hence
the maxim among muficians, that when the bafs is pro<-
perly formed, the harmony can fcarcely be bad.
Baffcs are of different kinds. Of which in their or¬
der.
ThoroaghAbKss is the harmony made by the bafs-
viols, or theorbos, continuing to play both while the
voices fing, and the other inftruments perform their
parts, and alfo filling up the intervals when any of the
other parts flop. It is played by figures marked over
the notes, on the organ, fpinet, harpfichord, &c. and.
frequently Amply and without figures on the bafs-viol
and baffoon.
C<?««//r-BASs is a fecond or double bafs, where there
are feveral in the fame concert.
BASS-viol, a mufical inftrument of the like form
with that of a violin, but much larger. It is ftruck
with a bow, as that is; has the fame number of firings
and has eight flops, which are fubdivided into femi-
ftops: Its found is grave, and has a much nobler ef-
fe6l in a concert than that of the violin.
BASS (Isle of), a rock, about a mile in circum-
’ference, in the mouth of the Frith of Forth, at a fmall
diftance from the town of North Berwick in Eaft Lo¬
thian.,
BAS
• SBafTan thian. It is fteep and inacceffible on all Tides, except
blflamin to t^ie f°uth-weft; and even there it is with great dif-
-  — ficulty that a fingle man can climb up with the help of
a rope or ladder. It was formerly kept as a garrifon.
A party of king James’s adherents furprifed it at the
Revolution, and it was the laft place in the three king¬
doms that fubmitted to the new government; upon
| which, its fortifications were ordered to be neglefted.
In fummer, this remarkable rock, which rifes to a great
height above the water, in form of a cone, is quite co-
j vered with fea-fowl which come hither to breed. The
Siec Pelt- c},;ef 0f thefe are the folan geefe.*, which arrive in June,
and retire in September. It alfo contains a fmall war¬
ren for rabbits, and affords pafture for a few Iheep.
The force of the tides have now almoft worn a hole
quite thro’ this rock. W. Long. 2. 15. N. Lat. 56. 3.
BASSAN (James de Pont), or le Bassan, a ce¬
lebrated Venetian painter, excelled in landfcapes and
animals. His works are fpread all over Europe; many
of them were purchafed by Titian; and there are feve-
ral in the French king’s cabinet, the royal palace, and
the Hotel de Touloufe. He died in 1592, aged 82.
—Francis and Leander, his fons, dittinguiihed them-
felves in the fame art; but inheriting a fpecies of lu¬
nacy from their mother, both came to an untimely end.
BASSANI (Giovanni Battifta), maeftro di cap-
, pella of the cathedral church of Bologna about the
middle of the laft century, was a very voluminous com-
pofer of mufic, having given to the world no fewer than
31 different works. He is equally celebrated both as
a compofer for the church and for concerts; and was
befides a celebrated performer on the violin, and, as it
is faid, taught Corelli on that inftrument. His compo-
fitions confift of maffes, pfalms, motets with inftru-
mental parts, and fonatas for violins: his fifth opera in
particular, containing 12 fonatas for two violins and a
bafs, is much efteemed; it is written in a ftyle wonder¬
fully grave and pathetic, and abounds with evidences of
great learning and fine invention. The firft and third
operas of Corelli are apparently formed after the model
of this work. Baffani was one of the firft who com-
pofed motets for a fingle voice, with accompaniments
of violins; a pra&ice which is liable to objeftion, as it
affimilates church-mufic too nearly to that of the cham¬
ber; and of his folo-motets it muft be confeffed that
they differ in ftyle but little from opera airs and canta¬
tas: two operas of them, viz. the eighth and thir¬
teenth, were printed in London, by Pearfon, above
50 years ago, with the title of Harrnonia FeJUva.
BASSANTIN (James), a Scotch aftronomer, fon
of the laird of Baffantin in Mers, was born in the reign
of James IV. He was educated at the univerfity of
Glafgow, travelled through Germany and Italy, and
then fixed his abode in the univerfity of Paris, where
he taught mathematics with great applaufe. Having
acquired fome fortune in this occupation in 1562, he
returned to Scotland, where he died in the year 1568.
From his writings, he appears to have been no con¬
temptible aftronomer, confidering the times; but, like
moft of the mathematicians of that age, he was not a
little addi&ed to judicial aftrology. Sir James Melvil,
in his Memoirs, fays that his brother Sir Robert, when
he was exerting his abilities to reconcile the two queens
Elizabeth and Mary, met with one Baffantin, a man
learned in the high fciences, who told him, “ that all
BAS
his travel would be in vain; for, faid he, they will ne- Baffe
ver meet together; and next, there will never be any B,(j-ora
thing but diffembling and fecret hatred for a while, and - ,'
at length captivity and utter wreck to our queen from
England.” He added, “ that the kingdom of Eng¬
land at length fhall fall, of right, to the crown of Scot¬
land; but it fhall coft many bloody battles ; and the
Spaniards fhall be helpers, and take a part to themfelves
for their labour.” Sir James Melvil is an author of
credit; therefore it is probable that our aftrologer ven¬
tured to utter his preditfion: but, as it proved true
only in part, either he mifunderftoood the liars, or they
deceived the aftrologer.—His works are, 1. Aftrono-
mia Jacobi Baffantini Sc'Ai, opus ahfolutijfimum, &c. ter
editum Latine et Gallice. Genev, 1599, fob This is
the title given it by Tornaefius, who tranflated it into
Latin from the French, in which language it was firft
publifhed. 2. Paraphrafe de PAJirolabc, avec un am¬
plification de I'ufage de I’AJirolabe. Lyons J 555. Paris,
1617, 8vo. 3. Mathematic, genethliaca. 4. Arith-
metica. 5. Mujica fecundum Platonem. 6. De ma-
theji in genere.
BASSE, or Bass, a town of the French Nether¬
lands, in the county of Flanders, on the confines of Ar¬
tois, remarkable on account of the many fieges it has
fuftained; but its fortifications are now demolifhed. It
is feated on a canal which runs as far as Deule. E.
Long. 3. o. N. Lat. 50. 53.
Basse ‘Terre, part of the ifiand of St Chriftopher’s,
one of the Carribbee iflands, formerly occupied by the
French, but ceded to Great Britain by the treaty of
Utrecht in 1713.
BASSET, a game at cards, faid to have been in¬
vented by a noble Venetian, for which he was banifhed.
The perfons concerned in it are a dealer, or banker;
his afliftant, who fupervifes the lofing cards; and the
punter, or any one who plays againft the banker.
BASSET (Peter), a gentleman of a good family,
was chamberlain, or gentleman of the privy-chamber,
to king Henry V. a conftant attendant on that brave
prince, and an eye-witnefs of his moft glorious a&ions
both at home and abroad; all which he particularly de-
feribed in a volume intitled, The Afls of king Henry V.
which remains in MS. in the college of heralds.
BASSOON, a mufical inilrument of the wind fort,
blown with a reed, furnifhed with 11 holes, and ufed as
a bafs in a concert of hautboys, flutes, fyc.—To render
this inftrument more portable, it is divided into two
parts, whence it is alfo called a fagot. Its diameter at
bottom is nine inches, and its holes are flopped like
thofe of a large flute.
BASSO RA, Balsora, or a city between
Arabia and Perfia, fituated in the extremity of the
defarts of Irak, a little to the weft of the Tigris, in
about 570 eaft longitude, and 30° north latitude. It
was built by the command of the klrdif Omar, in
the 15th year of the Hegira, for the fake of carrying
on more commodioufly an extenfive commerce between
the Syrians, ArabianPerfians, and Indians. It is at
prefent a very famous empory of the eaft; and ftands
upon a thick ftony foil, as the word bafra imports, a-
bout a day and a half’s journey from one of the mouths
of the Tigris, where it empties itfelf into the Perfian
Gulf, denominated likewife from this town the Bay of
Bafra. The circumjacent tra<ft is looked upon by the
6 (^2 Arabs
I 1047 1
BAS [ 104S ] BAS
Baflbra Arabs to be one-of the moft delightful fpots in Afia,
and even as one of the tnofl beautiful gardens in the
? ar ' world: however, the hot winds that frequently blow
there are very troublefome to travellers, and fometitnes
overwhelm them with fand driven by the force of thefe
winds out of the neighbouring defarts. The city is in¬
habited by Jacobites, Neftorians, Jews, Mahometans,
and Chaldean Chriftians, commonly called Chrijiians of
fobn, which laft are pretty numerous here.
The Abbe Raynal values the merchandife annually
brought to Baffora at L. 525,000: of which the En-
fUlhfurnifh L. 175,000; the Dutch L.87,500; and the
loors, Banians, Armenians, and Arabs, furnilh the
remainder. “ The cargoes of thefe nations (fays he)
eonfillof rice; fugar ; plain, ftriped, and flowered muf-
lins from Bengal; fpices from Ceylon and the Molucca
iflands; coarfe, white, and blue cottons from Coro¬
mandel; cardamum, pepper, fanders-wood, from Ma¬
labar; gold and fllver fluffs, turbans, fhawls, indigo,
from Surat; pearls from Baharen, and coffee from Mo¬
cha; iron, lead, and woollen-cloth, from Europe. O-
ther articles of lefs confequence are imported from dif¬
ferent places. Some of thefe commodities are {hipped
on board fmall Arabian vefiels; but the greater part is
brought by European (hips, which have the advantage
of a confiderable freight.
“ This merchandife is fold for ready money ; and
pafies through the hands of the Greeks, Jews, and Ar¬
menians. The Banians are employed in changing the
coin current at Baflbra, for that which is of higher
value in India.
“ The different commodities colle&ed at Baflbra are
diftributed into three channels. One half of them goes
to Perfia, whither they are conveyed by the caravans;
there being no navigable river in the whole empire.
The chief confumption is in the northern provinces,
which have not_been fo much ravaged as thofe of the
fouth. Both of them formerly made their payments in
precious ftones, which were become common by the
plunder of India. They had afterwards recourfe to
copper utenfils, which had been exceedingly multiplied
from the great abundance of copper mines. At laft they
gave gold and filver in exchange, which had been con¬
cealed during a long fcene of tyranny, and are conti¬
nually dug out of the bowels of the earth. If they do
not allow time for the trees that produce gum, and
have been cut to make frefh {hoots; if they neglebf to
multiply the breed of goats which afford fuch fine wool;
and if the filks, which are hardly fufficient to fupply the
few manufactures remaining in Perfia, continue to be
fo fcarce; in a word, if this empire does not rife again
from its a£hes; the mines will be exhaufted, and this
fource of commerce muft be given up.”
BASSO relievo, or Bass-relief; a piece of fculp-
ture, where the figures or images do not protuberate,
jet, or ftand out, far above the plane on which they
are formed.—Whatever figures or reprefentations are
thus cut, ftamped, or otherwife wrought, fo that not
the entire body, but only part of it, is railed above the
plane, are faid to be done in relief or relievo; and
when that work is low, flat, and but little raifed, it is
called Jonu relief. When a piece of fculpture, a coin, or
a medal, has its figure raifed fo as to be well diftin-
guiflied, it is called bold, and we fay its relief is flrong.
BASTARD, a natural child, or one begotten and
born out of lawful wedlock. Baftard.A
The civil and canon laws do not allow a child to re- ,,, f|7
main a baftard, if the parents afterwards intermarry: Commentnn
and herein they differ moft materially from our law;
which, though not fo ftriCI as to require that the child ||
{hall be begotten, yet makes it an indifpenfible condition -
that it {hall be born, after lawful wedlock. And the if
reafon of our law is furely much fuperior to that of the .
Roman, if we confider the principal end and defign of |
eftablifhing -the contraCl of marriage, taken in a civil
light; abftra&edly from any religious view, which has
nothing to do with the legitimacy or illegitimacy of I'
the children. The main end and defign of marriage, ..J
therefore, being to afcertain and fix upon fome certain
perfon, to whom the care, the prote&ion, the main¬
tenance, and the education, of the children Ihould be¬
long ; this end is undoubtedly better anfwered by le¬
gitimating all iffue born after wedlock, than by legiti- (H
mating all iflue of the fame parties, even born before
wedlock, fo as wedlock afterwards enfues: 1. Becaufe
of the very great uncertainty there will generally be,
in the proof that the iffue was really begotten by the
fame man ; whereas, by confining the proof to the
birth, and not to the begetting, our law has rendered 9j
it perfe£lly certain, what child is legitimate, and who
is to take care of the child. 2. Becaufe by the Ro¬
man law a child may be continued a baftard, or made
legitimate, at the option of the father and mother, by
a marriage ex pojl fafto ; thereby opening a door to 9
many frauds and partialities, which by our law are pre¬
vented. 3. Becaufe by thofe laws a man may remain
a baftard till 40 years of age, and then become legiti¬
mate by the fubfequent marriage of his parents; where¬
by the main end of marriage, the prote&ion of infants,
is totally fruftrated. 4. Becaufe this rule of the Ro¬
man law admits of no limitation as to the time, or num¬
ber, of baftards to be fo legitimated; but a dozen of f|
them may, 20 years after their birth, by the fubfequent
marriage of their parents, be admitted to all the pri¬
vileges of legitimate children. This is plainly a great
difcouragement to the matrimonial ftate; to which one
main inducement is ufually not only the defire of having
.children, but alfo the defire of procreating lawful heirs.
Whereas our conftitutions guard againft this indecency,
and at the fame time give fufficient allowance to the
frailties of human nature. For, if a child be begotten
while the parents are Angle, and they will endeavour to
make an early reparation for the offence, by marrying
within a few months after, our law is fo indulgent as
not to baftardize the child, if it be born, though not
begotten, in lawful wedlock; for this is an incident that
can happen but once ; fince all future children will be 11
begotten, as well as born, within the rules of honour
and civil fociety.
From what has been faid it appears, that all children
born before matrimony are baftards by our law: and
.fo it is of all children born fo long after the death of
the hulband, that, by .the ufual courfe of geftation,
they could not be begotten by him. But, this being |
a matter of fome uncertainty, the law is not exaft as
to a few days. But if a man dies, and his widow foon
after marries again, and a child is born within fuch a
time as that by the courfe of nature it might have been
the child of either hufband; in this cafe, he is faid to be
more than ordinarily legitimate; for he may, when he
arrives
BAS [ 1049 ] BAS
Ihrd. arrives to years of difcretion, choofe which of the fa-
' thers he pleafes. To prevent this, among other incon-
veniencies, the civil law ordained that no widow fhould
marry infra annum Indus ; a rule which obtained fo
early as the reign of Auguftus, if not of Romulus:
and the fame conftitution was probably handed down
to our early anceftors from the Romans, during their
flay in this illand; for we find it eftablifhed under the
-Saxon and Danilh governments.
As baftards may. be born before the coverture or
marriage-ftate is begun, or after it is determined, fo
alfo children born during wedlock may in fome circum-
ftances be baftards. As if the hufband be out of the
kingdom of England (or, as the law loofely phrafes it,
extra quatuor 7naria) for above nine months, fo that no
accefs to his wife can be prefumed, her ifiue during that
period ftiall be baftards. But, generally, during the
coverture, accefs of the hufband ftiall be prefumed, un-
lefs the contrary {hall be fhewn; which is fuch a nega¬
tive _as can only be proved by fhewing him to be elfe-
. where: for the general rule is, prafamitur pro kgitsma-
tione. In a divorce a metfa et there, if the wife breeds
children, they are baftards ; for the law will prefume
the hufband and wife conformable to the fentence of
feparation, unlefs accefs be proved: but, in a voluntary
feparation by agreement, the law will fuppofe accefs,
unlefs the negative be fhewn. So alfo, if there is an ap¬
parent impoffibility of procreation on the part of the
hufband, as if he be only 8 years old, or the like, there
the iflue of the wife {hall be baftard. Likewife, in cafe
of divorce in the fpiritual court a vinculo matrimonii, all
the iflue born during the coverture are baftards; becaufe
fuch divorce is always upon fome caufe that rendered
the marriage unlawful and null from the beginning.
As to the duty of parents to their baftard children,
by our law; it is principally that of maintenance. For,
though baftards are not looked upon as children to any
civil purpofes; yet the ties of nature, of which mainte¬
nance is one, are not fo eafily diffolved: and ,they hold
indeed .as to many other intentions; as, particularly,
that a man fhall not marry his baftard filter or daugh¬
ter. The method in which the Englifh law provides
maintenance for them is as follows. When a woman is
delivered, or declares herfelf with child, of a baftard,
and will by oath before a juftice of the peace charge
any perfon having got lier with child, the juftice fhall
caufe fuch perfon to be apprehended, and commit him
till he gives fecurity, either to maintain the child, or
appear at the next quarter-feffions to difpute and try
the fadt. But if the woman dies, or is married, before
delivery, or mifearries, or proves not to have been with
child, the perfon fhall be difeharged: otherwife the fef-
fions, or two juft ices out of feffions, upon original ap¬
plication to them,; may take order for the keeping of
the baftard, by charging the mother or the reputed fa¬
ther with the payment of money or other fuftentation
for that purpofe. And if fuch putative father, or lewd
mother, run away from the parifh, the overfeers by di-
re&ion of two juftices may feizes their rent goods, and
chattels, in order to bring up the faid baftard child.
Yet fuch is the humanity of our laws, that no woman
can be compulfively queftioned concerning the father
of her child, till one month after her delivery : which
indulgence is however very frequently a hardfhip upon
parifhes, by giving the parents opportunity to efcape.
As to the rights and incapacities which appertain to Bathi-d.
a baftard: The former are very few, being only fuch as ’
he can acquire; for he can inherit nothing, being look¬
ed upon as the fon of nobody, and fometimes called
filius nullius, fometimes filius populi. Yet he may gain
a firname by reputation, though he has none by inhe¬
ritance. All other children have their primary fettle-
ment in their father’s parifh; but a baftard in the parilh
where born, for he hath no father. However, in cafe
of fraud, as if a woman either be fent by order of ju¬
ftices, or comes to beg as a vagrant, to a parifh which
fhe does not belong to, and drops her baftard there;
the baftard fhall, in the firft cafe, be fettled in the pa¬
rifh from whence fhe was illegally removed ; or, in the
latter cafe, in the mother’s own parifh, if the mother
be apprehended for her vagrancy. Baftards alfo, born
in any licenfed hofpital for pregnant women, are fettled
in the parifhes to which the mothers belong.—The in¬
capacity of a baftard confifts principally in this, that he
cannot be heir to any one; for, being nullius filius, he
is therefore of kin to nobody, and has no anceftor from
whom any inheritable blood can be derived: Therefore,
if there be no other claimant upon an inheritance than
fuch illegitimate child, it fhall efeheat to the lord. And
as baftards cannot be heirs themfelves, fo neither can
they have any heirs but thofe of their own bodies. For
as all collateral kindred confifts in being derived from
the fame common anceftor, and as a baftard has no le¬
gal anceffbrs, he can have no collateral kindred; and,
confequently, can have no legal heirs, but fuch as claim
by a lineal defeent from himfelf. And therefore, if a
baftard purchafes land, and dies feifed thereof without
iffue, and inteftate, the land fhall efeheat to the lord of
the fee. A baftard was alfo, in ftri&nefs, incapable of
holy orders; and, though that were difpenfed with,
yet he was utterly difqualified from holding any dig¬
nity in the church: but this do&rine feems now obfo-
lete ; and, in all other refpe&s, there is no diftinftiou
between a baftard and another man. And really any
other diftin&ion, but that of not inheriting, which civil
policy renders neceffary, would, with regard to the in-
cent offspring of his parent’s crimes, be odious, unjuft,
and cruel to the laft degree; apd yet the civil law, fo
boafted of for its equitable decifions, made baftards in
fome cafes incapable even of a gift from their parents.
A baftard may, laftly, be made legitimate, and capa¬
ble of inheriting, by the tranfeendant .power of an a6t
of parliament, and not otherwife: as was done in the
cafe of John of Gaunt’s baftard children, by a ftatute
of Richard II.
As to the punijhment (ox having baftard children :
By the ftatute 18 Eliz. c. 3. two juftices may take or¬
der for the punifhment of the mother and reputed fa¬
ther: but what that punifhment fhall be, is not. therein
afeertained; though the cotemporary expofition was,
that a corporal punifhment was intended. By ftatute
7 Jac. I. c. 4. a fpecific punifhment (viz. commitment
to the houfe ©f corre&ion) is infli&ed on the woman
only. But, in both cafes, it feems that the penalty can
only1 be inflifted, if the baftard becomes chargeable to
the parifh ; for otherwife the very maintenance of the
child is confidered as a degree of punifhment. By the
laft mentioned ftatute the juftices may commit the mo¬
ther to the houfe of correflion, there to be punifbed
and fet on work for one year; and, in cafe of afecond
offence.
Baftard,
Baftardy.
* Chamb,
Dift. •
f Plot. Nat'.
Hift. Staf¬
ford. p.*7<).
* Du Cange,
Glofs. Lat.
T.i.p.soa,
BAS [ 1050 ] BAS
offence, till fhe find fureties never to offend again.
He that gets a baftard in the hundred of Middleton
in Kent, forfeits all his goods and chattels to the king*.
If a baftard be got under the umbrage of a certain
oak in Knollwood in Staffordfhire, belonging to the
manor of Terley-caftle, no puniftunent can be inflifted,
nor can the lord nor the bifhop take cognizance of itf.
It is enafted by ftatute 21 Jac. I. c. 27. that if any
woman be delivered of a child, which if born alive
fhould by law be a baftard ; and endeavours privately
to conceal its death, by burying the child or the like;
the mother fo offending {hall fuffer death, as in the cafe
of murder, unlefs fhe can prove by one witnefs at leaft
that the child was a&ually born dead. This law, which
favours pretty ftrongly of feverity, in making the con¬
cealment of the death almoft conclufive evidence of
the child’s being murdered by the mother, is ne-
verthelefs to be alfo met with in the criminal codes
of many other nations of Europe ; as the Danes,
the Swedes, and the French : but it has of late
years been ufual with us, upon trials for this offence,
to require fome fort of prefumptive evidence that the
child was born alive, before the other conftrained pre-
fumption (that the child, whofe death is concealed,
was theretofore killed by its parent) is admitted to con-
vidt the prifoner.
Bastards is alfo an appellation given to a kind of
faction or troop of banditti, vdio rofe in Guienne,
about the beginning of the 14th century, and, joining
with fome Englifti parties, ravaged the country, and
fet fire to the city of Xaintes. Mezeray fuppofes them
to have confifted of the natural fons of the nobility of
Guienne, who, being excluded the right of inheriting
from their fathers, put themfelves at the head of rob¬
bers and plunderers to maintain themfelves.
«* Bastard Flower-fence. See Adenanthera.—
The flowers of this plant bruifed and fteeped in breaft-
milk are a gentle anodyne ; for which purpofe they are
often given in the Weft Indies to quiet very young
children. The leaves are ufed inftead of fena in Bar-
badoes and the Leeward Iflands. In Jamaica, the plant
is called fena.
Bastard-/&ot^. See Datisca.
Bastard-/?^^, Dyers-weed, or Wild JVoad. See
Reseda.
Bastard Star-of-Betklebem. SCe Albuca.
BASTARDY is a defect of birth objected to one
born out of wedlock. Euftathius will have baftards
among the Greeks to have been in equal favour with
legitimate children, as low as the Trojan war; but the
courfe of antiquity feems againft him. Potter and o-
thers fhew, that there never was a time when baftardy
was not in difgrace.
In the time of William the Conqueror, however, ba¬
ftardy feems not to have implied any reproach, if we
may judge from the circumftance of that monarch him-
felf not fcrupling to affume the appellation of baftard.
His epiftle to Alan count of Bretagne begins, Ego
• Willielmus cognome til 0 baftardus *.
Bastardy, in relation to its trial in law, is diftin-
’ guiftied into general and fpecial. General baftardy is a
certificate from the biftiop of the diocefe, to the king’s
juftices, after inquiry made, whether the party is a
baftard or not, upon fome queftion of inheritance. Ba-
ftardy fpecial is a fuit commenced in the king’s courts,
againft a perfon that calls another baftardi
Arms of Bastardy fttould be croffed with a bar,
fillet, or traverfe, from the left to the right. They were
not formerly allowed to carry the arms of their father,
and therefore they invented arms for themfelves; and
this is ftill done by the natural fons of a king.
Right of Bastardy, Droit de batardife, in the French
laws, is a right, in virtue whereof the effefts of ba¬
ftards dying inteftate devolve to the king or the lord.
BASTARNIC./E alpes, (anc. geog.), mountains
extending between Poland, Hungary, and Tranfyl-
vania, called alfo the Carpates, and now the Carpathian
mountains.
BASTERIA, all-spice; a genus of plants not
defcribed by Linnaeus, but to which Mr Miller has
given the name of Baferia from Dr Job Bafter F. R. S.
a learned botanift of Holland. Of this there is only
one fpecies known, viz. with oval leaves placed oppo-
fite, flowers coming from the fides of the ftalks, and a
branched ftirubby ftalk. It is a native of Carolina in
America. The flowers appear in May, are of a dull
purple colour, and have a difagreeable fcent. The
bark is brown ; and has a very ftrong aromatic flavour,
from whence the plant takes its name of All-fpice.
BASTI, (anc. geog.) a town of the province of
Baetica in Spain, fituated to the weft of the Campus
Spartarius. Now Baza in Granada. See Baza.
BASTIA, a fea-port town of Albania in Turkey
in Europe, over againft the illand of Corfu, at the
mouth of the river Calamu. E. Long. 10. 35. N. Lat.
39. 40.
Bastia, the capital of the ifland of Corfica in the
Mediterranean. It has a good harbour; and is feated
on the eaftern part of the coaft, in E. Long. 9. 42.
N. Lat. 42. 35.
BASTILE, denotes a final] antique caftle, fortified
with turrets. Such is the baftileof Paris, which feems
the only caftle that has retained the name : it was begun
to be built in 1369 by order of Charles V. and was
finiftied in 1383 under the reign of his fucceffor.—Its
chief ufe is for the cuftody of ftate-prifoners.
BASTIMENTOS, the name of fome fmall iflands
near Terra Firma in South America, at the mouth of
the bay of Nombre de Dios.
BASTION, in the modern fortification, a huge
mafs of earth, faced ufually with fods, fometimes with
brick, and rarely with ftone, {landing out from a ram¬
part whereof it is a principal part, and is what, in the
ancient fortification, was called a bulwark.
Solid Bastions, are thofe that have the void fpace
within them -filled up entirely, and railed of an equal
height with the rampart.
Void and Hollow Bastions, are thofe that are only
furrounded with a rampart and parapet, having the
fpace within void and empty, where the ground is fo
low, that, if the rampart he taken, no retrenchment can
be made in the centre, but what will lie under the fire
of the befieged.
Flat Bastion, is a baftion built in the middle of the
curtain, when it is too long to be defended by the ba¬
ftion at its extremes.'
Cut Bastion, is that whofe point is cut off, and in¬
ftead thereof has a re-entering angle, or an angle in¬
wards, with two points outwards; and is ufed either
when without fuch a contrivance the angle would be
too
BAS [ 1051 J BAT
on too acute, or when water or fome other impediment
hinders the carrying on the baftion to its full extent.
°4 Bastion, is when two fides of the interior
polygon are very unequal, which makes the gorges alfo
unequal.
Deformed Bastion, is when the irregularity of the
lines and angles makes the baftion out of ftiape; as when
I it wants one of its demigorges, one fide of the interior
polygon being too fhort.
Demi Bastion, is compofed of one face only, and
but one flank, and a demigorge.
( 1 Double Bastion, is that which is raifed on the plane
of another baftion.
Regular Bastion, is that which has its true propor¬
tion of faces, flanks, and gorges,
i Bastion of France, a fortrefs on the coaft of Bar-
bary, belonging to the French *. ,
°37- BASTITANI, anc. geog.) a people of the pro¬
vince of Bsetica in Spain. See B^etica.
BASTOIGN'E, a fmall town of the Netherlands,
in the duchy of Luxemburgh. E. Long. 6. o. N. Lat.
50. to.'
EASTON, in law, one of the fervants to the warden
of the Fleet-prifon, who attended the king’s courts with
a red ftaff, for taking into cuftody fuch as are com¬
mitted by the court. He alfo attends on fuch prifoners
as are permitted to go at large by licence.
Baston, or Batoon, in architecture, a moulding in
Plate the bafe of a column, called alfo a tore *.
'£• 3' Baston, Baton, or Batune. This word is French,
and fignifies a ftaff or cudgel: it fhould be fpelt Baton;
but is, by moft Engliftx writers, corruptly fpelt as
above. It is-only borne in Englifh coats-of-arms, as
I a badge of illegitimacy ; but French heralds intro¬
duce it in arms as a difference, or mark of confan-
guinity.
BASTON (Robert), a'Carmelite monk, after¬
wards prior of the convent of that order at Scarbo¬
rough, and alfo poet laureat and public orator at Ox¬
ford, flouriihed in the fourteenth century. King Ed¬
ward I. in his expedition into Scotland in 1304, took
Robert Bafton with him, in order to celebrate his
victories over the Scots ; but our poet being taken pri-
foner, was obliged to change his note, and fing the
fucceffes of Robert Bruce. He wrote feveral books
in Latin, on the Wars of Scotland, the Luxury of
Priefts, Synodical Sermons, &c.; and alfo a volume of
tragedies and comedies, in Englifh. He died about
the year 1310.
BASTONADO, Bastonade, the puniihment of
beating or drubbing a criminal with a ftick. The word
is formed of the French bafion, a fiick or faff. The
baftonade is a punifhment ufed both among the ancient
Greeks, Remans, and Jews, and ftill obtains among
the Turks. The Romans called it fufigatio, fuftium
admonitio, ox fuftibusc<cdi; which differed from theyfo-
gellatio, as the former was done with a flick, the latter
; with a rod, or fcourge. The fuftigation was a lighter
puniihment, and infli&ed on freemen ; the flagellation
a feverer, and referved for flaves. It was alfo called
tympanum, becaufe the patient here was beat with
flicks, like a drum.—The puniihment is much in ufe in
the call to this day. The method there pra&ifed is
thus : the criminal being laid on his belly, his feet are
raifed, and tied to a flake, held fail by officers for the
purpofe; in which pofture he is beaten by a cudgel on Baftwick
the foies of his feet, back, chin, &c. to the number of BJava
too or more blows. , —
BAST WICK (Dr John), born at Writtlein Effex,
in 1593 ; practifed phylic at Colchefter ; but being a
• man of warm imagination, and a good Latin fcholar,
applied himfelf to writing books againft popery. A-
bout the year 1633, he printed in Holland a Latin
treatife intitled, Elenchus religionis Papifticee, with Fla¬
gellum pontifeis et epifeoporum Latialium, in which the
Englifli prelates thinking themfelves alfo aimed at, he
was fined L. 1090 in the high commiffion court, excom¬
municated, prohibited pradlifing phyfic, his books or¬
dered to be burnt, and himfelf to remain in prifon
until he made a recantation. Inflead of recanting, he
wrote in prifon. Apologetic as ad preefules Anglicanos ;
and another book called, The Litany ; wherein he fe-
verely exclaimed againft the proceedings of that court,
and taxed the bifhops with an inclination towards
popery. Prynne and Burton coming under thelalh of
the liar chamber-court at the fame time, they were all
cenfured as fcandalous feditious perfons, condemned to
a fine of L. 5000 each, to be pilloried, to lofe their
ears, and to perpetual imprifonment in three remote
parts of the kingdom. The parliament in ibqoreverfed
thefe proceedings; and ordered Dr Baftwick a repara¬
tion of L. 5000 out of the eftates of the commiffionera
and lords who had profecuted him, which the enfuing
confufions prevented his receiving: however, his wife
had, in 1644, an allowance ordered for her and her huf-
band’s maintenance. What became of him afterward,
is not known.
BAT, in zoology. See Vespertilio.
UsFowling, a method of catching birds in the
night, by lighting fome ftraw, or torches, near the
place where they are at rooft ; for upon beating them
up, they fly to the flame, where being amazed, they
are eafily caught in nets, or beat down with bufnes
fixed to the end of poles, &c.
Bat, Bate, or Batz, a fmall copper coin, ipixed
with a little filver, current in feveral cities of German/:
it is worth four crutzers. It is alfo a coin in Switzer¬
land, current atfive livres, or loofols, French money.
EATABLE ground, that land which lay between
Scotland and England, when the kingdoms were di-
flindl, to which both nations pretended a right.
BATACALA, a fmall kingdom on the coaft of
Malabar in the Eaft Indies. It had a very large town
of the fame name; but there is nothing now left, except
11 or 12 fmall pagods covered with copper and ilone.
The country produces a good deal of pepper: the
Englifh formerly had a faciory here ; but were all maf-
facred by the natives, becaufe one of their bull-dogs
had killed a confecrated cow.
Batacala, a fortified town and caftle on the eaft
coaft of the ifland of Ceylon in the Eaft Indies. The
Dutch drove away the Portuguefe, and poffeffed them¬
felves of part of the adjacent country. E. Lontr. 18.
3. N. Lat. 7. 55.
BATANISTS, or Batenites. See Batenites.
BATASEK, a town of lower Hungary, feated on
the Danube, in E. Long. 19, 50. N. Lat. 46. 30.
BATAVA, (Cafra underfteod), a citadel of Vin-
delicia, fo called from the Cohors Batava, in garrifon
under the commander in Rhsetia; now Pajj'au; being
BAT [ 1052 ] BAT
'Batavia fir ft called Batau, from the Batavi; then Bajfau, and
I] Pajj'au; fituated in Bavaria at the confluence of the
atc >c Jr* Danube, Inn, and Ills. See Passau.
BATAVIA, the capital of the Dutch fettlements
in the Eaft Indies ; a city of the kingdom of Bantam
in the ifland of Java. See Java.
BATAVORUM insula, the ifland of the Bata¬
vians, (anc. geog.) Of this ifland Tacitus gives the
following defcription. “ The Rhine flowing in one
channel, or only broken by fmall iflands, is divided at
its entering Batavia, as it were into two rivers. One
continues its courfe through Germany, retaining the
fame name, and violent current, till it falls into the
ocean. The other walking the coaft of Gaul, -with a
broader and more gentle ftream, is called by the inhabi¬
tants Vahalis ; which name it foon changes for that of
Mofa, by the immenfe mouth of which river it dif-
charges itfelf into the fame ocean.” According to
Tacitus, therefore, the ifland of the Batavians was
bounded by the ocean, the Rhine, and the Vahalis,
now the IVale. Caefar extends it to the Mofa, or
Meufe; but Pliny agrees with Tacitus. However, this
ifland was of greater extent in Tacitus’s time than in
Caefar’s ; Drufus, the father of Germanicus, having by
a new canal conveyed the waters of the Rhine into
the ocean a confiderable way north of the former mouth
of that river. The Batavi were a branch of the Catti,
who, in a domeftic fedition, being expelled their coun¬
try, occupied the extremity of the coaft of Gaul, at
that time uninhabited, together with this ifland fituated
among flioals. Their name Batavi they carried with
them from Germany ; there being fome towns in the
territory of the Catti called Battenberg, and Batten-
haufen. The bravery of the Batavi, efpecially the
horfe, procured them not only great honour from the
Romans, being called their brothers and friends; but
an exemption from taxes, being obliged only to furnilh
men and arms. The modern name of this ifland is
Betn, or Betanu. See Betue and Battae.
BATCHELOR, or Bachelor, an appellation
given to a man not married, or who is yet in a ftate of
celibacy. For the derivation of the word, fee Bache¬
lor.—The Roman cenfors frequently impofed fines on
dd bachelors. Dion. Hallicarnafieus mentions an old
conftitution, by which all perfons of full age were obli¬
ged to marry. But the molt celebrated law of this
kind was that made under Auguftus, called the lex
Julia de maritandis ordinibus ; by which bachelors
were made incapable of legacies or inheritances by will,
unlefs from their near relations. This brought many
to marry, according to Plutarch’s obfervation, not fo
much for the fake of raifing heirs to their own eftates,
as to make themfelves capable of inheriting thofe of
other men.—The rabbins maintain, that, by the laws
of Mofes, every body, except fome few particulars, is
obliged in confcience to marry at 20 years of age: this
makes one of their 613 precepts. Hence thofe maxims
fo frequent among their cafuitts, that he who does not
take the neceffary meafures to leave heirs behind him,
is not a man, but ought to be reputed a homicide.
Lycurgus was not more favourable : by his laws,
bachelors are branded with infamy, excluded from all
offices civil and military, and even from the (hews and
public fports. At certain feafts they were forced to
appear, to be expofed to the public derifion, and led
round the market-place. At one of their feafts, the Batch?)
women led them in this condition to the altars, where Batf]
they obliged them to make amende honourable to nature, ’ i
accompanied with a number of blows, and lalhes with | ]
a rod at difcretion. To complete the affront, they forced
them to fing certain fongs compofed in their own de- |
rifion.—The Chriftian religion is more indulgent to the
batchelor ftate : the ancient church recommended it as f
preferable to, and more perfeft than, the matrimonial.
In the canon law, we find injunftions on batche-
lors, when arrived at puberty, either to marry, or to a
turn monks and profefs chaftity in earneft.—In Eng¬
land, there was a tax on batchelors, after 25 years of |
age, 12 1. 10 s. for a duke, a common perfon 1 s. by
7 Will. III. 1695.
Batchelors, in an univerfity fenfe. See Bache¬
lor.
Batchelors, in the livery company of London,
are thofe not yet admitted to the livery. Every com¬
pany of the 12 confifts of a mafter; two wardens; the
livery; and the batchelors, who are yet but in expeft-
ation of dignity in the company, and have their func- |
tion only in attendance on the mafter and wardens.
/'/-Batchelor, the moft ancient, but the loweft
order of knights in England; known by the name of
knights only. They are ftyled knights-batchelors, be-
caufe this title does not defcend to their pofterity.—
The cuftom of the ancient Germans was to give ,»
their young men a Ihield and a lance in the great coun- 1
cil: this was equivalent to the toga virilis of the Ro¬
mans : before this, they were not permitted to bear
arms, but were accounted as part of the father’s houfe-
hold ; after it, as part of the public. Hence fome de¬
rive the ufage of knighting, which has prevailed all
over the weftern world, fince its redu&ion by colonies,
from thofe northern heroes. Knights are called in La¬
tin equites aurati; aurati, from the gilt fpurs they
wore ; and equites, becaufe they always ferved on horfe-
bock: for it is obfervahle, that almoft all nations call
their knights by fome appellation derived from an
horfe. They are alfo called in our law milites, becaufe
they formed a part, or indeed the whole, of the royal
army, in virtue of their feodal tenures ; one condition
of which was, that every one who held a knight’s fee
(which in Henry the fecond’s time amounted to 20 1.
per annum) was obliged to be knighted, and attend
the kingin his wars, orpay a fine for his non-compliance.
The exertion of this prerogative, as an expedient to
raife money in the reign of Charles I. gave great of¬
fence, though warranted by law and the recent ex¬
ample of queen Elizabeth : but it was, at the Reftora-
tion, together with all other military branches of the
feodal law, abolilhed ; and this kind of knighthood has,
fince that time, fallen into difregard. It is conferred indif-
criminately upon gownfmen, burghers, and phyficians,
by the king’s lightly touching the perfon, who is then
kneeling, on the right Ihoulder with a drawn fword,
and faying, Rife Sir. See the articles Knight and
Nobility.
BATE (George), an eminent phyfician, born at
Maid’s Morton, near Buckingham, in the year 1608.
In 1629 he obtained a licence, and for fome years
pra&ifed in and about Oxford: hisprafticewas chiefly
amongft the puritans, who at that time confidered him
as one of their party. In 1637, he took his degree
BAT [ 1053 ] BAT
of do&or in phyflc, and became very eminent in his
profefiion, lb that when king Charles kept his court at
Oxford, he was his principal phyfician. When the
king’s affairs declined, Dr Bate removed to London,
where he accomodated himfelf fo well to the times, that
he became phyfician to the Charter-houfe, fellow of the
college of phyiicians, and afterwards principal phyfician
to Oliver Cromwell. Upon the reftoration, he got into
favour with the royal party, was( made principal phy¬
fician to the king, and fellow of the Royal Society ;
and this, we are told, was owing to a report raifed on
purpofe by his friends, according to Mr Wood, that
he gave the protestor a dofe which haftened his death.
Dr Bate wrote in Latin an acount of the late commo¬
tions in England, and fome other pieces. He died
at his houfe in Hatton-garden, and was buried at
Kingfton upon Thames in Surry.—There was another
George Bate, who wrote a work entitled “ The Lives,
Aftions, and Execution, of the prime Adlors and prin¬
cipal Contrivers of that horrid Murther of our late
pious and facred king Charles I.”
BATENITES, a fedt of apoftates from Mahome-
tanifm difperfed through the Eaft, who profeffed the
fame abominable pradiices with the Ifmaelians and
Karmatians. The word properly fignifies efoteric, or
people of inward or hidden light.
BATES (William), D. D. an eminent Prelbyterian
divine, born in November 1625. He was admitted in
Emanuel college, Cambridge, and from thence removed
to King’s college in 1644. He was one of the com-
millioners, at the conference in the Savoy, for review¬
ing the public liturgy, and was concerned in drawing
up the exceptions again ft the Common Prayer : how¬
ever, foon after the reftoration, he was appointed chap¬
lain to king Charles II. and became minifter of St
Dunftan’s in the weft, but was deprived of that benefice
for nonconformity. Dr Bates bore a good and amiable
charadter; and was honoured with the friendlhip of
the lord keeper Bridgman, the lord chancellor Finch,
the earl of Nottingham, and archbiftiop Tillotfon, He
was offered, at the reftoration, the deanery of Litch¬
field; which he refufed. He publiftied Seledl Lives of
illuftrious and pious perlbns, in Latin ; and fince his
death all his works, except his Seleft Lives, have been
printed in one volume in folio. He died in July 14.
1699, in the 74th year of his age.
BATH, a city of Somerfetlhire in England, feated
in W. Long. 2. 30. N. Lat. 51. 27. All the different
names that this city has borne in different ages and
languages have been taken from,its medicinal waters, as
the cta-a or “ hotwatcrs,” of Ptolemy; the aqu<s
foils, or “ waters of the fun,” of Antoninus; the Caer
Baden, and Caer Ennant, i. e. “ the city of baths,” and
“ the city of ointment,” of the Britons; and the Ack-
manchajler, i. e. “ the city of valetudinarians,” of the
Saxons. The baths confift of the King’s-bath, the
Queen’s-bath, the Crofs-bath, the Hot-bath, the Le-
per’s-bath, and the duke of Kingfton’s-bath. This
place was of old a refort only fo/ cripples and difeafed
perfons ; but now it is more frequented by the found
for pleafure, than by the fick for health. The waters are
very pleafant to the tafte; and impregnated with a vi¬
triolic principle, yielding, upon evaporation, a little
neutral fak, and a calcarious earth and iron. They
are very efficacious in ftrengthening the bowels and
Vol. II.
ftomach, bracing the relaxed fibres, and invigorating
the circulation. In bilious complaints they are counted
fpecific; and prove ferviceable in moft nervous, para¬
lytic, rheumatic, and gouty complaints. At the King’s-
bath is a handfome pump-room, where the gentlemen
and ladies go in a morning to drink the waters; and
there is a band of mufic that plays all the time. In
the Crofs-bath is a monument of marble, reprefenting
the defeent of the Holy Ghoft attended by angels, e-
redied by the earl of Melfcrt (who was fecretary of
flate for Scotland) when king James II. met his queen
here. The King’s-bath is a large bafon of 65 feet
10 inches by 40 feet 10 inches, containing 346 tuns
2 hogfheads and 36 gallons of water when filled to
its ufual height. In the middle is a wooden building
wdth niches and feats for the accommodation of the
bathers. There are alfo iron rings all round for them
to hold by; and guides, both male and female, to at¬
tend them in the bath. The perfon intending to bathe
puts on, at his own lodgings, a bathing drefs of browm
canvas hired for the purpofe; and is carried in a clofe
chair, of a particular make, to one of the flips which
open into the bath. There he defeends by fteps into
the w^ater, where he is attended by a guide. Having
ftaid his Hated time in the bath, he afeends again into
the flip, where he puts off his bathing-drefs, and being
w'rapt up in blankets, is carried home to bed, where
he lies for fome time to encourage perfpiration. The
King’s-bath is overlooked by the company in the pump-
room ; and adjoining to it are places furnifhed with
pumps to pour the hot ftreams on any particular part
of the body. The Queen’s-bath communicates with
the King’s, from which it is filled ; therefore the water
of it is not fo hot, being at a greater diftance from the
fource. As the heat is here more moderate, the bathers
defeend firft into the Queen’s-bath, and advance gra¬
dually to the centre of the other. In the year 1755,
the abbey-houfe, or priory, belonging to the duke of
Kingfton, wTas taken down, in order to ereft a more
commodious pile of building; and in digging for the
foundation, the workmen difeovered, about twenty feet
below the furface of the earth, the remains of Roman
baths and fudatories conftrudted upon an elegant plan,
with floors fufpended on pillars, and furrounded with
tubulated bricks, for the conveyance of heat and va¬
pour. Thefe were fupplied by a fpring of hot water,
of the fame properties and temperature with thofe of
the King’s-bath ; and the fewer was found ftill entire*
that conveyed the wafte water into the river. The
duke, having cleared the fpring and the fewer, has e-
refted feveral convenient baths and fudatories on the
fpot, where invalids may be accommodated at all hours,
by- night as well as by day. The two feafons are the
fpring and fall ; but thofe who take the waters purely
for their health do not regard the feafons, but drink
them all the year round. There are a number of gen¬
teel fedan chairs, which carry people to any diftance,
not exceeding half a mile, forfixpence. The company
affemble in the afternoon, alternately, at two ftately
rooms, to converfe together, or play at cards. At a
very pretty new theatre near the parades, plays are
a&ed every other night ; and there are balls twice a-
week, for which and the rooms, and books at the li¬
braries, the gentry generally fubferibe. The city is
furrounded with hills on all fides, except a little open-
6 R ing
BAT [ 1054 ] BAT
Bath. ;ng to the eaft and weft, through which th? Avonjuns.
This river, which has been made navigable to Briftol
by aft of parliament, wafhes the city on the eaft and
fouth fides, and there is an elegant bridge over it.
This city hath formerly had a flight wall, of which
fome part ttill remains, as well as one or two of its
gates ; but almoft all the new buildings, and much the
greateft and fineft part of the city, is without the walls,
particularly the fine fquare called Queen's-fquare, in
the middle of which is a fmall garden, with gravel
walks, and an obelilk in the centre. But the greateft
ornament at Bath is the circus : it is of a circular
form, confifting of houfes built on an uniform plan,
with three openings at equal diftances to the fouth,
eaft, and weft, leading into as many ftreets. The
fronts of the houfes, which are all three ftories high,
are adorned with three rows of columns in pairs, of the
Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian orders, the frize em-
bellifhed with fculpture. The whole has an air of mag¬
nificence, which cannot fail to ftrike the moft indifferent
fpeftator. In the centre of the area is a refervoir, or
bafon, filled by two or three fprings rifing in the neigh¬
bouring hills ; whence the ftreets in this diftriff are
fupplied with water. On the fouth fide of the town
are the north and fouth parades, two noble walks,
paved with hewn ftone, raifed upon arches, facing each
an elegant row of houfes on one fide, and having a ftone
baluftrade on the other. Thefe, with the two ttreets
that join them, were planned and executed by one
Mr Wood, an able architeff, who likewife built the
fquare, and projefted the circus. The two public
rooms ftand betwixt the north parade and Orange-
grove ; which laft is a fquare planted with trees, ha¬
ving in the middle a ftone obelifk, infcribed in Latin
to the late prince of Orange, who recovered his health
in confe-quence of drinking the Bath waters, and gave
his name to this part of the town. Several new ftreets
and rows have of late years been built on the north-
fide of Bath, in the neighbourhood of the fquare, fuch
as Gay-ftreet, Milfom-ftreet, Edgar-row, Harlequin-
row, Bladud’s-buildings, King’s-mead-ftreet, and
Brock-ftreet. Their advantages for building here are
very great, having excellent free-ftone, limeftone, and
flate, in the neighbourhood. One fort of their lime is
as white as fnow. The guild-hall of Bath ftands in
the market-place, and is faid to be built on a plan of
Inigo Jones, which, however, exhibits nothing worthy
of that great architedl: befides, one end of it has been
rebuilt in a different ftile. The hall is ornamented with
fome portraits of the late prince of Wales and other re¬
markable perfonages: but the greateft curiofity of the
place is a Minerva’s head in bronze, a real antique, dug
up in Stall-ftreet, in the year 1725. Bath boafts a
noble infirmary, or general hofpital, for the reception
of the fick and lame from all parts of the three king¬
doms. It extends 100 feet in front, and 90 in depth,
being capable of receiving 150 patients. Here was
anciently a monaftery, of which the prefent cathedral
was the church. It is a venerable pile; the principal
front of which is adorned with angels afcending and
defcending. The bilhop of the diocefe is nominated
both from Bath and Wells ; yet he and his chapter al¬
ways refide at Wells. There are three other churches
in Bath, and feveral chapels and meeting-houfes. Be¬
fides the infirmary, there are feveral other hofpitals,
alms-houfes, and charity-fchools. The corporation con-
fifts of a mayor; eight aldermen, of whom two are ~
juftices of the peace ; and 24 common-council men.
The city is extremely well provided with ftage-coachc-s,
poft-coaches, chaifes, machines, and waggons. Bath
is the general hofpital of the nation, and a great num¬
ber of invalids find benefit from the waters: but as the
city lies in a bottom furrounded by very high hills, the
air is conftantly furcharged with damps; and indeed
this place is more fubjeft to rain than any other part in
England. The markets are remarkably well fupplied
with provifions of all kinds at reafonable rates, parti¬
cularly filh and poultry. They alfo afford excellent
mutton fed upon Lanfdown, one of the higheft hills
that overlook the city. This down, remarkable for its
pure air, extends about three miles; and at the extre¬
mity of it there is a ftone monument, with an infcrip-
tion, ere&ed to the memory of Sir Bevil Granville,
who was here killed in a battle which he fought with
the parliament’s army in the reign of Charles I.
BATH, in medicine, chemiftry, &c. fignifies a
quantity of matter either moift or dry, included in a
proper veffel, and fufficient for the total immerfion of
the human body, or any other fubftance which it may
be judged neceffary to cover with it. Hence baths
are divided into moift and dry, according as the ma¬
terials are either aqueous or not: thefirft are fubdivided
into hot and cold; and thefe are either natural or arti¬
ficial. The natural hot baths are formed of the water
of hot fprings, of which there are many in different
parts of the world; efpecially in thofe countries where
there are or have evidently been volcanoes. The ar¬
tificial hot baths confift either of water, or of fome other
fluid made hot by art. Sometimes indeed the vapour
of water, either naturally or artificially heated, is made
ufe of without fuffering the perfon to enter the water
itfelf; this is called the vapour-bath, and is a powerful
fudorific. The cold bath confifts only of water, either
frefh or fait, in its natural degree of heat; or it may
be made colder by art, as by a mixture of nitre, fal-
ammoniac, &c.
Bathing feems to have been a very ancient practice.
The Greeks, as early as the heroic age, are faid to
have bathed themfelves in the fea, in rivers, &c. We
even find mention in Homer of hot-baths in the time
of the Trojan war; but thefe feem to have been very
rare, and ufed only upon extraordinary occafions. A-
thenseus fpeaks of them as unufual even in his time.
In reality, public baths feem to have been for fome
time difcouraged if not prohibited by the Greeks,
who were contented to wafh themfelves at home in a
fort of bathing tubs. The method of bathing among
them was by heating water in a large veffel with three
feet, and thence pouring it on the head and-fhoulders
of a perfon feated in a tub for that purpofe, who at
coming out was anointed with oil. The Greek baths
confiftedoffeven different apartments, ufually feparated
from one another, and intermixed with other buildings
belonging to different kinds of exercifes. Thefe were,
1. The cold bath, frigida lavatio; in Greek *«rpov. 2. The
eladthejium, or room where they were anointed with
oil. 3. The frigidarium, or cooling room. 4. The
propnigeum, or entrance of the hypocaujium or ftove.
5. The vaulted room for fweating in, or vapour-bath,
called by the Romans concamerata Judatio. 6. The
BAT f 1055 ] BAT
h. laconicum, or dry ftove; and 7. The hot bath, called
calida lavatio.
The Greek baths were ufually annexed to palteftrtc
or gymnafia, of which they were confidered as a part.
They appear to have been double, one for men, and
the other for women ; but fo near, that one furnace
ferved for heating both. The middle part was poifefTed
by a large bafon, which received water by feveral pipes,
and into which they went down by fteps, being fur-
rounded by a balluttrade, behind which was a kind of
corridor, which formed a pretty large area to hold
thofe who were waiting till there fliould be room for
them in the bath. They were vaulted over, and only
received light from the top.
The Rojnans were alfo long before they came into
the ufe of baths ; the very name of which, thermae,
fliews they borrowed the praftice from the Greeks.—
As the ancient Romans were chiefly employed in agri-
' culture, their cuftom was, every evening after work, to.
wafli their arms and legs, that they might fit down to
fupper with more decency ; for it is to be obferved, that
the ufe of linen was then unknown, in Italy at leaft;
and the people of that age went with their legs and
arms bare, and confequently expofed to dull and filth.
But this was not all; for, every ninth day, when they
repaired to the nunditiae, or to the affemblies of the
. people, they bathed all over in the Tiber, or fome ri¬
ver that happened to be neareft to them. This feems
to have been all the bathing ufed till the time of Pom-
pey, when the cuftom began of bathing every day.—
The Romans, when they found their ftomachs over¬
charged with meat, went to the bath, as we learn from
Juvenal, who inveighs againft thofe that, having gor¬
ed themfelves with eating, were forced to go into the
ath to give themfelves relief. They alfo found that
a bath was good for refrefhing them after fome con-
fiderable fatigue, as we are informed by Celfus the phy-
fician. Hence, after Pompey’s time, when luxury was
prodigioufly increafed, the humour of bathing was car¬
ried to an extravagant height. Many by the immoderate
ufe of the bath entirely ruined their conftitution, being
unable to tafte food without bathing firft. By this
pra&ice the emperor Titus is faid to have loft his life.
Hence Pliny inveighs feverely againft thofe phyficians
who held that hot baths digefted the food. The em¬
peror Adrian firft laid a reftraint on this immoderate
humour of bathing, forbidding all perfons to go to the
bath before the eighth hour.
According to Dion, Msecenas was the firft who
made a bath at Rome : yet there are inftances of pub¬
lic baths before his time ; but they were of cold water,
fmall, and poorly decorated. Agrippa in his sedilate
built a bath of 160 paces in length, where the citizens
might be accommodated with either the hot or cold bath
gratis. After his example Nero, Vefpafian, Titus,
Domitian, Severus, Gordian, Aurelian, Maximian,
Dioclefian, and moft other emperors who ftudied to
gain the affe£tions of the people, erected baths laid
with the fineft marble, and built according to the niceft
rules of archite&ure. Alexander Severus was the firft
who allowed the public baths to be open during the
night in the heats of fummer.
In the Roman baths, the firft part that appeared was
a large bafon called natatio and pifcina. The middle
was poffeffed by the hpocaujium, which had a firing
of four apartments on each fide called lalnearia, fo Enh-
contrived, that one might eafily go out of one into the
other. There were two ftoves called laconicum and ts-
pidarium, which were joined together and built circu¬
lar. Their floor was hollow and fufpended, to receive
the heat of the hypocaujlum, which was a large fur¬
nace underneath. The fame furnace alfo heated ano¬
ther room called vafarium, fituated near the ftoves,
wherein were placed three large brazen veflels called
miliaria on account of their capacity; one for hot
water, another for warm water, and a third for cold
water ; being fo contrived, that the water might pafs
from one to the other by means of feveral fiphons, and
be diftributed by pipes and cocks into the neighbouring
bath, as occafion required. The rich had baths at
home, and frequently very magnificent ones ; but they
ufed them only upon extraordinary occafions : the great
men, and even emperors themfelves, fometimes bathed
in public with the reft of the people. At three in
the afternoon, which is what Pliny calls hora ottava et
nona, the Romans all repaired to the baths, either the
public or private ones; the public baths were all opened
at the found of a bell, and always at the fame hour.
The baths of Agrippa were built of brick, but painted
in enamel; thofe of Nero were not only furniftied with
frefti water, but alfo had the fea water brought into
them; thofe of Caracalla were adorned-with 200 marble
columns, and furnifhed with 1600 feats of the fame
matter. Lipfius aflures us they were fo large, that
1800 pefons might conveniently bathe in them at once.
But the baths of Dioclefian furpafled all the reft in
magnificence ; 140,000 perfons were employed for
many years in building them. Great part of thefe, as
well as of the baths of Caracalla, are ftill Handing ; and
with the vaft high arches, the beautiful and ftately pil¬
lars, &c. make one of the greateft curiofities in modern
Rome.
The Celtic nations were not without the ufe of bath¬
ing : the ancient Germans bathed every day in warm
water in winter, and in fummer in cold. In England,
the famous bath in Somerfetftiire is faid by fome to
have been in ufe 800 years before Chrift. Of this,
however, it muft be owned we have but very flender
evidence : but Dr Mufgrave makes it probable that it
was a place of confiderable refort in Geta’s time ; there
being ftill the remains of a ftatue erefted to that ge¬
neral, in gratitude for fome benefa&ions he had confer¬
red upon it.
Cold bathing was in high efteem among the ancient
phyficians for the cure of difeafes, as appears from
Strabo, Pliny, Hippocrates, and Oribafius; whence
frequent exhortations to wafhing in the fea, and plun¬
ging into cold water. The firft inftance of cold bath¬
ing, as a medicine, is Melampus’s bathing the daughters
of the king of Argos ; and the firft inftance of warm
bathing is Medea’s ufe of it, who was faid to boil
people alive, becaufe Pelias king of Thelfajy died in
a warm bath under her hands. The cold bath was
ufed with fuccefs by Antonius Mufa, phyfician to the
emperor Auguftus, for the recovery of that prince;
but fell into negleft after the death of Marcellus, who
was thought to have been deftroyed by the improper
ufe of it. It was again brought into requeft, towards
the clofe of the reign of Nero, by means of a phyfi¬
cian of Marfeilles named Gharmisbut during the ig-
6 R 2 norancc
Bath.
BAT [ 1056 ] BAT
norance of the fucceeding ages, the pra&ice was again
banHhed for a long time. Both hot and cold bathing
are now prefcribed in many cafes by the phyficians,
though they are not agreed as to the manner in which
* See the they operate on the human body *.
Index fuh- ys^g, (.0 t{je origjn 0f thoie hot waters, of which the
'^Medicine natural hot baths are formed, we are very much in the
Ln ' dark. All we can affirm with certainty is, that where
there are volcanoes, there alfo there are hot fprings in
great abundance ; but how the heat of the volcano
ffiould be conltanily communicated to the waters of a
fpring for many ages, during a great part of which
the volcano itfelf has lain in a dormant Hate, feems
almofl. beyond the reach of inveftigation. Another
thing that creates a great difficulty is, that the lire
of a volcano mull certainly lie very deep in the earth,
and molt probably fhifts from place to place, but the
waters of a fpring mult always ilfue from a place fxtuated
lower than the origin of the fpring itfelf. Befides,
though we (hould fuppofe the water to come from the
top of a volcano itfelf, and confequently boiling hot,
it could not be fuppofed to percolate far through cold
earth without Idling all the heat it acquired from the
volcano. From fome obfervations, however, it certainly
does appear, that there are fome fpots on the earth
that have a power of producing heat within themfelves,
independent' of any thing foreign; and that water is fo
far from being able to deftroy this power, that it feems
rather to promote and continue it. We know that
water hath this effe& upon a mixture of iron filings
and fulphur; but whfttever quantities of fimilar fub-
Itances we may fuppofe to be contained in the earth,
we mud alfo fuppofe to be deftroyed by one great con¬
flagration foon after they have begun to adt upon each
other, fo that by their means no lafting heat in waters
could be produced. Dr Stukely indeed would folve
this, and feveral other phenomena, by making the
lire and fmoke of volcanoes the effedls of eledtri-
city : but here fufficient proof is wanting ; for elec¬
tricity, even in its moft powerful Hate, is not very apt
to fet bodies on fire. The thought, however, deferves
attention ; for if eledlricity is capable of fetting a vol¬
cano on lire, it is undoubtedly capable of producing
folfaterras where it meets with proper materials, and
* Seethe from them fprings of any degree of heat *.
articles S-A- Bath, in Hebrew antiquity, a meafure of capacity,
faterra and containing the tenth part of an omar, or feven gallons
Volcano. an(j four pjnts> as a meafure for things liquid; or three
pecks and three pints, as a meafurc for things dry.
Knights of the Bath. See the article Knight.
BATH-Ae/, the daughter of a voice. So the Jews
call one of their oracles, which is frequently mentioned
in their books, efpecially theJTalmud ; being a fanta-
ftical way of divination invented by the Jews them¬
felves, though called by them a revelation from God’s
will, which he made to his chofen people, after all ver¬
bal prophecies had ceafed in Ifrael. It was in fadt a
method of divination fimilar to the fortes Virgiliana -of
the Heathens. For as, with them, the firil words they
happened to dip into, in the works of that poet, were
a kind of oracle, whereby they predicted future events ;
fo, with the Jews, when they appealed to Bath-kol, the
firft words they heard from any one’s mouth were looked
upon as a voice from heaven, diredling them in the
matter they inquired about. The Chriilians were not
quite free from this fuperftition, making the fame ufe
of the book of the Scriptures, as the Pagans did of the
works of Virgil. It was pra&ifed by Heraclius, em¬
peror of the eaft, in the beginning of the feventh cen¬
tury : for, being at war with Chofroes king of Per-
fia, and in doubt, after a fuccefsful campaign, where
to take up his winter quarters, he confulted the book
of the Scriptures in this way of divination, and was de¬
termined thereby. In France, it was the pradlice, for
feveral ages, to ufe this kind of divination at the con-
fecration of a bilhop, in order to difeover his life, man¬
ners, and future behaviour. This ufage came into
England with the Norman conqueft: ; for we are told,
that, at the confecration of William the fecond Nor¬
man bilhop of the diocefe of Norwich, the words which
firft; occurred, on dipping into the Bible, were, Not"
this man, but Barabbas: foon after which, William
died, and Herbert de Lozinga, chief Simony-bro¬
ker to King William Rufus, fucceeded him ; at wdiofe
confecration, the words, at which the Bible opened,
were the fame which Jefus fpoke to Judas the traitor ;
Friend, ^wherefore art thou come P This circumftance fo
affefted Herbert, that it brought him to a thorough
repentance of his crime ; in expiation of which he
built the cathedral church of Norwich, the firft ftone
of which he laid in the year 1096.
BATHA, Bath, or Bachia, a town of Hungary,
and capital of a county of the fame name, feated on the
Danube. E. Long. 20. 40. N. Lat. 46. 40.
BATHURST (Ralph), M. D. an eminent phy-
fician, poet, and divine, born in the year 1620. He
ftudied divinity in Trinity college, Oxford; but the
times of confufion coming on, he changed the courfe
of his ftudies, and applied himfelf to phyfic. He took
a dodtor’s degree in that faculty; in which he rofe to
fuch eminence, that he was, in the time of the ufurpa-
tion, appointed phyfician to the ftate. Upon the re-
ftoration, he quitted his profeffion of phyfic; was elec¬
ted a fellow of the Royal Society, and prelident of his
college ; and having entered into holy orders, he was
made chaplain to the king, and afterwards dean of
Wells. Soon after, he ferved the office of vice-chancel¬
lor of Oxford, and was nominated by King William
and Queen Mary to the fee of Briftol; which he refufed
to accept. His learning and talents were various. He
was an orator, a philofopher, and a poet : he pofteffed
an inexhauftible fund of wit, and was a facetious com¬
panion at 80 years of age. Ridicule was the weapon-
with which he ufed to correft the delinquents of his
college; and he was fo abfolute a mafterof it, that he
had it always at hand. His poetical pieces in the Mu-
fee Anglican# are excellent in their kind. He wrote
feveral poems, both in Englifti and Latin ; and died
June 14. 1704, in the 84th yearvof his age.
Bathurst (Allen), earl of Bathurft, one of thelaft
worthies of Queen Anne’s reign, that flu'ning period
of triumphs, tafte, genius, and elegance, was born in
the year 1684. His ftudies and his education were
equally conducive to the brilliant figure he was deftined
to make in focial life and in the fenate, as a polite fcho-
lar, a patriot, and a ftatefman. Thefe talents he had
an opportunity to difplay as early as the year 1705 ;
when, at the requeft of his father Sir Benjamin Ba¬
thurft, and the folicitation of the conftituents of Ciren-
chefter, he ferved in parliament for that borough, his
native
Batin
Bathuri
B A 1'
Batburfh
BAT [ 1057 ]
rft. native foil, with reputation and integrity. He diftin-
T guiflied himfelf particularly in the ftruggles and de¬
bates relative to the union between the two kingdoms,
firmly fupporting this meafure, calculated to ftrengthen
the vigour of government by uniting its force. Though
he was contented to act a fubordinate character in the
great oppofition planned by Mr Harley and Mr St
John, his 'intimate friends, to fap the credit of the
duke of Marlborough and his adherents, he was of in¬
finite fervice to his party in arraigning, with fpirit and
eloquence, the conduct of the general and the earl of
Godolphin, who had long governed the Queen, and
lavifhed the treafures of the nation on conquefts more
fplendid than fervieeable. The lofs of the battle of
Almanza feconded his efforts to difpel the intoxica¬
tion of former fucceffes. His perfonal regard for Lord
Somers, prefident of the council, was never altered,
though they were of different opinions in politics ; and
when he was divefted of his office, Mr Bathurft adted
with fuch tendernefs and delicacy, as to preferve the e-
iteem of Lord Somers in a private ftation. In confi-
deration of his zeal and fervices, the Queen advanced
him, in 1 711, to the dignity of a peer, by the title of
Baron Bathurft, of Battlefden, in Bedfordfhire.
His Lordfhip continued to fpeak his fentiments with
an undaunted freedom in the upper hoiife; and ftept
it forth as a formidable opponent to the court-meafures
'1; in the reign of George I. and during Sir Robert Wal¬
pole’s adminiftration. The acrimony of the profecu-
tion carried on againft the Earl of Oxford, Lord Bo-
lingbroke, and the Duke of Ormond, ftimulated his in¬
dignation and his eloquence againft fuch vindictive pro¬
ceedings; and he obferved, “ that the king of a faftion
was but the fovereign of half his fubje&s.”
The fouth-fea fcheme having infc£ted the whole na¬
tion with a fpirit of avaricious enterprize, the people
awaked from their delirium, and an infinite number of
families was involved in ruin. Lord Bathurft publicly
impeached the dire6tors, whofe arts had enabled them by
thefe vain expedtations to amafs furprifing fortunes: he
reprefented that the national honour was concerned in
{tripping them of their ill-acquired wealth ; and moved
for having all the directors of the fouth-fea company
punifhed by a forfeiture of their eftates, for fuch a no¬
torious aft of fordid knavery.
When the bill was brought into the Houfe of Lords
againft Dr Atterbury bifhop of Rochefter, that learned
prelate, who joined to the graces of ftyle and elocution
all the elegance of a juft delivery; among the many
friends the bifhop’s eloquence, politenefs, and inge¬
nuity had procured him, was Lord Bathurft. He fpoke
againft the bill with great vehemence and propriety;
obferving, “ that if fuch extraordinary proceedings
were countenanced, he faw nothing remaining for him
and others to do, but to retire to their country-houfes,
and there, if pofiible, quietly enjoy their eftates with¬
in their own families, fince the leaft correfpondence, or
intercepted letter, might be made criminal.” Then
turning to the bifhops, he faid, he “ could hardly
account for the inveterate hatred and malice fame
perfons bore the ingenious bifhop of Rochefter, un-
lefs it was that they were infatuated like the wild
Americans, who fondly believe they inherit not only
the fpoils, but even the^abilities, of the man they de-
ftroy.” He was .one of the Lords who entered his pro-
teft againft the bill.
His Lordfhip was entirely averfe to continental con¬
nexions; and animadverted feverely upon the monarch
whole thoughts were turned to foreign concerns and
alliances which could never be ufeful ; complaining of
the immenfe Aims lavifhed in fubfidies to needy and ra¬
pacious princes.
The direftors of the charitable corporation having
embezzled 500,000!. of the proprietors capital, Lord
Bathurft declared, in the Houfe of Lords, his abhor¬
rence of this tnoft iniquitous fcene of fraud; afferting,
that not one (hilling of the money was ever applied to
the proper fervice, but became the reward of avarice
and venality.
His Lordfhip concurred, with all his power, in the
oppofition to Sir Robert Walpole, who now tottered
on the brink of ruin. This minifter, after obftinate
ftruggles, having been forced to refign all his employ¬
ments, Lord Bathurft was fworn of the privy-council,
and made captain of the gentlemen-penfioners, which
poll he refigned in 1744. He was appointed’treafurer
to the prefent king, then Prince of Wales, in 1757,
and continued in the lift of privy-counfellors*at his ac-
ceffion to the throne ; but, on account of his great age,
he chofe to enjoy otium cum dignitate.
Lord Bathurft’s integrity gained him the efteem even
of his opponents ; and his humanity and benevolence,
the affeftion of all that knew him more intimately.
He added to his public virtues all the good breeding,
politenefs, and elegance, of focial intercourfe. Dr
Freind, Congreve, Vanbrugh, Swift, Prior, Rowe,
Addifon, Pope, Arbuthnot, Gay, and moft men of
genius in his own time, cultivated his friendfhip, and
were proud of his correfpondence.
Pope, in his Epiftle to him on the Ufe of Riches^
thus addreffes him :
The fenfe to value riches, with the art
T* enjoy them, and the virtue to impart;-
To balance fortune by a jult expence.
Join with oeconomy magnificence.
With fplendor, charity, with p!e"ty, health ;
O teach us, Bathurft, yet unfpoii’d by wealth T
That fecret rare, between th’ extremes to move.
Of mad good nature, and of mean felf-love.
And Sterne, in his Letters to Eliza, thus fpeaks of
him :
“■ This nobleman (fays he) is an old friend of
mine : he was always the proteftor of men of wit and
genius; and has had thofe of the laft century always at
his table. The manner in which his notice began of
me, was as fingular as it was polite.—He came up to
me one day, as I was at the Princefs of "Wales’s court,
1 I want to know you, Mr Sterne; but it is fit you
fhould know alfo who it is that wifhes this pleafure :
you have heard (continued he) of an old Lord Bathurft,
of whom your Popes and Swifts have fung and fpokenfo
much : I have lived my life with geniufes of that caft,
but have furvived them ; and defpairing ever to find
their equals, it is fome years fince I have clofed my ac¬
counts, and fhut up my books, with thoughts of ne¬
ver opening them again : but you have kindled a defire
in me of opening them once more before I die, which
I now do ; fo go home, and dine with me.’ This
nobleman, I fay, is a prodigy: for at 85 he has all the
wit and promptnefs of a man of 30 ; a difpofition to
be pleafed, and a power to pleafe others beyond what¬
ever
!
BAT [ 1058 ] BAT
Batlmrft ever I knew! added to which, a man of learning, cour-
II tefy, and feeling.”
atman on. jj.s in the latter part of his life, preferved
his natural cheerfulnefs and vivacity, always acceffible,
hofpitable, and beneficent. Lately he delighted in
rural amufements; and enjoyed, with a philofophical
fatisfadtion, the {hade of the lofty trees he had planted
himfelf. Till within a month of his death he conftantly
rode out on horfeback two hours before dinner, and
conftantly drank his bottle of Claret or Madeira after
dinner. He ufed to declare, in a jocofe manner, he
never could think of adopting Dr Cadogan’s method,
as Dr Cheyne had allured him, 50 years ago, he would
never live feven years longer unlefs he abridged him¬
felf of his wine. Purfuant to this maxim, his Lord-
fhip having, about four years ago, invited feveral of
his friends to fpend a few cheerful days with him at
his feat at Cirencefter, and being one evening very
loth to part with them ; on his fon the prefent chan¬
cellor’s objedb’ng to their fitting up any longer, and
adding, that health and long life were beft fecured by
regularity ; he fuffered him to retire : but, as foon as
he was gone, the cheerful father faid, “ Come, my
good friends, fince the old gentleman is gone to bed, I
think we may venture to crack another bottle.”
His Lordftiip was advanced to the dignity of Earl
in 1772 ; and lived to fee the above nobleman, his el-
deft fon, feveral years Lord High Chancellor of Great
Britain, and promoted to the peerage in 1771 by the
title of Baron Apfley. Lord Bathurft married Ca¬
therine daughter of Sir Peter Apfley, by whom he
had two other fans, and five daughters. His death hap¬
pened, after a few days illnefs, at his feat near Ciren¬
cefter, in the 91st year of his age, and on the id1!! of
September 1775. •
BATHYLLUS (7«!/Pylades, inventors of panto¬
mime entertainments on the ftage. Bathyllus fucceeded
in reprefenting comedy; Pylades, in tragedy. The art
confifted in exprefling the paflions by geftures, atti¬
tudes, and dumb (hew; not, as in modern times, in
machinery, and the fooleries of Harlequin. They
flourifiied at Rome, under Auguftus, about A. D. 10.
Each of them kept fcholars, who perpetuated their ma¬
iler’s name : for the followers of Bathyllus, who ex¬
celled in the comic part, called themfelves Bathylli;
and thofe of Pylades, who excelled in the tragic, called
themfelves Pylada.
BATMAN, in commerce, a kind of weight ufed at
Smyrna, containing fix okes of 400 drams each, which
amount to 16 pounds fix ounces and 15 drams of Englifli
weight.
BATMANSON (John), prior of the Carthufian
monaftery, or, Charter-houfe in the fuburbs of Lon¬
don. He was fome time a ftudent at Oxford, but it
does not appear that he took any degree in that uni-
verfity. He was intimately acquainted with Edward
Lee archbifhop of York, at whofe requeft he wrote
againft Erafmus and Luther. He died in the year
1531, and was buried in the chapel belonging to the
charter-houfe. According to Bale, he was a proud
forward perfon ; and he fays that Erafmus, in one of
his letters to the biftiop of Winchefter, calls him an
ignorant fellow. Pits, on the contrary, gives him the
charafter of a man of Angular genius, zeal, piety, and
learning. He wrote 1. Animadverfiones in annotations
Erafmi in Nov. Teftamentum. 2. A Treatife againjl
fame of Luther's works. Thefe two he afterwards re- gji‘
traded. 3. Comment aria in proverbia Solomon is. 4. In 'y—
cantica canticorum. 5. De unica Magdalena. 6. In- |1||
Jlitutiones noviciorum. 7. De contemptu mundi. 8. De
Chrifto duodenni. 9. On the words, miffus eft, &c. _ |H
BATON, or Baston. See Baston.
BATRACHOMYOMACHIA, the battle of the
frogs and the mice, the title of a fine burlefque poetn
generally afcribed to Homer.—The fubjed of the work
is the death of Pfycharpax, a moufe, fon to Toxartes,
who, being mounted on the back of Phyfignathus, a
frog, on a voyage to her palace, to which ftie had in¬
vited him, was feized with fear when he faw himfelf
in the middle of the pond, fo that he tumbled off and
was drowned. Phyfignathus being fufpeded to have i
fhaken him off with defign, the mice demanded fatis-
fadion, and unanimoufly declared war againft the frogs. S
BATTiE, (anc. geog.), a people of Germany, for¬
merly inhabitants of what is now called Hejfe. Being i
diffatisfied with their fituation there, they fettled on
the ifland formed by the Vahalis and Rhine, which
from them took the name of Batavia, or Batavorum
Infula. Their government was a mixture of monarchy, ■
ariftocracy, and democracy. Their chief was, pro¬
perly fpeaking, nothing more than a principal citizen,
whofe bufinefs was rather to advife than to command.
The principal men who exercifed jurifdidion, and com • fl
manded the troops, in their refpedive diftrids, were
chofen, as well as the kings, in an affembly of the peo¬
ple. A hundred perfons feleded from among the peo¬
ple prefided over every county, and aded as chiefs in
the different hamlets. The whole nation was, in fome
meafure, an army always in readinefs. Each family
compofed a body of militia, which ferved under a cap¬
tain of their own chufing. See Batavorum Infula.
BATTALIA, an army ranged in order of battle,
or ready for engagement. The word feems formed
from the Latin batualia, fometimes alfo written bata-
//a, denoting a fort of military or gladiatorial exercife, 1
as fighting with foils, or tilting at a poft. In this 1
fenfe, we meet with the depth of a battalia; to march
in battalia, with the baggage in the middle; to break
the battalia, &c. In the Roman battalia, the hajlati f
made the front.
BATTALION, a fmall body of infantry, ranged
in form of battle, and ready to engage.
A battalion ufually contains from 500 to 800 men ; 1
but the number it confifts of is not determined. They
are armed with firelocks, fwords, and bayonets; and |
divided into 13 companies, one of which is grenadiers. 1
They are ufually drawn up three men deep. Some re¬
giments confift of but one battalion, others are divided I
into four or five.
BATTATAS, the Indian name of the potatoe.
See Lycopersicon.
BATTEL, a town of Suffex, five miles north-weft
ofHaftings, fituated in E. Long. o. 35. N. Lat. 50. 55.
It was formerly called Epiton; and is the place where 1
William the Conqueror vanquiflied Harold king of En- I
gland on Odlober 14th 1066. William, in memory of
this victory, erected an abbey, which he called Battle
Abbey ; and if a criminal could but reach this abbey,-he
was difmiffed from thence, a ad was afterwards in no
danger for his paft faults. The abbey was a large and
noble
BAT [
| noble ftFu'fture, as may be judged by the gateway
j which is ftill entire, as well as from the other remains,
jj Battel, in law, or ‘Trial by nuager of Battel, a fpe-
Mpf cies of trial of great antiquity, but now much difufed*.
| It feems to have owed its original to the military fpirit
1 of our anceftors, joined to a fuperftitious frame of
i | mind ; it being in the nature of an appeal to Provi-
! dence, under an' apprehenfion and hope (however pre-
| fumptuous and unwarrantable) that'heaven would give
| the vidtory to him who had the right. The decifion of
| fuits, by this appeal to the God of battels, is by feme
j faid to have been invented by the Burgundi, one of the
■ northern or German clans that planted themfelves in
[ Gaul. And it is true, that the firft written injunction
I of judiciary combats that we meet with, is in the laws
| of Gundebald, A. D. 501, which are preferved in the
| Burgundian code. Yet it does not feem to have been
merely a local cuftom of this or that particular tribe,
but to have been the common ufage of all thofe war¬
like people from the earlieft times. And it may alfo
jj , feem, from a pafiage in Velleius Paterculus, that the
Germans, when firlt they became known to the Ro-
jnans, were wont to decide all contefts of right by the
I 1 fword : for when Quintilius Varus endeavoured to in-
| . troduce among them the Roman laws and method of
trial, it was looked upon (fays the hiftorian) as a no-
I , vitas incognita difeiplina, ut folita artnis decerni jure
I W terminarentur. And among the ancient Goths in Swe¬
den we find the praftice of judiciary duels eitablilhed
upon much the fame footing as they formerly were in
our own country.
This trial was introduced in England among other
Norman cufioms by William the conqueror; but was
only ufed in three cafes, one military, one criminal, and
the third civil. The firft in the court-martial, or court
of chivalry and honour; the fecond in appeals of fe¬
lony ; and the third upon iflue joined in a writ of right,
the laft and moft folemn decifion of real property. For
in writs of right the jus proprietatis, which is frequently
; a matter of difficulty, is in queftion; but other real ac¬
tions being merely queftions of the jus pojfejjionis, which
are ufually more plain and obvious, our anceftors did
not in them appeal to the decifion of Providence. An¬
other pretext for allowing it, upon thefe final writs of
right, was alfo for the fake of fuch claimants as might
have the true right, but yet by the death of witneiles
or other defeft of evidence be unable to prove it to a
jury. But the moft curious reafon of all is given in the
Mirror, that it is allowable upon warrant of the combat
between David for the people of Ifrael of the one party,
and Goliah for the Philiftines of the other party : a
reafon which pope Nicholas I. very ferioufly decides
to be inconclufive. Of battel therefore on a writ of
right we (hall firft fpeak: and although the writ of
right itfelf, and of courfe this trial thereof, be at pre-
fent difufed; yet, as it is law at this day, it may be
matter of curiofity, at leaft, to inquire into the forms
of this proceeding, as we may gather them from an¬
cient authors.
1. The laft trial by battel that was waged in the
court of common pleas at Weftminfter (though there
was afterwards one in the court of chivalry in 1631,
and another in the county palatine of Durham in 1638)
was in the 13th year of queen Elizabeth, A.D. 1571,
as reported by Sir James Dyer; and was held in Tot-
1059 ] BAT
hill-fields, Weftminfter, “ non fine magna juris eonful-
torum perturbationef faith Sir Henry Spelman, who
was himfelf a witnefs of the ceremony. The form, as
appears from the authors before cited, is as follows.
When the tenant in a writ of right pleads the ge¬
neral iffue, viz. that he hath more right to hold, than
the demandant hath to recover; and dffers to prove it
by the body of his champion, which tender is accepted
by the demandant; the tenant in the firft place muft
produce his champion, who, by throwing down his
glove as a gage or pledge, thus wages or ftipulates bat¬
tel with the champion of the demandant; who, by ta¬
king up the gage or glove, ftipulates on his part to ac¬
cept the challenge. The reafon why it is waged by
champions, and not by the parties themfelves, in civil
actions, is becaufe, if any party to the fuit dies, the
fuit muft abate and be at an end for the prefent; and
therefore no judgment could be given for the lands in
queftion, if either of the parties were flain in battel:
and alfo that no perfon might claim an exemption from,
this trial, as was allowed in criminal cafes, where the
battel was waged in perfon.
A piece of ground is then in due time fet out, of 60
feet fquare, enclofed with lifts, and on one fide a court
erected for the judges of the court of common pleas,
who attend there in their fcarlet robes; and alfo a bai¬
ls prepared for the learned ferjeants at law. When the
court fits, which ought to be by funrifing, proclama¬
tion is made for the parties, and their champions; who'
are introduced by two knights, and are drefledin a coat
of armour, with red fandals, barelegged from the knee
downwards, bareheaded, and with bare arm's to the
elbows. The weapons allowed them are only batons,
or ftaves, of an ell long, and a four-cornered leather
target; fo that death very feldom enfued this civil com¬
bat. In the court military, indeed, they fought with
fword and lance, according to Spelman and Ru(h-
worth; as likewife in France, only villeins fought with
the buckler and baton, gentlemen armed at all points-
And upon this, and other circumftances, the prelident
Montefquieu hath with great ingenuity not only dedu¬
ced the impious cuftom of private duels upon imagi¬
nary points of honour, but hath alfo traced the heroic
madnefs of knight errantry from the fame original of
judicial combats. But to proceed:
When the champions, thus armed with batons, ar¬
rive within the lifts or place of combat, the champion
of the tenant then takes his adverfary by the hand, and
makes oath that the tenements in difpute are not the
right of the demandant; and the champion of the de¬
mandant, then taking the other by the hand, fwears in
the fame manner that they are; fo that each champion
is, or ought to be, thoroughly perfuaded of the truth
of the caufe he fights fop. Next an oath agaiuft for-
cery and enchantment is to be taken by both the cham¬
pions, in this or a fimilar form: “ Hear this, ye ju-
ftices, that I have this day neither eat, drank, nor have
upon me neither bone, ftqne, ne grafs; nor any in-
chantment, forcery, or witchcraft, whereby the law of
God may be abafed, or the law of the devil exalted.
So help me God and his faints."
The battel is thus begun, and the combatants are
bound to fight till the ftars appear in the evening: and*
if the champion of the tenant can defend himfelf till-
the ftars appear, the tenant Jhall prevail in his caufe ;
f
BAT [ 1060 ] BAT
niuel. for It is fufficient for him to raaintaia his ground, and
make it a drawn battel, he being already in poffefiion;
but, if viftory declares itfelf for either party, for him
is judgment finally given. This victory may arife, from
the death of either of the champions: which indeed
hath rarely happened; the whole ceremony, to fay the
truth, bearing a near refemblance to certain rural athletic
diverfions, which are probably derived from this origi-*
nal. Or victory is obtained, if either champion proves
recreant, that is, yields, and pronounces the horrible
word of craven; a word of difgraee and obloquy, ra¬
ther than of any determinate meaning. But a horrible
word it indeed is to the vanquifhed champion : fince,
as a punilhment to him for forfeiting the land of his
principal by pronouncing that ihameful word, he is con¬
demned, as a recreant, amittere liberqm legem, that is,
to become infamous, and not be accounted liber et le-
gaits homo; being fuppofed by the event to be proved
forfworn, and therefore never to be put upon a jury or
admitted as a witnefs in any caufe.
This is the form of a trial by battel; a trial which
the tenant, or defendant in a writ of right, has it in his
eleftion at this day to demand; and which was the only
decifion of fuch writ of right after the conqueft, till
Henry II. by eonfent of parliament introduced the
grand aflife, a peculiar fpecies of trial by jury, in con¬
currence therewith; giving the tenant his choice of ei¬
ther the one or the other. Which example, of dif-
countenancing thefe judicial combats, was imitated a-
bout a century afterwards in France, by a? edi£I of
Louis the Pious, A. D. 1260, and foon after by the
reft of Europe. The eftablifhment of this alternative,
Glanvil, chief juftice to Henry II. and probably his
advifer herein, confiders as a moft noble improvement,
as in fa£t it was, of the law.
* See 2. In appeals * of felony, the trial by battel may be
^ea^' demanded, at the ele&ion of the appellee, in either an
appeal or an approvement; and it is carried on with
equal folemnity as that on a writ of right; but with
this difference, that there each party hires a champion,
but here they muft fight in their proper perfons. And
therefore, if the appellant or approver be a woman, a
prieft, an infant, or of the age of 60, or lame, Or blind,
he or fhe may countei-plead and refufe the wager of bat¬
tel ; and compel the appellee to put himfelf upon the
country. Alfo peers-of the realm, bringing an appeal,
fhall not be challenged to wage battel, on account of
the dignity of their perfons; nor the citizens of Lon¬
don, by fpecial charter, becaufe fighting feems foreign
to their education and employment. So likewife, if
the crime be notorious ; as if the thief be taken with
the mainour, or the murderer in the room with a bloody
knife, the appellant may refufe the tender of battel
from the appellee ; and it is unreafonable an innocent
man Ihould ftake his life againft one who is already
half-convi&ed.
The form and manner of waging battel upon ap¬
peals are much the fame as upon a writ of right; only
the oaths of the two combatants are vaftly more ftri-
king and folemn. The appellee, when appealed of fe¬
lony, pleads not guilty ; and throws down his glove, and
declares he will defend the fame by his body: the ap¬
pellant takes up the glove; and replies that he is ready
to make good the appeal, body for body. And there¬
upon, the appellee taking the book in his right hand,
and in his left the right hand of his antagonift, fwears Bat,
to this effeft : Hoc audi, homo, quern per mamtm te- n|
neo, &c. “ Hear this, O man, whom I hold by the Batt^
hand, who callcft thyfelf John by the name of bapr
tifm, that I, who call mylelf Thomas by the name of
baptifm, did not felonioufly murder thy father, Wil* i 1
Ham by name, nor am any way guilty of the faid fe-
lony. So help me God, and the faints; and this I will • ‘B
defend againft thee by my body, as this court ihall
award.” To which the appellant replies, holding the
bible and his antagonift’s hand in the fame manner as
the other: “ Hear this, O man whom I hold by the
hand, who called thyfelf Thomas by the name of bap- IJ
tifm, that thou art perjured; and therefore perjured, flj
becaufe that thou felonioufly didft murder my father, i
William by name. So help me God, and the faints; I
and this I will prove againft thee by my body, as this '
court fliall award.” The battel is then to be fought, j
with the fame weapons, viz. batons, the fame folem- • B
nity, and the fame oath againft amulets and forcery, |
that are ufed in the civil combat: and if the appellee be ,■
fo far vanquiflred that he cannot or will not fight any
longer, he fliall be adjudged to be hanged immediate-
ly; and then, as well as.if he be killed in battel. Pro- 9
vidence is deemed to have determined in favour of the
truth, and his blood ftiall be attainted. But if he kills
the appellant, or can maintain the fight from funrifing
till the ftars appear in the evening, he fliall be acquit-
ted. So alfo, if the appellant becomes recreant, and
pronounces the horrible word craven, he fliall lofe his
liberam legem, and become infamous; and the appellee
fliall recover his damages, and alfo be for ever quit, not
only of the appeal, but of all indi&ments likewife for I
the fame offence.
BATTEN, a name that workmen give to a fcant- i
ling of wooden fluff, from two to four inches broad, and
about one inch thick; the length is pretty confiderable,
but undetermined.—This term is chiefly ufed in fpeak- i
ing of doors and windows of fliops, &c. which are not i
framed of whole deal, &c. with ftiles, rails, and pan- 4 «
nels like wainfcot; but are made to appear as if they »
were, by means of thefe battens, bradded on the plain '
board round the edges, and fometimes crofs them, and
up and down.
BATTENBURG, a town of Dutch Guelderland,
feated on the north banks of the Meufe, almoft oppofite.
to Ravenftein. E. Long. 5. 35. N. Lat. 50. 55.
BATTERING, the attacking a place, work, or 1
the like, with heavy artillery.
To batter in breach, is to play furioufly on a work, «
as the angle of a half-moon, in order to demolifli and H
make a gape therein. In this they obferve never to
fire a piece at the top, but all at the bottom, from J
three to fix feet from the ground.
The battery of a camp is ufually furrounded with a
trench, and pallifadoes at the bottom, with two re- m
doubts on the wings, or certain places of arms, capa¬
ble of covering the troops which are appointed for
their defence. See Battery.
Battering-7?^///, in antiquity, a military engine ' ;H
ufed to batter and beat down the walls of places be-
fieged. It is faid to have been invented by Artemanes
of Clazomene, a Greek architedl who flourifhed 441
B. C.—The machine is thus defcribed by Jofephus:
It is a vaft beam, like the maft of a Ihip, ftrengthcned
at I
U4
r
BAT r 1061 1 BAT
■ng. at the one end with a head of iron, fomefhing re-
ry- fembling that of a ram, whence it took its name.
This was hung by the middle with ropes to another
beam, which lay acrofs two pofts; and hanging thus
equally balanced, it was by a great number of men
drawn backwards and pulhed forwards, ftriking the
wall with its iron head. But this engine did moil ex¬
ecution when it was mounted on wheels, which is faid
to have been firft done.at the fiege of Byzantium under
Philip of Macedon.
Plutarch informs us, that Marc Anthony, in the
Parthian war, made ufe of a ram fourfcore feet long :
and Vitruvius tells us, that they were fometimes 106,
and fometimes 120, feet in length ; and to this perhaps
the force and ftrength of the engine was in a great
meafure owing. The ram was managed at one time
by a whole century of foldiers ; and they being fpent,
were feconded by another century, fo that it played
continually without any intermifiion.
Plate LVII. fig. 1. reprefents the battering-ram
fufpended. 2, The ram. 3, The form of its head,
faftened to the enormous beam by three or four bands
of iron, four feet in breadth. At the extremity of
each of thefe bands (4) was a chain (5) of the fame
metal, one end of which was faftened to a hook (6),
and at the other extremity of each of thefe chains
was a cable firmly bound to the laft link. Thefe
cables ran the whole length of the beam to the
end of the ram (7), where they were all bound to¬
gether as faft as pofiible with fmall ropes. To the end
of thefe cables another was fixed, compofed of feveral
Itrong cords platted together to a certain length, and
then running fingle (8). At each of thefe feveral
men were placed, to balance and work the machine.
10, The chain or cable by which it hung to the crofs
beam (11), fixed on.'the top of the frame. 12, The
bafe of the machine.—The unfufpehded ram differed
from this only in the manner of working it : for, in-
ftead of being flung by a chain or cable, it moved on
fmall wheels on another large beam.
BATTERiNG-72i?wr, in heraldry, a bearing, or coat of
arms, refembling the military engine of the fame name.
BATTERY, in the military art, a parapet thrown
up to cover the gunners, and men employed about the
guns, from the enemy’s (hot. This parapet is cut into
embraffures, for the cannon to fire through. The height
of the embraffures, on the infide, is about three feet;
but they go floping lower to the outfide. Their wide-
nefs is two or three feet, but open to fix or feven on the
outfide. The mafs of earth that is betwixt two em¬
braffures, is called the merlon. The platform of a bat¬
tery is a floor of planks and fleepers, to keep the wheels
of the guns from finking into the earth ; and is always
made floping towards the embraffures, both to hinder
there verfe, and to facilitate the bringing back of the gun.
Battery of yi/urtarr differs from a battery of guns;
I _ for it is funk into the ground, and has no embraffures.
Cc^-Batteries are two batteries, which play
athwart one another upon the fame objedl, forming
there an angle, and beating with more violence and der
ftruftion ; becaufe what one bullet fliakes, the other
beats down.
Battery funk or buried, is when its platform is
funk, or let down into the ground, fo that there muff
be trenches cut in the earth, againft the muzzles of the
Vol. II.
guns, for them to fire out at, and to ferve for embraf- Batteiy
fures. ^ ^
Battery d' Enfilade, is one that fcours or fweeps a e'
the whole length of a ftraight line.
Battery en Echarpe is that which plays obliquely.
Battery de Reverfe, that which plays upon the
enemy’s back.
Camerade Battery is when feveral guns play at the
fame time upon one place.
Battery, in law, is the unlawful beating of ano¬
ther. The leaft touching of another’s perfon wilfully,
or in anger, is a battery: for the law cannot draw the
line between different degrees of violence, and there¬
fore totally prohibits the firft and lowed ftage of it ;
every man’s perfon being facred, and no other having
a right to meddle with it, in any the flighteft manner.
And therefore, upon a fimilar principle, the Cornelian
law de injuriis prohibited pulfation as well as verb ora¬
tion ; diftinguifliing verberation, which was accompa¬
nied with pain, from pulfation which was attended
with none. But battery is, in fome cafes, juftifiable
or lawful; as where one who hath authority, a parent
or matter, gives moderate corre&ion to his child, his
fcholar, or his apprentice. So alfo on the principle of
felf-defence: for if one ftrikes me firft, or even only
affaults me, I may ftri£t in my own defence ; and, if
fued for it, may plead fin ajfault demefne, or that it
was the plaintiff’s own original affault that occafioned
it. So likewife in defence of my goods or poffefiion,
if a man endeavours to deprive me of them, I may
juftify laying hands upon him to prevent him ; and in
cafe he perlifts with violence, I may proceed to beat
him away. Thus too in the exercife of an office,
as that of church-warden or beadle, a man may lay
hands upon another to turn him out of church, and pre¬
vent his difturbing the congregation. And, if fued
for this or the like battery, he may fet forth the whole
cafe, and plead that he laid hands upon him gently,
molliter manus impofuit, for this purpofe. On account
of thefe caufes of juftification, battery is defined to be
the unlawful beating of another ; for which the remedy
is, as for affault, by adtion of trepafs vi et armis :
wherein the jury will give adequate damages.
BATTISTA (Franco), a celebrated painter, born
at Venice, was one of the difciples of Michael Angelo,
whofe manner he followed fo clofely, that, in the cor-
redlnefs of his out-lines, he furpaffed moft of the ma¬
ilers of his time. His paintings are pretty numerous,
and difperfed all over Italy, and other parts of Europe;
but his colouring being very dry, they are not much
more efteemed than the prints etched by his hand. He
died in 1 561.
BATTLE, a general engagement between two ar¬
mies, in a country fufficiently open for them to encoun¬
ter in front and at the fame time. The word is alfo
written battel, battcll, and battail. It is formed from
the French battaille, of the Latin verb battuere, to
fence, or exercife ’with arms: whence batualia, and
batalia, which properly denoted the adlion or exercife
of thofe who learned to fence, and who were hence alfo
denominated batuatores.
The ancients never joined battle without much ce¬
remony and preparation^ as taking auguries, offer¬
ing facrifice, harranguing the foldiers, giving the
>vord or a tejfera7 &c. The fignals of battle were,
6 S founding
BAT [ 1062 ] BAT
Battle, founding the claj/icum or general charge, and dif- they were nottofight beforefull moon. AmongtheGer- Battle?
~ playing a peculiar flag called by Plutarch a purple mans, it was reputed an impiety to fight in the wane |'
robe. To which may be added, fingihg paeans, rai- of the moon ; and Caefar tells us, that Arioviftus was  a "I
fing military fliouts, and the like. A Roman legion, beaten by him, becaufe, contrary to the laws of his
ranged in order of battle, confifted of hajlati, placed country, he had fought when the moon was in her
in the front; of principes, who were all old experienced wane. The German foldiers were intimidated with the ; 11
foldiers, placed behind the former; and of triarii, apprehenfion, and afforded Caefar an eafy viftory ; acie
heavy armed with large bucklers, behind the principes. conimijfa, impeditos religionc hojles vicit. It is well known i 1
The hajlati were ranked clofe ; the ranks of theprin- that Jerufalem was taken by Pompey in an attack on
cipes were much opener, fo that they could receive the the fabbath-day, when, by the Jewifh fuperftitious no-
haflati ; and thofe of the triarii opener ftill, infomuch tions, they were not allowed to fight, or even to defend ;! | j
that they could receive both theprincipcs and the hajlati themfelves. The Romans did not carry their fuperfti- 11
within them, without any difotder, and ftill facing the tion fo far: their atri dies were only obferved in refpeft
enemy. When therefore the hajlati found themfelves of attacking ; no day was too holy for them to defend
unable to ftand the enemy’s charge, they retired gently themfelves in. Among the ancients, we find frequent
within the principes, where joining with them, they re- inftances of battles in the night : it was by themoon-
newed the combat. If thefe found themfelves too weak light that Pompey beat Mithridates, and Scipio, Af- h 1
to fuftain the enemy, both retired among the triarii, drubal and Syphax.
where rallying, they formed a new corps, and charged The firft pitched battle, of which we have any di-
with more vigour than ever. If thefe failed, the battle ftinft account, is that between Crcefus and Cyrus,
was loft ; the Romans had no further refource. The defcribed by Xenophon, concerning which we have
moderns are unacquainted with this method of inferting a differtation exprefsly by M. Freret, wherein feveral
or embatteling one company into another ; without points of the ancient tallies are well explained. In p a
which the former cannot be well fuccoured or defended, the modern w7ar, we find few pitched or fet battles:
and their places taken by others ; which was a thing the chief-view of the great commanders of late days is
the Romans praftifed with great exaftnefs. For the rather to harrafs or ftarve the enemy by frequent alarms,
velites, and in later times the archers and flingers, cutting off his provilions, carrying off his baggage,
were not drawn up in this regular manner, but either feizitig his pofts, &c. than to join iffue with him, and jl
difpofed of before the front of the hajlati, or feat- put the whole on the event of one day ; a battle ge- v ? j|
tered up and down among the void fpaces of the nerally deciding the fate of a campaign, fometimes of
hajlati, or fometimes placed in two bodies in the wings, a whole war. Hence it is a rule, never to venture a
Thefe always began the combat, fkirmiftung in flying general battle, unlefs either you fight to advantage, or
parties with the foremoft troops of the enemy. If they be forced to it. Joining or giving battle fhould always
were repulfed, which was ufually the cafe, they fell be by defign : a general ftiouid never fuffer him-
back to the flanks of the army, or retired again in the felf to be forced to fight. All the meafures, move-
rear. When they retired, the hajlati advanced to the ments, encampments, he makes, are to lead to the ex¬
charge. As to the cavalry, it w'as pofted at the twro ecution of his great defign, which is to fight to advan-
corners of the army, like the wings on a body ; and tage, till, by fome miftake of the enemy, he at length
fought fometimes on foot, fometimes on horfeback. find the favourable opportunity. It is in this that a
The auxiliary forces compofed the two points of the fuperior genius will at length prevail over an inferior : |
battle, and covered the whole body of the Romans.— in the courfe of a campaign, he will take a number of
Other lefs ufual forms of battle among the Romans advantages over him, which, together, are equivalent ; I
were the cuneus, or wedge; globus, or round form; to a battle, the event of which is ever doubtful.
for/ex, or pair of Iheers ; turris, or an oblong fquare Battle-^x, an ancient military weapon. Axes |
figure; ferra, or faw. The Greeks were inferior to were a principal part of the offenfive armour of the
the Romans in marlhalling their armies for battle, as Celtoe. At the fiege of the Roman Capitol by the |
they drew up their whole army in a front, and trufted Gauls under Brennus, we find one of the moft diftin- |
the fuccefs of the day to a Angle force. They had guiftied of their warriors armed with a battle-axe. And
three forms of battle for the horfe, viz. the fquare, the Ammiannus Marcellinus, many centuries afterwards 1
wedge, and the rhombus or diamond form. The firft deferibing a body of Gauls, furnifhes them all with. |
held beft for thedefenfive ; the latter for the offenfive ; battle axes and fwords. Some of thefe weapons have
the wedge being preferred as bringing moft hands to been found in the fepulchres of the Britons, on the ;S
fight. downs of Wiltlhire and in the north of Scotland. |1
The Greeks notified the places of their battles and Within thefe four or five centuries the Irifh went con-
viftories by adding the word N/*»; whence Nicomedia, ftantly armed with an axe. And the axe of Lochaber |
Nicopolis, Theffalonica, &c. The ancient Britons did hath remained a formidable implement of deftru&ion in
the like, by adding the word Mais ; whence Maiffe- the hands of our Highlanders, even nearly to the pre- r> 1
veth, Malmaifbury, &c. The Englifh by the word fent period.
Field.—The Romans had their particular days, called BATTLEMENTS, in architefture, are indentures
pmliares dies, wherein alone it was lawful to join bat- or notches in the top of a wall or other building, in
tie; and others wherein it was unlawful, caWed dies atri. the form of embraffures, for the fake of looking thro’
The Athenians, by the ancient laws of their country, them.
were not to draw out their forces for battle till after BATTOLOGY, in grammar, a fuperfluous repc-
the feventh day of the month. And Lucian relates of tition of fome words or things.
the Lacedemonians, that, by the laws of Lycurgus, BATUA, Tax; tv a, But hoe, oxButhoece, (anc.geog.),
a j
BAY [ 1063 ] B A U
a town of Dalmatia, fituated on the Adriatic : nowi?«- This emperor having no children by Saint Cunegond Bavaria
_ doa; which fee. his wife, Bavaria paffed again to the family of Fran- I!
BATZ, a copper coin mixed with Tome filver, and conia, and afterwards to that of Suabia, under Henry nauclc oz'
current at different rates, according to the alloy, in IV. who pofTeffed it till the year 1071, when this laft
Nuremberg, Bafil, Fribourg, Lucerne, and other cities emperor gave that county to count Wolf, or Guelf, of
of Germany and Switzerland. Ravenfburg in Suabia. To this Guelph, who died in
BAVARIA, a duchy and electorate of Germany, the ifland of Cyprus, fucceeded Guelph II. and to him
This duchy was formerly a kingdom, which extended his brother duke Henry IX. who was fucceeded by his
from the mountains of Franconia to the frontiers of fon Henry the Proud. This laft had married the only
Hungary and the Adriatic Gulph. It comprehended daughter of the emperor Lothrrius, and, after the death
the countries of Tirol, Carinthia, Carniola, Stiria, An- of his father-in-law, became alfo duke of Saxony; but
itria, and other ftates, which are now fallen to different refufing to deliver up the imperial ornaments of his fa-
princes. At prefent it is bounded on the eaft by Bo- ther-in-law to the emperor Conrad III. duke of Sua -
hemia and Auftria, on the weft by Suabia, on the bia, or to acknowledge him for emperor, he was put
north by Franconia, and on the fouth by Tirol. But to the ban of the empire, and loft his ftates. After the
the duke of Bavaria is not abfolute mafter of all this death of Henry, Conrad made his brother Leopold
country; for within its bounds are fituated many free marquis of Auftria, and duke of Bavaria; who, dying
cities, among which is Ratifbon, and feveral lordfliips without iffue, was fucceeded by his brother Henry XL
both ecclefiaitical and fecular. It is divided into Up- whom the emperor Frederic I. made duke of Auftria,
per and Lower Bavaria; and thefe two provinces con- joining together the two counties above and below the
lift of twelve counties, which formerly fufficed to make Ens, and declaring them free and independent of the
a duchy, according to the law's of Franconia. The government of Bavaria. The fame emperor gave Ba-
country is watered by five navigable rivers, befides fe- varia thus difmembered, with Saxony, to Henry the
veral fmaller ones, and 16 lakes.—It contains 35 cities. Lion, fon of Henry the Proud. But Henry the Lion
of w’hich Munich is the capital ; 94 towns ; 720 caftles; afterwards lofing the favour of this emperor, was
4700 villages ; eight great abbeys ; and 75 cloifters or put to the ban of the empire ; and loft all his poffeffions
monafteries, befides thofe of the mendicants. — It is except Brunfwick and Lunenburg, which ftill remain
divided into four great bailliages called governments, to his defcendents. In 1 180, the duchy of Bavaria was
Thefe are Munich, Landfhut, Straubing, and Burk- given by the emperor to Otho the Landgrave of Wit-
haufen. Tire principal cities are Ingolftadt, Dona- tellbach, count Palatine of the houfe of Bavaria. In
wert, Landlberg, Freiberg, Straubingen, Willhaufen, the time of this Otho, the caftle of Scheyren was
Wafferberg, Eling, Rain, &c. changed into a monaftery in which the duke was bu-
Befides thefe two provinces, the duke of Bavaria ried. From him are defcended the two great families
poffeffes the upper palatinate of Weftphalia, which has that remain to this day in Germany; viz. the counts
been united to Bavaria, and comprehends feveral coun- Palatine of the Rhine, and the prefent eledlors of Ba-
ties, cities, towns, and villages. On the other fide of varia.
this province is Cbamb, the chief city of the county of BAY AY, a fmall town of the province of Hainault
the fame name, belonging likewife to the duke of Ba- in French Flanders ; which has been often ruined by
varia. He alfo poffeffes the landgraviate of Leitch- the wars of the low countries. E. Long. 3.45. N. Lat.
tenberg, w'hich fell to him by the death of Maximilian 50. 25.
Adam, in confequence of family pafts made between BAUCIS, in fabulous hiftory, an old woman who
the houfe of Bavaria and that of Leitchtenberg for their lived with Philemon her hufband in a cottage in Phry-
mutual fuccelfion. In 1567, the county of Kaag fell gia. Jupiter and Mercury, travelling over that country,
to the duke of Bavaria by the death of Ladiflaus the were well received by them, after having been refufed
laft count of that name. There are likewife family entertainment by every body elfe. To punifti the peo-
pafts of mutual fucceffion eftablifhed betwixt the houfe pie for their inhumanity, thefe gods laid the country
of Bavaria and the Palatine of the Rhine.—The inha- wafte with water ; but took Baucis and Philemon with
bitants of this country are ftrong and laborious, exer- them to the top of a mountain, where they faw the
cifing themfejves in fhooting with rifled mulkets at a deluge, and their own little hut above the waters,
mark, in order to render themfelves more expert in war. turned into a temple: having a wilh granted them.
The houfe of Bavaria is univerfally allowed to be one they defired to officiate in this temple as prieft and
of the moft ancient in Germany. The counts of prieftefs, and alfo that they might die both together;
Scheyren, whofe caftle at prefent is a cloifter, gave them which was granted them.
the name. At that place are ftiewn the tombs of more BAUCONICA, (anc. geog.), a town of the Van-
than 26 lords of Scheyren. The emperor Otho I. e- giones in Gallia Belgica ; nine miles from Mogontia-
ftablilhed as counts-palatine of Bavaria and landgraves cum, and eleven from Borbitomagum ; and therefore
of Scheyren, Arnolph and Herman, fons of Arnolph fuppofed to be Oppenheim, a town in the Palatinate of
brother to the duke of Berchtold of Carinthia, mar- the Rhine, and iituated on that river *. * gee
quis of the county upon the Ens. After the death of BAUDELOT (Charles Caefar), a learned advocate penheim.
Berchtold, the fame emperor, inftead of giving Ba- in the parliament of Paris, diftinguiihed himfelf by his
varia to his fon, gave it to duke Henry his brother, -ikill in ancient monuments, and was received into the
who had married Judith After to Arnolph and Herman, academy of Belles Lettres in 1705. He wrote a Trea-
This duke Henry of Bavaria, had, by his marriage, tife on the Advantages of Travelling.; many Letters •
Henry Hezillon, who was fucceeded by his fon Henry, and Differtations on Medals, &c.; and died in 1722,
afterwards chofen emperor by the name of Henry II. aged 74.
6 S 2
BAUDIER
Sandier
II
Sauhin.
B A U [ 1064 ] B A U
BAUDIER (Michael), a gentleman of Languedoc,
lived in the reign of Lewis XIII. and publifhed feveral
books, which procured him the character of a copious
and laborious author; among which are, 1. An In¬
ventory of the General Hiftory of the Turks. 2. The
Hiftory of the Seraglio. 3. That of the Religion of
the Turks. 4. That of the Court of the King of
China. 5. The Life of Cardinal Ximenes, &c.
BAUDIUS (Dominic), profeffor of hiftory in the
univerfity of Leyden, born at Lifle, the 8th of Augiift,
1561. He began his ftudies at Aix la Chapelle, and
continued them at Leyden. He removed from thence
to Geneva, where he ftudied divinity: after refiding
here fome time, he returped to Ghent, and from thence
to Leyden, where he applied to the civil law, and was
admitted do&or of law in June 1585. Soon after his
admiffion, he accompanied the ambafladors from the
States to England, and during his refidence here be¬
came acquainted with feveral q^erfons of diftinftion,
particularly the famous Sir Philip Sidney. He was
admitted advocate at the Hague, the 5th of January,
1587 ; but being foon tired of the bar, went to travel
in France, where he remained 10 years. He was much
efteemed in that kingdom, and gained many friends
there. Achilles de Harlai, firft prefident of the par¬
liament of Paris, got him to be admitted advocate of
the parliament of Paris in the year 1592. In 1602,
he went to England with Chriftopher de Harlai, the
prefident’s fon, who was fent ambalfador to the court
of London by Henry the Great. This fame year Bau-
dius having been named profefibr of eloquence at Ley¬
den, went and fettled in that univerfity. He read lec¬
tures on hiftory after the death of Morula, and was per¬
mitted alfo to do the fame on the civil law. In 1611,
the States conferred upon him the office of hiftoriogra-
pher in conjun&ion with Meurfius; and in confequence
thereof he wrote The Hiftory of the Truce. Baudius
is an elegant profe-writer, as appears from his Letters,
many of which were publiftied after his death. He
was alfo an excellent Latin poet: the firft. edition of
his poems was printed in the year 1587 ; they confift
of verfes of all the different meafures : he publifhed fe-
parately a book of iambics in 1591, dedicated to car¬
dinal Bourbon. Some of his poems he dedicated to
the king of England ; others to the prince of Wales,
in the edition of 1607, and went over to England to
prefent them. He died at Leyden in 1613.
BAUDOBRIGA, (anc. geog.), a town of the
Treviri in Germany; now Boppart, in the electorate of
Triers. See Boppart.
BAUDRAND (Michael Anthony), a celebrated
geographer, born at Paris, July 18. 1633. ^e tra¬
velled into feveral countries; and then applied himfelf
to the revifal of Ferrarius’s Geographical Di&ionary,
which he enlarged by one-half. Fie wrote, 1. Notes
to Papirius Maffo’s Defcription of the Rivers of France.
2. A Geographical and Hiftorical Di&ionary. 3. Chri-
ftian Geography, or an Account of the Archbifhopricks
and Bifhopricks of the whole World; and made feveral
maps. He died at Paris, May 29. 1700.
BAUHIN (John), a great botanift, was born a-
bout the middle of the 16th century. He took his
doftor’s degree in phyfic, in 1562 ; and afterwards be¬
came principal phyfician, to Frederick duke of Wir-
temberg. The moft confiderable of his works is his
Univerfal Hijiory of Plants.
Bauhin (Cafpar, or Gafpar), younger brother to
the preceding, was born at Bafil, 1550; and diftin-
guifhed himfelf by his {kill in anatomy and botany. In
1580, he was chofen firft profefibr of thefe fciences at
Bafil ; and in 1614, was made firft profefibr of phyfic,
and firft phyfician of that city, which he held till his
death, which happened in 1623, at the age of 63. He
wrote, 1. Anatomical Inftitutions; 2. Prodromus The-
atri Botanici; and other works.
BAUGE, a fmall town of Anjou in France, feated
on the River Coefnon. E. Long. o. 10. N. Lat. 47.30.
Bauge, a town of Brefle in France, with the title
of a marquifate. It is pleafantly fituated on a fruitful
hill, in E. Long. 4. 54. Ni Lat. 46. 20.
BAUHINlA, mountain ebony; Bauhinia
by Father Plunder, in honour of the two famous bo-
tanifts John and Cafpar Bauhins); a genus of the mo-
nogynia order, belonging to thedecandria clafsof plants.
Species, 1. The aculeata, with a prickly ftalk, is
very common in Jamaica, and other American fugar-
iflands, where it rifes to the height of 16 or 18 feet,
with a crooked ftem, and divides into many irregular
branches armed with ftrong fhort fpines, garnifhed with
compound winged leaves, each having two or three
pair of lobes ending with an odd one, which are ob¬
lique, blunt, and indented at the top. The ftalks are
terminated by feveral long fpikes of yellow flowers,
which are fucceeded by bordered pods about three
inches long, containing two or three fwelling feeds.
Thefe pods are glutinous, and have a ftrong balfamic
fcent, as have alfo the leaves when bruifed. It is called
in America the favin-tree, from its ftrong odour forne-
what refembling the common favin. 2. The tomen-
tofa, with heart-fhaped leaves, is a native of Campea-
chy ; and rifes to the height of 12 or 14 feet, with a
fmooth ftem dividing into many branches, garnifhed
with heart fhaped leaves, having two fmooth-pointed
lobes. The extremity of every branch is terminated
by a long fpike of yellow flowers, fo that when thefe
trees are in flower they make a fine appearance. 3. The
acuminata, with oval leaves, is a native of both the
Indies; and rifes with feveral pretty ftrong, upright,
fmooth Items, fending out many flender branches, gar¬
nifhed with Oval leaves deeply divided into two lobes.
The flowers come out at the extremities of the branches,
three or four in a loofe bunch ; fome of the petals are
red, or ftriped with white, but others are plain upon
the fame branch ; the ftamina and flyle are white, and
ftand out beyond the petals. Thefe flowers are fuc¬
ceeded by long pods of a dark brown colour, each con¬
taining five or fix roundifh compreffed feeds. The
wood of this tree is very hard, and veined with black ;
whence its name of mountain ebony. 4. The variegata,
with heart-fhaped leaves, and lobes joining together;
this is likewife a native of both the Indies. It rifes
with a ftrong ftem upwards of 20 feet high, dividing
into many ftrong branches, garnifhed with heart-fhaped
leaves having obtufe lobes which clofe together. The
flowers are large, and grow' in loofe panicles at the ex¬
tremity of the branches. They are of a purplifh red
colour marked with white, and have a yellow bottom.
The flowers have a very agreeable fcent, and are fuc-
ceeded.
B A U [ 1065 ] B A W •
ceeded by compreffed pods about fix inches long, and in the duchy of Courland, on the frontiers of Poland, Bautry
three quarters of an inch broad, containing three or with a ftrong caftle built on a rock. It was taken by II
four comprelfed feeds in each. 5. The divaricata, with the Swedes in 1625, and by the Ruffians in 1705, after B,'xter'
oval leaves whofe lobes fpread different ways. This a bloody battle between them and the Swedes. It is
grows naturally in great plenty on the north fide of the feated on the river Mufa, in E. Long. 24. 44. N. Lat.
ifland of Jamaica. It is a low flirub, feldom rifing 56. 30.
more than five or fix feet high, but divides into feveral BAUTRY, or Bawtry, a town in the weft riding
branches garniftied with oval leaves dividing into iwo of Yorkfhire, on the road from London to York. It
lobes that fpread out from each other. The flowers has long been noted for millftones land grindftones
grow in loofe panicles at the end of the branches, have brought hither by the river Idle, on which it is feated.
a white colour, and a very agreeable fcent. The flowers W. Long. 1. o. N. Lat. 53. 27.
appear the greateft part of the fummer, fo the plant is BAUTZEN, or Budissen, a confiderable town
one of the greateft beauties of the hot-houfe. The of Germany and capital of Upper Lufatia, fubjedb to
flowers are fucceeded by taper pods about four inches the elector of Saxony, with a ftrong citadel. The
long, each containing four or five roundifh compreffed Proteftants as well as Papifts have here the free exer-
feeds of a dark colour. Befides thefe, five other fpecies cife of their religion. E. Long. 14. 42. N. Lat. 51. 10.
of bauhinia are enumerated, but the above are the moft BAUX, a town of Provence in France, with the
remarkable. All the fpecies of this plant are propa- title of a marquifate, feated on a rock at the top of
gated by feeds, which muft be fown on hot-beds, and which is a ftrong caftle. E. Long. 5. o. N. Lat.
the plants reared in a bark-ftove. 43. 42.
BAUM, in botany. See Melissa. BAWD, a perfon who keeps a place of proftitution,
BAUME (St), a mountain of Provence in Francy, or makes a trade of debauching women, and procuring
between Marfeilles and Toulon. Here Mary Magda- or conducing criminal intrigue?. Some think the
Jen is faid to have died, on which account it is much word is derived from the old French baude, bold or'
frequented. impudent; though Verftegan has a conjefture which
BAUME-/er-iVu»ej-, a town of Franche Comte, with would carry it higher, viz. from anciently written
a rich nunnery, feated on the river Doux, in E. Long. bade. In which fenfe bawd originally imported no
6. 20. N. Lat. 47. 12. Five miles from this town is more than bath-holder, as if bagnios had anciently
a remarkable cavern, whofe entrance is 20 paces wide; been the chief fcenes of fuch proftitution.
and after defcending 300 paces, the gate of a grotto is The Romans had their male as well as female
feen, twice as large as that of a city. The grotto is bawds ; the former denominated letwnes and proagogi,
35 paces deep, 60 wide, and is covered with a kind of among us panders; the latter, lenee. Donatus, fpeak-
a vaulted roof, from which water continually drops, ing of the habits of the ancient charadfers in comedy.
There is alfo a fmall brook, faid to be frozen in fummer, fays, Leno paliis varii coloris utitur. But the ancient
but not in winter; and at the bottom are ftones that lenones, it is to be obferved, furniftied boys as well as
exaclly refemble candied citron-peel. When the pea- girls for venereal fervice. Another fort of thefe mer-
fants perceive a mill rifing out of this cave, they affirm chants or dealers in human flefh, were caWed mangones,
that it will certainly rain the next day. by the Greeks who fold eunuchs, flaves,
BAUMEN, or Bauman, a cave of Lower Saxony &c. By a law of Conftantine, bawds were to be pu-
in Germany, about a mile from Wermigerode, and 18 nirtied by pouring melted lead down their throats. See ,
from Goflar. The entrance is through a rock; and fo the next article.
narrow, that not above one perfon can pafs at a time. BAWDY-Houfe, a houfe of ill fame, to which lewd
There are feveral paths in -it, which the peafants have perfons of both fexes refort, and there have criminal
turned up, in fearching for the bones of animals which converfation. i
they fell for unicorn’s horns. Some think this cave The keeping a bawdy-houfe is a common nuifance,
reaches as far as Goflar ; but be this as it will, the not only on account that it endangers the public peace
fkeletons of men have been found in it, who are fup- by drawing together debauched and idle .perfons, and
pofed to have been loft in the turnings and windings. promoting quarrels, but likewife for its tendency to
BAUR (William), an eminent Flemilh painter, was corrupt the manners of the people. And therefore
born at Strafburg, and was the difciple of Brendel. perfons convidted of keeping bawdy-houfes, are puni-
He was fome time at Rome, where his ftudies were fliable by fine and imprifonment; alfo liable to ftand
wholly employed about architefture and landfcajaes, in the pillory, and to fuch other punifhment as the
which prevented his ftudying the antique. He painted . court at their diferetion (hall inflidl. Perfons reforting
fmall figures in diftemper on vellum. He etched with to a bawdy-houfe are likewife punilhable, and they
great fpirit. His largeft works are in the hiftorical may be bound to their good behaviour.—It was always
way. He has given us many of the fieges, and bat- held infamous to keep a bawdy-houfe; yet fome of
les, which wafted Flanders in the 16th century. They our hiftorians mention bawdy-houfes publicly allowed
maybe exaft, and probably they are : but they are here in former times till the reign of Hen. 8. and affign
rather plans than pidtures; and have little to recom- the number to be 18 thus allowed on the bank-fide
mend them but hiftoric truth, and die freedom of the in Southwark. See Stews and Brothel.
execution. His beft prints are fome charadlers he has BAWLING, among fportfmen, is fpoke of the dogs
given us of different nations, in which the peculiarities when they are too bufy before they find the fcent good,
of each are very well preferved. His Ovid is a poor BAXTER (Richard), an eminent divine among
performance. He died at Vienna in 1640. the nonconformifts, was born at Rowton in Shrop-
BAUSK, or Bautko, a fmall but important town Ihire, November 12. 1615 ; and diftinguilhed'himfelf
by
BAX
■by bis exemplary life, his pacific and moderate prin-
"ciples, and his numerous writings. He was remark¬
able for his piety, even when he was very young.
Upon the opening of the long parliament, he was
chofen vicar of Kidderminfter. In the heat of the
civil wars he withdrew from that town to Coven¬
try, and preached to the garrifon and inhabitants.
When Oliver Cromwell was made prote&or, he would
by no means comply with his meafures, though he
preached once before him. He came to London juft
before the depofing of Richard Cromwell, and preached
before the parliament the day before they voted the
return of king Charles II. who upon his reftoration
appointed him one of his chaplains in ordinary. He
afiifted at the conference in the Savoy, as one of the
commiffioners for ftating the fundamentals in religion,
and then drew up a reformed liturgy. He was offered
the bifhoprick of Hereford; which he refufed; affect¬
ing no higher preferment than the liberty of con¬
tinuing minifter of Kidderminfter; which he could not
obtain, for he was not permitted to preach there above
twice or thrice after the reftoration. Whereupon he
returned to Londm:, and preached occafionally about
the city, till the- aft of uniformity took place. Du¬
ring the plague in 1665 he retired into Buckingham-
ftiire ; but afterward returned to Afton, where he ftaid
till the aft againft conventicles expired ; and then his
audience was fo large, that he wanted room. Upon
this he was< committed to prifon; but procuring an
habeas corpus, he was difcharged. After the indul¬
gence in 1672, he returned to London ; and in 1682
he was feized for coming within five miles of a corpo¬
ration. In 1684 he was feized again; and in the reign
of king James II. was committed prifoner to the king’s
bench, and tried before the lord chief juftice Jefferies
for his Paraphrafe on the New Teftament, which was
called afcandalous and /editions book againft the govern¬
ment. He continued in prifon two years ; from whence
he was at laft difcharged, and had his fine remitted
by the king. He died December the 8th, 1691; and
was buried in Chrift-Church.—He was honoured with
the friendftiip of fome of the greateft and beft men in
the kingdom, fcs-the earl of Lauderdale, the earl of
Balcarras, lord chief juftice Hales, Dr Tillotfon, &c.
and held correfpondence with fome of the moft eminent
foreign divines.—He wrote above 120 books, and had
above 60 written againft him. The former, however,
it ftiould feem, were.greatly preferable to the latter;
fince Dr Barrow, an excellent judge, fays, that “ his
praftical writings were never mended, his controver-
iial feldom confuted.”—Among his moft famous works
were, 1. The Saints Everlafting Reft. 2. Call to
the Unconverted, of which 20,000 were fold in one
year; and it was tranflated not only into all the Eu¬
ropean languages, but into the Indian tongue. 3. Poor
Man’s Family Book. 4. Dying Thoughts; and, 5. A
Paraphrafe on the New Teftament. His praftical
works have been printed in four volumes folio.
Baxter (William), nephew and heir to the former,
was an eminent fchoolmafter and critic. He was born
at Lanlugany in Shroplhire, in the year 1650; and it
is remarkable, that at the age of 18, when he firftwent
to fchool, he knew not one letter nor underftoood one
word of any language but Welfti ; but he fo well im¬
proved his time, that he became a perfon of great and
BAY
extenfive knowledge. His genius led him chiefly to Br.
the ftudy of antiquities and philology, in which he Jj
compofed feveral books. The firft he publiftied was a Baya"
Grammar, in 1679, intitled De Analogia feu Arte 1
Latina Lingua Commentariolus. He alio publilhed a
new and correft edition of Anacreon, with Notes ; an ,!
edition of Horace ; a Diftionary of the Britilh anti- 1
quities, in Latin ; and feveral other books. He was
a great mafter of the ancient Britilh and Irilh tongues,
was particularly {killed in the Latin and Greek, and
in the northern and eaftern languages. He died May
31st, 1723, after being above 20 years mafter of Mer- |
cer’s School in London.
BAY, in geography, an arm of the fea {hooting up 1
into the land and terminating in a nook. I: is a kind
of leffer gulph bigger than a creek, and is larger in its ‘
middle within than at its entrance. The largeft and |
moft noted bays in the world are thofe of Bifcay, Ben- »
gal, Hudfon’s, Panama, &c.
Bay denotes likewife a pond-head made to keep in
ftore of water for driving the wheels of the furnace or ]
hammer belonging to an iron mill, by the ftream that
comes thence through a flood-gate called the pen-Jiock.
'£> ay-Colour denotes a fort of red inclining to chef-
nut, chiefly ufed in fpcaking of horfes. In this fenfe,. s
the word bay is formed from the Latin haius, or badius, 1
and that from the Greek a palm branch ; fo that
badius or bay properly denotes color phoeniceus. Hence
alfo, among the ancients, thofe now called ^ horfes,
were denominated equi palmati. We have divers forts
and degrees of bays ; as a light bay, a dapple bay, &c.
All bay horfes are faid to have black manes’; which
diftinguifties them from forrels, which have red or white
manes.
Bay, among huntfmen, is when the dogs have |
earthed a vermin, or brought a deer, boar, or the like,
to turn head againft them. In this cafe, not only the
deer, but the dogs, are faid to bay. It is dangerous
going in to a hart at bay, efpecially at rutting-time ;
for then they are fierceft. There are bays at land, and
others in the water.
YsAY-Trce. See Laurus.
Y>AY-Salt. See Salt.
BAYA, or Baja, a town of Lower Hungary, in
the county of Bath, fituated near the Danube. E.
Long. 19. 30. N. Lat. 46. 25.
BAYARD (Peter du Terrail de), efteemed by his
contemporaries the model of foldiers and men of ho¬
nour, and denominated The knight without fear and
without reproach, was defeended from an ancient and
noble family in Dauphine. He was with Charles VIII.
at the conqueft of the kingdom of Naples ; where he
ave remarkable proofs of his valour, efpecially at the
attle of Fornoue. He was dangeroufly wounded at
the taking of the city of Brefcia ; and there reftored to
the daughters of his hoft 2000 piftoles, which their
mother had direfted them to give him in order to pre¬
vent the houfe from being plundered : an aftion that
has been celebrated by many hiftorians. At his return
to France, he was made lieutenant-general of Dauphine.
He fought by the fide of Francis I. at the battle ot
Marignan; and that prince afterwards infilled on being
knighted by his hand, after the manner of the ancient
knights. The chevalier Bayard defended Meziers du¬
ring fix weeks, againft Charles V.’s army. In 1524,
at
[ 1066 ]
BAY [ 1067 ] BAY
«y.; at the retreat of Rebec + (the general Bonivet having
fbeen wounded and obliged to quit the field), the con-
duft of the rear was committed to the chevalier Bayard,
who, though fo much a llranger to the arts of a court
that he never rofe to the chief command, was always
called, in times of real danger, to the pofts of greateft
difficulty and importance. He put himfelf at the head
,of the men at arms; and animating them by his prefence
and example to fuftain the whole ffiock of the enemy s
troops, he gained time for the reft of his countrymen
If to make good their retreat. But in this fervice he re-
I ceived a wound which he immediately perceived to be
t| mortal; and being unable to continue any longer on
I horfeback, he ordered one of his attendants to place
| him under a tree, with his face towards the enemy :
|( then fixing his eyes on the guard of his fword, which
he held up inftead of a crofs, he addreffed his prayers
to God; and in this pofture, which became his cha-
! rafter both as a foldier and as a Chriftian, he calmly
waited the approach of death. Bourbon, who led the
foremoft of the enemy’s troops, found him in this fi-
tuation, and exprefied regret and pity at the fight.
“ Pity not me,” cried the high-fpirited chevalier,
“ I die as a man of honour ought, in the difcharge of
> “ my duty: they indeed are objefts of pity, who fight
“ againft their king, their country, and their oath.”
The marquis de Pefcara, paffing foon after, manifefted
^ his admiration of Bayard’s virtue, as well as his forrow
for his fate, with the generofity of a gallant enemy ;
and finding that he could not be removed with fafety
from that fpot, ordered a tent to be pitched there, and
appointed proper perfons to attend him. He died,
notwithftanding their care, as his anceftors for feveral
generations had done, in the field of battle. Pefcara
(ordered his body to be embalmed, and fent to his rela¬
tions ; and fuch was the refpeft paid to military merit
in that age, that the duke of Savoy commanded it to
be received wuth royal honours in all the cities of his
dominions : in Dauphine, Bayard’s native country, the
people of all ranks came out in a folemn proceffion to
meet it.
BAYEUX, a confiderable town of France in Nor-
i mandy, and capital of Beffin, with a rich bilhop’s fee.
The cathedral church is accounted the fineft in that
province ; and its front and three high fteeples are faid
■ to be the beft in France. W. Long. o. 33. N. Lat.
49. 16.
BAYLE (Peter), author of the Hiftorical and Cri¬
tical Diftionary, was born November 18. 1657, at
Carla, a village in the county of Foix, in France,
where his father John Bayle was a Proteftant minifter.
In 1666, he went to the Proteftant univerfity at Puy-
laureus, where he ftudied wuth the greateft applica¬
tion ; and in 1669, removed to the univerfity of Tou-
loufe, whither the Proteftants at that time frequently
fent their children to ftudy under the Jefuits: but
here, to the great grief of his father, he embraced the
Romiffi religion ; how'ever, being foon fenfible of his
error, he left that univerfity, and went to ftudy at Ge¬
neva. After which he was chofen profeflbr of philofo-
phy at Sedan: but that Proteftant univerfity being fup-
preffed by Lewis XIV. in 1681, he was obliged to
leave the city; and was foon after chofen profeffor of
philofophy and hiftory at Rotterdam, with a falary of
about 4j 1. a year. The year following he publiffied
his Letter concerning Comets. And Father Maimbourg
having publifhed about this time his Hiftory of Cal-
vinifm, wherein he endeavours to draw upon the Pro¬
teftants the contempt and refentment of the Catholics,
Mr Bayle wrote a piece to confute his hiftory.
The reputation which he had now acquired, in¬
duced the States of Friezland, in 1684, to offer him
a profefforlhip in their univerfity; but he wrote them
a letter of thanks, and declined the offer. This fame
year he began to publiffi his Nouvelles dc la republique
des lettrss.
In 1686, he was drawn into a difpute in relation to
the famous Chriftina queen of Sweden. In his Journal
for April, he took notice of a printed letter, fuppofed
to have been written by her Swediffi majefty to the che¬
valier de Terlon, wherein ffie condemns the perfecution
of the Proteftants in France. He inferted the letter it-
felf in his Journal for May, and in that of June follow¬
ing he fays, “ What we hinted at in our laft month,
is confirmed to us from day to day, that Chriftina is
the real author of the letter concerning the perfecu-
tions in France, which is aferibed to her: it is a re¬
mainder of Proteftantifm.” Mr Bayle received an a-
nonymous letter, the author of which fays, that he
wrote to him of his own accord, being in duty bound
to it, as a fervant of the queen. He complains that
Mr Bayle, fpeaking of her majefty, called her only
Chrijlina, without any title; he finds alfo great fault
with his calling the letter “ a remainder of Proteftan¬
tifm.” He blames him likewife for infecting the words
“ I am,” in the conclufion of the letter. “ Thefe
words (fays this anonymous writer) -are not her maje-
fty’s; a queen, as ftie is, cannot employ thefe words
but with regard to a very few perfons, and Mr de Ter¬
lon is not of that number.” Mr Bayle wrote a vindi¬
cation of himfelf as to thefe particulars; with which the
author of the anonymous letter declared himfelf fatis-
fied, excepting what related to “ the remainder of
Proteftantifm.” He would not admit of the defence
with regard to that expreffion ; and, in another letter,
advifed him to retraft that expreffion. He adds in a
poftfeript, “ You mention, in your Journal of Auguft,
a fecond letter of the queen, which you fcruple to pub¬
liffi. Her majefty would be glad to fee that letter, and
you will do a thing agreeable to her if you would fend
it to her. You might take this opportunity of writing
to her majefty. This.counfel may be of fume ufe to
you; do not negledl it.” Mr Bayle took the hint, and
wrote a letter to her majefty, dated the I4rh of Novem¬
ber 1686; to which the queen, on the 14th of Decem¬
ber, wrote the following anfwer :
“ Mr Bayle, I have received your excufes; and am
willing you ffiould know by this letter, that I am fatis-
fied with them. I am obliged to the zeal of the per-
fon who gave you occafion of writing to me ; for i am
very glad to know you. You exprefa fo much refpeft
and affeftion for me, that I pardon you fincerely; and
I would have you know, that nothing gave me offence
but that remainder of Protejlantifm, of which you ac-
cufed me. I am very delicate on that head, becaufe
no body can fufpeft me of it, without leffening mjjr
glory, and injuring me in the moft fenfible manner.
You would do well, if you fiiould even acquaint the
public with the miftake you have made, and with your
regret for it. This is all that remains to be done by
you,
j
BAY [ 1068 ] B A Y
c'- you, in order to deferve my being entirely fatisfied with
you. As to the letter which you have fent me, it is
mine without doubt ; and fince you tell me that it is
printed, you will do me a pleafure if you fend me feme
copies of it. As I fear nothing in France, fo neither
do I fear any thing at Rome. My fortune, my blood,
and even my life, are entirely devoted to the fervice of
the church ; but I flatter nobody, and will never fpeak
any thing but the truth. I am obliged to thofe who
have been pleafed to publifh my letter, for I do not at
all difguife my fentimepts. I thank God, they are too
noble and too honourable to be difowned. However,
it is not true that this letter was written to one of my
niinifters. As I have every where enemies, and perfons
who envy me, fo in all places I have friends and fer-
vants : and I have pofiibly as many in France, notwith-
llanding of the court, as any where in the world. This
is purely the truth, and you may regulate yourfelf ac¬
cordingly. But you fliall not get off fo cheap as you
imagine. I will enjoin you a penance ; which is, that
you will henceforth take the trouble of fending me all
curious books that fhall be publifhed in Latin, French,
Spanifh, on Italian, on whatever fubjedl or fcience, pro¬
vided they are worthy of being looked into ; I do not
even except romances or fatires: and above all, if there
are any books of chemiftry, I defire you may fend
them to me as foon as pofilble. Do not forget likewife
to fend me your Journal. I fliall order that you be
paid for whatever you lay out, do but fend me an ac¬
count of it. This will be the moft agreeable and moft
important fervice that can be done me. May God pro-
fper you. Christina Alexandra,”
It now only remained that Mr Bayle fliould acquaint
the public with the miftake he had made, in order to
merit that princefs’s entire fatisfadlion ; and this he did
in the beginning of his Journal of the month of Ja¬
nuary, 1687.
The perfecution which the Proteftants at this time
fuffered in France affe&ed Mr Bayle extremely. He
made occafionally fame refleftions on their fufferings in
his Journal; and he wrote a pamphlet alfo on the fub-
je£t. Some time afterward he publiflred his Comment-
aire Philofophique upon thefe words, “ Compel them
to come in but the great application he gave to this
and his other works, threw him into a fit of ficknefs,
which obliged him to difeontinue his Literary Journal.
Being advifed to try a change of air, he left Rotter¬
dam on the 8th of Auguft, and went to Cleves; whence,
after having continued fome time, he removed to Aix
la Chapelle, and from thence returned to Rotterdam on
the 18th of Oftober. In the year 1690, the famous
book entitled, s4vis aux Refugiez, &c. made its ap¬
pearance. Mr Jurieu, who took Mr Bayle for the au¬
thor thereof, wrote a piece againft it; and he prefixed
an advice to the public, wherein he calls Mr Bayle a
profane perfon, and a traitor engaged in a confpiracy
againft the ftate. As foon as Mr Bayle had read this
libel againft him, he went to the grand Schout of Rot¬
terdam, and offered to go to prifon, provided his accu-
fer would accompany him, and undergo the punifli-
ment he deferved if the accufation was found unjuft.
He publifhed alfo an anfwer to Mr Jurieu’s charge ;
and as his reputation, nay his very life, was at flake in
-cafe the accufation of treafon was proved, he therefore
thought himfelf not obliged to keep any terms with
his accnfer, and attacked him with the utmoft feverity. B''
Mr Jurieu loft all patience : he applied himfelf to the ,“_
magiflrates of Amfterdam ; who advifed him to a re- 1
conciliation with Mr Bayle, and enjoined them not to J
publifh any thing againft each other till it was examined \
by Mr Boyer, the penfioner of Rotterdam. But not- j
withftanding this prohibition, Mr Jurieu attacked Mr ]
Bayle again with fo much paffion, that heTorced him ]
to Write a new vindication of himfelf.
In November 1690, Mr de Beauval advertifed in
his Journal s? fcheme for a Critical Dictionary. This
was the work of Mr Bayle. The articles of the three ‘
firft letters of the alphabet were already prepared ; but
a difpute happening betwixt him and Mr de Beauval, ]
obliged him for fome time to lay afide the work. Nor
did he refume it till May 1692, when he publifhed his '
fcheme : but the public not approving of his plan, he j
threw it into a different form ; and the firft volume was l
publifhed in Auguft 1695, anc* t^ie feomcl in Odlober j
following. The work was extremely well received by j
the public ; but it engaged him in frefh difputes, par- j
ticularly with Mr Jurieu and the abbe Renaudot. Mr ^
Jurieu publifhed a piece, wherein he endeavoured to en¬
gage the ecclefiaftical aflemblies to condemn the die- j Ij
tionary; he prefented it to the fenate fitting at Delft, i
but they took no notice of the affair. The confiftory i
of Rotterdam granted Mr Bayle a hearing ; and after
having heard his anfwers to their remarks on his die- i
tionary, declared themfelves fatisfied, and advifed him I
to communicate this to the public. . Mr Jurieu made !
another attempt with the confiftory in 1698 ; and fo j
far he prevailed with them, that they exhorted Mr
Bayle to be more cautious with regard to his princi- I
pies in the fecond edition of his didlionary ; which was ’
publifhed in 1702, with many additions and improve- j
ments.
Mr Bayle was a moft laborious and indefatigable wri¬
ter. In one of his letters to Maizeaux, he fays, that
fince his 20th year he hardly remembers to have had
any leifure. His intenfe application contributed per¬
haps to impair his conftitution, for it foon began to \
decline. He had a decay of the lungs, which weak- J
ened him confiderably ; and as this was a diftemper
which had cut off feveral of his family, he judged it to H
be mortal, and would take no remedies. He died the
28th of December 1706, after he had been writing the
greateft part of the day. He wrote feveral books be-
fides what we have mentioned, many of which were in 1 ]
his own defence againft attacks he had received from
the abbe Renaudot, Mr Clerc, M. Jaquelot, and others. •!
Among the produdions which do honour to the ag-e of ! *
Lewis XIV. Mr Voltaire has not omitted the Critical
Dictionary of our author : “ It is the firft work of the ■ i
kind (he fays) in which a man may learn to think.” i,
He cenfures indeed thofe artiefes, which contain only
a detail of minute fafts, as unworthy either of Bale, ; t
an underftanding reader, or pofterity. “ In placing
him (continues the fame author) amongft the writers
who do honour to the age of Lewis XIV. notwith-
Handing his being a refugee in Holland, I only con- j
form to the decree of the parliament of Tholoufe,
which, when it declared his will valid in France, not-
withftanding the rigour of the laws, exprefsly faid, that
fucb a man could not be confidered as a foreigner.”
BAYON, a town of France, in Lorrain, feated on
the I
:
BAY [ 1069 ] B A Z
-yon the river Mofelle. E. Long. 14. 42. N. Lat. 48. 30.
Bayon, or Bayona, a town of Galicia, in Spain,
jp* feated on a fmall gulph of the Atlantic ocean, about
12 miles from Tuy. It has a very commodious har-
i hour, and the country about it is fertile. W. Long,
i 9. 30. N. Lat. 43. 3.
BAYONET, in the military art, a fliort broad
dagger, formerly with a round handle fitted for the
bore of a firelock, to be fixed there after the foldierhad
fired; but they are now made with iron handles and
rings, that go over the muzzle of the firelock, and are
ferew'd faft, fo that the foldier fires with his bayonet
on the muzzle of his piece, and is ready to adt againft
the horfe. This ufe of the bayonet faftened on the
muzzle of the firelock was a great improvement, firft
introduced by the French, and to which, according to
M. Folard, they owed a great part of their vidtories in
the laft century; and to the negledt of this in the next
fucceeding war, and trufting to their fire, the fame au¬
thor attributes moft of the Ioffes they fultained. At
the fiege of Malta, a weapon called pila ignea was con¬
trived to oppofe the bayonets, being"in fome meafure
the cbirverfe thereof; as the latter confifts of a dagger
added to a fire-arm, the former confifted of a fire-arm
added to a pilum or pike.
BAYONNE, a city of Gafcony, in France; feated
near the mouth of the river Adour, which forms a
good harbour. It is moderately large, and of great
importance. It is divided into three parts. The great
town is on this fide the river Nive : the little town is
between the Nive and the Adour ; and the fuburbs of
Saint Efprit is beyond this laft river. Both the former
are furrounded with an old wall and a dry ditch, and
there is a fmall caftle in each. That of Great Bayonne
is flanked with four round towers, and is the place
where the governor refidcs. The new caftle is flanked
with four towers, in the form of baftions. The firft
inclofure is covered with another, compofed of eight
baftions, with a great horn-work, and a half moon; all
which are encompaffed with a ditch, and a covered
way. There is a communication between the city and
the fuburbs by a bridge, and the fuburbs is well forti¬
fied. The citadel is feated beyond the Adour, on the
fide of the fuburbs abovementioned. The public build¬
ings have nothing remarkable; it is the only city in the
kingdom that has the advantage of two rivers, wherein
the tide ebbs and flows. The river Nive is deeper than
the Adour, but lefs rapid, by which means Ihips come
up into the middle of the city. There are two bridges
over this river, "by which the old and new town com¬
municate with each other. The trade of this town is
the more confiderable, on account of its neighbourhood
to Spain, and the great quantity of wines which are
brought hither from the adjacent country. The Dutch
carry off a great number of pipes in exchange for fpi-
ces and other commodities, which they bring thither.
The inhabitants have the privilege of guarding two of
their three gates, and the third is kept by the king.
W. Long. 1. 20. N. Lat. 43. 20.
BAYS, in commerce, a fort of open woollen fluff,
having a long nap, fometimes frized, and fometimes
not. This fluff is without wale; and is wrought in a
loom with two treddles, like flannel. It is chiefly ma-
nufaftured at Colchefter and Bockin in Effex, where
there is a hall called the Dutch-bay hall or raw-hall.
Vol. II.
This manufa&ure was firft introduced into England,. BazatJois
with that of fays, farges, &c. by the Flemings;
who, being perfecuted by the duke of Alva for their —-—I
religion, fled thither about the fifth of Queen Eliza¬
beth’s reign; and had afterwards peculiar privileges
granted them by aft of parliament 12 Charles II. 1660,
which the bays-makers in the above places ftill enjoy.—
The exportation of bays was formerly much more con¬
fiderable than at pfefent when the French have learned
to imitate them. However, the Englifh bays are flill
fent in great quantities to Spain and Portugal, and
even to Italy. Their chief ufe is for drefiing the
monks and nuns, and for linings, efpecially in the ar¬
my. The looking-glafs makers alfo ufe them behind
their glaffes, to preferve the tin or quickfilver; and
the cafe-makers, to line their cafes. The breadth of
bays is commonly a yard and a half, a yard and three
quarters, or two yards, by 42 to 48 in length. Thofe
of a yard and three quarters are moft proper for the Spa-
nilh trade.
BAZADOIS, a province of Guienne in France,
v/hich makes part of Lower Gafcony. It is a barren
heathy country. Its capital is Bazas.
BAZAR, or Basar, a denomination among the
Turks and Perfians, given to a kind of exchanges, or
places where their fineft fluffs and other wares are
fold. Thefe are alfo called bezeJUns. The word bazar
feems of Arabic origin, where it denotes fale, or ex¬
change of goods. Some of the eaftern bazars are
open, like the market-places in Europe, and ferve for
the fame ufes, more particularly for the fale of the
bulky and lefs valuable commodities. Others are co¬
vered with lofty cielings, or even domes, pierced to give
light; and it is in thefe the jewelers, goldfmiths, and
other dealers in the richer wares, have their (hops.
The bazar or maidan of Ifpahan, is one of the fineft
places in Perfia, and even furpaffes all the exchanges
in Europe ; yet, notwithftanding its magnificence, it
is excelled by the bazar of Tauris, which is the larged
that is known, having feveral times held 30,000 men
ranged in order of battle. At Conftantinqple, there
is the old and the new bazar, which are large fquare
buildings, covered with domes, and fuftained by arches
and pilafters ; the former chiefly for arms, harneffes,
and the like ; the latter for goldfmiths, jewelers, fur¬
riers, and all forts of manufafturers.
BAZAS, a town of Guienne in France, capital of
the Bazadois, with a biftiop’s fee. It is built on a
rock, in W. Long. o. 30. N. Lat. 44. 20.
BAZAT, or Baza, in commerce, along, fine, fpun
cotton, which comes from Jerufalem, whence it is alfo
called Jefufakm-cotton.
BAZGENDGES, in natural hitlory, the name of a
fubftance ufed by the Turks, and other eattern nations,
in their fcarlet-dying: they mix it for this purpofe
with cochineal and tartar, the proportions being two
ounces of the bazgendges to one ounce of cochineal. .
Thefe are generally efteemed a fort of fruit, and are
produced on certain trees in Syria and other places ;
and it is ufually ftippofed, that the fcarcity and dearnefs
of them is the only thing that makes them npt ufed in
Europe. But the bazgendges feem to be no other than
the horns of the turpentine-tree in the eaftern parts of
the world ; and it is not only in Syria that they are
found, but China alfo affords there. Many things of
6 T this
f
B E A [ 1070 ] B E A
Bdellium this kincTwere fent over to Mr Geoffroy at Paris from
il China, as the fubftances ufed in the fcarlet-dying of
Eeacon‘ that country, and they all proved wholly the fame with
the Syrian and Turkifh bazgendges, and with the com¬
mon turpentine horns. The lentilk, or maftic-tree, is
alfo frequently found producing many horns of a like
kind with thefe, and of the fame origin, all being owing
to the pucerons, which make their way into the leaves,
to breed their young there.
BDELLIUM, a gummy refmous juice, produced
by a tree in the Eaft Indies, of which we have no fa-
tisfa&ory account. It is brought into Europe both
from the Eaft Indies and Arabia. It is in pieces of
different fizes and figures, externally of a dark reddifh
brown, fomewhat like myrrh ; internally it is clear,
and not unlike to glue; to the tafte it is flightly bit-
terifh and pungent; its odour-is very agreeable. If
held in the mouth, it foon becomes foft and tenacious,
fticking to the teeth. Laid on a red-hot iron, it rea¬
dily catches flame, and burns with a crackling noife,
and, in proportion to its goodnefs, it is more or lefs
fragrant. Near half of its fubftance diffolves either in
water or in fpirit of wine; but the tinfture made with
fpirit is fomewhat ftronger, and by much more agree¬
able. Vinegar, or verjuice, diffolves it wholly. The
fimple gum is a better medicine than any preparation
from it. It is one the weakeft of the deobftruent gums,
but it is ufed as a pedoral and an emmenagogue.
BE ACHY-head, a promontary on the coaft of Suf-
fex, between Haftings and Shoreham, where the French
defeated the Englifh and Dutch fleet in 1690.
BEACON, a fignal for the better fecuring the king¬
dom from foreign invafions. - See Signal.
On certain eminent places of the country are placed
long poles erefted, whereon are faftened pitch-bafrels
to be fired by night, and fmoke made by day, to give
notice in a few hours to the whole kingdom of an ap¬
proaching invafion. Thefe are commonly called bea-
• See Bea- cons; whence alfo comes beaconage*.—We find bea-
conage. cons famiHarly in ufe among the primitive Britons and
Weftern Highlanders. The befieged capital of one of
our northern ifles, in the third century, a&ually lighted
up a fire upon a tower; and Fingal inftantly knew
^ _ “ the green flame edged with fmoke” to be a token
VolfT.”' attack and diftrefs f. And there are to this day
p. 198. feveral cairns or heaps of Hones upon the heights along
the coafts of the Harries, on which the inhabitants ufed
to burn heath as a fignal of an approaching enemy.
Beacons are alfo marks and figns eredted on the
coafts, for guiding and preferving veffels at fea, by
night as well as by day.
The ere&ion of beacons, light-houfes, and fea-marks,
is a branch of the royal prerogative. The king hath
the exclulive power, by commiffion under his great feal,
to caufe them to be ere&ed in fit and convenient places,
as well upon the lands of the fubjeft as upon the de-
mefnes of the crown: which power is ufually veiled by
letters patent in the office of lord high admiral. And
by ftatute 8 Eliz. c. 13. the corporation of the trinity-
houfe are- impowered to fet up any beacons or fea-
marks wherever they fhall think them neceffary ; and
if the owner of the land or any other perfon fhall de-
ilroy them, or fhall take down any fteeple, tree, or other
known fea-mark, he fhall forfeit tool, or, in cafe of in¬
ability to pay it, fhall be /g/b fatlo outlawed.
BEACONAGE, money paid towards the mainte- Bcaeonii
nance of a beacon *.—The word is derived from the BJ|j
Saxon beacnian, to nod, or fhew by a fign: hence alfo
the word beckon. * See m
BEACONSFIELD, a town of Buckinghamfhire con- j|
in England, feated on a hill in the road between Lon- j|
don and Oxford. It has feveral good inns, though not j]
above too houfes. W. Long. o. 25. N. Lat. 51. 36. ||
BEAD, a fmall glafs ball, made in imitation of
pearl, and ufed in necklaces, &c.—The Romaniits I
make great ufe of beads in rehearfing their Ave-Marias
and Pater-nojiers; and the like ufage is found among I]
the dervifes and other religious throughout the Eaft,
as well Mahometan as Heathen. The ancient druids
appear alfo to have had their beads, many of which are
ftill found ; at leaft, if the conjecture of an ingenious , ;!
author may be admitted, who takes thofe antique glafs la
globules, having a fnake painted round them, and called
adder-beads, or fnake-buttons, to have been the beads |i
of our ancient Britifli druids. See Anguis.
Bead, in architecture, a round moulding, commonly
made upon the edge of 3 piece of fluff, in the Corin¬
thian and Roman orders, cut or carved in fliort embofs- ]|
ments, like beads in. necklaces.
BEAD-Afalerr, called by the French paternojiriers,
are thofe employed in the making, ftringing, and fell¬
ing of beads. At Paris there are three companies of
paternoftriers,, or bead-makers; one who make them of
glafs or cryftal ; another in wood and horn ; and the I
third in amber, coral, jet, &c.
Bead-/V<?cA a term ufed by our diflillers, to exprefs I
that fort of proof of the ftandard flrength of fpiritu-
ous liquors; which confifts in their having, when fhaken
in a phial, or poured from on high into a glafs, a crown
of bubbles, which Hand on the furface fome time after.
This is efleemed a proof that the fpirit confifts of equal
parts of re&ified fpirits and phlegm. - This is a fal¬
lacious rule as to the degree of ftrength in the goods;
becaufe any thing that will increafe the tenacity of the
fpirit, will give it this proof, though it be under the il
due ftrength. Our malt-diftillers fpoil the greater
part of their goods, by leaving too much of the flank¬
ing oil of the malt in their fpirit, in order to give it
this proof when fomewhat under the ftandard ftrength. I
But this is a great deceit on the purchafers of malt fpi- j|
rits, as they have them by this means not only weaker
than they ought to be, but ftinking with an oil that jl
they are not ealily cleared of afterwards. On the other
hand, the dealers in brandy, who ufually have the art
of fophifticating it to a great nicety, are in the right ,1
when they buy it by the ftrongeft bead-proof, as the
grand mark of the bell; for being a proof of the brandy
containing a large quantity of its oil, it is, at the fame 1
time, a token of its high flavour, and of its being ca¬
pable of bearing a very large addition of the common
fpirits of our own produce, without betraying their flar
vour, or lofing its owm. We value the French brandy
for the quantity of this effential oil of the grape which
it contains; and that with good reafon, as it is with us
principally ufed for drinking as an agreeably flavoured : i
cordial; but the French themfelves, when they want it
for any curious purpofes, are as careful in the reClifi-
cations of it, and take as much pains to clear it from j
this oil, as we do to free our malt fpirit from that nau- 1
feous and fetid oil which it originally contains.
Bead-
B E A [ 1071 ] B E A
cad Bead-7?<5//, among Papilts, a Itu of fuch perfons, for
11 the reft; of whofe fouls they are obliged to repeat a cer-
tain number of prayers, which they count by means of
their beads.
BEADLE, (from the Saxon lydd, a mejfenger), a
crier or meffenger of a court, who cites perfons to ap¬
pear and anfwer. Called alfo a fummoner or apparitor.
—Beadle is alfo an officer at an univerfity, whofe chief
bufinefs is to walk before the mafters with a mace, at
all public proceffions. — There are alfo church-beadles,
whole office is well known.
BEAGLES, a fmall fort of hounds or hunting dogs.
Beagles are of divers kinds; as the fouthern beagle,
fomething lefs and fhorter, but thicker, than the deep-
mouthed hound; the fleet northern or cat beagle, fmaller,
and of a finer Ihape than the fouthern, and a harder
runner. From the two, by croffing the ftrains, is bred
a third fort held preferable to either. To thefe may
be added a ftill fmaller fort of beagles, fcarce bigger
than lap-dogs, which make pretty diverfion in hunting
the coney, or even fmall hare in dry weather ; but o-
therwife unferviceable, by reafon of their fize.
rni~ BEAK, the bill or nib of a bird *.
an Beak, or Beak-head, of a ffiip, that part without
• the (hip, before the fore-caftle, which is fattened to the
ftem, and is fupported by the main knee.
The beak, called by the Greeks by the La¬
tins rojlrtim, was an important part in the ancient {hips
of war, which were hence denominated naves rjojlratee.
The beak was made of wood; but fortified with brafs,
and fattened to the prow, ferving to annoy the enemies
veffels. Its invention is attributed to Pifasus an Italian.
The firft beaks were made long and high ; but after¬
wards a Corinthian, named Arifto, contrived to make
them (hort and ftrong, and placed fo low, as to pierce
the enemies veffels under water. By the help of thefe
great havock was made by the Syracufians in the A-
thenian fiett.
BEAKED, in heraldry, a term ufed to exprefs the
beak or bill of a bird. When the beak and legs of a
fowl are of a different tin&ure from the body, we fay
beaked and membered of fuch a tincture.
BEALE (Mary), particularly diftinguilhed by her
(kill in painting, was the daughter of Mr Craddock,
minitter of Waltham upon Thames, and learneclthe ru¬
diments of her art from Sir Peter Lely. She painted
in oil, water-colours, and crayons, and had much bufi¬
nefs; her portraits were in the Italian ftyle, which {he
•acquired by copying pidtures and drawings from Sir
Peter Lely’s and the royal colledlions. Her matter,
fays Mr Walpole, was fuppofed ,to have had a tender
attachment to her ; but^as he was referved in commu¬
nicating to her all the refources of his pencil, it pro¬
bably was a gallant rather than a fuccefsful one. Dr
Woodfall wrote feveral pieces to her honour, under the
name of Belefia. Mrs Beale died in Pall-mall, on the
28th of December, 1697, aged 65. Her paintings
have much nature, but the colouring is ftiff and heavy.
BEALT, Bealth, or Builth, a town of Breck-
nockfttire in South Wales, pleafantly feated on the ri¬
ver Wye. It confifts of about 100 houfes^ whofe in¬
habitants have a trade in ftockings. W. Long. 4. 10.
N. Lat. 52. 4.
BEAM, in architedlure, the largeft piece of wood
in a building, which lies crofs the walls, and ferns to
fupport the principal rafters of the roof, and into which Beam
the feet of thefe rafters are framed. No building has ^[1
lefs than two of thefe beams, viz. one at each end; and
into thefe the girders of the garret roof are alfo framed.
The proportion of beams in or near London, afe fixed
by ftatute, as follows: a beam 15 feet long, mutt be
7 inches on one fide its fquare, and 5 on the other; if
it be 16 feet long, one fide mutt be 8 inches, the other
6, and fo proportionably to their lengths. In the coun¬
try, where wood is more plenty, they ufually make
their beams ftronger.
Beams of a Ship are the great main crofs-timbers
which hold the fides of the fhip from falling together,
and which alfo fupport the decks and orlops : the main
beam is next the main-matt, and from it they are rec¬
koned by firft, fecond, third beam, &c. the greateft
beam of all is called the midjhip beam.
Ybzkyi-Compafs, an inftrument confifting of a fquare
wooden or brafs beam, having Aiding fockets, that
can y fteel or pencil points; they are ufed for defcribing
large circles, where the common compaffes are ufelefs.
¥>KA.u-Bird, or Petty-chaps. See Motacilla.
Beam alfo denotes the lath, or iron, of a pair of
fcales; fometimes the whole apparatus for weighing of
goods is fo called : Thus we fay, it weighs fo much at
the king’s beam.
Beam of a Plough, that in which all the parts of
the plough-tail are fixed *. * See
Beam, or Roller, among weavers, a long and thick pJough; and
wooden cylinder, placed lengthwife on the back-part no&c!’
of the loom of thofe who work with a Aiuttle. That ’
cylinder, on which the ftuff is rolled as it is weaved, is
alfo called the beam or roller, and is placed on the fore¬
part of the loom.
BEAMINSTER, a town of Dorfetttiire in England,
featedon the river Bert, in W. Long. 2. 50. N. Lat. 52.
45-
BEAN, in botany. See Vicia.
The ancients made ufe of beans in gathering the
votes of the people, and for the eledlion of inagi-
ftrates. A white bean fignified abfolution, and a black
one condemnation. Beans had a mytterious ufe in the
lemuralia and parentalia; where the matter of the
family, after wattling, was to throw a fort of black
beans over his head, ftill repeating the words, ‘ I re¬
deem myfelf and family by thefe beans.’ Ovidf gives a f Fuji. life,
lively defcription of the whole ceremony in verfe.— S-v. 435.
Abttinence from beans was enjoined by Pythagoras, one
of whofe fymbols is, aTs^ea*, abjline a fabis.
The Egyptian priefts held it a crime to look at beans,
judging the very fight unclean. The flamen dialis was *
not permitted even to mention the name. The precept
of Pythagoras has been varioufty interpreted: fame
underftand it of forbearing to meddle in trials and ver¬
dicts, which were then by throwing beans into an urn:
others, building on the equivoque of the word
which equally lignifies a bean and a human teficle, ex¬
plain it by abftaining from venery. Clemens Alexan-
drinus grounds the abftinence from beans on this, that
they render women barren; which is confirmed by
Theophraftus, who extends the effeCt even to plants.
Cicero fuggefts another reafon for this abttinence, viz.
that beans are great enemies to tranquillity of mind.
For a reafon of this kind it is, that Amphiaraus isfaid
to have abftained from beans, even before Pythagoras,
6 T 2 that
B E A [ 10;
Beans that he might enjoy a clearer divination by dreams.
Beans, as food for horfes. See Farriery, $ i. 6.
_e3r^  Bean-CW, a fmall fifhing velfel, or pilot-boat, com¬
mon on the fea-coalts and in the rivers of Portugal. It
is extremely fharp forward, having its Item bent inward
above into a great curve : the ftem is alfo plated on the
fore-fide with iron, into which a number of bolts are
driven, to fortify it, and refill the llroke of another
veffel, which may fall athwart-haufe. It is commonly
navigated with a large lateen fail, which extends over
the whole length of the deck, and is accordingly well
fitted to ply to windward.
Bean-jP/sw, called by the Romans lomentum,
was of fome repute among the ancient ladies as a cof-
metic, wherewith to fmooth the Ikin, and take away
wrinkles.
BEAN-F/y, in natural hillory, the name given by
authors to a very beautiful fly, of a pale purple colour,
frequently found on bean-flowers. It is produced from
the worm or maggot called by authors mida.
'S>v.\}i-Goofe, in ornithology. See Anas.
Kidney•hv.k-a. See Phaseolus.
BEAR, in zoology. See Ursus.
Bear, in aftronomy. See Ursa.
Order of the Bear was a military order in Switzer¬
land, erefted by the emperor Frederick II. in 1213,
by way of acknowledgement for the fervice the Swifs
had done him, and in favour of the abbey of St Gaul.
To the collar of the order hung a medal, on which was
reprefented a bear raifed on an eminence of earth.
BEAR’s-i?m?c/f’, in botany. See Acanthus.
Bear’s Flejh was much efteerned by the ancients :
even at this day, the paw of a bear faked and fmoked
is ferved up at the table of princes.
Bear’s Greafe, was formerly efteemed a fovereign re¬
medy again!! cold diforders, efpecially rheumatifms.
Bear’s Skin makes a fur in great elleetn, and on
which depends a confiderable article of commerce, being
ufed in houfings, on coach-boxes, &c. In fome coun¬
tries, clothes are made of it, more efpecially bags
wherein to keep the feet warm in fevere colds. Of the
flcins of bears cubs are made gloves, muffs, and the like.
BEARALSTON, a poor town of Devonfhire,
which, however, is a borough by prefcription, and
fends two members to parliament.
BEARD, the hair growing on the chin, and adja-
* See Heir, cent parts of the face, chiefly of adults and males *.
Various have been the ceremonies andcuitoms of mod
nations in regard of the beard. The Tartars, out of
a religious principle, waged a long and bloody war
with the Perfians, declaring them infidels, merely be-
caufe they would not cut their whifkers, after the rite
of Tartary: and we find, that a confiderable branch
of the religion of the ancients, confijtedin the manage¬
ment of their beard. The Greeks wore their beards
till the time of Alexander the Great; that prince ha¬
ving ordered the Macedonians to be lhaved, for fear it
fhould give a handle to their enemies. According to
Pliny, the Romans did not begin to fhave till the year
of Rome 454, when P. Ticinius brought over a flock
of barbers from Sicily.—Perfons of quality had their
children fhaved the firfl time by others of the fame or
greater quality, who, by* this means, became god¬
father, or adoptive father of the children. Anciently,
indeed, a perfon became god-father of the child by
•2 ] B E A
barely touching his beard : thus hiflorians relate, that Beared?
one of the articles of the treaty between Alaric and | |
Clovis was, that Alaric fhould touch the beard of 11
Clovis to become his god-father.
As to ecclefiaflics, the difeipline has been very dif¬
ferent on the article of beards : fometimes they have |1
been enjoined to wear them, from a notion of too much Jfl
effeminacy in (having, and that a long beard was more .]■
fuitable to the ecclefiaftical gravity; and fometimes Ji
again they were forbid it, as imagining pride to lurk
beneath a venerable beard. The Greek and Roman |i
churches have been long together by the ears about 9
their beards : fince the time of their feparation, the (■. j
Romanifls feem to have given more into the practice of II
(having, by way of oppofition to the Greeks; and have
even made fome exprefs conflitutions de radendis barbh.
The Greeks, bn the contrary, efpoufe very zealoufly II
the caufe of long beards, and are extremely fcandalized 'i I
at the beardlefs images of faints in the Roman churches. 1
By the flatues of fome monafteries it appears, that the
lay-monks were to let their beards grow, and the priefls ]?
among them to fhave ; and that the beards of all that
were received into the monafleries, were bleffed with a 4
great deal of ceremony. There are flill extant the
prayers ufed in the folemnityof confecrating the beard
to God, when an ecclefiaftic was (haven.
Le Comte obferves, that the Chinefe affedl long
beards extravagantly; but nature has balked them, and 1
only given them very little ones, which, however, they ;'jl
cultivate with infinite care: the Europeans are flrange- 1
ly envied by them on this account, and efleemed the
greateft men in the world. The Ruffians wore their
beards till within this half century, when Peter the
Great enjoined them all to fhave; but notwithflanding 'l
his injunction, he was obliged to keep on foot a num-
ber of officers to cut off by violence the beards of fuch
as. would not otherwife part with them. Chryfoflom I
obferves, that the kings of Perfia had their beards wove
or matted together with gold-thread ; and fome of the
firfl kings of France had their beards knotted and but¬
toned with gold.
Among the Franks, (having or mutilating the beard
was the greateft affront that could be offered any per- J
fon. Taking away a (ingle hair was an injury fcarce |
to be forgiven. Among the Turks, it is more infa- 1
mous for any one to have his beard cut off, than among
us to be publicly whipt, or branded with a hot iron. , a
There are abundance in that country, who would pre- j|
fer death to this kind of punifhment. The Arabs
make the prefervation of their beards a capital point J
of religion, becaufe Mahomet never cut his. Hence the ;
razor is never drawn over the Grand Signior’s face.
The Perfians, who clip them, and (liave above the jaw,
are reputed heretics. It is likewife a mark of autho¬
rity and liberty among them, as well as among the
Turks. They who ferve in the feraglio, have their I
beards (haven, as a fign of their fervitude. They do
not fuffer it to grow till the fultan has fet them at liber- j
ty, which is bellowed as a reward upon them, and is
always accompanied with fome employment.
Confecration of the Beard was a ceremony among
the Roman youth, who, when they were lhaved the
firft time, kept a day of rejoicing, and were particu¬
larly careful to put the hair of their beard into a filver
or gold box, and make an offering of it to fome god,
par-
B E A
[ 1073 ] B E A
done by of the emperors who nourifhed his beard : Bearded
particularly to Jupiter Capitolinus,
Nero, according to Suetonius. hence jjll/ imperial medals before him are beardlefs
Kijfing the Beard. The Turkifli wives kifs their after him, bearded.
hufbands beards, and children their fathers, as often as , 'iP?ARDED Women have been all obferved to want the
they come to falute them. The men kifs one anothers menftnial difcharge ; and feveral inftaijces are given by
beards reciprocally on both Tides, when they Cdute in Hippocrates, and other phylicians, of grown women,
the (treets, or come off from any journey. efpecially widows, in whom the menfes coming to itop
ncarfls "P.nCpKiiic TsJi*jrpmKpt*r»Mnc
The Fajhion of the Beard has varied in different
ages and countries; fome cultivating and entertaining
one part of it, fome another. Thus the Hebrews wear
a beard on their chin ; but not on the upper-lip or
cheeks. Mofes forbids them to cut off entirely the
angle or extremity of their beard ; that is, to manage
it after the Egyptian faihion, who left only a little tuft
of beard at the extremity of their chin ; whereas the
Jews to this day fuffer a little fillet of hair to grow
from the lower end of their ears to their chins, where,
as well as on their lower-lips, their beards are in a pretty
long bunch. The Jews, in time of mourning, neg-
lefted to trim their beards, that is, to cut off what
grew fnperfluous on the upper-lips and cheeks. In
time of grief and great affii&ion, they alfo plucked off
the hair of their beards.
Anointing the Beard with unguents is an ancient
practice both among the Jews and Romans, and ftiil
beards appeared. Eufebius Nierembergius mentions a
woman who had a beard reaching to her navel.
BExlRERS, in heraldry. See Supporters.
BEARING, in navigation, an arch of the horijon
intercepted between the neareit meridian and any di-
fiimff objeft, either difcovered by the eye, orrefulting
from the finical proportion ; as in the firft cafe, at
4 P. M. Cape Spado, in the ille of Candia, bore S. by
W. by the compafs. In the fecond, the longitudes
and latitudes of any two places being given, andcon-
fequently the difference of latitude and longitude be¬
tween them, the bearing from one to the other is dif¬
covered by the following analogy :
As the meridional difference of latitude
Is to the difference of longitude ;
So is radius
To the tangent bearing.
Bearing is alfo the iituation of any diftant object*
continues in ufe among the Turks; where one of the eftimated from fome part of the Ihip according to her
principal ceremonies obferved in ferious vifits is to
throw fweet-fcented water on the beards of the vifi-
tant, and to perfume it afterwards with aloes-wood,
which fticks to this moifture, and gives it an agreeable
fmell, &c. In middle-age writers we meet with adlen-
tare barb am, .ufed for ilroking and combing it, to
render it foft and flexible. The Turks, when they
comb their beards, hold a hankerchief on their knees,
and gather very carefully die hairs that fall; and when
they have got together a certain quantity, they fold
them up in paper, and carry them to the place where
they bury the dead.
Beard of a Comet, the rays which the comet emits
towards that part of the heaven to which its proper
motion feems to direft it; in which the beard of a co¬
met is diftinguilhed from the tail, which is underftood
of the rays emitted towards that part from whence its
motion feems to carry it.
Beard of a Horfe, that part underneath the lower
mandible on the outfide and above the chin, which bears
the curb. It is alfo called the chuck. It fliould have
poll lion. In this fenfe, an object fo difcovered, muff
be either ahead, aftern, abreatt on the bow, or on the
quarter. Thefe bearings, therefore, which may be
called mechanical, are on the beam, before the beam,
abaft the beam, on the bow, on the quarter, ahead,
or aftern. If the fliip fails with a fide-wind, it alters
the names of fuch bearings in fome meafnre, fince a
diftant obje6t on the beam is then faid to be to lee¬
ward or to windward; on the lee quarter or bow,
and on the weather-quarter or bow.
Bearing, in the fea-language. When a (hip fails
towards the ftiore, before the wind, flie is faid to beat-
in with the land or harbour. To let the ftiip fail more
before the wind, is to hear up. To put her ricnit be¬
fore the wind, is to bear round. A fhip that keeps oft’
from the land, is faid to bear off. When a fliip that
was to windward conies under a fnip’s ftern, and fo
gives her the wind, flie is faid to hear under her lee, &c.
There is another fenfe of this word, in reference to the
burden of a fliip ; for they fay a ihip bears, when,
having too (lender or lean a quarter, (he will fink too
~    ’♦.l.   t* t_a r • 1 . 1
but little flefti upon it, without any chops, hardnefs, deep into the water with an over light freight, and
fwelling; and be neither too high railed nor too flat,
but fuch as the curb may reft in its right place.
Beard of a Mtifcle, oyftcr, or the like, denotes an
affemblage of threads or hairs, by which thofe animals nobility and gentry are diftinguilhed from the vuig;
• • and from one another. Sed Heraldry.
thereby can carry but a fmall quantity' of goods.
Bearings, in heraldry, a term ufed to expnefs a
coat of arms, or the figures of armories by which the
fallen themfelves to Hones. The hairs of this beard
terminate in a flat fpungy iubftance, which being ap- BEARN, a province of France, bounded on the
plied to the furface of a Hone, flicks thereto, like the call by Bigorre, on the fouth by the mountains of Ar-
wet leather ufed by boys. ragon, on the weft by Soule and part of Navarre,
Beards, in the hiftory of infers, are two fmall, and on the north by Gafcony and Armagnac. It lies
oblong, flelhy bodies, placed juft above the trunk, as at the foot of the Pyrensean mountains, being about
in the gnats, and in the moths and butterflies. 16 leagues in length, and 12 in breadth. In general
Bearded, denotes a perfon or thing with a beard, it is but a barren country; yet the plains yield Con¬
or fome refemblance thereof. The faces on ancient
Greek and Roman medals are generally bearded. Some
are denominated pogonati, as having long beards, e.gr.
fiderable quantities of flax, and a good quantity of
Indian corn called mailloc. The mountains are rich
mines of iron, copper, and lead; fome of t
the Parthian kings. Others have only a lanugo about alfo are covered with vines, and others wuth pine trees;
the chin, as the Sdeucid family. Adrian was the firft and they give rife to feveral mineral fprings, and two
con-
B E A
[ 1074 ]
B E A
confiderable rivers, the one called the Gave of Oleron,
and the other the Gave of Bearn. Some wine is ex¬
ported from this country; and the Spaniards buy up
- great numbers of the horfes and cattle, together with
moft of their linen, of which there is a confiderable
manufadtory. The principal places are Pau, Lefcar,
Ortez, Novarreins, Sallies, and Oleron.
BEAST, in a general fenfe, an appellation given to
all four-footed animals, fit either for food, labour, or
fport.
Beasts of Burden, in a commercial fenfe, all four-
footed animals which ferve to carry merchandizes on
their backs. The hearts generally ufed for this pur-
pofe, are elephants, dromedaries, camels, horfes, mules,
afles, and the fheep of Mexico and Peru.
Beasts of the Chace are five, viz. the buck, the
doe, the fox, the roe, and the martin.
Beasts and Fowls of the Warren, are the hare, the
coney, the pheafant, and patridge.
Beasts of the Foref are the hart, hind, hare, boar,
and wolf.
continues for feveral years ; after which his holinefs
decrees the beatification. The corpfe and relics of the
future faint are from thenceforth expofed to the vene¬
ration of all good Chriftians : his images are crowned
with rays, and a particular office is fet apart for him ;
but his body and relics are not carried in proceffion :
indulgences likewife, and remiffion of fins, are granted
on the day of his beatification ; which though not fo
pompous as that of canonization, is however very
fplendid.
BEATING, or Pulsation, in medicine, the re¬
ciprocal agitation or palpitation of the heart or pulfe*.
Beating Time, in mufic, a method of meafuring
and marking the time for performers in concert, by a
motion of the hand or foot up and down fucceffively
and in equal times. Knowing the true time of a crot¬
chet, and fuppofmg the meafure a&ually fubdivided
into four crotchets, and the half meafure into two,
the hand or foot being up, if we put it down with the
very beginning of the firft note or crotchet, and then
raife it with the third, and then down with the begin-
Beast, among gamefters, a game at cards, played ning of the next meafure ; this is called beating the
time ; and, by pradlice, a habit is acquired of making
this motion very equal. Each down and up is fome-
times called a time, or meafure. JThe general rule is,
to contrive the divifion of the meafure fo, that every
down and up of the beating fhall end with a particular
note, on which very much depends the diltindfnefs, and,
as it were, the fenfe of the melody. Hence the begin¬
ning of every time, orbeating, in the meafure, is rec¬
koned the accented part thereof.
Beating time is denoted, in the Italian mufic, by
the term a battuta, which is ufually put after what
they call recitative, where little or no time is obferved,
to denote, that here they are to begin again to mark
or beat the time exa&ly.
The Romans aimed at fomewhat of harmony in the
ftrokes of their oars; and had an officer called portifeu-
in this manner : The beft cards are the king, queen,
&c. whereof they make three heaps, the king, the
play, and triolet. Three, four, or five, may play ;
and to every one is dealt five cards. However, before
the play begins, every one flakes to the three heaps.
He that wins moft tricks, takes up the heap called the
play; he that hath the king, takes up the heap fo
called ; and he that hath three of any fort, that is,
three fours, three fives, three fixes, &c. takes up the
triolet heap.
BEAT, in a general fignification, fignifies to chaf-
tife, ftrike, knock, or vanquifh.
This word has feveral other fignifications in the ma-
nufa&ures, and in the arts and trades. Sometimes it
fignifies to forge and hammer, in which fenfe fmiths
and farriers fay, to beat iron. Sometimes it means to
pound, to reduce into powderThus we fay, iobeat lus in each galley, whofe bufinefs was to beat time to
drugs, to beat pepper, to beat fpices ; that is to fay, to
pulverize them.
Beat of Drum, in the military art, is to give notice
by beat of drum of a hidden danger; or, that fcattered
foldiers may repair to their arms and quarters, is to
beat an alarm, or to arms. Alfo, to fignify, by different
manners of founding a drum, that the foldiers are to
fall on the enemy ; to retreat before, in, or after, an
attack; to move, or march, from one place to another;
to permit the foldiers to come out of their quarters at
break of day ; to order to repair to their colours, &c.;
is to beat a charge, a retreat, a march, &c.
Beat (St), a town of France, in the county of Com-
minges, at the confluence of the Garpnne and the Pique.
It is feated between two mountains which are clofe to
the town on each fide. All the houfes are built with
marble, becaufe they have no other materials. W.
Long. t. 6. N. Lat. 42. 50.
BEATIFICATION, an aft by which the Pope
declares a perfon beatified, or blefled, after his death.
It is the firft ftep towards canonization, or raifing any
one to the honour and dignity of a faint. No perfon fcabella, or fcabilla, becaufe like to little (tools or foot-
can be beatified till 50 years after his or her death, (tools. Sometimes they beat upon fonorous foot-ftools,
All certificates or atteftations of virtues and miracles, with the foot (hod with a wooden or iron foie. They
the neceffary qualifications for faintftu'p, are examined beat the meafure not only with the foot, but alfo with
by the congregation of rites. This examination often the right-hand, all the fingers whereof they joined to¬
gether*
the rowers, fometimes by a pole or mallet, and fome-
times by his voice alone.
The ancients marked the rhyme in their mufical com-
pofitions; but, to make it more obfervable in the prac¬
tice, they beat the meafure or time, and this in diffe¬
rent manners. The moft ufual confided in a motion
of the foot, which was raifed from, and (truck alter¬
nately againft, the ground, according to the modern
method. Doing this W'as commonly the province of
the matter of the mufic, who was thence called
and x.ogvTciL®-} becaufe placed in the middle of the choir
of muficians, and in an elevated fituation, to be feen
and heard more eafily by the whole company. Thefe
beaters of meafure were alfo called by the Greeks
TroSoKlvvoi and -rcio^itpoi, becaufe of the noife of their feet;
and amlrvxpioi, becaufe of the uniformity or monotony
of the rhyme. The Latins denominated them pedarii,
podarii, and pedicularii. To make the beats orftrokts
more audible, their feet were generally (hod with a fort
of fandals either of wood or iron, called by the Greeks
xfoua-axa, xgtvxvU, and by the Latins pedicula.
B E A [ 1075 ] B E A
gether, to ftrike into the hollow of the left. He who bigotted churchnran, and thought feverity the proper Beats
thus marked the rhythm, was called manuduttor. The method of fupprelfing herefy : he had great talents, R H
ancients alfo beat time ormeafure with fliells, asoyller- and vices that were no lefs confpicuous *. eaugemy.
fhells, and bones of animals, which they ftruck againft BEATS, in a watch or clock, are the ftrokes made * See
one another, much as the moderns now ufe caftanets, by the fangs or pallets of the fpindle of the balance,
and the like inftruments. This the Greeks called or of the pads in a royal pendulum f. f See
Cxxia^fiv, as is noted by Hefychius. The fcholiaft on BEUCAIRE, a town of Languedoc in France, fi- Making.
Ariftophanes fpeaks much to the fame pu'rpofe. Other tuated on the banks of the river Rhone, in E. Long,
noify inftruments, as drums, cymbals, citterns, &c. 5. 49. N. Lat. 43. 39.
were alfo ufed on the fame occalion. They beat the BEAUCE, a province of France, lying between
meafure generally in two equal or unequal times; at the ifle of France, Blafois, and Orleannois. It is fo
lead, this holds of the ufual rhythm of a piece of mufic, very fertile in wheat, that it is called the Granary of
marked either by the noife of fandals, or the flapping Paris. Chartres is the principal town,
of the hands. But the other rhythmic inftrumentslaft- BEAVER, in zoology. . See Castor.
mentioned, and which were ufed principally to excite Beaver-^/W, in commerce. Of thefe, merchants
and animate the dancers, marked the cadence after diftinguifli three forts ; the new, the dry, and the fat.
another manner ; that is, the number of their percuf- The new beaver, which is alfo called the white bea-
fions equalled, or even fometimes furpafled, that of the ver, or Mufcovy beaver, becaufe it is commonly kept
different founds which compofed the air or fong played, to be fent into Mufcovy, is that which the favages
Beating, with hunters, a term ufed of a flag, catch in their winter hunting. It is the beft, and the
which runs firft one way, and then another. Fie is moft proper for making fine furs, becaufe it has loft
then faid to beat up and down.—The noife made by none,of its hair by ftiedding.
conies in rutting time is alfo called beating or tapping. The dry beaver, which is fometimes called lean bea-
Beating, in navigation, the operation of making a ver, comes from the fummer hunting, which is the
progrefs at fea againft the dire&ion of the wind, in a time when thefe animals lofe part of their hair. Tho’
zig-zag line, or traverfe, like that in which we afcend this fort of beaver be much inferior to the former, yet
a fteep hill. See Tacking. it may alfo be employed in furs ; but it is chiefly ufed
BEATITUDE, imports the fupremegood, or the in the manufacture of hats. The French call it furn-
higheft degree of happinefs human nature is fufceptible mer cajior or beaver.
of; or the moft perfect ftate of a rational being, where- The fat beaver is that which has contracted a certain
in the foul has attained to the utmoft excellency and grofs and oily humour, from the fweat which exhales
dignity it is framed for. In which fenfe, it amounts from the bodies of the favages, who wear it for fome
to the fame with what we othervvife call blejfednefs and time. Though this fort be better than the dry beaver,
fovereign felicity; by the Greeks, and by the yet it is ufed only in the making of hats.
Latins, fumtnuni bonum, beatitudo, and beatitas. Befides hats and furs, in which the beaver’s hair is
Beatitude, among divines, denotes the beatific commonly ufed, they attempted in France, in the year
vifion, or the fruition of God in a future life to all e- 1699, to make other manufactures of it: and, accord-
ternity. ingty* they made cloths, flannels, ftockings, &c. partly
Beatitude is alfo ufed in fpeaking of the thefes of beaver’s hair, and partly of Segovia wool. This
contained in Chrift’s fermon on the mount, whereby he manufactory, which was fet up at Paris, in St Anthony’s.
pronounces bleffed the poor in fpirit, thofe that mourn, fuburbs, fucceeded at firft pretty well; and, according
the meek, &c. to the genius of the French, the novelty of the thing
BEATON (David), archbifliop of St Andrews, and brought into fome repute the fluffs, ttockings, gloves*
a cardinal of Rome, in the early part of the 16th cen- and cloth, made of beaver’s hair. But they, went out
tury, was born in 1494. Pope Paul III. raifed him of faftiion on a fudden, becaufe it was found, by ex-
to the degree of a cardinal in December 1538; and perience, that they were of a very bad wear, and, be-
being employed by James V. in negociating his mar- fides, that the colours faded very much: when they
riages with the court of France, he was there confe- had been wet, they became dry and hard, like felt,
crated bilhop of Mirepoix. Soon after his inftalment which occafioned the mifcarriage of the manufaftory
as archbifliop of St Andrews, he promoted a furious for that time.
perfecution of the reformers in Scotland ; when the When the hair has been cut off from the beavers.
king’s death put a flop, for a time, to his arbitrary fliins, to be ufed in the manufacturing of hats, thofe
proceedings, he being then excluded from affairs of fltins are (till employed by feveral workmen ; namely,
government, and confined. He raifed however fo ftrong by the trunk-makers, to cover trunks and boxes; by the
a party, that, upon the coronation of the young queen fhoemakers, to put into flippers ; and by turners, to
Mary, he was admitted of the council, made chancel- make fieves for fifting grain and feeds *. * See the
lor, and procured commiflion as legate «/a/ere from BEAUFORT, a town of Anjou in France, with articles c'1'
the court of Rome. He now began to renew his per- a caftle, near the river Authion. It-contains two pa-a.ncl
fecution of heretics; and among the reft, of the famous riffles and a convent of Recolets, and yet has not ioo .Bay. *
Proteftant preacher Mr George Wiftiart, whofe fuffer- houfes. W. Long. o. 3. N. Lat. 47. 26.
ings at the flake the cardinal viewed from his window Beaufort, a ftrong town of Savoy in Italy, on the
with apparent exultation. It is pretended, that Wifliart river Oron. E. Long. 6. 48. N. Lat. 45. 40.
at his death foretold the murder of Beaton; which in- BEAUGENCY, a town of the Orleannois in France,
deed happened ftiortly after, he being affaflinated in feated on the river Loire, in E. Long. 1. 46. N. Lat!
his chamber, May 29th, 1547. He was a haughty 47. 48..
BEAU.
Beaujeu
Beaumont.
ft % A [ 1076 ] B E A
BEAUJEU, a town of France in Beaujolois, with
an old caftle. It is feated on the river Ardieres, at the
foot of a mountain, in E. Long. 4. 40. N. Lat. 46. 9.
BEAUJOLOIS, a diftrift of France, bounded on
the fouth by Lionnois proper, on the weft by Forez,
on the north by Burgundy, and on the weft by the
principality of Dombes. It is 25 miles in length, and
20 in breadth : Ville Franche is the capital town.
BEAULIEU, (Sebaftian de Pontault de), a cele¬
brated French engineer, and field marfhal under Louis
XIV. He publifhed plans of all the military expedi¬
tions of his mafter, with military le&ures annexed.
Died in 1674.
BEAUMARIS, a market-town of Anglefey in
North Wales. W. Long. 4. 15. N. Lat. 53. 25.
BEAUMONT (Sir John), the elder brother of
Mr Francis Beaumont the famous dramatic poet; was
born in the year 1582, and in 1626 had the dignity of
a baronet conferred upon him by king Charles L In
his youth he applied himfelf to the Mnfes with good
fuccefs; and wrote. The Crown of Thorns, a poem,
in eio-ht books: a mifcellany, intitled Bofnvorth Field:
Tranfiations from the Latin Poets : and feveral poems
on religious and political fubjedls ; as, On the Feftivals;
On the Bleffed Trinity ; A Dialogue between the
World, a Pilgrim, and Virtue ; Of the miferable State
of Man ; Of Sicknefs, &c. He died in 1628. His
poetic genius was celebrated by Ben Johnfon, Michael
Drayton, and others.
Beaumont and Fletcher, two celebrated Englifh
dramatic writers, who flouriftied in the reign of James I.
and fo clofely conne&ed both as authors and as friends,
that it has been judged not improper to give them un¬
der one article.
Mr Francis Beaumont was defcended from an an¬
cient family of his name at Grace-dieu in Leicefter-
ihire, where he was born about the year 1585 or 1586,
in the reign of queen Elizabeth. His grandfather,
John Beaumont, was mafter of the rolls, and his father
Francis Beaumont one of the judges of the common-
pleas. He was educated at Cambridge, and afterwards
admitted of the Inner Temple. It is not, however,
apparent that he made any great proficiency in the law,
that being a ftudy probably too dry and unentertaining
to be attended to by a man of his fertile and fprightly
genius. And indeed, we fhould fcarcely be furprifed
to find that he had given no application to any ftudy
but poetry, nor attended on any court but that of the
Mufes: but on the contrary our admiration might fix
itfelf in the oppofite extreme, and fill us with aftonifli-
ment at the extreme afllduity of his genius and rapidity
of his pen, when we look back on the voluminoufnefs
of his works, and then inquire into the time allowed
him for them; works that might well have taken up a
long life to have executed. For although, out of 53
plays which are collefted together as the labours of
thefe united authors, Mr Beaumont was concerned in
much the greateft part of them, yet he did not live to
complete his 30th year, the king of terrors fummoning
him away in the beginning of March 1615, on the 9t"
day of which he was interred in the entrance of St Be-
nedict’s chapel in Weftminfter-Abbey. There is no
infcription on his tomb. But there are two epitaphs to
his- memory ; one by his elder brother Sir John Beau¬
mont :
On death, thy murderer, this revenge I take ;
J flight his terrors, and juft queftion make.
Which of us two the heft precedence'have.
Mine to this wretched world, thine to the grave.
Thou ftiould’ft have followed me; but death, to blame,
Mifcounted years, and meafur’d age by fame.
Sotlearly haft thou bought thy precious lines ;
Their praife grew fwiftly , fo thy life declines.
Thy mnfe, the hearer’s queen, the reader’s love,
All ears, all hearts (but death’s), could pleafe and move.
Bofworth Field, p. 1134.
The other is by bilhop Corbet. [Poems, p. 68.)
He that hath fueh acutenefs and fuch wit,
As would a Ik teii good heads to hufbatid if;
He that can write fo well, that no man dare
Refume it for the beft; let him beware :
Beaumont is dead, by whofe foie death appears,
Wit’s a difeafe confumes men in few years.
Fie left a daughter, Frances Beaumont, who died in
Leicefterfhire fince the year 1700. She had in her
poffeffion feveral poems of her father’s writing; but they
were loft at fea in her voyage from Ireland, where ihe
had lived for fome time in the duke of Ormond’s family.
Mr John Fletcher was not more meanly defcended
than his poetical colleague ; his father, the reverend
Dr Fletcher, having been firft made bifhop of Briftol
by queen Elizabeth, and afterwards by the fame mo¬
narch, in the year 1593, tranflated to the rich and ho¬
nourable fee of London. Our poet was born in 1576 ;
and was, as well as his friend, educated at Cambridge,
where he made a great proficiency in his ftudies, and
was accounted a very good fcholar. His natural vi¬
vacity of wit, for which he was remarkable, foon ren¬
dered him a devotee to the mufes; and his clofe attention
to their fervice, and fortunate connexion with a genius
equal to his own, foon raifedhim to one of the higheft
places in the temple of poetical fame. As he was born
near ten years before Mr Beaumont, fo did he alfo fur-
vive him by an equal number of years ; the general
calamity of a plague, which happened in the year 1625,
involving him in its great deftru&ion, he being at that
time 49 years of age.
During the joint lives of thefe two great poets, it
appears that they wrote nothing feparately, excepting
one little piece by each, which feemed of too trivial a
nature for either to require alfiftance in, viz. The Faith¬
ful Shepherd, a paftoral, by Fletcher; and The Mafque
of Gray’s-Inn Gentlemen, by Beaumont. Yet what
fhare each had in the writing or defigning of the pieces
thus compofed by them jointly, there is no pollibility
of determining. It is however generally allowed, that
Fletcher’s peculiar talent was wit, and Beaumont’s,
though much the younger mafi, judgment. Nay, fo
extraordinary was the latter property in Mr Beaumont,
that it is recorded of the great Ben Jiohnfon, who feems
moreover to have had a fufficient degree of felf-opinion
of his own abilities, that he conftantly, fo long as this
gentleman lived, fubmitted his own writings to his cen-
uire, and, as it is thought, availed himfelf of his judg¬
ment at leaft in the correfting, if not even in the con¬
triving, all his plots. It is probable, therefore, that the
forming the plots and contriving the condmft of the
fable, the writing of the more ferious and pathetic parts,
and lopping the redundant branches of Fletcher’s wit,
whofe luxuriance, we are told, frequently ftood in need
of caftigation, might be in general Beaumont’s portion
in the work; while Fletcher, whofe converfation with
the
B E A [ i
the beau rnonde (which indeed both of them from their
births and ftations in life had been ever accuftomed to),
added to the volatile and lively turn he pofleffed, ren¬
dered him perfeftly mafter of dialogue and polite lan¬
guage, might execute the defigns formed by the other,
and raife the fuperftrudure of thofe lively and fpirited
fcenes which Beaumont had only laid the foundation
of; and in this he was fo fuccefsful, that though his
wit-and raillery were extremely keen and poignant, yet
they were at the fame time fo perfe&ly genteel, that
they ufed rather to pleafe than difguft the very perfons
on whom they feemed to refleft. Yet that Fletcher
was not entirely excluded from a (hare in the condudl
of the drama, may be gathered from a dory related by
Winftanley, viz. that our two bards having concerted
- the rough draught of a tragedy over a bottle of wine
at a tavern, Fletcher faid, he would undertake to kill
the king, which words being overheard by the waiter,
who had not happened to have been witnefs to the con¬
text of their converfation, he lodged an information of
treafon againft them. But on their explanation of it
only to mean the deftruftion of a theatrical monarch,
their loyalty moreover being unqueilioned, the affair
ended in a jeft.
On the whole, the works of thefe authors have un¬
doubtedly very great merit, and fome of their pieces
defervedly Hand on the lift of the prefent ornaments of
the theatre. The plots are ingenious, interefting, and
well managed ; the characters ftrongly marked ; and the
dialogue fprightly and natural: yet there is in the latter
a coarfenefs which is not fuitable to the politenefs of
the prefent age; and a fondnefs of repartee, which fre¬
quently runs into obfcenity, and which we may fup-
pofe was the vice of that time, lince even the delicate
Shakefpeare himfelf is not entirely free from it. But
as thefe authors have more of that kind of wit than the
laft-mentioned writer, it is not to be wondered if their
works were, in the licentious reign of Charles II. pre¬
ferred to his. Now, however, to the honour of the pre¬
fent tafte be it fpoken, the tables are entirely turned; and
whileShakefpeare’s immortal works are our conftantand
daily fare, thofe of Beaumont and Fletcher, tho’delicate
in their kind, are only occafionally ferved up; and even
then great pains are taken to clear them of that fumet,
which the haut gout of their contemporaries confidered
as their fupremeft relifh, but which the more undepraved
tafte of ours has been juftly taught to look on as what
it really is, no more than a corrupt and unwholefome.
taint.
Some of their plays, were printed in quarto during
the lives of the authors ; and in the year 1645, there
was publiftied in folio a collection of fuch plays as had
not been printed before, amounting to between 30 and
40. This collection was publifhed by Mr Shirley, af¬
ter the (hutting up of the theatres; and dedicated to
the earl of Pembroke, by ten of the moft famous aCtors.
In 1679, there was an edition of all their plays pu¬
bliftied in folio; another edition in 1711 by Mr Tpn-
fon, in feven volumes 8V0, and the laft in 1751.
Beaumont, a town of the Netherlands, in Hain-
ault, on the confines of the territory of Liege. It was
ceded to the French in 1684; and taken in 1691 by the
Englifti, who blew up the caftle. It is fituated be¬
tween the rivers Maefe and Sambre, in E. Long. 4. 1.
N. Lat. 50. 12.
Vol. II.
077 ] B E A
Beaumont lc Roger, a town of Upper Normandy Eeaumont
in France. E. Long. o. 56. N. Lat. 49. 2.
Beaumont le Viconipte, a town of Maine in France. Eeaut,/''
E. Long. o. 10. N. Lat. 48. 12.
Beaumont fur Oife, a town in the Ifle of France,
feated on the declivity of a hill, with a bridge over
the river Oife. E. Long. 2. 29. N. Lat. 49. 9.
BEAUNE, a handfome town of France, in Bur¬
gundy, remarkable for its excellent wine, and for an
hofpital founded here in 1443. Its collegiate church
is alfo one of the fined in France: the great altar is
adorned with a table enriched with jewels; and its or¬
gans are placed on a piece of architecture which is the
admiration of the curious. E. Long. 4. 50. N. Lat.
47. 2.
BEAUSOBRE (Ifaacde), a learned minifter of the
reformed religion, was born at Niort. He retired into
Holland ; and from thence to Berlin, where he was
made chaplain to the king of Pruffia, and counfellor
of the Royal Confiftory. He wrote a Defence of the
DoCtrines of the Reformation ; a Tranflation of the
New Teftament into French, with notes, in two vols
quarto; and feveral other works. He died in 1738,
aged 79.
BEAUTY, in its native fignification, is appropri¬
ated to objeCts of fight. ObjeCts of the other fenfes
may be agreeable, fuch as the founds of mufical inftru-
ments, the fmoothnefs and foftnefs of fome furfaces ;
but the agreeablenefs called beauty belongs to objeCts of
fight.
ObjeCts of fight are more complex than thofe of any
other fenfe : in the fimpleft, we perceive colour, figure,
length, breadth, thicknefs. A tree is compofed of a
trunk, branches, and leaves ; it has colour, figure, fize,
and fometimes motion : by means of each of thefe par¬
ticulars, feparately confidered, it appears beautiful;
but a complex perception of the whole greatly aug¬
ments the beauty of the objeCt. The human body is
a compofition of numberlefs beauties arifing from the
parts and qualities of the objeCt, various colours, vari¬
ous motions, figures, fize, &c. all united in one com¬
plex objed, and ftriking the eye with combined force.
Hence it is, that beauty, a quality fo remarkable in
vilible objeds, lends its name to every thing that is e-
minently agreeable. Thus, by a figure of fpeech, we
fay, a beautiful found, a beautiful thought, a beautiful
difeovery, &c.
Confidering attentively the beauty of vifible obje&s, Elcmenh of
two kinds are difeovered. The firft may be termed Cr‘Ucifm.
intrinfic beauty, becaufe it is difeovered in a fingle ob¬
jeCt, without relation to any other: the other may be
termed relative, being founded on the relation of ob¬
jeCts. Intrinfic beauty is a perception of fenfe merely;
for to perceive the beauty of a fpreading oak, or of a
flowing river, no more is required but lingly an aCt of
vifion. Relative beauty is accompanied with an aCt of
underftanding and reflection : for we perceive not the
relative beauty of a fine inftrument or engine, until we
learn its ufe and deftination. In a word, intrinfic
beauty is ultimate ; and relative beauty is that of means
relating to fome good end or purpofe. Thefe different
beauties agree in one capital circumftance, that both
are equally perceived as belonging to the objeCt; which
will be readily admitted with refpeCt to intrinfic beauty,
but is not fo obvious with refpeCt to the other. The
6 U utility
B E A [ io;
Beauty, utility of the plough, for example, may make it an objeft
of admiration or of defire; but why fhould utility make
it beautiful ? A natural propenfity of the human mind
will explain this difficulty : By an eafy tranfition of
ideas, the beauty of the effeft is transferred to the caufe,
and is perceived as one of the qualities of the caufe.
Thus a fubjeft void of intrinfic beauty, appears beau¬
tiful by its utility ; a dwelling houfe void of all regu¬
larity, is however beautiful in the view of convenience;
and the want of fymmetry in a tree, will not prevent
its appearing beautiful, if. it be known to produce
good fruit.
When thefe two beauties concur in any object, it
appears delightful. Every member of the human body
poffeifes both in a high degree.
The beauty of utility, being accurately proportioned
to the degree of utility, requires no illuftration : But
intrinfic beauty, being more complex, cannotbe handled
diftin&ly without being analyfed. If a tree-be beau¬
tiful by means of its colour, figure, motion, fize, &c.
it is in reality poffeffed of fo many different beauties.
The beauty of colour is too familiar to need explana¬
tion. The beauty of figure is more : for example,
viewing any body as a whole, the beauty of its figure
arifes from regularity and fimplicity ; viewing the parts
with relation to each other, uniformity, proportion,
and order, contribute to its beauty. The beauties of
* See Gran- grandeur and motion are confidered feparately *.
dear and we {haP here make a few obfervations on fimplicity,
louou. which may be of ufe in examining the beauty of fingle
objefts. A multitude of objects crowding into the
mind at once, difturb the attention, and pafs without
making any lading impreffion : In the fame manner,
even a fingle objedl, confiding of a multiplicity of
parts, equals not, in drength of impreffion, a more
fimple objeft comprehended in one view. This judifies
fimplicity in works of art, as oppofed to complicated
circumdances and crowded ornaments.
It wmuld be endlefs io enumerate the effeftsthat are
produced by the various combinations of the principles
of beauty. A few examples will be fufficient to give
the reader fome idea of this fubjeft. A circle and a
fquare are each perfectly regular: a fquare, however,
is lefs beautiful than a circle ; and the reafon is, that
the attention is divided among the fides and angles of
a fquare ; whereas the circumference of a circle, being
a fingle objeft, makes one entire impreffion : And thus
fimplicity contributes to beauty. For the fame reafon,
a fquare is more beautiful than a hexagon or o&agon.
A fquare is likewife more beautiful than a parallelo¬
gram, becaufe it is more regular and uniform. But
this holds with refpeft to intrinfic beauty only : for in
many indances, as in the doors and windows of a
dwelling-houfe, utility turns the fcales on the fide of
the parallelogram.
Ap-ain, a parallelogram depends, for its beauty, on
the proportion of its fides : A great inequality of its
iides annihilates its beauty: Approximation toward
equality hath the fame effedl; for proportion there de¬
generates into imperfect uniformity, and the figure ap¬
pears an unfuccefsful attempt toward a fquare. And
hence proportion contributes to beauty.
An equilateral triangle yields not to a fquare in re¬
gularity nor in uniformity of parts, and it is more fim¬
ple. But an equilateral triangle is lefs beautiful than
78 ] B E A
a fquare ; which mud be owing to inferiority of order
in the pofition of its parts ; the order arifing from the
equal inclination of the fides of fuch an angle, is more
obfcure than the parallelifm of the fides of a fquare.
And hence order contributes to beauty not lefs than
fimplicity, regularity, or proportion.
Uniformity is lingular in one circumdance, that it
is apt to difgud by excefs. A number of things def-
tined for the fame ufe, as windows, chairs, &c. cannot
be too uniform. But a fcrupulous uniformity of parts
in a large garden or field, is far from being agreeable.
In all the works of nature, fimplicity makes a capital
figure. It alfo makes a figure in works of art: Pro-
fufe ornament in painting, gardening, or archite&ure,
as well as in drefs or in language, Ihows a mean or cor¬
rupted tade. Simplicity in behaviour and manners has
an inchanting effect, and never fails to gain our affec¬
tion. Very different are the artificial manners of mo¬
dern times. A gradual progrefs from fimplicity to
complex forms and profufe ornament, feems to be the
fate of all the fine arts ; refembling behaviour, which
from original candor and fimplicity, has. degenerated
into duplicity of heart and artificial refinements. At
prefent, literary produftions are crowded with words,
epithets, figures: In mufic, fentiment is neglected for
the luxury of harmony, and for difficult movement.
With regard to the final caufe of beauty, one thing
is evident, that our relilh of regularity, uniformity,
proportion, order, and fimplicity, contributes greatly
to enhance the beauty of the objects that furround us,
and of cotirfe tends to our happinefs. We may be
confirmed in his thought, upon refle&ing, that our
tafte for thefe particulars is not accidental, but uniform
and univerfal, making a branch of our nature. At the
fame time, regularity, uniformity, order, and fimplicity,
contribute each of them to readifiefs of apprehenlion,
and enable us to form more diftintt ideas of obje&s
than can be done where thefe particulars are wanting.
In fome inftances, as in animals, proportion is evidently
connefted with utility, and is the more agreeable on
that account.
Beauty, in many inftances, promotes induftry; and
as it is frequently connedled with utility, it proves an
additional incitement to enrich our fields and improve
our manufactures. Thefe, however, are but flight
effefts, compared with the conneftions that are formed
among individuals in fociety by means of beauty.
The qualifications of the head and heart are undoubt¬
edly the moft folid and moft permanent foundations of
fuch conneftions : But, as external beauty lies more
in view, and is more obvious to the bulk of mankind,
than the qualities now mentioned, the fenfe of beauty
has a more extenfive influence in forming thefe con¬
neftions. At any rate, it concurs in an eminent de¬
gree with mental qualifications, in producing facial in-
tercourfe, mutual good-will, and confequently mutual
aid and fupport, which are the life of fociety: it muft
not however be overlooked, that the fenfe of beauty
does not tend to advance the interefts of fociety, but
when in a due mean with refpeft to ftrength. Love,
in particular, arifing from a fenfe of beauty, lofes,
when exceffive, its focial charafter; the appetite for
gratification, prevailing over affeftion for the beloved
objeft, is ungovernable, and tends violently to its end,,
regardlefs of the mifery that mull follow. Love, in
BEG [ 1079 1 BEG
py this ftate, is no longer a fweet agreeable paflion : it
1' becomes painful, like hunger or thirft; and produceth
1 iLno happinefs, but in the inftant of fruition. This fug-
gefts an important lelfon, that moderation in our de-
iires and appetites, which fits us for doing our duty,
contributes at the fame time the moll to happinefs ;
even focial paffions, when moderate, are more pleafant
than when they fwell beyond proper bounds.
Beauty, in architefture, painting, and other arts,
is the harmony and juftnefs of the whole compofition
taken together.
BEAUVAIS, an epifcopal city in the Ille of France,
and capital of the Beauvoifis. The cathedral church is
dedicated to St Peter, and is much admired for its fine
architedlure. It contains a great number of relics, and
a library of curious books. There are feveral other
churches, among which is one dedicated to St Stephen,
remarkable for its curious windows. The town was in-
effedtually befieged by the Englilh in 1443, and by the
duke of Burgundy with an army of 80,000 men. In
this laft fiege the women fignalized themfelves under
the conduA of Jeane Hachette, who fet up a ftandard
yet preferved in the church of the Jacobins. The duke
was obliged to raife the fiege; and in memory of the
womens exploits, they walk firft in a proceffion on the
10th of July, the anniverfary of their deliverance. The
inhabitants carry on a good trade in beautiful tapeftry.
Beauvais is fituated on the river Therin, in E. Long.
2. 15. N. Lat. 49. 26.
Beauvais, a town of France, in Upper Languedoc,
feated on the river Tefcou. E. Long. 1. 43. N. Lat.
44. 2.
BEAUVIN, a city of Burgundy in France, in E.
Long. 4. 50. N. Lat. 47.
x BEAUVOIR fur Mer, a maritime town of Poidtou,
in France, with the title of marquifate. W. Long.
1.5. N. Lat. 46.45.
BEAUVOISIS, a territory of France, formerly
part of Picardy, but now of the Ifle of France. Beau¬
vais is the capital.
BEBELINGUEN, a town of Germany, in the
duchy of Wirtemberg, feated on a lake from which
proceeds the river Worm. E. Long. 9. 8. N. Lat.
48. 45.
BEBRYCIA, (anc. geog.), an ancient name of
Bithynia, fo called from the Bebryces its inhabitants.
The Bebryces were afterwards driven out by the Thra¬
cians, viz. the Bithyni and Thyni; from whom, in
procefs of time, the country took the name of Bithy¬
nia. See Bithynia.
BEC, a town of France, in Normandy, feated on a
tongue of land, at the confluence of two rivers, in E.
Long. o. 52. N. Lat. 48. 45.
BECAH, or Bekah, a Jewifh coin, being half a
Ihekel. In Dr Arbuthnot’s table of redu&ions, the
bekah amounts to i3J-|-d. in Dr Prideaux’s computa¬
tion to 1 s. 6d. Every Ifraelite paid an hundredbekahs
, a head annually for the fupport of the temple.
BECALM, in a general fenfe, fignifies to appeafe,
to allay.
Becalm, in the fea language. A (hip is faid to be
becalmed, when there is not a breath of wind to fill the
fails.
BECANOR, a town of India, in Afia, feated on
the river Ganges, in E. Long. 83. 5. N. Lat. 27.40.
- BECCABUNGA, brooklime; the trivial name of Beccabnnga
a fpecies of veronica. See Veronica. !!
BECCLES, a large town of Suffolk in England, Becket~
in E. Long. 1. 30. N. Lat. 52. 38.
BECHER (John Joachim), a celebrated chemifl,
was born at Spires, in 1645. He was connected with
the moll learned men in Europe; and the emperor, the
ele&ors of Mentz and Bavaria, and other perfons of
high rank, furnifhed him with the means of making expe¬
riments in mathematics, natural philofophy, medicine,
and chemiflry. As his thoughts were very judicious and
uncommon with refpeft to oeconomy and to increafing
the revenues of a ftate, he was invited to Vienna, where
he contributed greatly to the eftabliftiment of feveral
manufactures, a chamber of commerce, and an India
company ; but the jealoufy of fome of the minifters oc-,
cafioned his difgrace and ruin. He was not lefs un¬
happy at Mentz, Munich, and Wurtzburg; which de¬
termined him to go to Haerlem, where he invented a
machine for working a great quantity of (ilk in a little
time, and with few hands: but new misfortunes made
him come to England, and he died at London in 1685.
He wrote many works; the principal of which are,
1. Phyjica Subterranea, which was reprinted at Leipfic in
1703, and in 1739, in oftavo, with a fmall treatife, by
E. Stahl, intitled Specimen Becherianum. 2. Experi.
mentum chymicum novum, 8vo. 3. Char after pro No-
titia Linguarum univerfali. 4. Injlitutiones Chymica,
feu Manuduftio ad Philofophiam Hermeticam, 410.
5. Injiitutiones Chymica prodromee, i2mo. 6. Expe-
rimentum novum ac curiofum de Minera arenaria per-
petua, &c.
BECHIN, a town of Bohemia, in a circle of the
fame name. It was taken and burnt by general Be-
quoi in 1619. It is feated on the river Laufnics, in
E. Long. 15. 12. N. Lat. 49. 14.
BECK, or Beke, a word which imports a fmall
ftream of water ifiuing from fome burn or fpring,
Hence Hell-becks, little brooks in the rough and wild
mountains about Richmond near Lancafhire, fo called
on account of their ghaftlinefs and depth.
Beck is chiefly ufed among us in the compofition of
names of places originally fituated on rivulets: hence
Walbeck, Bournbeck, &c. The Germans ufe back in
the fame manner.
BECKET (Thomas), lord chancellor of England,
archbiftiop of Canterbury in the I2rh century. The
ftory of his birth is as extraordinary as that of his life.
It is related, that his father Gilbert Becket, fome time
flieriff of London, went on a pilgrimage to Jerufalem,
where, being furprifed and enflaved by a party of Sa¬
racens, his mafter’s daughter fell in love with him; and
that when he made his efcape, (lie followed him to Lon¬
don. So lingular an inftance of heroic affe&ion (truck
him; and after confulting with fome biftrops, he bap¬
tized her by the name of Matilda, and married her;
from which marriage proceeded the haughty Thomas
Becket. Being railed to the archbiftioprick, he began
the great difpute between the crown, and the mitre,
and Tided with the pope: at which king Henry was
greatly offended; and calling an affembly of the bi-
-Ihops at Weftminfter, offered fix articles againft papal
encroachments, which he urged Becket to afl'ent to.
Becket, at the importunities of feveral lords, figned
them; but relapfing, he was ordered to be tried as a
6 U 2 trai(,or j
!:
B E C r 1080 1 BED
Becket, traitor'; upon which he fled into Flanders. The king
B^g- banilhed all his relations, and Becket excommunicated
.   _1 all his oppofers. At laft, after feven years, by the in-
terceffion of the French king and the pope, he return¬
ed; but refufed to abfolve thefe bilhops and others he
had excommunicated: whereupon the king grew enra¬
ged; and four of his knights, thinking to pleafe the
king, murdered Becket. Two years after, Becket was
canonized; and the fame year, a particular colledt was
appointed to be read in all the churches of the pro¬
vince of Canterbury, for expiating the guilt of his mur¬
der. The next year, king Henry returning from France,
•went to Canterbury, where he did penance, as a tefti-
mony of his grief for the murder. In 1221, Becket’s
body was taken up, 50 years after his murder, in the
prefence of king Henry III. and a great concourfe of
the nobility and others, and depofited in a rich Ihrine,
erefted at the expence of Stephen Langton avchbifhop
of Canterbury, which was foon vifited from all parts,
and enriched with the moft coftly gifts and offerings;
and the miracles faid to be wrought at his tomb were
fo numerous, that Gervafe of Canterbury tells us, there
weretwolargevolumesof them kept in that church. The
monks ufed to raife his body every year; and the day
on which this ceremony was performed, which was called
the day of his tranfation, was a general holiday: every
50th year there was celebrated a jubilee to his honour,
which lafted 15 days: plenary indulgences were then
granted to all that vifited his tomb; and 100,000 pil¬
grims have been regiftered at a time in Canterbury.
The devotion towards him had quite effaced in that
town the adoration of the Deity; nay, even that of the
Virgin. At God’s altar, for inftance, there were of¬
fered in one year 3/. 2 s. 6d. at the Virgin’s, 63/.
5/. 6d. at St Thomas’s, 832/. 12s. ^d. But next
year, the difproportion was ftill greater: there was not
a penny offered at God’s altar; the Virgin’s gained
only 4/. 1 /. 8i. but St Thomas had got for his (hare
954/. 6s. $d. Lewis VII. of France had made a pil¬
grimage to this miraculous tomb, and had beftowed on
the fhrine a jewel which was efteemed the richefi: in
Chriltendom. Henry VIII. to whom, it may eafily
be imagined, how obnoxious a faint of this chara&er
behoved to appear, and how much contrary to all
his proje&s for degrading the authority of the court
of Rome, not only pillaged the rich fhrine dedica¬
ted to St Thomas; but made the faint himfelf be cited
to appear in court, and be tried and condemned as a
traitor: he ordered his name to be ftruck out of the ca¬
lendar; the office for his feftival to be expunged from
all breviaries; and his bones to be burnt, and the afhes
thrown in the air.
BECKINGHAM (Charles), an Englifh dramatic
writer, was the fon of a linen-draper in London, and
born in 1699. He was educated at that great nurfery
of learning Merchant-Taylor’s fchool, under the learned
Dr Smith, where he made a very great proficiency in
all his ftudies, and gave the ftrongeft teftimonials of
very extraordinary abilities. In poetry more particu¬
larly he very early difcovered an uncommon genius, two
dramatic pieces of his writing being reprefented on the
flage before he had completed his 20th year: and
thofe not fnch as required the leaft indulgence or al¬
lowance on account of his years; but fuch as bore evi¬
dence to a boldnefs of fentiment, an accuracy of dic¬
tion, an ingenuity of conduiS, and a maturity of judg- B«ku;
ment, which would have done honour to a much more II |
ripened age. The titles of his plays, both of which  e_'4
are tragedies, are, 1. Henry IV. of France. 2. Scipio
Africanus. At the reprefentation of the laft-mentioned
piece, which indeed was the firft he wrote, his fchool- jjl
mafter Dr Smith, as a peculiar mark of diftimSfion and ■
regard to the merit of his pupil, gave all his boys a fi
holiday on the afternoon of the author’s benefit, in or- II
der to afford an opportunity, to fuch of them as plea- l;J
fed, to pay their compliments to their fchool-fellow on ||
that occafion. Befides thefe dramatic pieces, he wrote fj
feveral other poems: but his genius was not permitted ||
any very long period to expand itfelf in; for he died |l
on the 18th of February, 1730, in the 32d year of his
age.
BECKUM, a town of the bifliopric of Munfter, in .jll
Germany, feated at the fource of the river Verfe, in 9
E. Long. 8. 18. N. Lat. 51. 4.6.
BECSANGIL, anciently Bithynia, a province of ;||
Natolia in Alia; bounded on the north, by the Black
Sea; on the weft, by the fea of Marmora; on the fouth,
by Natolia Proper; and on the eaft, by the province fl
of Bolli. The principal town is Burfa.
BECTASSE, an order or fedl of religious among
the Turks, denominated from their founder Beflajh,
preacher to fultan Amurath. All the Janizaries be¬
longing to the Porte are of the religion of beftafle, |l
being even faid to have derived their origin from the
founder of this fed. The habit of the bedftafle is white: , J
on their heads they wear white caps of feveral pieces,
with turbans of wool, twifted rope-fafhion. They ob-
ferve conftantly the hour of prayer, which they perform J
in their own aflemblies, and make frequent declaration*
of the unity of God.
BED, a convenience for ftretching and compofing j
the body on, for eafe, reft, or fleep, confifting gene¬
rally of feathers inclofed in a ticken cafe. There are
varieties of beds, as a Handing bed, a fettee-bed, a
tent-bed, a truckle-bed, &c.
It was univerfally the praftice, in the firft ages, for I
mankind to fleep upon flans of beafts. It was origi- WhittaA
nally the cuftom of the Greeks and Romans. It was Hiilory*
particularly the cuftom of the ancient Britons, before Manc‘1f
the Roman invafion; and thefe Ikins were fpread on the ij
floor of their apartments. Afterwards they were chan¬
ged for loofe rufties and heather, as the Welch a few i
years ago lay on the former, and the Highlanders of ,|
Scotland fleep on the latter to this prefent moment. In
procefs of time, the Romans fuggefted tp the interior J
Britons the ufe, and the introdu&ion of agriculture f
fupplied them with the means, of the neater conveni-
ency of ftraw-beds. The beds of the * Roman gentry * Pl’m
at this period were generally filled with feathers, and lih- '“>1
thofe of the inns with the foft down of reeds. But for c’ f3' a|
many ages the beds of the Italians had been conftantly *V1'
compofed of ftraw; it ftill formed thofe of the foldiers
and officers at the conqueft of Lancafhire; and from J
both, our countrymen learnt their ufe. But it appears
to have been taken up only by the gentlemen, as the
common Welfti had their beds thinly Huffed with rufties
as late as the conclufion of the 12th century; and with
the gentlemen it continued many ages afterwards. j
Straw was ufed even in the royal chambers of Eng¬
land, as late as the clofe of the 13th. Moft of the pea-
fants-
BED [ 1081 ] BED
fants about Manchefter He on chaff at prefent:
“7 ftraw-beds remain to this day general in France and
Italy.—But they were no longer fuffered to reft upon
the ground. The better mode that had anciently pre¬
vailed in the eaft, and long before been introduced into
Italy, was adopted in Britain ; and they were now
xlix. mounted on pedeftals f. This, however, was equally
confined to the gentlemen. The bed ftill continued on
the floor among the common people. And the grofs
cuftom, that had prevailed from the beginning, was re¬
tained by the lower Britons to the laft; and thefe
ground-beds were laid along the walls of their houfes,
and formed one common dormitory for all the members
of the family. The fafhion continued univerfally among
the inferior ranks of the Welch within thefe four or five
ages, and with the more uncivilized part of the Highlan¬
ders nearly to our own times. And even at no great
diftance from Manchefter, in the neighbouring Buxton,
and within thefe 60 or 70 years, the perfons that re¬
paired to the bath are all faid to have fleptin one long
chamber together; the upper part being allotted to the
ladies, and the lower to the gentlemen, and only par¬
titioned from each other by a curtain.
Dining-HiT), leftus tricliniaris, or difcubitorhis, that
whereon the ancients lay at meals. The dining or dif-
cubitory beds were four or five feet high. Three of
thefe beds were ordinarily ranged by a fqnare table
(whence both the table and the room where they eat
were called triclinium) in fuch a manner, that one of
the fides of the table remained open, and accefiible to
the waiters. Each bed would hold three or four, rarely
five perfons. Thefe beds were unknown before the fe-
cond Punic war : the Romans, till then, fat down to
eat on plain wooden benches, in imitation of the heroes
of Homer, or, as Varro expreffes it, after the manner
of the Lacedasmonians. and Cretans. Scipio Africa--
nus firft made an innovation : he had brought from
Carthage fome of thefe little beds called punicani, or
archaici ; being of a wood common enough, very low,
fluffed only with ftraw or hay, and covered with goats
or fheeps fkins, baedinis fellibus Jlrati. In reality, there
was no great difference, as to delicacy, between • thefe
new beds and the ancient benches ; but the cuftom of
frequent bathing, which began then to obtain, by foft-
ening and relaxing the body, put men on trying to reft
themlelves more commpdioufly by lying along than by
fitting down. For the ladies, it did not feem at firft,
confiftent with their modefty to adopt the mode of ly¬
ing ; accordingly they kept to the old cuftom all the
time of the commonwealth ; but, from the firft Caefars,
they eat on their beds. For the youth, who had not
yet put on the toga virilis, they were long kept to the
ancient difcipline. When they were admitted to table,
they only fat on the edge of the beds of their neareft
relations. Never, fays Suetonius, did the young Cse-
fars, Caius and Lucius, eat at the table of Auguftus;
but they were fet in itno loco, or, as Tacitus expreffes
it, ad le(H fulcra. From the greateft fimplicity, the
Romans, by degrees, carried their dining-beds to the
moft furprifing magnificence. Pliny affures us, it was
no new thing to fee them covered over with plates of
filver, adorned with the fofteft mats, and the richeft
counterpanes. Lampridius, fpeaking of Heliogabalus,
fays, he had beds of folid filver, folido argento ha-
buit lottos & tridiniares, <b cubiculares. We may add,
that Pompey, in his third triumph, brought in beds of Be<1>
gold.—The Romans had alfo beds whereon they ftu- Beda'
died, and beds whereon the dead were carried to the
funeral pile.
Bzn-Moulding in archite&ure, a term ufed for
thofe members of a corniche which are placed below
the coronet ; and now ufually confifts of an ogee, a
lift, a large boultine, and another lift under the co¬
ronet.
Bed of yufice, in the French cuftoms, a throne up¬
on which the king is feated when he goes to the parlia¬
ment. The king never holds a bed of juftice unlefs for
affairs that concern the ftate, and then all the officers
of parliament are clothed in fcarlet robes.
Bed of the Carriage of a Great Gun, a thick plank,
that lies under the piece ; being, as it were, the body
of the carriage.
Bed, in mafonry, a courfe or range of ftones; and
the joint of the bed is the mortar between two ftones,
placed over each other.
Bed, in gardening, fquare or oblong pieces of
ground, in a garden, railed a little above the level of
the adjoining ground, and wherein they fow feeds or
plant roots.
iifaif-BED. See ’H.or-Bed.
Lords of the Chamber, in the Britilh cuftoms,
ten lords who attend in their turns, each a week ; du¬
ring which time they lie in the king’s bed-chamber, and
wait on him when he dines in private.
BEDA, commonly called venerable Bede, one of
our moft ancient hiftorians, was born in the year 672,
in the neighbourhood of Weremouth, in the bilhoprick
of Durham. He was educated by the abbot Benedift
in the monaftery of St Peter, near the mouth of the ri¬
ver Wyre. At the age of 19 he was ordained deacon,
and prieft in the year 702. About this time he was
invited to Rome by Pope Sergius ; but there is no fuf-
ficient reafon to believe that he accepted the invitation.
In the year 731 hepublilhedhis Ecclefiaftical Hiftory;
a work of fo much merit, notwithftanding the legendary
tales it contains, that it were alone fufficient to immor¬
talize the author. He died in the year 735 of a lin¬
gering confumption, probably occafioned by a feden-
tary life, and a long uninterrupted application to ftu-
dy and literary compofitions, of which he left an in¬
credible number. He was buried in the church of his
convent at Jarrow ; but his bones were afterwards re¬
moved to Durham, and there depofited in the fame
coffin with thofe of St Cuthbert. Bede was undoubt¬
edly a Angular phenomenon in an ignorant and illiterate
age. His learning, for the times, was extenfive, his
application incredible, his piety exemplary, and his
modefty exceffive. He was univerfally admired, con-
fulted, and efteemed, during his life; and his writings
are defervedly confidered as the foundation of our ec¬
clefiaftical hiftory. His language is neither elegant
nor pure, but perfpicuous and eafy.—All his works
are in Latin. The firft general colleftion of them ap¬
peared at Paris, in 1544, in three volumes in folio.
They were printed again at the fame place in 1554, in
eight volumes. They were alfo publilhed in the fame
fize and number of volumes at Bafil in 1563, reprinted
at Cologne in 1612, and at the fame place in 1688.
Befides this general colledtion, there are feveral of his
compofitions, which have been printed feparately, or
amongft;
BED f 1082 1 BED
Jail amongd the colle&Ions of the writings of ancient au-
thors ; and there are feveral manufcripts afcribed to
 L__ him, which are preferved in the different libraries in
Oxford and Cambridge.
BEDALL, a town in the north riding of York-
fhire. Through this town paffes a Roman caufeway
to Richmond, Barnard-caftle, &c. The parts adja¬
cent are noted for hunting and road horfes. W. Long.
31. o. N. Lat. 54. 30.
BEDARIEUX, or Bec d’ Arieux, a town of Lan¬
guedoc in France, feated on the river Obe, in E. Long.
3. 24. N. Lat. 43. 29.
BEDEL. See Beadle.
Bedel, a fmall town in the north riding of York-
fhire, feated on a little brook,- in W. Long. 1. 30.
N. Lat. 54. 30.
BEDELL (Dr William), a learned prelate, born
in Effex in 1570. He went with Sir Flenry Wotton
the Englifh ambaffador, to the republic of Venice, as
his chaplain, in 1604; and continuing eight years in
that city, contra&ed an intimate acquaintance with the
famous father Paul, of whom he learned Italian fowell
.as to tranflate the Englifti Common-Prayer Book into
that language : in return he drew up an Englifh gram¬
mar for father Paul, who declared he had learned more
from him in all parts of divinity, than from any one
befide. He was accordingly much concerned when
Bedell left Venice ; and at his departure prefented him
with his pidfure, the MSS. of his Hiftory of the coun¬
try of Trent, his Hiftory of the Interdidf and Inqui-
fition, with other literary donations. In 1629, he ob¬
tained the bifhopric of Kilmore and Adragh in Ireland;
and finding thefe diocefes in great diforder, applied
himfelf vigoroufly to reform the abufes there. He
was no perfecutor of Papitts, but laboured with great
fuccefs to convert the better fort of the Popifh clergy:
he procured an Irifh tranflation of the Common-Prayer
Book, which he caufed to be read in his cathedral
every Sunday ; and the New Teftament having been
tranflated by archbifhop Daniel, he procured one of
the Old Teftament; which he having been prevented
from printing himfelf, was afterward executed at the
expence of the great Mr Robert Boyle. He publifhed
in 1624, a controverfial book againft the Roman-ca¬
tholics, which he dedicated to Charles prince of Wales ;
and aflifted the archbifhop of Spalatro in finifhing his
famous work De Republic a Ecclejiaflica.
When the bloody rebellion broke out in Ireland, in
Oftober 1641, the bifhop at firft did not feel the vio¬
lence of its effedls; for the very rebels had conceived a
great veneration for him, and they declared he fhould
be the laft Englifhman they would drive out of Ireland.
His was the only houfe in the county of Cavan that was
unviolated, and it was filled with the people who fled
to him for fhelter. About the middle of December,
however, the rebels, purfuant to orders received from
their council of ftate at Kilkenny, required himtodif-
mifs the people that were with him ; which he refufed
to do, declaring he would fhare the fame fate with the
reft. Upon this they feized him, his two fons, and Mr
Clogy who had married his daughter-in-law, and car¬
ried them prifoners to the caftle of Cloughboughter,
furrounded by a deep water, where they put them all,
except the bifhop, in irons ; after fome time, however,
this part of their feverity was abated. After being
confined for about three weeks, the bifhop and his two
fons, and Mr Clogy, were exchanged for fome of the
principal rebels : but the bifhop died foon after, on the
7th of February 1642, his death being chiefly occa-
fioned by his late imprifonment, and the weight of
forrows which lay upon his mind. The Irifh did him
unufual honours at his burial; for the chief of the re¬
bels gathered their forces together, and with them ac¬
companied his body to the church-yard.
BEDER, a ftrong town of Afia, in the dominions
of the Great Mogul. E. Long.^95. 10. N. Lat. 16. 50.
BEDFORD, the county town of Bedfordfhire in
England, feated on both fides of the river Oufe, over
which there is a ftone bridge; in W. Long. o. 20. N.
Lat, 52. 6. It is an ancient town, and pleafantly fi-
tuated, but not very large nor well built; though the
buildings are much improved of late, and the river made
navigable. At this jflace the Britons were overthrown
in a great battle in 572, by Cuthwulf the Saxon king;
and here was a ftrong caftle, built in the time of the
Normans by Pagan de Beauchamp, the third baron of
Bedford. It was reduced by king Stephen after a long
fiege; and afterwards taken by king John, after a fiegeof
60 days, from Fulco de Brent, who rebelled againft his
fovereign, notwithftanding he had taken this caftle be¬
fore from the barons, and had it beftowed upon him by
the king. The town is a very ancient corporation, and
has long fent members to parliament. It is governed
at prefent by a mayor, recorder, two bailiffs, twelve
aldermen, two chamberlains, a town-clerk, and three
ferjeants. The neighbouring country is very fruitful
in wheat, great quantities of which are carried from
hence to Kitchen and Hertford markets, fold, ground,
and conveyed to London. The town has five churches,
a free-fchool, and feveral hofpitals, and enjoys a good
trade in corn by the way of Lynn. When the river is
fwelled by rains, efpecially in winter, it is ufual in Cam-
bridgeftiire to fay, the bailiff of Bedford is coming, mean¬
ing, that it is going to lay their fens under water. At
this town the noted John Bunyan, author of the Pil¬
grim’s Progrefs, was educated, if not born #.
BEDFORDSHIRE, an inland county of England,
in the Norfolk-circuit, and diocefe of Lincoln; bounded
on the call and fouth, by Cambridgeftiire and Hert-
fordfliife; on the weft, by Buckinghamftiire; and on
the north, by Northamptonftiire and Huntingdonftiire.
It is of an oval form, about 22 miles long, 15 broad,
and 73 in compafs; within which it contains 260,000
acres, 9 hundreds, 10 market towns, and I24pariflies.
The air is pleafant and healthy; and the foil fruitful,
efpecially towards the north, where it is a deep clay.
Towards the middle, the face of the country is fome-
what hilly and woody, and the foil fandy. Towards
the fouth, though the foil is not very rich, yet it pro¬
duces abundance of excellent barley. A great part of
the country is watered by the windings of the Oufe,
which divides it into two parts; and, being navigable,
affords an eafy conveyance for commodities to or from
it. It yields alfo a great deal of fuller’s earth, plenty
of wood except on the eaft fide, woad for dying, but¬
ter and cheefe. Its principal manufafture's are bone-
lace and ftraw-hats. It fends four members to parlia¬
ment, namely, two for Bedford, and two knights for
the (hire.
BEDLOE (William), who affumed the title of
capt ah:,
BED [ 1083 ] BEE
|e captain, was an infamous adventurer oflow birth, who
had travelled over a great part of Europe under differ-
— ent names and difguifes, and had paifed among feveral
ignorant perfons for a man of rank and fortune. En-
! couraged by the fuccefs of Oates, he turned evidence,
! gave an account of Godfey’s murder, and added many
circumftances to the narrative of the former. Thefe vil¬
lains had the boldnefs to accufe the queen of entering
into a confpiracy againft the king’s life. A reward of
500 1. was voted to Bedloe by the Commons. He is
faid to have afferted the reality of the plot on his death¬
bed : but it abounds with abfurdity, contradidiion, and
perjury ; and ftill remains one of the greateft problems
in the Britifh annals. He died at Briftol 20th Auguft,
1680. Giles Jacob informs us, that he was author of
a play called The Excommunicated Prince, or the Falfe
Relift, 1679. The printer of it having, without the
author’s knowledge, added a fecond title, and called it
The Popifb Plot in a Play, greatly excited the curiofity
of the public, who were however much difappointed
when they found the plan of the piece to be founded
on a quite different ftory. Anth. a Wood will not al¬
low the captain the merit of this play ; but afferts that
it was writtempartly, if not entirely, by one Tho. Wal¬
ter, M. A. of Jefus college, Oxford.
BEDOUINS, or Bedouis, a modern name of the
raV.a, wild Arabs, whether in Afia or Africa *.
> et BEDRIACUM, (anc. geog.), a village of Italy,
fituated, according to Tacitus, between Verona antb
Cremona, but nearer the latter than the former. From
the account given by that hiftorian, Cluverius conjec¬
tures that the ancient Bedriacum flood in the place
a»eto. where the city of Caneto now Hands f. This village
was remarkable for the defeat of the emperor Galba by
Otho, and afterwards of Otho by Vitellius.
BEDWIN-magna, a village five miles fouth of
Hungerford in Berkfhire in England. It has neither
market nor fair; but is a borough by prefcription, and
fends two members to parliament. It is faid to have
been a confiderable place jn the time of the Saxons,
and that the traces of its fortifications are ftill extant.
BEE, in zoology. See Apis. But fome late curious
difcoveries relating to bees having efcaped tire compiler
of that article, we fhall here fupply the omiffion; and
it is hoped that the importance of thefe difcoveries,
confidered either in a philofophical or an (Economical
view, will be a fufficient excufe for exhibiting them at
fo great length.
“ Difcoveries on thefex of Bees, explaining the manner
in ’which their fpecies is propagated ; with an account of
the utility that may he derived from thofe difcoveries by the
Mr aftual application of them to praftice f.] The mofl:
De* fkilful naturalifts have been flrangely mifled in their
_ . opinion, that the bees, as well as the other tribes of
XVII animals, are perpetuated by copulation ; though they
&c. acknowledge that they have never been able to deleft
them in the aft. This part of phyfics has been the
principal objeft of my refearches for ieveral years paft,
having been infenfibly engaged in it by the pleafure I
took in fo curious an inquiry. The refults of various
experiments, made all in glafs-hives, which carry with
them an entire evidence, afford fufficient reafons to
aflert, that bees belong to thatclafs of animals among
which, altho’ they have fexes, a true copulation cannot
be proved; and that their ova, like the fpawn of fifties,
mofl; probably owe their fecundation to an impregna- B;r.
tion from the males, as will appear in the fequel of 
this narrative.
“ In order to be the better underftood in the relation
of my own experiments on the fecundation of bees, I
here premife the outlines of the opinions generally
adopted by naturalifts on that head. They aflert, that
the queen is the only female in the hive, and the mo¬
ther of the next generation ; that the drones are the
males by which (he is fecundated ; and that the work¬
ing bees, or bees that colleft wax on the flowers, that
knead it and form from it the combs and cells which
they afterwards fill with honey, are of neither fex.
“ But of late Mr Schirach, a German naturalift, has
given us a very different view of the clafles that confti -
tute the republic of bees, in an ingenious publication
in his own lauguage, under the title of The Natural
Hiftory of the Sftieen of the Bees ; from which I beg
leave to relate the author’s doftrine with regard to the
working-bees only, the quality and funftions of the
drones being points which do not appear to be yet
fettled by Mr Schirach himfelf. He affirms, that all
the common bees are females in difguife ; in which the
organs that diftinguifti the fex, and particularly the
ovaria, are obliterated, or at lead, through their ex-
ceffive minutenefs, have not yet been obferved: that
every one of thofe bees in the earlier period of its ex-
iftence is capable of becoming a queen-bee, if the
whole community (hould think proper to nurfe it in a
particular manner, and raife it to that rank. In (hort,
that the queen-bee lays only two kinds of eggs ; viz.
thofe that are to produce the drones, and thofe from
which the working-bees are are to proceed.
“ The trials made by Mr Schirach feem to evince the
truth of his conclufions in the moftfatisfaftory manner,
fingular as they appear to be at firft fight; and indeed,
in my own judgement, from the conftant happy refult
of my numerous experiments, which I began near two
years before Mr Schirach’s publication, and repeated
every feafon fince, I am enabled to pronounce on their
reality. Chance befriended me in that difcovery, whilft
I was moft anxioufly endeavouring to afcertain the ufe
of drones. It was in the fpringof the year 1770, that
I for the firft time difcovtred what Maraldi had only
conjeftured, I mean the impregnation of the eggs by
the males, and that I was made acquainted with the
difference of fize in the drones or males obferved
by Maraldi in his Obfervations upon Bees *. * We * Hiftoryof
have of late found great quantities of drones much‘!ie ^oyal
fmaller than thofe we had formerly obferved, and which 0f Sciences
do not exceed in fize the common bees; fo that it 1712, p.
would not have been eafy to diftinguilh them in that 333-
hive from the common bees, had not the quantity of
them been very confiderable. It might certainly have
happened that in thofe hives, where we have not been
able to difcover large drones, there were a great num¬
ber of thofe little ones, which may have been inter¬
mixed among common bees when we were yet ignorant
that any fuch fmall drones were exifting.’
“ Reaumur himfelf, fays, ‘ We have like wife found
drones that were no bigger than the common bees.’—
They have notwithftanding efcaped the obfervation of
Mr Schirach, and of his friend Mr Hattorf member
of an academy in Lufatia, who, in a memoir he pre-
fented in the year 1769, annihilates entirely the ufe of
drones.
BEE [ 10
drones in a hive ; and advances this fingular opinion,
that the queen-bee of a hive lays eggs which produce
young ones, without having any communication with
the drones. For what purpofe ihould wife nature then
have furnifhed the drones with that large quantity of
feminal liquor ? To what ufe fo large an apparatus of
fecundating organs, fo well deferibed by Reaumur and
Maraldi ?
“ But I beg leave to remark, that thofe gentlemen
feem to have drawn too hafty conclufions from their
experiments, in rejefting the drones as bearing no lhare
in the propagation of thofe infefts. Their obfervations,
that hives are peopled at a time of the year when there
are no drones in being, are no ways conclufive; as it is
evident, that they had feen none but drones of a large
fize, their filence on the difference in the fize of them
juftifying my remark. But to refume the narrative of
my experiments: I had watched my glafs-hives with
indefatigable attention from the moment the bees,
among which I had taken care to leave a number of
drones, were put into them, to the time of the queen
laying her eggs, which generally happens the fourth or
fifth day. I obferved the firft or fecond day (always
before the third) from the time the eggs are placed in
the cells, that a great number of bees, faftening them-
felves to one another, hung down in the form of a
curtain from the top to the bottom of the hive, in a
fimilar manner they had done before at the time the
queen depofited her eggs ; an operation which (if we
may conje&ure at the inftin&s of infefts) feems con¬
trived to hide what is tranfa&ing :*be that as it will, it
anfwered the purpofe of informing me that fomething
was going forward. In fadf, I prefently after perceived
feveral bees, the fize of which through this thick veil
(if I may fo exprefs myfelf) I could not rightly diflin-
guifh, inferting the pofterior part of their bodies each
into a cell, and finking into it, where they continued
but a little while. After they had retired, I faw plainly
with the naked eye a fmall quantity of a whitifli liquor
left in the angle of the bafis of each cell, containing
an egg: it was lefs liquid than honey, and had no
fweet tafte at all. Within a day after, I found this
liquor abforbed into the embryo; which on the fourth
day is converted into a fmall worm, to which the work¬
ing bees bring a little honey for nourifhment during
the firft eight or ten days after its birth. After that
time they ceafe to feed them; for they Ihut up the cells,
where thefe embryos continue inclofed for ten days
more, during which time they undergo various changes
too tedious here to deferibe.
“ To evince the reality of this obfervation, and to
prove that the eggs are fecundated by the males, and
that their prefence isneceffary at the time of breeding,
I proceeded to the next experiments. They confifted
in leaving in a hive the queen with only the common
bees, without any drones, to fee whether the eggs fhe
laid would be prolific. I accordingly took a fwarm,
fhook all the bees into a tub of water, and left them
in it till they were quite fenfelefs, which gave me an op¬
portunity to diftinguifti the drones without any danger
of being ftung. After I had recovered the working-
bees and their queen from the ftate they were in, by
fpreading them on brown paper in the fun, I replaced
them in a glafs-hive, where they foon began to work
as ufual: the queen laid eggs, which I little fufpefted
§4 ] B E £
to be impregnated, as I thought I had feparated all
the drones or males, and therefore omitted watching
the bees; but at the end of 20 days (the ufual time of
their hatching) I found to my furprize fome of the
eggs hatched into bees, others withered away, and
feveral of them covered with honey. I immediately
inferred that fome of the males, having efcaped my
notice, had impregnated only part of the eggs ; but,
in order to convince myfelf of the truth of my fup-
pofition, I thought it neceffary to take away all the
brood-comb that was in the hive, in order to oblige
the bees to provide a frelh quantity, being fully deter¬
mined to watch narrowly their motions after new eggs
fhould be depofited in the cells. This was done ac¬
cordingly, and at laft the myftery was unravelled. On
the fecond day after the eggs were placed in the cells,
I perceived the fame operation which I have related in
a former experiment ; I mean, the bees hung down in
the form of a curtain, while others thrutt the pofterior
part of their body into the cells : I then introduced
my hand into the hive, broke off a piece of the comb
containing two of thofe infe&s, and kept them for ex¬
amination. I found in neither of them any fting (a
circumftance peculiar to drones only); and upon diffec-
tion, by the help of a Dollond’s microfeope, difeovered
in them the four cylindrical bodies, which contain the
glutinous liquor of a whitifli colour, obferved by Ma¬
raldi in the large drones.
“ Having till then never obferved any difference in the
fize of drones, I immediately perufed the Memoirs on
Bees publifhed by Meffrs Maraldi and Reaumur, and
found that they had remarked it frequently. The rea-
fon of that difference muft, I doubt, be placed amongft
other arcana of nature. I found myfelf therefore under
aneceffity, in my next experiments, to be more particular
in deftroying the males, even thofe which might be
fufpedled to be fuch.
“ I once more immerfed all the fame bees in water ;
and, when they appeared to be in a fenfelefs ftate, I
gently preffed every one of them between my fingers,
in order to diftinguifti thofe armed with ftings from thole
that had none, which laft I might fufpeft to be males.
Of thefe 1* found 57, exadtly of the iize of common
bees, yielding a little whitifti liquor on being preffed
between the fingers. I killed every one, and replaced
the fwarm in a glafs-hive, where they immediately ap¬
plied again to the work of making cells; and on the
fourth or fifth day, very early in the morning, I had
the pleafure to fee the queen-bee depofiting her eggs
in thofe cells, which flie did by placing the pofterior
part of her body in each of them. I continued on the
watch moft part of the enfuing days, but could difeo-
ver nothing of what I had feen before.
“ The eggs, after the fourth day, inftead of changing
in the manner of caterpillars, were found in the fame
ftate they were in the firft day, except that fome of
them were covered with honey. But a very fingular
event happened the next day about noon : all the bees
left their own hive, and were feen attempting to get
into a neighbouring common hive, on the ftool of which
I found their'queen dead, having, no doubt, been flain
in the engagement. The manner in which I account
for this event is as follows : the great defire of perpe¬
tuating their fpecies, which is moft obfervable in thefe
infe&s, and to which end the concurrence of the males
feems
BEE . [ 1085 ] BEE
feeyns fo abfolutely necefiary, made them defert their her of this univerfity, well converfant in the natural
~ own habitation where no males were left, in order to hiftory of bees, he deemed it neceffary, that they fhould
fix their refidenee in a new one, in which, there being be repeated, in order the better to eftablith the truth
a good ftock of males, they might the better accom- of a fadf feemingly fo improbable, that the eggs de-
plilh their purpofe. If this does not yet eftablifh the ftined by nature to produce neutral or common bees,
reader’s faith of the necefiity of the males bearing a ihould be transformed into females or queens. He
fhare in the fecundation of the ova, the next experi- ftarted an obje&ion, that the queen-bee of a hive, be-
ment cannot, I prefume, fail to convince him, fides the eggs which fhe depofits in the royal cells,
“ I took the brood-comb which, as I obferved before, might alfo have laid royal or female eggs either in the
had not been impregnated ; I divided it into two parts; common cells', or indiferiminately throughout the dif-
one I placed under a glafs-bell N0 1. with honey-comb ferent parts of the hive. He further fuppofed, that in
for the bees’ food; I took care to leave a queen, but the pieces of brood-comb, which had been fucccfsfully
no drones, among the common bees I Confined in it. employed in the lalt experiments for the produ&ion of
The other piece of brood-comb I placed under another a queen, it had conftantly happened, that one or more
glafs-bell N° 2. with a few drones, a queen, and a hum- of thefe royal eggs, or rather the worms proceeding
ber of common bees proportioned to the fize of the from them, had been contained,
glafs; the reft I difpofed of as before. The refult “ Buttheforceofhisobjeftion Was removedfoon after
was, that in the glafs N° I, no impregnation happened; by the fame fuccefs having attended a number of other
the eggs remained in the fame ftate they were in when experiments, an account of which would take up too
put into the glafs ; and, upon giving the bees their li- much room here ; and he was at laft brought tb admit,
berty on the feventh day, they all flew away, as was that the w'orking-bees are invefted with a power of rai-
found to be the cafe in the former experiment: where- fing a common fubjedt to the throne, when the comniu-
as in the glafs N° 2. I faw, the very day after the bees nity Hands in need of a queen; and that accordingly
had been put under it, the impregnation of the eggs every worm of the hive is capable, under certain cir-
by the drones in every cell containing eggs ; the bees cumftances, of becoming the mother of a generation:
did not leave their hive on receiving their liberty; and, that it owes its metamorphofis into a queen, partly to
in the eburfe of 20 days, every egg underwent all the the extraordinary fize of the cell, and its particular
above-mentioned neceifary changes, and formed a pretty pofition in it; but principally to a certain nouriihment
numerous young colony, in which I was not a little appropriated to the occafion, and carefully admini-
ftartled to find two queens. ftered to it by the working-bees while it is in the worm-
“ Fully fatisfied concerning the impregnation of the ftate, by which, and poffibly other means as yet un-
eggs by the males, I defifted for the prefent from any known, the developement and expanfion of the germ
further experiments on that head, being exceedingly of the female organs, previoufly exifting in the em-
anxious to endeavour to account for the prefence of this bryos, is eflfe&ed, and thofe differences in its form and
new queen. fize are produced, which afterwards fo remarkably
“ I conjectured that either two queens, infteadofone, diftinguifh the queen from the common working-bees,
mull have been left among the bees I had placed under And finally it appears evident, from the experiments
that glafs; or elfe that the bees could, by fome parti- made by Mr Schirach and myfelf, that the received
cular means of their own, transforma common fubjeft opinion, that the queen lays a particular kind of eggs,
into a queen. In order to put this to the teft, I re- appropriated to the production of other queens, is er-
peated the experiment with fome variation. I got four roneous.
glafs-hives blown flat, which I thought preferable to “ I ftiall now beg leave to point out the advantage
the bell-lhaped ones I hadufed before, as I could with that may accrue to the public from thefe obfervations,
thofe better examine what was going forward. I took which is that of forming artificial fwarsas or new co-
a large brood:comb from an old hive, and, after having Ionics; or, in other words, of furnifliing the means to
divided it into feveral pieces, I put fume of them, con- bring on a numerous increafe of thole uieful infeCls: au
taining eggs, worms, and nymphs, with food, viz: objeCl of fome importance to this kingdom, as being
honey, &:c. under each of the glaffes ; and confined the only means to prevent the annnal exportation of
within each a fufficient number of common bees, a- confiderable fums in the purchafe of wax, a great quau-
mong which I left fome drones, but took care that tity of which is loft every feafon for want of keeping
there ftiould be no queen. up a fufficient ftock of bees to colled it.
“ The bees finding themfelves without a queen, made “ The pradice of this new art, Mr Schirach tells us,
a ft range buzzing noife, which lafted near two days; has already extended itfelf through'Upper Lufatia, the
at the end of which they fettled and betook themfelves Palatinate, Bohemia, Bavaria, Silefia, and even in Po¬
lo work : on the fourth day I perceived in each hive land. In fome of thofe countries it has excited the at-
the beginning of a royal cell, a certain indication that tention and patronage of government ; and even the
one of the inclvfed worms wouldfoon be converted into a emprefs of Ruffia has thought it of fuch importance,
queen. The conftrudion of the royal cell being nearly that flic has fent a perfon to Klein Baatzcn, to be in-
accompliihed, I ventured to leave an opening for the ftruded in the general principles, and learn all the mi-
bees to get out; and found that they returned as regu- huti.e of this new art.”
larly as they do in common hives, and ftiewed no inch- Bee is alfo ufed figuratively to denote fweetnefs, in¬
nation to defert their habitation, But, to be brief, at duftry, &c. Thus Xenophon is called \\\e. Attic bee,
the end of twenty days, I obferved four young queens on account of the great fweetr.efs of his ftyle, Anto-
among the new progeny. nius got the denomination Meliffd or Bee, on account of
“ Onrclating the refult ofthefe experiments to a mem- his colledtion of common-places.—Leo Allatius gave
Vol, II. 6 X the
BEE [
Bee the appellation apes urban# to the illuftrious men at
Rome from the year 1630 to the year 1632.
  !!*!'  'S>nz,s-Bread. See Apis, n° 12. ult.
'bz.v.-Eater, in zoology. See Merops.
T>hk-Flower. See Ophrys.
Bee-G7?!<?, called by the ancients propolis, is a foft,
unftuous, glutinous matter, employed by bees to ce-
* See Afis, ment the combs to the hives, and to clofe up the cells *.
n° 13. BEE-i/iWr. See Apis, n° 19, 28, 30.
BEECH-tree, in botany. See Fagus.
BEECH-Afa/?, the fruit oftthe beech-tree, faid to be
good for fattening hogs, deer, fee.— It has fometimes,
even to men, proved an ufeful fubftitute for bread.
Chios is faid to have endured a memorable fiege by.
means of it.
Beech-0//, an oil drawn by exprefiionirom the mall
of the beech-tree, after it has been (helled and pounded.
This oil is very common in Picardy, and ufed there
and in other parts of France inftead of butter; but
moft of thofe who take a great deal of it, complain of
pains and a heavinefs in the ftomach.
BEEF, the fle(h of black-cattle prepared for food.
* Left, on According to Dr Cullen *, beef, though of a more
Mat. Med. £rm texture andlefs folublethan mutton, is equally al-
calefcent, perfpirable, and nutritious: and if in the
fouthern countries it is not efteemed fo, it is on account
of its imperfection there.
BEELE, a kind of pick-ax, ufed by the miners for
feparating the ores from the rocks in which they lie: this
inllrument is called a tubber by the miners of Cornwall.
BEER, is a fpirituous liquor made from any farina¬
ceous grainj but generally from barley. It is, pro¬
perly fpeaking, the wine of barley. The meals of any
of thefe grains being extracted by a fufficient quantity
of water, and remaining at reft in a degree of heat re-
quiftte for the fpirituous fermentation, naturally under¬
go this fermentation, and are changed into a vinous li¬
quor. But as all thefe matters render the water mu¬
cilaginous, fermentation proceeds (lowly and imper-
feftly in fuch liquors. On the other fide, if the quan¬
tity of farinaceous matter be fo diminifhed that its ex-
trad! or decodtion may have a convenient degree of
fluidity, this liquor will be impregnated with fo fmall
a quantity of fermentable matter, that the beer or wine
of the grain will be too weak, and have too little tafte.
Thefe inconveniences are remedied by preliminary
operations which the grain is made to undergo.—Thefe
preparations confift in deeping it in cold water, that it
may foak and fwell to a certain degree ; and in laying
it in a heap with a fuitable degree of heat, by means
of which, and of the imbibed moifture, a germination
begins, which is to be (lopped by a quick drying, as
foon as the bud (hews itfelf. I’o accelerate this drying,
and render it more complete, the grain is (lightly
roafted, by making it pafs down an inclined canal dif¬
fidently heated. This germination, and this flight
reading, changes confiderably the nature of the muci¬
laginous fermentable matter of the grain.* The germi¬
nation attenuates much, and in fome meafure totally
deftroys, the vifeofity of the mucilage; and it does this,
when not carried too far, without depriving the grain
of any of its difpofition to ferment. On the contrary,
it changes the grain into a faccharine fubftance, as may
be perceived by maftiing grains beginning to germi¬
nate. The flight roafting contributes alfo to attenuate
1086 ] BEE
the mucilaginous fermentable matter of the grain.
When the grain is thus prepared, it is fit to be ground,
and to impregnate water with much of its fubftance
without forming a glue or vifeous mafs. The grain
thus prepared is called malt. This malt is then to be
ground; and all its fubftance, which is fermentable and
foluble in water, is to be extricated by means of hot
water. This extraft or infufion is diffidently evapo¬
rated by boiling in caldrons; and fome plant of an a-
greeable bitternefs, fuch as hops, is at that time added,
to heighten the tafte of the beer, and to render it ca¬
pable of being longer preferved. Laftly, this liquor is
put into cades, and allowred to ferment; nature per¬
forms the reft of the work, and is only to be affifted
by the other mod favourable drcumftances for the fpi¬
rituous fermentation. See Fermentation.
Foreigners have framed divers conjeftures to ac¬
count for the excellency of the Britifli beer, and its
fuperiority to that of. other countries, even of Bremen,
Mons, and Roftoch. It has been pretended, our
brewers throw dead dogs flea’d into their wort, and
boil them till the fleflr is all confumed. Others, more
equitable, attribute the excellency of our beer to the
quality of our malt and water, and the fleill of our
brewers in preparing it.
Sour beer may be reftored divers ways; as by fait
made of the afties of barley-ftraw, put into the veffel,
and ftirred ; or by three or four handfuls of beech-
alhes thrown into the veflel, and ftirred ; or, where the
liquor knot very four, by a little put in a bag, with¬
out (lining : chalk calcined, oyfter-fliells, egg-fhells
burnt, fea-(hells, crabs eyes, alcalized coral, &c. do
the fame, as they imbibe the acidity, and unite with it
into a fweetnefs.—Beer, it is faid, may be kept from
turning four in fummer, by hanging into the veffel a
bag containing a new-laid egg, pricked full of little
pin-holes, fome laurel-berries, and a few barley-grains;
or by a new-laid egg and walnut-tree leaves. Glauber
commends his fal mirabile and fixed nitre, put in a
linen bag, and hung on the top of the cade fo as to
reach the liquor, not only for recovering four beer, but
preferving and ftrengthening it.
Laurn-berries, their (kin being peeled off, will keep
beer from deadnefs ; and beer already dead may be re¬
ftored by impregnating it with fixed air *.
Beer tajlingof the cajk may be freed from it by put¬
ting a handful of wheat in a bag, and hanging it in the
veffel.
BEESTINGS, or Breastings, a term ufed by
country-people for the fir'll milk taken from a cow af¬
ter calving.—The beeftings are of a thick confidence,
and yellow colour, feeming impregnated with fulphur.
Dr Morgan imagines them peculiarly fitted and intended
by nature to cleanfe the young animal from the recre¬
ments gathered in its ftomach and inteftines during its
long habitation in utero. The like quality and virtue
he fuppofes in womens firft milk after delivery; and
hence infers the neceffity of the mother’s fuekling her
own child, rather than committing it to a nurfe whofe
firft milk is gone.
BEET, in botany. See Beta.
BEETLE, in the hiftory of infe&s. See Scara-
bieus.
Beetle alfo denotes a wooden inftrument for dri¬
ving piles, &c. It is likewife called aJlamper^ and by.
pa-
BEG [ 1087 ] BEG
E paviors a ravimer.
^ BEFORT, a fmall but ftrong town of France, and
s* capital of Suntgaw in Alface. It was ceded to France,
b}' the treaty of Weftphalia in 1648. There are not
above 100 lioufes in this town, but it is important on
account of the great road by this place from Franche
Compte. Tlie fortifications were greatly augmented
by Lewis XIV. It is feated at the foot of a mountain.
E. Long. 6. 2. N. Lat. 47. 38.
BEG, or Bey, in the Turkilh affairs. See Bey.
Beg is more particularly applied to the lord of a ban -
ner, called alfo in the fame language fangiak-beg. A
beg has the command of a certain number of the fpa-
his, or horfe, maintained by the province under the
denomination of timariots. All the begs of a province
obey one governor-general called begler-beg, or beyler-
beg, q. d. lord of lords, or of the beys of the province.
Begs, or Beghs, of Egypt, denote twelve generals,
who have the command of the militia or Handing for-
I ces of the kingdom; and are to fecure the country from
the infults of Arabs, as well as to protect the pilgrims
in their annual expeditions to Mecca. The begs, feve-
ral of whom are defcended from the ancient race of the
Mamalukes, are very rich and powerful, maintaining
each 500 fighting men for their own guard, and the fer-
vice of their court. On difcontents, they have fre¬
quently rifen in rebellion. They are often at variance
with the balhaw, whom they have more than once
plundered and imprifoned.
BEGHARDS. See Beguards.
BEGLERBEG, a governor of one of the principal
governments in the Turkifh empire, and next in digni¬
ty to the grand vizier. To every beglerbeg the grand
fignior gives three enfigns or ftaves, trimmed with a
horfe-tail; to diftinguifh them from the balhaws, who
have but two ; and from fimple begs, or fangiac begs,
who have but one.
The province or government of beglerbeg is called
beglerbegliky or beglierbeglik. Thefe are of two forts ;
the firft called hafilo beglerbcglik, which have a certain
rent affigned out of the cities, countries, and figniories
allotted to the principality ; the fecond called faliana
beglerbeglik, for maintenance of which is annexed a fa-
lary or rent, collefted by the grand fignior’s officers
with the treafure of the empire. The beglerbegs of the
firft fort are in number 22, viz. thofe of Anatolia, Ca-
ramania, Diarbekir, Damafcus, Aleppo, Tripoli, Tre-
bizond, Buda, Temifwar, &c. The beglerbegs of the
fecond fort are in number fix, viz. thofe of Cairo, Ba¬
bylon, &c. Five of the beglerbegs have the title of
viziers, viz. thofe of Anatolia, Babylon, Cairo, Ro¬
mania, and Buda.
The beglerbegs appear with great ftate, and a large
retinue, efpecially in the camp, being obliged to bring
a foldier for every 5000 afpers of rent which they en¬
joy. Thofe of Romania brought 10,000 effedlive men
into the field
The beglerbegs are become almoft independent, and
have under their jurifdidlion feveral fangiacs or parti¬
cular governments, and begs, agas, and other officers
who obey them.
BEGUARDS, or Beghards, religious of the
third order of St Francis in Flanders. They were e-
ftablilhed at Antwerp in the year 1228, and took St
Begghe for their patronefs, whence they had their name.
From their firft inftitutjon they employed themfelves Bernards,
in making linen cloth, each fupporting himfelf by his Beguines.
own labour, and united only by the bonds of charity, '
without having any particular rule. But, when Pope
Nicolas IV. had confirmed that of the third order of St
Francis, in 1289, they embraced it the year following.
They were greatly favoured by the dukes of Brabant,
particularly John II. and John III. who exempted
them from all contributions and taxes. In the year
1425, they began to live in common, and made folemu
vows in 1467, after having taken the habit of the Ter-
ciaries (or religious of the third order of St Francis)
of Liege. At laft, in 1472, they became fubjedt to
the general of the congregation of Zepperen in the
diocefe of Liege, to which they were united by Pope
Sixtus IV. As the convent of Antwerp is fince be¬
come very confiderable, the name of Beguards has been
given to all the other religious of the fame congrega¬
tion. But, in 1650, Pope Innocent X. having fup-
preffed the general of the congregation of Zepperen,
all the convents of the third order of St Francis, in
the diocefes of Liege, Malines, and Antwerp, were
fubmitted to the vifitation, jurifdiftion, and correftion,
of the genera] of Italy, and ere&ed into a province,
under the title of the province of Flanders. This pro¬
vince has at prefent 10 or 12 convents, the principal
of which are thofe of Antwerp, Bruffels, Maeftricht,
and Louvain.
BEGUINES, a congregation of religious or nuns
founded either by St Begghe, founder likewife of the
Beguards, or by Lambert le Begue; of whom the
former died about the end of the feventh century, the
latter about the end of the 12th. They were eftablifhed
firft at Liege, and afterwards at Neville, in 1207 ; and
from this laft fettlement fprang the great number of
Beguinages, which are fpread over all Flanders, and
which have paffed from Flanders into Germany. In
the latter country, fame of thefe religious fell into ex¬
travagant errors, perfuading themfelves that it was pof-
fible, in the prefent life, to arrive at the higheft per-
fedlion, even to impeccability, and a clear view of
God; in fliort, to fo eminent a degree of contemplation,
that there was no neceffity, after this, either to obferve
the fafts of the church, or fubmit to the dire&ion and
laws of mortal men. The council of Vienna, in 1113,
condemned thefe errors, and abolilhed the order of
Beguines ; permitting, neverthelefs, thofe among them,
who continued in the true faith, to live in chaftity and
penitence, either with or without vows. It is by fa¬
vour of this latter claufe, that there ftill fubfift fo many
.communities of Beguines in Flanders; who, fince the
council of Vienna, have condudled themfelves with fo
much wifdom and piety, that Pope John XXII. by his
decretal, which explains that of his predeceffor made
in the council of Vienna, took them under his protec¬
tion ; and Boniface VIII. in another, exempted them
from the fecular tribunal, and put them under the jurif-
di&ion of the bilhops.
There is fcarce a town in the Low-Countries, in
which there is not a fociety of Beguines ; and, not-
withftanding the change of religion at Amfterdam,
there is a very flourifhing one in that city. Thefe fo-
cieties confift of feveral houfes placed together in one
inclofure, with one or more churches, according to
the number of Beguines. There is in every houfe a
6X3 priorefs,
B E H [ 1088 ] U E J
Beheading priorefs, or miftrefs, without whofe leave they dare not
B | ftir out. They make a fort of vow, which is conceived
ein‘ in the following terms : “ I. N. promife to be obe¬
dient and chafte as long as I continue in this Begui-
nage.” They obferve a three years noviciate before
they take the habit. The redfor of the parifli is fupe-
rior of the Beguinage ; and he does nothing without
the advice of eight Beguines. They were formerly
habited in different manners ; fame in grey, others in
blu.e ; but at prefent they all wear black. When they
go abroad, in Amfterdam, they put on a black veil.
Formerly they had as many different ftatutes as there
were focieties. In the vifitations of the year 1600 and
i6ox, by the archbifhop Matthias Hovius, they w'ere
forbidden, under the penalty of a fine, to have lap-dogs.
The fineft Beguinage in Flanders is that of Malines.
That of Antwerp likewife is very fpacious, and has
two feparate churches.
BEHEADING, a capital punifhment, inflidfed by
cutting off the head with an ax, fword, &c.
Among the Romans, beheading was a military pu-
nifhment, performed at fiifl with an ax, but afterwards
with a fword, as done at prefent in Holland and
France. In England the ax is. preferred ; and in
Scotland they ufe for this purpofe a machine called a
• maiden. See Maiden.
* See Hip- BEHEMOTFI, the hippopotamus, or river-horfe*.
popotamus. BEHEN, in botany. See Cucuealus.
BEHN (Aphara), a celebrated authorefs, defeended
from a good family in the city of Canterbury, was
born fome time in Charles Ids reign, but in what
year is uncertain. Her father’s name was who
through the intereft of the lord Willoughby, to whom
he was related, being appointed lieutenant-general of
Surinam, and 36 iflands, undertook a journey to the
Weft-Indies, taking with him his whole family, among
whom was our poetefs, at that time very young. Mr
Johnfon died in the voyage ; but his family reaching
Surinam, fettled there for fome years. Here it was
that ftie learned the hiftory of, and acquired a perfonal
intimacy with, the American prince Oroonoko and
his beloved Imoinda, whofe adventures fhe hath fo pa¬
thetically related in her celebrated novel of that name,
and which Mr Southerne afterwards made fuch an ad¬
mirable ufe of in making it the ground-work of one of
the beft tragedies in the Englifh language.
On her return to London, fhe became the wife of
one Mr Behn, a merchant, refiding in that city, but
of Dutch extradlion. How long he lived after their
marriage, is not very apparent, probably not very long;
for her wit and abilities having brought her into high
eftimation at court, king Charles II. fixed on her as a
proper perfon to tranfaft fome affairs of importance a-
broad during the courfe of the Dutch war. To this pur¬
pofe fhe went over to Antwerp, where, by her intrigues
and gallantries, fhe fo far crept into the fecrets of ftate,
as to anfwer the ends propofed by fending her over. Nay,
in the latter end of 1666, fhe, by means of the influ¬
ence fire had over one Vander Albert, a Dutchman of
eminence, whofe heart was warmly attached to her, fhe
wormed out of him the defign formed by De Ruyter,
in conjundlion with the family of the De Wits, of fail¬
ing up the Thames and burning the Englifh fhips in
their harbours, which they afterwards put in execution
at Rochefter. This fhe immediately communicated to
the Englifh court: but though the event proved her in- Bck'j
telligence to be well grounded, yet it was at that time
only laughed at; which, together probably with no IT
great inclination fhewn to reward her for the pains fhe
had been at, determined her to drop all further thoughts
of political affairs, and during the remainder of her ftay ||
at Antwerp to give herfelf up entirely to the gaiety M
and gallantries of the place. Vander Albert continued
his addreffes, and after having made fome unfuccefsful |l
attempts to obtain the pofieffion of her perfon on eafier
terms than matrimony, at length confented to make her
his wife; but while he was preparing at Amfterdam .'I
for a journey to England with that intent, a fever car- ||
ried him off, and left her free from any amorous en¬
gagements. In her voyage back to England, fhe was
very near being loft, the vefiel fhe was in being driven
on the coaft by a ftorm; but happening to founder within JH
fight of land, the paffengers were, by the timely af- ®
fiftance of boats from the fhore, all fortunately pre-
ferved.
From this period fhe devoted her life entirely to piea-
fure and the mofes. Her works are extremely nume- J
rous, and all of them have a lively and amorous turn, 1
It is no wonder then that her wit fhould have gained her
the efteem of Mr Dryden, Southerrie, and other men of
genius, as her beauty, of which in her younger part of
life fhe pofleffed a great fhare, did the love of thofe of
gallantry. Nor does fhe appear to have been any ftranger
to the delicate fenfations of that paffion, as appears 3
from fome of her letters to a gentleman, with whom 1
fhe correfponded under the name of Lycida, and who
feems not to have returned her flame with equal ardor,
or received it with that rapture her charms might well
have been expedled to command.
She publifhed three volumes of Mifcellany Poems; rl
two volumes of Hiftories and Novels; tranflated Fon-
tenelle’s Plurality of Worlds, and annexed a Criticifm |
on it; and her Plays make four volumes. In the dra¬
matic line, the turn of her genius was chiefly to co¬
medy. As to the chara&er her plays fhoidd maintain I
in the records of dramatic hiftory, it will be difficult to
determine, fince their faults and perfe&ions ftand in
ftrong oppofition to each other. In all, even the moft 3
indifferent of her pieces, there are ftrong marks of ge¬
nius and underftanding. Her plots are full of bufinefs I
and ingenuity, and her dialogue fparkles with the daz¬
zling luftre of genuine wit, which every where glitters j
among it. But then fhe has been accufed, and that j
not without great juftice, of interlarding her comedies
with the moft indecent feenes, and giving an indulgence
in her wit to the moft indelicate expreflions. To this
accufation fhe has herfelf made fome reply in the Pre¬
face to the Lucky Chance ; but the retorting the charge
of prudery and precifenefs on her accufers, is far from
being a fufficient exculpation of herfelf. The beft and
perhaps the only true excufe that can be made for it is,
that, as fhe wrote for a livelihood, fhe was obliged to
comply with the corrupt tafte of the times.
After a life intermingled with numerous difappoint-
ments, fhe departed from this world on the 16th of 1
April 1689, and lies interred in the cloyfters of Weft- I
minfter-Abbey.
BEJA, an ancient town of Portugal, in the province I
of Alentejo. It is feated in a very agreeable and fruit¬
ful plain, remarkable for excellent wine. There are
three
BEK [ 1089 j BEL
three gates remaining, which are of Roman architec¬
ture, and a great many Roman antiquities are dug out
of the earth. The town has a ilrong caftle for its de¬
fence, and is fituated W. Long. 7. 20. N. Lat. 37. 58.
It was taken from the Moors in 1162.
BEJAR, a town of Eftremadura in Spain, famous
for its baths. It is feated in a very agreeable valley
furrounded with high mountains whofe tops are always
covered with fnow. Here the dukes of Bejar have an
handfome palace. In this neighbourhood are forefts
filled with game, and watered by fine fprings; alfo a
lake abounding with excellent filh, particularly trouts.
They pretend that this lake makes fuch a noife before
a ftorm, that it may be heard 15 miles off.
BEICHLINGEN, a town of Thuringia in Upper
Saxony, in E. Long. 11. 50. N. Lat-51. 20.
BEILA, a town of Italy, in Piedmont. E. Long.
7. 45. N. Lat. 45. 2.
BEILSTEIN, a town of the landgraviate of Heffe
in Germany, in E. Long. 8. O. N. Lat. 50. 30.
BEINHEIM, a fort of Alface in France, i'eated
on the river Sur, near its confluence with the Rhine, in
E. Long. 8. 12. N. Lat. 45. 2.
BEIRA. a province of Portugal, bounded on the
weft by the ocean, on the fouth by the Portuguefe E-
ftremadura, on the fouth-eaft by the Spanifh province
of the fame name, on the eaft by the province of Tra-
los Montos, and on the north by the river Douro. It
extends in length about 34 leagues, and in breadth a-
bout 30 leagues, and is divided into fix commarcas.
Within this province lies Lamego, where the firft af-
fembly of the ftates was held; the chief epifcopal city of
Conimbra, or Coimbra, which is likewife an univerfity;
and Vifeo, alfo a bifhopric, and formerly the capital
of a dukedom. The country is equally agreeable and
fruitful, producing corn, wines, &c. in abundance,
and the hills affording excellent pafture to cattle and
fheep. The fettled militia confifts of about 10,000 men.
BEIRAM, orBAiRAM. See Bairam.
BEIZA, or Beizath, in Hebrew antiquity, a word
fignifying an egg; as alfo a certain meafure in ufeamong
the Jews. The beiza was likewife a gold coin, weigh¬
ing 40 drachms, among the Perfians, who gave out,
that Philip of Macedon owed their king Darius 1000
beizaths or golden eggs, for tribute-money ; and that
Alexander the Great refufed to pay them, faying, that
the bird which laid thefe eggs was flown into the other
world.
BEK (David), a famous Dutch portrait painter,
and difciple of Vandyck; whofe fltill in his profelfion,
and politenefs of addrefs, acquired him high efteem in
moft courts of Europe- He was in great favour with
Charles I. king of England, and taught the principles
of drawing to his fons Charles and James. He went
afterward into the fervice of the kings of France, Den¬
mark, and of Chriftina queen of Sweden, who made
him firft gentleman of her bedchamber. His manner
of painting was fo quick, that our king Charles told
him, he believed he could paint if he was riding poll.
It is faid, that in travelling through Germany, he fell
fick at an inn, and was laid out for dead. His fervants
drinking for confolation by his bed-fide, one of them
in a drunken freak faid, “ Our mafter was fond of a
glafs while he was alive, and out of gratitude let us
give him a glafs now when he is dead.” The propofal
proving agreeable, he raifed up his mafter’s head, and
endeavouring to pour fome wine into his mouth, Bek
opened his eyes ; and being compelled, neverthelefs, to
drink the glafs-full, gradually revived. He lived fome
years after, though he died at 35 years old, in 1656.
BEKKER (Balthazar), one of the moft famous
Dutch divines, and author of the celebrated book. The
World bewitched, an ingenious piece, againft the vul¬
gar notion of fpirits. This raifed a terrible clamour a-
gainft him. He was depofed from the office of mini-
fter ; but the magiftrates of Amfterdam continued-him
his penfion. He died in 1698.
BEL (Matthias), was born in Hungary, and be¬
came a Lutheran minifter at Prefburg, and hiftorio-
grapher to the emperor Charles VI. He wrote, among
other works, a Hiftory of Hungary, which was fo
much admired, that the emperor fent him letters of no¬
bility ; and notwithftanding his being a Lutheran, the
pope, in 1736, fent him his pi&ure, and many large
gold medals. He was a member of the Royal Society
of London, and of the academies of Berlin and Peterf-
burg ; and died in 1749, at 66 years of age.
Bel, or Belus, the fupreme god of the ancient
Chaldteans or Babylonians. He was the founder of
the Babylonian empire; and is fuppofed to be the Nim¬
rod of Scripture, and the fame as the Phoenician Baal.
This god had a temple eredfed to him in the city of
Babylon, on the very uppermoft range of the famous
tower of Babel, or Babylon, wherein were many fta-
tues of this deity; and one, among the reft, of maffy
gold, 40 feet high. The whole furniture of this mag¬
nificent temple was of the fame metal, and valued at
800 talents of gold.—This temple, with its riches, was
in being till the time of Xerxes, who, returning from
his unfortunate expedition into Greece, demolifhed it,
and carried off the immenfe wealth which it contained.
It was the ftatue of this god which Nebuchadnezzar,
being returned to Babylon after the end of the Jew-
iih war, fet up and dedicated in the plain of Dura;
the ftory of which is related at large in the third chap ¬
ter of Daniel.
Bel and the Dragen (the hiftory of) ; an apocry¬
phal, and uncanonical, book of Scripture. It was al¬
ways rejected by the Jewilh church, and is extant nei¬
ther in the Hebrew nor the Chaldee language, nor is
there any proof that it ever was fo. St Jerom gives it
no better title than the fable of Bel and the Dragon.
It is however permitted to be read, as well as the other
apocryphal writings, for the inftru&ion and improve¬
ment of manners.
BELAC, a fmall city of France, in the province of
the Lyonnois, and diftricl of La Marche. E. Long.
1. 15. N. Lat. 46. 15.
BELCASTRO, an epifcopal city of Italy in the
farther Calabria, and kingdom of Naples. It is feated
on a mountain, in E. Long. 17. 15. N. Lat. 39. 6.
BELCHITE, a town of Spain, in the kingdom of
Arragon, feated on the river Almonazir, in W.Long.
O. 30. N. Lat. 41. 19.
BELCHOE, a town of Ireland, in the province of
Ulfter, and county of Fermanagh, feated on Lough
Nilly, in W. Long. 6. 6. N. Lat. 54. 2.
BELEM, a town of Eftremadura in Portugal, about
a mile from Lilbon. It is feated on the north fide of
the river Tajo, and is defigned to defend the entrance
to
Bekkcr
II
Belem.
BEL [ 1090 ] BEL
Belemnites to Lllbon; and here all the (hips that fail up the river brus, for fo we muff now call Belefis, underftanding a
Jl - mull; bring to. In this place they inter the kings and certain robuft Mede, called Parfondas, held him in the
e e ls‘ queens of Portugal. utmoft contempt, and had folicited the emperor of the
BELEMNITES, vulgarly called thunder-bolts or Medes to diveft him of his dominions, and to confer
thunder-Jlones'. They are compofed of feveral crufts of them upon himfelf, offered a very great reward to the
ftone encircling each other, of a conical form, and va- man who (hould take Parfondas, and bring him to him.
rious iizes; ufually a little hollow, and fomewhat tranf- Parfondas, hunting fomewherc near Babylon with the
parent, formed of feveral ftriae radiating from the axis king of the Medes, and ftraggling from the company,
to the furface of the ftone; and when burnt or rubbed happened to fall in with fome of the fervants of the Ba-
againft one another, or feraped with a knife, yield an bylonian Nanybrus, who had been tempted with the
odour like rafped horn. Their fize is various, from a promifed reward. They were purveyors to the king;
quarter of an inch to eight inches; and their colour and Parfondas being very thirfty, afked them for a
and fhape differ. They are fuppofed to be originally draught of wine, which they not only granted, but
either a part of fome fea-produdfion ; or a ftone formed prevailed upon him to take a meal with them. As he
in the cavity of fome worm-fhell, which, being of a ten- drank freely, fufpedling no treachery, he was eafily
der and brittle nature, has perilhed, after giving its perfuaded to pafs that night in company with fome
form to the ftone. They are very frequently found in beautiful women, brought on purpofe to detain him.
many parts of England; and the common people have But, while he was in a profound fleep, the fervants
a notion, that they are always to be met with after a of Nanybrus rufhing upon him, bound him, and
ftorm. They are often inclofed in, or adhere to, other carried him to their prince ; who bitterly reproached
ftones; and are moft frequent amongft gravel, or in him for endeavouring to eftrange his mafter the king
clay: they abound in Gloucefterfhire ; and are found of the Medes from him, and by that means place him-
near Dedington in Oxfordfhire, where they fometimes felf in his room on the throne of Babylon. Parfon-
contain the filver marcafite. See Plate LV. fig. 10. das did not deny the charge; but with great intrepi-
BELERIUM, (anC. gt:og.), a promontory of the dity owned, that he thought himfelf more worthy of a
Dumnonii or Damnonii, the weftmoft Britons. Now crown than fuch an indolent and effeminate prince as
called the land's end, in Cornwall. he was. Nanybrus, highly provoked at the liberty he
BELESIS, or Nanybrus, faid to have been the took, fwore by the gods Belus and Molis, or rather
founder of the ancient Babylonifh empire, and in con- Mylitta, that Parfondas himfelf ftiould in a ftiort time
junction with Arbaces the Mede to have put an end become fo effeminate as to reproach none with effemi-
to the kingdom of the Affyrians by the defeat and nacy. Accordingly, he ordered the eunuch who had
death of Sardanapalus. This firft prince is reprefented the charge of his mufic-women, to (have, paint, and
as a crafty and mean-fpirited knave; and, at the fame drefs him after the manner of thofe women, to teach
time, as nothing lefs than an hero. It is faid, he was him the art, and in ftiort to transform him by all pof-
bafe enough to circumvent Arbaces his colleague and fible means into a woman. His orders were obeyed;
friend in the moft fhameful manner; by pretending a and the manly Parfondas foon exceeded the faireft ffc-
vow he had, in the midft of the war, made to his god male in finging, playing, and the other arts of allure-
Belus, That if fuccefs was the event of it, and the pa- ment.
lace of Sardanapalus was confumed, as it was, he In the mean time the king of the Medes, having in
would be at the charge and trouble of removing the vain fought after his favourite fervant, and in vain of-
afhes that were left, to Babylon; where he would heap fered great rewards to fuch as ftiould give him any in-
them up into a mount near the temple of his god; there formation concerning him, concluded he had been de-
to ftand as a monument to all who ftiould navigate the ftroyed by fome wild beaft in the chace. At length,
Euphrates, of the fubverfidn of the Affyrian empire, after feven years, the Mede was informed of his ftate
He, it feems, had been privately informed, by an eu- and condition by an eunuch, who, being cruelly fcour-
nuch, of the immenfe treafure which had been confu- ged by Nanybrus's order, fled, at the inftigation of
med in the conflagration at Nineveh; and, knowing it Parfondas, into Media; and there difclofed the whole
to be a fecret to Arbaces, his avarice fuggefted to him to the king, who immediately difpatched an officer to
this artifice. Arbaces not only granted him his re- demand him. Nanybrus pretended to know nothing
queft; but appointed him king of Babylon, with an of any fuch perfon ; upon which, another officer was
exemption from all tribute. Belefis, by this artifice, fent by the Mede, with a peremptory order to feize on
carried a prodigious tr.eafure with him to Babylon; Nanybrus if heperfifted in the denial, to bind him with
but when the fecret was difeovered, he was called to an his girdle, and lead him to immediate execution. This
account for it, and tried by the other chiefs who had order had the defired effeft: the Babylonian owned
been affiftant in the war, and who, upon his confeffion what he had before denied, promifing to comply, with-
of the crime, condemned him to lofe his head. But out further delay, with the king’s demand; and in the
Arbaces, a magnificent and generous prince, freely mean time invited the officer to a banquet, at which
forgave him, left him in poffeffion of the treafure, 150 women, among whom was Parfondas, made their
and alfo in the independant government of Babylon, appearance, finging and playing upon various inftru-
faying, The good he had done ought to ferve as a veil ments. But, of all, Farfondas appeared by far the moft
to his crime; and thus he became at once a prince of charming; infomuch that Nanybrus inquiring of the
great wealth and dominion. Mede, which he liked beft, he immediately pointed at
In procefs of time, and under the fucceffor of Ar- him. At this the Babylonian clapt his hands; and,
baces, he became a man of drefs, ftiew, and effeminacy, falling into an immoderate fit of laughter, told him
unworthy of the kingdom or province he held. Nany- who the perfon was whom he thus preferred to all the
BEL f 1091 ] BEL
reft; adding, that he could anfwer what he had done
before the king of the Medes. The officer was no lefs
^ furprifed at fuch an aftonifhing change, than his mafter
was afterwards, when Parfondas appeared before him.
The only favour Parfondas begged of the king, for all
his paft fervices, was, that he would avenge on the Ba¬
bylonian the bafe and highly injurious treatment he had
met with at his hands. The Mede marched accord¬
ingly, at his inftigation, to Babylon ; and, notwith-
ftanding the remonftrances of Nanybrus, urging, that
Parfondas had, without the leaft provocation, endea¬
voured to deprive him of both his life and kingdom,
declared that in ten days time he would pafs the fen-
tence on him which he deferved, for prefuming to aft
as judge in his own caufe, inftead of appealing to him.
But Nanybrus having in the mean time gained with a
large bribe Mitraphernes the Mede’s favourite eunuch}
the king was by him prevailed upon to fentence the
Babylonian only to a fine; which made Parfondas curfe
the man who firft found out gold, for the fake of which
he was to live the fport and derifion of an effeminate
Babylonian.
BELESME, a town of Perche in France, in W.
Long. o. 16. N, Eat. 48. 23.
BELEZEPT), a town of Pi.uffia, and capital of a
province of the fame name. It is fituated on the fouth-
eaft fhore of the White fea, in E. Long. 36. 10. N. Lat.
61. 50.
BELFAST, a town of Ireland, in the county'of
Antrim. -It is feated at the bottom of Carrickfergus
bay, and is the chief town and port in this part of
Ireland, as well for beauty and the number of its in¬
habitants, as for its wealth, trade, and (hipping. It
has a confiderable trade with Glafgow, and the inha¬
bitants are moftly Scots, and of the prefoyterian reli¬
gion. W. Long. 6. 15. N. Lat. 54. 38.
BELFRY, that part of a fteeple where bells are
hung, or the timber frame whereby they are fupported.
BELGARDEN, a town of Germany, in Eait Po¬
merania, in the province of Caffubia, and fubjeft to
Prufiia. E. Long. 16. 5. N. Lat. 54. 10.
BELGOROD, a town of Ruffia, and capital of a
province of the fame name. It is feated on the river
Donnets, in E. Long. 18. 5. N. Lat. 51. 20.
Belgorod, a ftrong town of Beffarabia in European
Turky, feated at the mouth of the river Niefter, on
the Black fea, 80 miles fouth-eaft of Bender. E.
Long. 31. o. N. Lat. 46. 30.
BELGRADE, a city of Turky in Europe, and
capital of Servia, feated at the confluence of the Save
and the Danube, in E. Long. 21. 2. N. Lat. 45. xo.
The Danube is very rapid near this city, and its wa¬
ters look whitilh. Belgrade is built on a hill, and was
once large, ftrong, and populous ; it was furrounded
with a double wall, flanked with a great number of
towers, and had a caftle fituated on a riling ground, and
built with fquare ftones. The fuburbs are very exten-
five; and refqrted to by Turkilh, Jewilh, Greek, Hun¬
garian, and "Sclavonian merchants. The ftreets where
the greateft trade is carried on are covered with wood,
to fhelter the dealers from the fun and rain. The ri¬
vers render it very convenient for commerce; and as the
Danube falls into the Black-fea, the trade is eafily ex¬
tended to diftant countries, which renders it the ftaple
town in thefe parts ; and as the Danube runs up to
Vienna, they fend goods from thence with a great deal Belgrado
of eafe. The Armenians have a church here, and the II
Jews a fynagogue, both thefe being employed as fac-  Li¬
ters: the (hops are but fmall; and the fellers fit on
tables, difpofing of their commodities out of a window,
for the buyers never go on the iniide. The richell
merchandize are expofed to fale in two bezefteins or
bazars, built crofswife. There are two exchanges,
built with ftone, and fupported with pillars not unlike
the Royal Exchange at London. There is likewife a
caravanfera or public inn, and a college for young flu-
dents. It has been taken by the Turks and Imperialifts
alternately feveral times ; but was ceded to the Turks
in 1739, and the fine fortifications demoliffied.
BELGRADO, a town of Friuli in the Venetian
territories in Italy. It Hands near the river Tejamento,
in E. Long. 13. 5. N. Lat. 46. o.
BELLA, (anc. geog.) a town of hither Spain, now
Belchite, in the kingdom of Arragon. See Belchite.
BELIDOR (Bernard Foreft de), a Catalonian en¬
gineer in the fervice of France, and member of the a-
cademies of fciences at Paris and Berlin, and of the
royal focietyat London : A celebrated mathematician,
and author of a number of military trafts in which
the fcience of mathematics is applied to military ufes.
Died in 1765, aged 70.
BELIEF, the affent of the mind to the truth of
any propofition *. * See Me-
BELISARIUS, general of the emperor Juftinian’s Whfa5’...
army, who overthrew the Perfians in the Eaft, the ^'j7^xvlU*
Vandals in Africa, and the Goths in Italy. But after
all his great exploits, being falfely accufed of a con-
fpiracy againft the emperor, he unworthily put out his
eyes. After that, Belifarius is reported to have beg¬
ged at a little but erefted for him by the road fide,
adreffing paffengers, Date obulujfi Belifario ! But feme,
fay he was reftored to his honours ; others that he died"
in peace at Conftanlinople 565.
BELL, a well known machine ranked by muficians
among the mufical inftruments of percuffion.
The conftituent parts of a bell are, the body or barrel*
the clapper on theinlide, and the ear or cannon by which it
hangs to a large beam of wood. The matter of which
it is ufually made is a compofition called
(See Chemistry, n° 379). The thicknefs of a bell's
edges is ufually T‘T of -the diameter, and its height
12 times its thicknefs. The bell-founders have a dta-
pafon, or bell-fcale, wherewith they meafure the fize,
thicknefs, weight, and tone, of their bells. For the
method of calling bells, fee Foundery.
The found of a bell is conjeftured to confift in a vibra¬
tory motion of its parts, much like that of a mufical
chord. The ftroke of theclappermuft neceflarily change
the figure of the bell, and of a round make it oval: but
the metal having a great degree of elafticity, that part
will return back again which the ftroke drove fartheft off
from the centre, and that even fome fmall matter nearer
the centre than before ; fo that the two parts which
before were extremes of the longeft diameter, do then
become thofe of the fliortetl; and thus the external
furface of the bell undergoes alternate changes of figure,
and by that means gives that tremulous motion to the
air in which the found coniifts. M. Perrault maintains,
that the found of the fame bell, or chord, is a com¬
pound of the founds of the feveral parts thereof, fo
that
BEL [ 1092 ] BEL
that where the parts are homogeneous, and the dimen-
fions of the figure uniform, there is fuch a perfect: mix¬
ture of all thefe founds as conftitutes one uniform,
fmooth, even found; and the contrary eircumftances pro¬
duce harfhnefs. This he proves from the bells differ¬
ing in tone according to the part you ftrike ; and yet
itrike it any where, there is a motion of .all the parts.
He therefore confiders bells as a compound of an in¬
finite number of rings, which according to their differ¬
ent dimenfions have different tones, as chords of differ¬
ent lengths have ; and when ftruck, the vibrations of
the parts immediately ftruck determine the tone, be¬
ing fupported by a fufficient number of confonant
tones in the other parts.
Bells are obferved to be heard further, placed on plains
than oh hills; and ftill further in valleys, than on plains:
the reafon of which will not be difficult to afiign, if it
be confidered that the higher the fonorous body is, the
rarer is its medium ; confequently, the lefs impulfe it
receives, and the lefs proper vehicle it is to convey it
to a diftance.
Mr Reamur, in the memoirs of the Paris academy*
has the following obfervation relating to the fhape
moft proper for, bells, to give them the loudeft and clear¬
ed: found. He obferves, “ that as pots and other vef-
fels more immediately neceffary to the fervice of life
were doubtlefs made before bells, it probably happened
that the obferving thefe veffels to have a found when
ftruck, gave occafion to making bells, intended only
for found, in that form; but that it does not appear
that this is the moft eligible figure ; for lead, a metal
which is, in its common ftate, not at all fonorous, yet
becomes greatly fo on its being caft into a particular
form, and that very different from the common ftiape
of bells. In melting lead for the common occafions of
calling in fmall quantities, it is ufuallydone in an iron
ladle; and as the whole is feldom poured out, the re¬
mainder, which falls to the bottom of the ladle, cools
into a mafs of the ftiape of that bottom. This is con¬
fequently a fegment of a fphere, thickeft in the middle,
and thinner towards the edges : nor is the ladle any ne¬
ceffary part of the operation, fince if a mafs of lead be
caft in that form in a mould of earth or fand, in any
of thefe cafes it is found to be very fonorous. Now if
this lhape alone can give found to a metal which in
other forms is perfectly mute, how much more fnuft it
neceffarily give it to other metals naturally fonorous in
whatever form ? It Ihould feem, that bells would much
better perform their office in this than in any other
form; and that it muft particularly be a thing of great
advantage to the finall bells of common houfe-clocks,
which are required to have a ftirill note, and yet are
not allowed any great fize.” He adds, “ that had
our forefathers had opportunities of being acquainted
with the found of metals in this ftiape, we ftiould pro¬
bably have had all our bells at prefent of this form.”
The ufe of bells is very ancient, as well as extenfive.
We find them among Jews, Greeks, Romans, Chrif-
tians, and Heathens, varioufly applied; as on the necks
of men, beafts, birds, hprfes, ftieep ; but chiefly hung
in buildings, either religious, as in churches, temples,
and monafteries; or civil, as in houfes, markets, baths;
or military, as in camps and frontier towns.
Among the Greeks, thofe who went the nightly
rounds in camps or garrifons, carried with them a
little bell, which they rung at each centry-box to fee
that the foldiers on watch were awake. A codono-
phorus or bell-man alfo walked in funeral proceffions,
at a diftance before the corps, not only to keep off the
crowd, but to advertife the fiennen dialis to keep out of
the way, for fear of being polluted by the fight, or by
the funerary mufic. The pried of Proferpine at Athens,
called kierophantus, rung a bell to call the people to
facrifice.
There were alfo bells in the houfes of great men to
call up the fervants in a morning. Zonaras affures us,
that bells were hung with whips on the triumphal cha¬
riots of their victorious generals, to put them in mind
that they were ftill liable to public juftice.
Bells were put on the necks of criminals going to
execution, that perfons might be warned by the noife
to get out of the way of fo ill an omen as the fight of
the hangman, or the condemned criminal, who was
devoted and juft going to be facrificed to the dii manes.
For bells on the necks of brutes, exprefs mention is
made of them in Phaedrus,— Celfa cervice emintnj, Cla-
rumque collo jattans tintinnabnlum. Taking thefe bells
away was conftrued by the civil law, theft ; and if the
bead was loft by this means, the perfon who took a-
way the bells was to make fatisfaftion.
Among the Jews, we find mention in fcripture of
bells made ufe of in the temple. Their figure is not
known ; but they were made of copper, and their found
was ftiarp and heard to a great diftance. The high-
prieft had a great number of little golden bells hung
to the border of his garment, to give notice when he
entered into, and when he came out of, the fanftuary,
and fave him the trouble of knocking at the door. The
prophet Zachary fpeaks of bells hung to the bridles of
war-horfes, that thereby they might be accuftomed to
noife.
There are difputes about the number of bells which
were intermixed with pomegranates on Aaron’s gar¬
ment. Some will have it only 12, others 50, others
raife it to 66, others to 72, and fome to 80. The
kings of Perfia are faid to have had the like habit.
We may add, that the Arabian ladies who are about
the princes perfon, to ferve and divert him, have little
gold bells faftened to their legs, neck, and elbows,
the motion of which, when they dance, makes an a-
greeable fort of harmony. The princefles of that coun¬
try are alfo faid to wear large hollow gold rings,
filled with little flints, which found like bells when they
walk. Sometimes alfo large circles, with little rings,
hung round them, produce the fame effed. Some¬
times they wear a number of flat bobs fixed to the
end of their hair, which is matted, and hangs long
behind, ferving to make a noife as often as they ftir,
and give notice of the miftrefs’s palling by, that the
fervants may behave refpeCtfully, and ftrangers retire,
to avoid feeing the perfon who paffes.
As to the origin of church-bells, Mr Whittaker * * ..
obferves, That bells being ufed, among other purpofes, Ma
by the Romans to fignify the times of bathing, were
naturally applied by the Chriftians of Italy to denote
the hours of devotion, and fummon the people to
church. The firft application of them to this purpofe
is, by Polydore Virgil and others, afcribed to Pau-
linus bilhop of Nola, a city of Campania, about the
year 400. Hence, it is faid, the names mix and cam-
panx
BEL [ 1093 ] B E L
panx were given them ; the one referring to the city,
the other to the country. Though others fay they took
the latter of thefe names, not from their being invented
in Campania* becaufe it was here the manner of
hanging and balancing them, now in vtftf, was firft
pradtifed ; at lead that they were hung on the model of
a fort of balance invented or ufed in Campania ; for
in Latin writers we find campana Jlatera, for a fteel-
yard ; and in the Greek xa*!r«v<>s<v, and ponderare,
to weigh. In Britain, bells were applied to chureh-
purpoies, before the conclufion of the feventh century,
in the m on a (lie focieties of Northumbria, and as early as
the fixtli even in thofe of Caledonia. And they were
therefore ufed from the firft ere&ion of parifti-churches
■among ps,—Thofe of France and England appear to
have been furnifhed with feveral bells. In the time of
Clothair II. king pf France, and in the year 610, the
army of that king was frighted from the fiege pf the
city qf Sens, by ringing the bells of St Stephen’s
church. The fecond excerption of Egbert, about the
year 750, which is adopted in a French Capitulary of
801, commands every prieft, at the proper hours, to
found the bells of his church, and then to go through
the facred offices to God. And the council of Enham,
in 1011, requires all the rauldts for fins to be expended
in the reparation of the church, clothing and feeding
the minifter of God, and the purchafe of church veft-
rnents, church-books, and church-bells. Thefe were
fometimes compofed of iron in France ; and in Eng¬
land, as formerly at Rome, were frequently made of
brafs. And as early as the ninth century, there were
many caft of a large fize and deep note.
Ingulphus mentions, that Turketulus abbot.of Croy-
land, who died about the year 870, gave a great bell
to the church of that abbey, which he named Guth-
lac; andafterwards fix others, viz. two which he caL
■led Bartholomew and Bettelin, • two called Aurketul
and Tat,winy and two named Pega and Bega, all which
rang together ; the fame author fays, Non erat tunc
tanta confonantia campanarum in tota Anglia. 'Not
long after, Kiafeus archbifnop of York gave two
great bells to the church of St John at Beverly, and
at the fame time provided that other churches in his
diocefe (h.ould be furniihed with bells. Mention is
made by St Aldhem, and William of Malmeftxury, of
bells given by St Dunftan to the churches in the weft.
The number of bells in every church gave occafion to
the curious and fingular piece of archite&ure in the
campanile or bell-tower; an addition, which is more
fufceptible of the grander beauties of archite&ure than
any other part of the edifice, and is generally thereforethe
principle or rudiments of it. It was the conftant ap¬
pendage to every parifh-ehurch of the Saxons, and is
actually mentioned as fuch in the laws of Athelftan.
The Greek Chriftians are ufually faid to have been
unacquainted with bells till the ninth century, when
their conftu&ion was firft taught them by a Venetian.
Indeed, it is not true that the ufeof bells was entirely
unknown in the ancient eaftern churches, and that they
called the people to church, as at prefent, with wooden
mallets. Leo Allatius, in his differtation on the Greek
temples, proves the contrary from feveral ancient wri¬
ters. It is his opinion, that bells firft began to be dif-
ufed among them, after the taking of Conftantinople
by the Turks ; who, it feems, prohibited them, left
Vol. II.
theirYound (hould difturb the repofe of fouls, which,
according to them, wander in the air. He adds, that
they Hill retain the ufe of bells in places remote from
the interepurfe of the Turks; particularly, very ancient
ones in mount Athos. F. Simon thinks the Turks
prohibited the Chriftians the ufe of bells, rather out of
political than religious reafons; inafmuch as the ring¬
ing of bells might ferve as a fignal for the execution of
revolts, &c.
In the ancient monafteries, we find fix kinds of bdis
enumerated by Durandus, viz. Squilla, rung in the
re.fe£tory ; cymbalum, in the cloifter ; nqja, in the choir ;
nolula or dupla, in the clock ; camp ana, in the fteeple ;
zealJignum in the tower. Belethus has much the fame;
only that for fquilla he puts tintiriahulum, and places
the canipana in the tower, and campanella in the cloifter.
Others place the tintinabulum or tinniplum in the refec¬
tory or dormitory ; and add another bell called corri-
gimcula, rung at the time of giving difeipline, to call
the monks to be fiogged. The cynibalum is fotpetimes
alfo faid to have been rung in the cloifter, to call the
monks to meat.
In the funeral monuments of Weever, are the follow¬
ing particulars relating to bells : ‘ Bells had frequently
thefe inferiptions on them :
4 Funera plango, Vulgura frango, ' Sabbata parge,
4 Exalo lentos, Dijjipo ventos, Paco cruentoS.
‘ In the Little San&uary at Weftminfter king Ed-
4 ward III. eredted a clochier, and placed therein three
4 bells for the ufe of St Stephen’s chapel: about the
4 biggeft of them were caft in the metal thefe words :
4 King Edward made n.ee thirtie thoufand weight and three.
4 Take me down and wey mec, and more you (hail fynd mee.
4 But thefe bells being to be taken down in the reign of
4 king Henry VIII. one writes underneath with a coale:
4 liut Henry the eight
4 Whl bait me of my weight.’ lb:d. 491.
This laft diftich alludes to a fad; mentioned by Stow
in his furvey of London, ward of Farringdon Within,
to wit, that near to St Paul’s fchool flood a clochier,
in which were four bells called Jefus' bells, the greateft
in all England, againft which Sir Miles Partridge flaked
an hundred pounds, and won them of king Henry VIII.
at a caft of dice. Neverthelefs it appears that abroad
there are bells of greater magnitude. In tire fteeple of
the great church at Roan in Normandy is a bell with
this infeription :
Je fats George de Ambus,
igui Srer-le cinque mille pots.
Abes lui qui me pefcrq,
Trente fix mill me trouera '.
I ihii George of Am hois,
Thirtie five thoufand in pois:
But he that fnail we'jth me,
Thirtie fix thoufai.d iha.ll find me. Ibid.
And it is a common tradition that the bells of
King’#-college chapel, in the univerfity of Cambridge,
were taken by Henry V. from fome church in France,
after the battle of Agincourt. They were taken down
fome years ago, and fold to Phelps the bell-founder in
White-Chapel, who melted them down.
The ufes of bells were fummed up in the following
diftich, as well as that firll above mentioned :
Lauda Deum verum, piehem toco, corjugo clcrum,
Defunflos pioro, pefiem fugo, fejltt decora.
Matthew Paris obferves, that anciently the life of
6 Y bells
BEL [ 1094 ] BEL
bells was prohibited in time of mourning ; though at peals, is faid to be peculiar to England; whence Brl- Bel;,
prefent they make one of the principal ceremonies of tain has been termed the ringing ijland. The cuftom
' '    ■ . r feems to have commenced in the time of the Saxons,  
and was common before the conqueft. The ringing of Hav/iM!
bells, tho’ a recreation chiefly of the lower fort, is in 1!«5
itfelf not incurious. The tolling a bell is nothing
more than the producing a found by a ftroke of the p. [jL
clapper againft the tide of the bell, the bell itfelf being I
mourning. Mabillon adds, that it was an ancient cuf¬
tom to ring the bells for perfons about to expire, to
advertife the people to pray for them ; whence our paf-
fing-bells. Lobineau obferves, that the cuftom of
ringing bells, at the approach of thunder, is of fome
antiquity ; but that the defign was not fo much to
(hake the air, and fo difiipate the thunder, as to call
the people to church, to pray that the parifti might be
preferved from that terrible meteor.
In the times of Popery, bells were baptized and
anointed o/eo chrifmatis: they were exoi*cifed, andblef-
fed by the biihop ; from a belief, that, when thefe cere¬
monies were performed, they had power to drive the
in a pendant pofition and at reft. In ringing, the bell,
by means of a wheel and a rope, is elevated to a per¬
pendicular ; in its motion to this fituation the clapper
ttrikes forcibly on one fide, and in its return downwards
on the other lide of the bell, producing at each ftrokc
a found. There are in London feveral focieties of ring¬
ers, particularly one known by the name of the C
devil out of the. air, to calm tempefts, to extinguilh youths : of this it is faid Sir Matthew Hale, lord chief
r* . 1 . _ _  - _   -I-, j 1 TH. ~ inflir-p thf* rrmrf* nf TCino*,.Q T^pnrli. was. in Lie
fire, and to recreate even the dead. The ritual for
thefe ceremonies is contained in the Roman ponti¬
fical ; and it was ufual in their baptifm to give to bells
the name of fome faint. In Chauncy’s hiftory of Hert-
fordfliire, page 383. is a relation of the baptifm of a
jufticeof the court of King’s Bench, was, in his youth¬
ful days, a member ; and in the life of this learned and
upright judge, written by biftiop Burnet, fome faft*
are mentioned which favour this relation. In England
the practice of ringing is reduced to a fcience, and
fet of bells in Italy with great ceremony, a fhort time peals have been compofed which bear the name of the
before the writing that book. The bells of the parilh inventors. Some of the moft celebrated oeals now
church of Winnington in Bedfordfhire had their names
caft about the verge of every one in particular, with
thefe rhiming hexameters :
Nomina Campanis bee in flit a funt quoque nojlris.
x. Hoc ft gnu m Petri pulfatur nomine Chrifii.
i. Nomcn Magdalene campana fonat me lode.
3. Sit nomen Domini benediftumfemper in euum.
4. Mufa Rapbaelis fonat auribus Immanuelis.
j. Sum Rofa pulfala mundique Maria vocata. Weev. Ftin. nx.
By an old chartulary, twice in the pofiefikm of Weever
1   .v jt ^ . i.~ T
inventors. Some of the moft celebrated peals now
known were compofed about 50 years ago by one Pa¬
trick. This man was a maker of barometers : in his ad-
vertifements he ftyled himfelf Torricellian Operator,
from Torricelli, who invented inftruments of this kind.
In the year 1684, one Abraham Rudhall, of the city
of Gloucefter, brought the art of bell-founding to great
perfe&ion. Hisdefcendants in fucceffion have continued
the bulinefs of calling bells ; and by a lift publilhed by
them, it appears that at Lady-day, 1774, the family,
peals and odd bells, had call to the amount of 3594.
, ' . . ' , , 11 r i_ • c in peais ana oaa oens, naa can to tne amount or 3794,
the antiquary, it appears that the bells of the priory of ^ ls of St Dunftan,s jn the eaft and St
Little Dunmow in Effex were, anno 1501, new caft, and St Martin>s in the Fields> Weftminfter;
are in the number.
The mufic of bells is altogether melody; but the
and baptized by the following names :
Prim a -n honore Saudi Michaelh Archangeli.
Secunda in honore S. Johannis Evangelijie.
Tenia in honore S. Johannis Bapt fte-
Quarto in honore Affumptionis beate Marie.
Quinta in honorefanfti Trinitatis, et omniumfandorum. Jb. 633.
The bells of Ofney abbey near Oxford were very
famous ; their feveral names were Douce, Clement,
Auftin, Haute&er [potius Hautcleri], Gabriel, and
John.
Nankin in China was anciently famous for the large-
nefs of its bells; but their enormous weight brought
down the tower, the whole building fell to ruin, and
the bells have ever lain on the ground. One of thefe
bells is near 12 Englifh feet high, the diameter feven
pleafure arifing from it confifts in the variety of inter¬
changes, and the various fucceffion and general predo¬
minance of the confonances in the founds produced.
Mufical authors feem to have written but little upon
this fubjeft.
BuLL-Alnimal. See Animalcule, n° 24—28..
HzLL-Metal. See Chemistry, n° 379.
Diving-BELL. See Diving.
BEhE-Founderp. See Foundery.
BELL-Flo<wer, in botany. See Campanula.
BELL-Weed, in botany. See Jacea.
BELLAC, a town of La Marche in France, fitua-
and an half, and its circumference 23; its figure almoft ted on the little river Union. It contains about 770
cylindric, except for a fwelling.in the middle; and
the thicknefsof the metal, about the edges, feven inches.
From the dimenfions of this bell, its weight is compu¬
ted at 50,000 pounds, which is more than double the
weight of that of Erfort, faid by father Kircher to be
the greateft bell in the world. Thefe bells were caft
houfes, and 3000 inhabitants. E. Long. 1. 14. N.
Lat. 46. 4.
BELLADONA, in botany, the trivial name of a
fpecies of Atropa. See Atropa.
BELLAI (William du), lord of Langei, a French
general, who fignalized himfelf in the fervice-of Fran-
by the firft emperor of the preceding dynafty, about cis I. He was alfo an able negotiator, fo that the em-
300 years ago. They have each their name; the hanger peror Charles V. ufed to fay, “ that Langey’s pen had
\tchoui'), the eater (c/h?), thefleeper (cAs«x)> the will ((/f). fought more againft him than all the lances in France.” ~
Father le Compte adds, that there are feven other bells He was fent to Piedmont, in quality of viceroy, where •
in Pekin, caft in the reign of Youlo, each of which he took feveral towns from the Imperialifts. His ad-
weighs 120,000 pounds. But the founds even of their drefs in penetrating into the enemy’s defigns was fur-
biggeft bells are very poor; being ftruck with a prifing. In this he fpared no expence, and thereby had
wooden in lieu of an iron clapper. intelligence of the moft fecret councils of the emperor
The pra&ice of ringing bells in change, or regular and. his generals. He was extremely active in influen¬
cing
BEL [ 1095 ] BEL
y it clng fome of the univerfities of France to give their
^ j. judgment agreeable to the defires of Henry VIII. king
N*1-1*' of England, when this prince wanted to divorce his
queen, in order to marry Anne Bullen. It was then
the intereft of France to favour- the king of England
in this particular, it being an affront to the emperor,
and a gratification to Henry, which might ferve to form
a ftridt alliance between him and Francis I. He was
fent feveral times into Germany to the princes of the
Proteftant league, and was made a knight of the order
of St Michael. He was alfo a man of learning, having
given proofs of his abilities and genius as a writer. He
compofed feveral works; the molt remarkable of which
was, the Hiftory of his Own Times, in Latin ; divided
into ogdoades, that is, feveral parts, each confifting of
eight books; molt of which, however, have been loll.
When Langei was in Piedmont, in 1542, he had fome
remarkable intelligence which he was defirous himfelf
to communicate to the king, and being very infirm,
he ordered a litter for his conveyance; but after having
paffed the mountain of Tarara, betwixt Lyons and
Roan, he found himfelf fo extremely bad at St Sapho-
rin, that he was obliged to (top there, where he died
the 9th of January, in the year 1543. He was buried
I’ in the church of Mans, and a noble monument was e-
redted to his memory.
BELLARMIN (Robert), an Italian Jefuit, one of
the bell controverfial writers of his time. In 1576, he
read ledlures at Rome on controverfies; which he did
I with fuch applaufe, that Sixtus V. fending a legate into
France in 1590, appointed him as a divine, in cafe any
difpute in religion Ihould happen to be difciiffed. He
returned to Rome, and was raifed fucceffively to dif¬
ferent offices, till at laft, in 1599, he was honoured
with a cardinal’s hat; to accept of which dignity, it is
faid, they were obliged to force him by the threats of
an anathema. It is certain, that no Jefuit ever did
greater honour to his order than he; and that no author
ever defended the caufe of the Romifh church in gene¬
ral, and that of the pope in particular, to more advan¬
tage. The Proteftants have owned this fufficiently :
for, during the fpace of 50 years, there was fcarcely
any confiderable divine among them who did not fix
upon this author for the fubjedt of his books of con-
troverfy. Notwithllanding the zeal with which this
Jefuit maintained the power of the pope over the tem¬
porality of kings, he difpleafed Sixtus V. in his work
De Romano Pontijice, by not infilling that the power
which Jefus Chrilt gave to his vicegerent, was diredl,
but only indireft; and had the mortification to fee it
put into the index of the inquifition, though it was af¬
terwards removed. He left, at his death, to the Virgin
Mary one half of his foul, and to Jefus Chrill the o-
ther.—Bellarmin is faid to have been a man of great
chaftity and temperance, and remarkable for his pa¬
tience. His llature was low, and his mien very indif¬
ferent; but the excellence of his genius might be dif-
covered from the traces of his countenance. He ex-
preffed himfelf with great perfpicuity; and the words
which he firfi: made ufe of to explain his thoughts were
generally fo proper, that there appeared no rafure in his
writings.
BELLATRIX, in aftronomy, a ruddy glittering
liar of the fecond magnitude, in the left Ihoulder of O-
rion. It takes its name from helium, as being anciently
fuppofed to have a great influence in kindling wars,
and forming warriors. Its longitude, according to Ple-
velius, for the year 1700, was 160 47' 20"; and its la¬
titude fouthward 160 52' 11".
BELLCLARE, a town of Ireland, in the province
of Connaught, and county of Sligo. W. Long. 9. 5,
N. Lat. 53.56.
BELLE, a town of the French Netherlands, feated
in E. Long. 2. 40. N. Lat. .50. 45.
BELLE (Stephen de la), a celebrated engraver,
born at Florence, who improved himftlf by imitating
the defigns of Callot. Fie was greatly honoured by
the grand duke; and died in 1664.
BELLEAU (Remi), a French poet, born at No-
gent le Rotrou, in the territory of Perche, and province
of Orleanois. He lived in the family of Renatus of
Lorrain, marquis of Elbeuf, general of the French gal¬
leys; and attended him in his expedition into Italy, in
1557. This prince highly efteemed Belleau for his
courage; and having alfo a high opinion of his genius
and abilities, entrufted him with the education of his
fon Charles of Lorrain. Belleau was one of the feven
poets of his time who were denominated the French
^Pleiades. He wrote feveral pieces ; and tranflated the
odes of Anacreon into the French language, but in this
he is thought not to have preferred all the natural beau¬
ties of the original. His paftoral pieces are in greateft
efteem. His verfes in that way (according to his eu-
logifts) are expreffed with fuch beauty and fimplicity,
that they feem to be a living pi&ure of what they de-
fcribe. He alfo wrote an excellent poem on the na¬
ture and difference of precious Hones, which by fome
has been reputed his bed performance. Belleau died
at Paris, in the family of the duke d’Elbeuf, on the
6th of March, 1577. He was interred in the church
De Peres Auguftines, near the Pont-neuf: feveral eu-
logiums were made to his memory.
BELLEFOREST (Francis de), a French author,
born in the province of Guienne, in 1530. He was
but feven years of age when he loft his father ; and his
mother was left in poor circumftances, but fhe contri¬
buted all in her power to his education. He was fup-
ported fome years by the queen of Navarre, After to
Francis I. Some time after, he went to ftudy at Bour-
deaux; thence he removed to Touloufe; and at laft to
Paris, where he got acquainted with feveral men of
learning, and was honoured with the friendftup of many
perfons of quality. He wrote, 1. A Hiftory of the
nine Charles’s of France ; 2. Annotations on the books
of St Auguftin; 3. An univerfal hiftory of the world;
4. Thechronicles of NicholasGillet,augmented; 5. An
univerfal cofmography; 6. Annals, or a general hi¬
ftory of France : and many other works. In fliort, he
fupported his family by writing books on whatever
fubjedt was propofed to him by the bookfellers, ac¬
cording to the talle of the public. He died in 1583.
BELLEGARDE, a ftrong town of France in Rou-
fillon, on the frontiers of Catalonia. It is an important
place on account of its being a paffage to the Pyrenean
mountains. E. Long. 3. o. N. Lat. 42. 20.
Bellegarde, a town of Burgundy in France, with
the title of a duchy. It is feated on the river Saone,
in E. Long. 4. o. N. Lat. 46. 57.
BELLEISLE, an iiland of France, on the coaft of
Britany. It is the largeft of all the European iflands
6 Y 2 be-
Bellclare
II
Belleifle.
BEL
[ 1096 ]
BEL
Fcllcifle. belonging to the French king, being between 12 and Efquimaux, or New Britain, and the north end of Betleri!
' 13 leagues in circumference. It is a mixture of craggy Newfoundland; whence the ftrait takes alfo the name ph°nj
 —.. .1 C ..1 , {', 1.1 a r,..* 1111’1 Tito .1 I • ri V*T T rmrw WT T n rv XT T a»* r- .
rocksand fertile foil ; but the inhabitants are very poor, of Bclleijle. W. Long. 58. 5. N. Lat. 51. 50.
and the only trade carried on in it is the curing of pil¬
chards. There are three harbours in the ifland, viz.
Palais, Sauzon, and Goulford; every one of which la¬
bours under fome capital aefedt, either in being expo-
fed, fhallow, or dangerous in the entrance. It con¬
tains only one little city called Le Palais, three county
BELLEROPHON, in fabulous hiftory, the fon of 'ettre
Glaucus king of Epirus, happening accidentally to kill
his brother, fled to Proetus king of Argos, who gave
him a hofpitable reception; but Sthenobea, his queen,
falling in love with the beautiful ftranger, and finding
that nothing could induce him to injure his benefa&or,
towns, 103 villages, and about 5000 inhabitants. The flie accufed him to her hufband of an attempt to violate
ifland originally belonged to the earl of Cornouaille; her honour. Prcetus, however, not being willing to
but was afterwards yielded to the king, who in 1742 aft contrary to the laws of hofpitality, lent him to lo-
erefled it into a duchy, in favours of marftial Belleifle. bates king of Lyfia, and the father of Sthenobea, with
The town of Palais takes its name from a caftle be- letters defiring him to put him to death : whence the
longing to the duke de Belleifle, which flood m its proverb Bellerophontis literas afferet, equivalent to Li-
neighbourhood; but was afterwards converted into a terse Uria. That prince, at the receipt of thefe letters,
citadel fronting the fea, and flrongly fortified. Its for- W'as celebrating a feftival of nine days, which prevented
tifications are comnofed orincinallv of hornworks; and Belleroohon’s deftruflion. lobates, however, fent him
tifications are compofed principally of hornworks; and
it is provided with two dry ditches, the one next the
counterfcarp, and the other fo contrived as to fecure the
interior fortifications. This citadel is divided from the
largeft part of the town by an inlet of the fea, over
which there is a bridge of communication. From the
other part of the town, and which is moft inhabited,
it is only divided by its own fortifications and a glacis.
In this ftate was the ifland in 1761, when an expedi¬
tion was undertaken againft it by a Britifh fleet under
the command of commodore Keppel, having on board
a confiderable land force commanded by general Hodg-
fon. The fleet failed from Spithead on the 29th of
March, and arrived before Belleifle on the 7th of April
The next day it
Bellerophon’s deftruAion. lobates, however, fent him
in the mean time to fubdue the Solymi, the Amazons,
and Lyfians, and thought to get rid of him by expo-
fing him to the greateft dangers; but by his prudence
and courage he came off vi florious. lobates next em¬
ployed him to deftroy the Chimsera; when Minerva, or,
according to others, Neptune, in confideration of lbs
innocence, furnifhed him with the horfe Pegafus, by
whofe afliftance he killed the Chimiera. lobates, on his
return, being convinced of his truth and integrity, and
charmed with his heroic virtues, gave him his daughter
Philonoe in marriage, and declared him his fueceffor ;
which when Sthenobea heard, fhe killed herfelf. Rd-
lerophon at length growing vain with his profperity,
agreed to attempt a landing on the refolved, by the affiftance of Pegafus, to afeend the
foutlweaft part of the ifland, in a fandy bay, near Loch- fkies; when Jupiter checked his prefumption, by flri-
mana point. Here the enemy were in poffefiion of a king him blind in his flight; on which he fell down to
little fort; they had moreover entrenched themfelves the earth, and wandered till Iris death in contempt and
hill exceflively fteep, the foot of which was fear- mifery: but Pegafus mounting into heaven, Jupiter
ped away. The attempt was made in three places with
great refolution; but the Britifh were at laft repulfed
with the lofs of 500 men. It was not before the 25c11
of April that the weather allowed a fecond attempt.
placed him among the conftellations *
BELLES lettr.es. Whether 1
con full the
voluminous dictionaries of the French language, or
thofe treatifes that profefs to point out the method of
See I
fts and
This was made on a very flrortg place, where the enemy ftudying and teaching the bdies lettres, we find not, ii
e rather lefs attentive, on account of the exceffive
fteepnefs and difficulty of climbing up the rocks. Be
fides the principal attack, two feints were made at the
the one or the other, either a clear definition, or a fuc-
cinft explication of the words belles lettres, nor any
fummary of thofe Lienees which are comprehended un¬
fame time to diftraA the enemy, whilft the men of war der that general and collective denomination. It ap-
dire&ed their fire with great fuccefs on the hills. Thefe pears to be a vague term, under which every one may
manoeuvres gave brigadier-general Lambert, with
handful of men, an opportunity of climbing up a very
fteep rock without moleftation. This little body formed
themfelves in good order without delay, and were im¬
mediately attacked by 300 French. The Britifh, how¬
ever, fuitained this attack until the whole corps of bri¬
gadier Lambert, which had now likewife afeended,
came to their affiflance, with whofe help they repulfed
the enemy. The landing bf all the forces being foon
after made good, the French Were driven into the town
of Palais. Here the chevalier de St Croix who com¬
manded them, a brave and experienced officer, refolved
to hold out to the laft extremity; and it was not till
the 7th of June that he capitulated, arid the garrifon
marched out with the honours of war. The ifland, how¬
ever, was reftored to the French by the treat jr conclu¬
ded in 1763.
include whatever he thinks proper. Sometimes w
are told that by the belles lettres is meant, the know«-
ledge of the arts of poetry and oratory; fometimes,
that the true belles lettres are natural philofophy, geo¬
metry, and other effential parts of learning; and fome¬
times, that they comprehend the art of war, by land
and fea : in fhort, they are made to include all that we
know, and whatever we pleafe; fo that, in treating bri
the belles lettres, they talk of the ufe of the facra-
ments, &c. * Some comprehend under the term, all * RolEn,
thofe inftru&ive and pleafing fciences which occupy the the Be^
memory and the judgment, and do not make part ei- j£ttres*
ther of the fuperior fciences, of the polite arts f, or of f Se? A
mechanic profeffions: hence they make hiftory, chro- (P0^te)f
nology, geography, genealogy, blazonry, philology,
be belfes lett
Belleisle, an ifland of North America, lying at
v of the
the mouth of the ftreight between the country 0
&c. the belles lettres. In a word, it Were an endlefs
talk to attempt to enumerate all the parts of literature
which different learned men have comprehended under
this title. Nor would it be of any ufe to the reader
for
BEL [ 1097 ] BEL
ills for us to pretend to fix the true import of the term.
. Whatever arts or fciences it may be fuppofed to include,
ll* they are feverally explained in the courfe of this work.
BELLE-ville, a town of the Beaujolois in France,
feated near the river Saone, in E. Long. 4. 46. N. Lat.
, 45- 5-
- BELLEY, or Bellay, a town of France, with a
bilhop’s fee, and capital of Bujey. It is feated near the
river Rhone, in E. Long. 5. 50. N. Lat. 45. 43.
BELLIN (Gentil), a Venetian painter, born in the
year 1421. He was employed by the republic of Ve¬
nice, and to him and his brother the Venetians are in¬
debted for the .noble works which are to be feen in the
council-hall. We are told that Mahomet II. emperor of
the Turks, having feen fome of his performances, was
fo ftruck with them, that he wrote to the republic, in¬
treating them to fend him. The painter accordingly
went to Conllantinople, where he did many excellent
pieces. Amongft the reft, he painted the decollation of
St John the Baptift, whom the Turks revere as a great
prophet. Mahomet admired the proportion and fha-
dowing of the work ; but he remarked one defeat in re-
i gard to the Ikin of the neck, from which the head was
I feparated ; and in order to prove the truth of his ob\
fervation, he fent for a Have and ordered his head to be
ftruck off. This fight fo fhocked the painter, that he
could not be eafy till he had obtained his difmiffion;
which the Grand Signior granted, and made him a pre-
fent of a gold chain. The republic fettled a penfion
upon him at his return, and made him a knight of St
Mark. He died in 1501, in the 80th year of his age.
John Beilino, his brother, painted with more art and
fweetnefs than he; and died in 1512, aged 90.
BELLINGHAM, a town of Northumberland in
England. W. Long. 2. 10. N. Lat. 55. 10.
BELLINI (Laurence), an eminent phyfician, born
at Florence in the year 1643. After having finiflied
his ftudies in polite literature, he went to Pifa, where
he was aflifted by the generolity of the grand duke Fer¬
dinand II. and ftudied under two of the moft learned
men of that age, Oliva and Borelli. Oliva inftru&ed
him in natural philofophy, and Borelli taught him ma¬
thematics. At 20 years of age, he was chofen profef-
for of philofophy at Pifa, but did not continue long in
this office ; for he had acquired fuch a reputation for
his flcill in anatomy, that the grand duke procured him
a profefforftiip in that fcience. This prince was often
prefent at his leflures, and was highly fatisfied with
his abilities and performances. Bellini, after having
held his profefforlhip almoft '30 years, accepted of an
invitation to Florence, wffien lie was-about 50 years of
age. Here he pradtifed phyiic with great fuccefs, and
was advanced to he firft phyfician to the grand duke
Cofmus III. He wrote the following books in La-
- tin, 1. An anatomical difcourfe on the ftrudture and
life of the kidneys. 2. A fpeech by way of thanks
to the ferene duke of Tufcany. 3. Some anatomical
obfervations, and a propofition in mechanics. 4. Of
the urine and pulfe, of blood-letting, fevers, and dif-
eafes of the head and breafts. 5. Several tradls con¬
cerning urine, the motion of the heart, and bile, &c. He
died Jannary 8th, 1703,. being 60 years of age. His
works were read and explained publicly during his life,
by the famous Scotch phyfician Dr Pitcairn, profef-
ior of phyfic in Leyden.
BELLINZONA, a town of Italy, in the Milanefe;
and one of the bailiwicks which the Swifs poffefs in
that country. It is fcated on the river Jdino, five miles
above the place where it falls into the Lago Maggiore,
and it is fortified with two ftrong caftles formerly joined
together by a wall flanked with towers; but the Swifs
have demolished a part of the fortifications. E. Loti".
9. o. N. Lat. 46. 8.
BELLIS, the daisy; a genus of the fyngenefia
order, belonging to the polygamia fuperflua clafs of
plants.
Species, &c. 1. The perennis, with a naked ftalk,
having one flower. This is the common daify, which
grows naturally in pafture-lands in moft parts of Eu¬
rope. It is often a troublefome weed in the grafs of
gardens, fo is never cultivated. Its leaves have a fub-
tile fubacid tafte; and are recommended as vulneraries,
and in afthmas and hectic fevers, as well as in fuch dif-
orders as are occafioned by drinking cold liquors when
the body has been much heated. Ludpvici prefers this
plant to thofe commonly ufed as antifcorbutics and re-
folvents of coagulated blood in hypochondriacal difor-
ders. 2. The annua, with leaves on the lower part of
the ftalk, is a low annual plant growing naturally on
the Alps and the hilly parts of Italy. It feldom rifts
more than three inches high ; and hath an upright ftalk
garnilhed with leaves on the lower part; but the upper
part is naked, fupporting a fingle flower like that of
the common daify, but fmaller. 3. The hortenfis, 01-
garden daify, with a large double flower. This is ge¬
nerally thought to be only a variety of the common
daify ; but Mr Miller affures us, that he was never able
to improve the common daily by culture, or to make
the garden daify degenerate into the common fort for
want of it. The varieties of this fpecies cultivated in
gardens are, the red and white garden daify; the double
variegated garden daify; the childing, or hen and chic¬
ken garden daify; and the cockVcumb daily with red
and white flowers. The garden dailies flower in April
and May, when they make a pretty variety, being in¬
termixed with plants of the fame growth: they fhould
be planted in a lhady border, and a loamy foil without
dung, in which they may be preferved without varying,
provided the roots are parted and tranfplanted every .
autumn. This is all the culture they require, except
keeping them free from weeds. Formerly they were
planted as edgings to borders; but for this purpoft they
are improper, becaufe where fully expofed to the fun,
they frequently die in large patches, whereby the ed¬
gings become bald in many places.
Bellis Major. See Chrysanthemum.
BELLON, a diftemper common in countries where
they fmelt lead-ore. It is attended with languor, in¬
tolerable pains and ftnlations of gripings in the belly,
and generally coftivenefs.—Beafts, poultry, &c. as wei;
as men, are fubjef! to this diforder: hence a certain
fpace round the fmelting houfes is called bellon-ground,
becaufe it is dangerous for an animal to feed upon it.
BELLONA, in Pagan mythology, the goddefs of
war, is generally reckoned the filler of Mars, and fome
reprefent her as both his filler and wife. She is laid to
have been the inventrefs of the qjedle; and from that
inftrument is fuppoftd to have taken her name £c.\o,»,
fignifying a needle. This goddefs was of a cruel and
favage difpofition, delighting in bloodihed and flaugh-
BEL [ 1098 ] BEL
’Bcllonarii ter; and was not only the attendant of Mars, but took
B li a pleafure in (haring his dangers. She is commonly re-
e ows‘ prefented in an attitude expreffive of fury and diftrac-
tion, her hair compofed of fnakes clotted with gore, and
her garments (lained with blood: (he is generally depic¬
tured driving the chariot of Mars, with a bloody whip
in her hand; but fometimes (he is drawn holding a
lighted torch or brand, and at others a trumpet. Bel-
lona had a temple at Rome, near the Circus Flaminius,
before which (lood the column of war, from whence the
conful threw his lance when he declared war. She was
alfo worfhipped at Comana, in Cappadocia; and Cam¬
den obferves, that, in the time of the emperor Severus,
there was a temple of Bellona in the city of York.
BELLONARII, in antiquity, prietts of Bellona,
the goddefs of wars and battles. The bellonarii cut
and mangled their bodies with knives and daggers in a
cruel manner, to pacify the deity. In this they are
Angular, that they offered their own blood, not that of
other creatures, in facrifice. In the fury and enthu-
Aafm wherewith they were feized on thefe occafions,
they ran about raging, uttering prophecies, and fore¬
telling blood and (laughter, devaftations of cities, revo¬
lutions of dates, and the like : whence Martial calls
them turba entheata Belloruc.-- In after-times, they
feem to have abated much of their zeal and tranfport,
and to have turned the whole into a kind of farce, con¬
tenting themfelves with making (igns and appearances
of cutting and wounds. Lampridius tells us, the em¬
peror Commodus, out of a fpirit of cruelty, turned the
farce again into a tragedy, obliging them to cut and
mangle their bodies really.
BELLONIA, (fo named from the famous Petrus
Bellonius, who left many valuable tra&s on natural
hidory, &c.) a genus of the monogynia order, belong¬
ing to the pentandria clafs of plants. Of this genus
there is only one fpecies known, viz. the afpera, with
a rough balm leaf. This is very common in the warm
illands of America. It hath a woody dem which rifes
10 or 12 feet high, fending out many lateral branches
arnidied with rough oval leaves placed oppodte : the
owers come out from the wings of the leaves in loofe
panicles, and are fucceeded by oval capfules ending in
a point, and filled with fmall round feeds. This plant
is propagated by feeds, which mud be procured from
the places where it grows naturally, and are to be
fown in pots plunged into a hot-bed of tanners bark.
The plants, when half an inch high, mud be tranf-
planted each into a feparate pot, and again plunged
into the hot-bed, and managed like other tender exo¬
tics. Thefe plants may alfo be propagated by cuttings
planted in light earth on a moderate hot-bed, and care¬
fully watered till they have taken root.
BELLORI (John Peter), of Rome ; a celebrated
antiquary, and connoiffieur in the polite arts : Author
.of the lives of the modern painters, archite£ts, and
fculptors, and of other works on antiquities and me¬
dals. Died in 1696.
BELLOVACI, (anc. geog.), a people of Gallia
.Belgica, reckoned the braved of the Belgae; now the
Beauvafis, in the ifle of France.
BELLOWS, a machine fo contrived as to exfpire
and infpire the air by turns, by enlarging and con-
tra&ing its capacity. This machine is ufed in cham¬
bers and kitchens, in forges, furnaces, and founderies,
to blow up the fire : it ferv^s alfo for organs and other Bel: c
pneumatic indruments, to give them a proper degree —H r
of air. All thefe are of various condruftions, according * I]
to their diderent purpofes ; but in general they are
compofed of two fiat boards, fometimes of an oval,
fometimes of a triangular figure : Two or more hoops, j;
bent according to the figure of the boards, are placed j
between them : a piece of leather, broad in the middle, i ? 1
and narrow at both ends, is nailed on the edges of ! ]
the boards, which it thus unites together; as alfo on
the hoops which feparate the boards, that the leather I j
may the eafier open and fold again : a tube of iron,
brafs, or copper, is fadened to the undermod board,
and there is a valve within, that covers the holes in the J I
underboard to keep in the air.
Anacharfis the Scythian is recorded as the inventor
of bellows. The a&ion of bellows bears a near affinity j J
to that of tire lungs ; and what we call blowing in the t j
latter, affords a good illudration of what is called re- ] 1
fpiring\n the former. Animal life itfelf may, on fome
occafions, be fubfided by blowing into the lungs with j J
a pair of bellows. Dr Hooke’s experiment to this effeft 11|
is famous : having laid the thorax of a dog bare, by
cutting away the ribs and diaphragm, pericardium, &c. j j|
and having cut off the afpera arteria below the epiglot¬
tis, and bound it on the nofe of a bellows, he found, \ I
that as he blowed, the dog recovered, and as he ceafed,
fell convulfive ; and thus was the animal kept alter- {1
nately alive and dead above the fpace of an hour. 11
There are bellows made wholly of wood, without any i |
leather about them ; one of which is preferved in the
repofitory of the Royal Society; and Dr Plot defcribes
another in the copper-works at Elladon in Stafforddiire.
Ant. della Fruta contrived a fubditute for bellows, to
fpare the expence thereof in the fufion of metals. This
is called by Kircher camera aolia, and in England
commonly the ruater-bello'ius ; where water falling thro’
a funnel into a clofe veffel, fends from it fo much air
continually as blows the fire. See the article Fur- :H
nace, where different blowing machines of this kind
are defcribed.
Smiths and founders bellows, whether fingle or
double, are wrought by means of a rocker, with a
firing or chain fadened thereto, which the workman
pulls. The bellows pipe is fitted into that of the I
tewel. One of the boards is fixed, fo as not to play
at all. By drawing down the handle of the rocker, 3
the moveable board rifes, and, by means of a weight
on the top of the upper board, finks again. The
bellows of forges and furnaces of mines ufually re¬
ceive their motion from the wheels of a water-mill. !
Others, as the bellows of enamellers, are wrought by
means of one or more deps or treddles under the work¬
man’s feet. Ladly, the bellows of organs are wrought i
by a man called the blower ; and in fmall organs by the
foot of the player. Butchers have alfo a kind ofblaft
or bellows of a peculiar make, by which they bloat or
blow up their meat when killed, in order to piecing or
parting it the better.
ifoae-BELoows, ofsivoi, occur in Herodotus
for thofe applied by the Scythians to the genitals of
mares, in order to didend the uterus, and by this com-
prefiion make them yield a greater quantity of milk. :
Heffian Bellows are a contrivance for driving air
into a mine for the refpiration of the miners. This M.
Papin
■
BEL [ 1090 ] BEL
■itaws Papin improved, changing its cylindrical form into a
If fpiral one; and with this, working it only with his
 foot, he could make a wind to raife two pound weight.
Hydrojiatic Bellows. See Hydrostatics, n° 4.
I BELLUNESE, a territory of Italy, belonging to
the Venetians. It lies between Friuli, Codorino, Fel-
trino, the bifhopric of Trent and Tirol. It has good
I iron mines, but the only confiderable place is Belluno.
BELLUNO, a town of Italy, in the Venetian ter¬
ritories, and capital of the Bellunefe. It is a bilhop’s
fee; and is fituated among the Alps, on the river Piave,
between the towns Cadora and Trevigni, in E. Long.
12. 15. N. Lat. 46. 9.
BELLY, in anatomy, the fame with what is more
ufually called abdomen. See Anatomy, Part IV.
BELMONTE, a town of Italy, in the hither Ca¬
labria; and kingdom of Naples. It is feated on the
coaft of the Tufcan fea, in E. Long. 16. 50. N. Lat.
39. 20.
BELOMANCY, Belomantia, a kind of divina¬
tion by means of arrows, praftifed in the eaft, but
! Divi- chiefly among the Arabians *. The word is of Greek
1. origin ; compounded of arrow, and /tculua. divi-
l nation.
Belomancy has been performed in different manners.
One was to mark a parcel of arrows, and put 11 or
more of them into a bag : thefe were afterwards drawn
out ; and according as they were marked, or not, they
judged of future events.
Another way was to have three arrows, upon one
of which was wrote, “ God orders it me ;” upon a-
nother, “ God forbids it me ;” and upon the third
nothing at all. Thefe were put into a quiver, out
of which they drew one of the three at random : if it
happened to be that with the firlt infcription, the thing
they confulted about was to be done ; if it chanced to
be that with the fecond infcription, it was let alone; but
if it proved that without infcription, they drew over
I again.
Belomancy is an ancient praftice, and probably that
which Ezekiel mentions, chap. xxi. 21. At lead St Je¬
rome underftands it fo, and obferves that the pra&ice
was frequent among the Affyrians and Babylonians.
Something like it is alfo mentioned in Hofea, chap. iv.
only that (laves are there mentioned inftead of arrows,
which is rather rhabdomancy than belomancy. Gro-
tius, as well as Jerome, confounds the two together,
and (hews that it prevailed much among the Magi,
Chaldeans, and Scythians; whence it paffed to the Scla-
vonians, and thence to the Germans, whom Tacitus
obferves to make ufe of it. See Rhabdomancy.
BELON (Peter), of Le Mans, the capital of le
Maine a province of France, flouriflied about the mid¬
dle of the 16th century. He publiflied feveral books
in Latin. He wrote, in French, of birds, beads,
fifties, ferpents, and the negle£led culture of plants ;
and a book of Travels, or obfervations of many fingur
larities and memorable things found in Greece, Alia,
Judaea, Egypt, Arabia, and other foreign countries.
He was murdered near Paris by one of his enemies, in
1564-
BELONE, in ichthyology, the trivial name of a
fpecies of efox. See Esox.
BELT, the Great, a famous drait of Denmark be¬
tween the ifland of Zeeland and that of Tunen, at the
entrance of the Baltic fea. It is not however fo com- Belt
modious, nor fo much frequented, as the found. InidyS .11
the whole drait was frozen fo hard, that Charles Gull-
avus king of Sweden marched over it with a defign to
take Copenhagen.
Belt, the Leffer, lies to the wed of the great belt,
between the ifland of Funen and the coad of Jutland.
It is one of the paffages from the German ocean to
the Baltic, though not three miles in breadth, and
very crooked.
Belt, in the military art, a leathern girdle for fuf-
taining the arms, &c. of a foldier.
Belts, in adronomy, two zones, or girdles, fur¬
rounding the body of the planet of Jupiter *. * See Ajin-
Belts, in geography, certain draits between the
German ocean and the Baltic. The belts belong to 4S"
the king of Denmark, who exa&s a toll from all (hips
which pafs through them, excepting thofe of Sweden,
which are exempted.
BEL-tein, a fuperditious cudom obferved in the
Highlands of Scotland. It is a kind of rural facrifice,
performed by the herdfmen of every village, on the i sc
of May. They cut a fquare trench on the ground, Pennani's
leaving a turf in the middle: on that they make a fire Totir.
of wood, on which they drefs a large caudle of eggs,,
butter, oatmeal, and milk ; and bring, befides the in¬
gredients of the caudle, plenty of beer and whiftcy; for
each of the company mud contribute fomething. The
rites begin with fpilling fome of the caudle on the
ground, by way of libation : on that, every one take*
a cake of oatmeal, upon which are raifed nine fquare
knobs, each dedicated to fome particular being, the
fuppofed preferver of their flocks and herds, or to fome
particular animal, the real dedroyer of them : each
perfon then turns his face to the fire, breaks off a knob,
and flinging it over his (houlder, fays, This I give to
thee, preferve thou my horfes ; this to thee, preferve thou
my Jheep ; and fo on. After that, they ufe the fame
ceremony to the noxious animals : This I give to theer
0 fox ! fpare thou my lambs ; this to thee, 0 hooded crow l
this to thee, 0 eagle ! When the ceremony is over, they
dine on the caudle; and after the ftad isfiniftied, what
is left is hid by two perfons deputed for that purpofe;
but on the next Sunday they re-affemble and finifh the
reliques.of the firfi entertainment.,
BELTURBET, a town of Ireland in the county
of Gavan, and province of Ulder, fituated on the river
Earn, in W. Long. 7. 35. N.. Lat. 54. 7.
BELTZ, or Belzo, a province of Red Ruflia in
Poland, bounded by Leopold on the fouth,.by Chelm
on the north, Little Poland on the ead, and Volhynia
on the wed. Its capital town is Beltz.
Beltz, or Belzoy a town of Poland, and capital of
the province of the fame name, feated on the confines
of Upper Volhynia, among marfties, in E. Long. 25-,
15. N. Lat. 50. 5.
BELVEDERE, in the Italian archite&ure, &c.
denotes either a pavilion on the top of a building, or an
artificial eminence in a garden ; the word literally fig-
nifying a fine profpeft.
Belvedere, a confiderable town of Greece, and ca¬
pital of a province of the fame name in the Morea.
The province lies on the wedern coad : it is the mod
fertile and rich in all the Morea; and from it the raiiins
called Belvederes take their name. The town is fituated
iai
B E M [ n
in E. Long. 22.0. N. Lat. 38. 5.
BELUNUM, (anc. geogr.), a town of Rhaetia, a-
bove Feltria, in the territory of the Veneti; now Bel-
Imo, capital of the Bellunefe in the territory of Venice*.
BELUS, (anc. geogr.), a fmall river of Galilee, at
the diftance of two liadia from Ptolemais, running from
the foot of mount Carmel out of the lake Cendevia.
Near this place, according to Jofephus, was a round
hollow or valley, where was a kind of fand fit for ma-
king glafs ; which, though exported in great quanti¬
ties, was found-to be inexhauftible. Strabo fays, the
whole of the coaft from Tyre to Ptolemais has a fand
fit for making glafs ; but that the fand of the rivulet
Belus and its neighbourhood is a better fort; and
here, according to Pliny, the making of glafs was iirfl
difcovered.
BEMA, in antiquity, denotes a ftep or pace. The
bema made a kind of itinerary meafure among the
Greeks, the length of which was equivalent to one cubit
and two thirds, or to ten palms. Whence alfo the term
lematizein, Ptifialilnv, to meafure a road.
Bema, in ecclefiaftical writers, denotes the altar or
fanftuary in the ancient churches. In which fenfe^e-
made the •third or iunermoil part of the church,
anfwering to the chancel among us.
Bema was alfo ufed for the bifhop's chair, feat, or
throne, placed in the fan&uary. It was called bema
from the fteps by which it was to be afcended.
Bema was alfo ufed for the reader’s delk. This in
the Greek church was denominated y»os-av, in the
Latin church amhu.
BEMBEA, a province of the kingdom of Angola
in Africa. It is divided into Higher and Lower ; and
extends on one fide along the fea, and on the other di¬
vides Angola from the foreign dates on the fouth. The
country is large, populous, and abounding with cattle;
with the fat of which the inhabitants anofnt their heads
and bodies, and clothe themfelves with their hides
coarfely dreffed. They are addi&ed to the fame idola¬
trous fuperftitions with the reft of the natives, but
fpeak a quite different language. The province is wa¬
tered by a river called Lutano, or San Francifco, which
abounds with crocodiles, fea-horfes, and monftrous fer-
pents, that do a great deal of mifchief.
BEMBO (Peter), a noble Venetian, fecretary to
Leo X. and afterwards cardinal, was one of the heft
writers of the 16th century. He wras a good poet, both
in Italian and Latin ; but he isjuftly ceufured for the
loofenefsand immodefty of fomeof his poems. He pu-
blilhed, befides thefe, A Hiftory of Venice ; Letters ;
and a book in praife of the duke and dutchefs of Ur-
bino. He died in 1547, in the 72d year of his age.
BEMSTER, or Bemister, a town of Dorfet'ftiire
in England, feated on the river Bert, in W. Long. 3.
15. N. Lat. 50. 45.
BEN. See Behn.
Ben, in pharmacy, the name of an exotic purgative
fruit, of the fize and figure of a nut ; whence it is alfo
called the ben-nut, fometimes balanus myrepjica, orglans
unguentaria.
Naturalifts diftinguifn two kinds of bens; viz. the
great, ben magnum, which refembles the filbert, and
is by fome called avellanapurgatrix, brought from A-
merica; and the fmall, ben parvum, brought from E-
thiopia.
00 ] BEN
Ben-nuts yield, by expreflion, much oil, which,
from its property of not becoming rancid, at leaft for
years, is ufed as a menftruum for the extra&ion of the
odoriferous part of flowers of jefamin, violets, rofes,
hyacinths, lillies of the valley, tuberofes, jonquils,
clove-july flowers, and .others, which, like thefe, yield
little or no efiential oil by diftillation, but impart their
fragrance to exprefl’ed oils. The method of impregna¬
ting oil of ben with the odour of flowers is this: Some
fine carded cotton is dipt in the oil, and put in the bot¬
tom of a proper veffel. On this isfpreada thick layer
of frefli flowers, above which more cotton dipt in oil
is placed ;^and thus alternately flowers and cotton are
difpofed, till the veflel (which may be made of tin,
with a cover to be fcrewed on to it, or of porcelain) is
full. By digeftion during 24 hours in a water-bath, the
oil will receive the odour of flowers.
BENAVARRI, a town of the kingdom of Arragon
in Spain, feated on the frontiers of Catalonia. E. Long,
o. 40. N. Lat. 41.55.
BENAVENTO, a town of Spain, in the kingdom
of Leon, and Terra di Campos, with the title of a
duchy. It is feated on the river Ela, in W. Long.
5. o. N. Lat. 42. 4.
BENAVIDUS, or Bonavitus (MarcusMantua),
a celebrated civilian, taught civil law with reputation,
during 60 years, at Padua the place of his birth; and
died in 1582, aged 93. His principal works are,
1. ColleBanea fuper Jus Ceefareum. 2. Confiliorum,
tom, ii. 3. Problematum legalium. 4. De illujiribus
Jnrifconfultis, &c.
BENCH, or Banc, in law. See Banc.
Free Bench fignifies that eftate in copyhold-lands
which the wife, being efpoufed a virgin, has, after the
deceafe of her hufband, for her dower, according to the
cuftom of the manor. As to this free-bench, feveral
manors have feveral cuftoms ; and in the manors of Ealt
and Weft Enbourne, in the county of Berks, and other
parts of England, there is a cuftom, that when a copy-
hold tenant dies, the widow ftiail have her free-bench
in all the deceafed hulband’s lands, whilft ftie lives Angle
and chafte ; but if fhe commits incontinency, (he lhall
forfeit her eftate: neverthelefs, upon her coming into
the court of the manor, riding on a black ram, and
having his tail in her hand, and at the fame time re¬
peating a form of words prefcribed, the Reward is ob¬
liged, by the cuftom of the manor, to re-admit her
to her free-bench.
Fing's-BescH, a court in which the king was for¬
merly accultomed to fit in perfon, and on that account
was moved with the king’s houfehold. This was ori¬
ginally the only court in Weftminfler-hall, and from
this it is thought that the courts of common pleas and
exchequer were derived. As the king in perfon is fttll
prefumed in law to fit in this court, though only repre-
fented by his judges, it is faid to have fupreme autho¬
rity ; and the proceedings in it are fuppofed to be co¬
ram nobis, that is, before the king. This court con-
fifts of a lord chief juftice and three other juftices or
judges, who are inverted with a fovereign jurifdidtion
over all matters whether of a crimioal or public na¬
ture. All crimes againft the public good, though they
do not injure any particular perfon, are under the cog¬
nizance of this court; and no private fubjeft can fuffer
any unlawful violence or injury againft his perfon, li¬
berty,
BEN [ ii
nch berty, or pofieffions, but a proper remedy is afforded
him here; not only for fatisfadfion of damages fuftained,
_ but for the punilhment of the offender ; and wherever
this court meets with an offence contrary to the firft:
principles of juftice, it may punifh it. It frequently
proceeds on indi&ments found before other courts, and
removed by certiorari into this. Perfons illegally com¬
mitted to prifon, though by the king abd counfel, or
t ither of the houfes of parliament, may be bailed in it ;
■ - and in fome cafes, even upon legal commitments.
Writs of mandamus are iffued by this court, for the re-
ftoring of officers in corporations, &c. unjuflly turned
out, and freemen wrongfully disfranehifed.
The court of king’s bench is now divided into a
crown-fide and plea-nde; the one determining crimi¬
nal, and the other civil caufes. In the firlt it deter¬
mines criminal matters of all kinds, where the king is
plaintiff; fuch as treafons, felonies, murders, rapes,
robberies, riots, breaches of the peace, and all other
caufes that are profecuted by'indictment, information,
&c. On the plea-fide, it determines all perfonal ac¬
tions commenced by bill or writ ; as adtions of debt,
upon the cafe, detinue, trover, ejectment, trefpafs,
wafte, &c. againft any perfon in the cuftody of the
marfhal of the court, as every perfon fued here is fup-
pofed to be by law.
The officers of this court on the crown fide are the
clerk and fecondary of the crown ; and on the fide of
the pleas there are two chief clerks or prothonotaries,
and their fecondary and deputy, the cuftos brevium,
two clerks of the papers, the clerk of the declarations,
the figner and fealer of bills, the clerk of the rules,
clerk of the errors, and clerk of the bails; to which
may be added the filazers, the marfhal of the court, and
the crier.
Amicable Bench. See Amicable.
BENCHERS, in the inns of court, the fenior mem¬
bers of the fociety, who are invelted with the govern¬
ment thereof.
BENCOOLEN, a fort and town of Afia, on the
fouth-weft coaft of the ifland of Sumatra, belonging to
the Britifh. The place is known at fea by a fiender
mountain called the Sugar Loaf, which rifes about 20
miles inland. About a quarter of a mile from the fea
Hands an Indian village, whole houfes are fmall and
low, and built on pods. The country about Ben-
coolen is mountainous and woody, and the air unwhole-
fome, the mountains being continually covered with
thick heavy clouds that produce lightning, thunder,
and rain. There is no beef to be had, except that of
buffaloes, which is not very palatable ; and indeed pro-
vifions of all kinds, exdept fruit, are pretty fcarce.
The chief trade is in pepper, of which great quantities
grow on the ifland. There are frequent bickerings be¬
twixt the natives and the faftory, to the no fmall in¬
jury of the Eaft India company. The faftory was once
entirely deferted; and had not the natives found that
trade decreafed by reafon of their abfence, it is fcarce
probable that ever the Englifli would have been invited
there again. E. Long. 101. 5. S. Lat. 4. 5.
BEND, in heraldry, one of the nine honourable
ordinaries, containing a third part of the field when
charged, and a fifth when plain. It is fometimes, like
other ordinaries, indented, ingrailed, &c. and is either
dexter or finifter. See Heraldry, n° 19, 20.
Vol. II.
01 ] BEN
In Bend, is when any things, borne in arms, are
placed obliquely from the upper corner to the oppofite
lower, as the bend lies.
BENDER, atownof Beffarabia in EuropeanTurky,
feated on the river Niefter, in E. Long. 29. 5. N. Lat.
46. 40. It is remarkable for being the place of re¬
treat of Charles XII. after he was defeated by the
Ruffians at the battle of Pultowa in 1709.
BENDERMASSEN, a town of the ifland of Bor¬
neo in Afia, and capital of a kingdom of the fame
name. It has a good harbour ; and Hands in E. Long.
113. 50. S. Lat. 2. 40.
BENDIDIA, in antiquity, a feHival, not unlike
the Bacchanalia, celebrated by the Athenians in ho¬
nour of Diana.
BENDING, in a general fenfe, the reducing a
flraight body into a curve, or giving it a crooked form.
The bending of timber-boards, &c. is effedted by
means of heat, whereby their fibres are fo relaxed that
you may bend them into any figure.
Bending, in the fea-language,“the tying two ropes
or cables together : thus they fay, bend the cable, that
is, make it faH to the ring of the anchor; bend the
fail, make it faH to the yard.
BENDS, in a fliip, the fame with what is called
wails, or wales ; the outmoH timbers of a fliip’s fide,
on which men fet their feet in climbing up. They are
reckoned from the water, and are called the frjl, fe-
cond, or third bend. They are the chief Hrength of a
fiiip’s fides; and have the beams, knees, and foot-hooks,
bolted to them.
BENDY, in heraldry, is the field divided into four,
fix, or more parts, diagonally, and varying in metal
and colour.—The general cufiom of England is to make
an even number; but in other countries they regard it
not, whether even or odd.
BENCAPED, among failors. A fhip is faid to be
bencaped when the water does not flow high enough to
bring her off the ground, out of the dock, or over the
bar.
BENEDETTO (St), a confiderable town of the
Mantuan, in Italy, in E. Long. 11.25. N. Lat. 45. o..
BENEDICITE, among ecclefiaflrcal writers, an
appellation given to the fong of the three children in
the fiery furnace, on account of its beginning with the
word benedicite.—The ufe of this fong in ChriHian
worflup is very ancient, it appearing to have been fung
in all the churches as early as St Chryfoflom’s time.
BENEDICT XIV. pope, (Profper Lambertini of
Bologna), celebrated for his learning and moderation,
which gained him the efleem of all fenfible Proteflants.
He was the patron of learned men and celebrated ar-
tifls ; and an elaborate writer, on theological fubje&s.
His works make 12 vols in folio. He died in 1758.
Benedict (St), the founder of the order of the Be-
nedictin monks, was born in Italy, about the year 480.
He was fent to Rome when he was very young, and
there received the firff part of his education. At 14
years of age he was removed from thence to Sublaco,
about 40 miles diflant. Here he lived a moff afcetic
life, and fliut himfelf up in a cavern, where nobody
knew any thing of him except St Romanus, who, we
are told, ufed to defcend to him by a rope, and to
fupply him with provifions. But being afterwards dif-
covered by the tnonks of a neighbouring monaflery,
6 Z they
BEN [ 1102 ] BEN
Benedict, they chofe him for their abbot. Their manners, how-
Benediftins. cvet.} not agreeing with thofe of BenediA, he returned
to his folitude; whither many perfons followed him,
and put themfelves under his dire&ion, fo that in a Ihort
time he built 12 monafteries. In the year 528, or the
following, he retired to mount Caffino, where idolatry
was ftill prevalent, there_ being a temple of Apollo e-
refted here. He inftrufted the people in the adjacent
country, and having converted them, he 'broke the i-
mage of Apollo, and built two chapels on the moun¬
tain. Here he founded alfo a monatlery, and inftituted
the order of his name, which in time became fo fa¬
mous and extended over all Europe. It was here too
that he compofed.his Regula Mofiat'horum, which Gre¬
gory the Great fpeaks of as the mod fenfible and bed
written piece of that kind ever publidied. The time of
his death is uncertain, but is placed between 540 and
550. He was looked upon as the Elifha of his times;
and is reported to have wrought a great number of mi¬
racles, which are recorded in the fecond book of the
dialogues of St Gregory the Great.
Benedict, abbot of Peterborough, was educated
at Oxford, became a monk in the monadery-of Chrid’s
church in Canterbury, and fome time after was chofen
prior by the members of that fociety. Though he had
been a great admirer of Archbidiop Becket, and wrote
a life of that prelate, he was fo much edeemed by
Henry II. that by the influence of that prince he was
' elefted abbot of Peterborough, A. D. 1177. He af-
fided at the coronation of Richard I. A. D. 1189; and
was advanced to be keeper of the great feal, A.D. 1191.
But he did not long enjoy this high dignity, as he died
on Michaelmas day, A. D. 1193. Befides his Life of
Archbidiop Becket, he compofed a Hidory of Henry 11.
and Richard I. from A. D. 1170 to A. D. 1192 ;
which hath been much and judly edeemed by many of
our greated antiquaries, as containing one of the bed
accounts of the tranfadlions of thofe times. A beauti¬
ful edition of this work was publiflied at Oxford, in two
volumes, by Mr Hearne, A.D. 1735.
BENEDICTINS, in church-hidory, an order of
monks, who profefs to follow the rules of St Benedict.
The Benedidtins, being thofe only that are properly
called monks, wear a loofe black gown, with large
wide fleeves, and a capuche, or cowl, on their heads,
ending in a point behind. In the canon law, they
are dyled black friers, from the colour of their habit.
The rules of St Benedidl, as obferved by the Englifh
monks before the diffolution of the monaderies, were
as follows: They were obliged to perform their devo¬
tions feven times in 24 hours, the whole circle of which
devotions had a refpedt to the pafiion and death of
Chrid : they were obliged always to go two and two
together: every day in lent they were obliged to fad
till fix in the evening, and abated of their ufual time of
deeping and eating; but they were not allowed to
pra&ife any voluntary auderity without leave of their
i'uperior: they never converfed in their refectory at
meals, but were obliged to attend to the reading of the
feriptures : they all dept in the fame dormitory, but
not two in a bed ; they lay in their clothes : for fmall
faults they were flmt out from meals; for greater, they
were debarred religious commerce, and excluded from
the chapel; and as to incorrigible offenders, they were
excluded from the monafteries. Every monk, had two
coats, two cowls, a table-book, a knife, a needle, and Bencdij
a handkerchief; and the furniture of their bed was a Benedil
mat, a blanket, a rug, and a pillow.
The time when this order came into England is
well known ; for to it the Englifh owe their converfion
from idolatry. In the year 596, Pope Gregory fent
hither Auguftin, prior of the monaftery of St An- j
drew at Rome, with feveral other Benedidtin monks. ]
St Auguftin became archbifhop of Canterbury; and i
the Benediclins founded feveral monafteries in England, '
as alfo the metropolitan church of Canterbury, and all
the cathedrals that were afterwards erefled.
Pope John XXII. who died in 1334, after an exaft
inquiry, found, that, fince the firft rife of the order, ;
there had been of it 24 popes, near 200 cardinals,
7000 archbifhops, 15,000 biflxops, 15,000 abbots of
renown, above 4000 faints, and upwards of 37,000 \
monafteries. There have been likewife of this order
20 emperors and 10 empreffes, 47 kings and above
50 queens, 20 fons of emperors and 48 fops of kings;
about 100 princeffes, daughters of kings and emperors;
befides dukes, marquefles, earls, countefles, &c. innu- fj
merable. The order has produced a vaft number of |
eminent writers and other, learned men. Their Raba-
nus fet up the fchool of Germany. Their Alcuinus
founded the univerfity of Paris. Their Dionyfius Ex-
iguus perfe&ed the ecclefiaftical computation. Their
Guido invented the fcale of mufic; and their Sylvefter, |
the organ. They boaft to have produced Anfelmus,
Ildephonfus, Venerable Bede, &c.
There are nuns likewife who follow the rule of St Be- jj
nedift ; among whom thofe, who call themfelves miti¬
gated, eat fleftx three times a-week, on Sundays, Tuef- |
days, andThurfdays : the others obferve the rule of St
Benedift in its rigour, and eat no flefhunlefs they are fick.
BENEDICTION, in a general fenfe, the adt of
bleffing, or giving praife to God, or returning thanks
for his favours. Hence alfo benediftion is ftill applied ;
to the a<ft of faying grace before or after meals. Nei¬
ther the ancient Jews, nor Chriftians, ever eat without
a ftiort prayer. The Jews are obliged to rehearfe 100
benedidlions per day ; of which, 80 are to be fpoken
in the morning. The firft treatife of the firft order in
the Talmud, entitled Seraim, contains the form and
order of the daily benedidtions. It was ufual to give
benedidtion to travellers on their taking leave ; a prac¬
tice which is ftill preferved among the monks. Bene-
didlions were likewife given among the ancient Jews, as
well as Chriftians, by impofition of hands. And when
at length the primitive fimplicity of the Chriftian wtfr- :
ftxip began to give way to ceremony, they added the
fign of the crofs, which was made with the fame hand,
as before, only elevated, or extended. Hence bene- t
didtion, in the modern Romifti church, is ufed, in a
more particular manner, to denote the fign of the crofs
made by a bilhop, or prelate, as conferring fome grace j
on the people. The cuftom of receiving benedidtion,
by bowing the head before the biftiops, is very ancient;
and was fo univerfal, that emperors themfelves did not
decline this mark of fubmilfion.—Under the name be- ■
nediciion, the Hebrews alfo frequently underftand the
prefents which friends make to one another, in all pro¬
bability becaufe they are generally attended with blef-
fings and compliments, both from thofe who give, and
thofe who receive them.
Nuptial \
BEN [ n
diAion, Nuptial Ben kdicr ion, the external ceremony per¬
il ne<ice' formed by the pried in the office of matrimony. This is
alfo called facerdotal and matrimonial benediction, by
the Greeks upo^oyia and ifpolExsa-ia. The nuptial bene¬
diction is not effential to, but the confirmation of, a
marriage in the civil law.
Beatic Benediction, benediciio beatica, is the via¬
ticum given to dying perfons. The pope begins all his
bulls with this form: Salutem et apojlolicam beneditti-
onem.
Benediction is alfo ufed for an ecclefiadical cere¬
mony, whereby a thing is rendered facred or venera¬
ble. In this fenfe benediction differs from confecration,
H as in the latter undtion is applied, which is not in the
former : Thus the chalice is confecrated, and the pix
bleffed ; as the former, not the latter, is anointed :
though, in the common ufage, thefe two words are ap¬
plied promifcuoufly.—The fpirit of piety, or rather of
fuperdition, has introduced into the Romifh church
benedidtions for almod every thing. We read of forms
of benedidtions for wax-candles, for boughs, for affies,
for churcff-veffels, and ornaments ; for flags or enfigns,
arms, fiftt-fruits, houfes, ffiips, pafcal eggs, cilicium
dr the hair-cloth of penitents, church-yards, &c. In
general, thefe benedidtions are performed by afperfions
of holy water, figns of the crofs, and prayers fuitable
to the nature of the ceremony. The forms of thefe
benedidlions are found in the Roman pontifical, in the
Roman miffal, in the book of ecclefiaftical ceremonies
printed in pope Leo X.’s time, and in the rituals
and ceremonies of the different churches which are
found colledled in father Marlene’s work on the rites
and difcipline of the church.
BENEFICE (beneficium), in middle-age writers,
is ufed for a fee, fometimes denominated more peculiarly
beneficium militare. In this fenfe, benefice was an eftate
in land, at firft granted for life onlyy fo called, becaufe
it was held ex mero beneficio of the donor; and the te¬
nants were bound to fwear fealty to the lord, and to
ferve him in the wars. In after-times, as thefe tenures
became perpetual and hereditary, they left their name
pf beneficia to the livings of the clergy ; and retained
to themfelves the name of feuds.
Benefice, in an ecclefiaftical fenfe, a church en¬
dowed with a revenue for the performance of divine
fervice; or the revenue itfelf affigned to an ecclefiafti¬
cal perfon, by way of ftipend, for the fervice he is to
do that church.
All church-preferments, except bifhoprics, are called
benefices; and all benefices are, by the canonifts, fome¬
times ftyled dignities: but we now ordinarily diftinguilh
between benefice and dignity ; applying dignity to
bifhoprics, deanries, archdeaconries, and prebendaries;
and benefice to parfonages, vicarages, and donatives.
Benefices are divided by the canonifts into fimple
and facerdotal. In the firft there is no obligation but
[ to read prayers, fing, &c. fuch are canonries, chaplain-
fhips, chantries, &c.: the fccond are charged with
the cure of fouls, or the dire&ion and guidance of
confciences ; fuch as vicarages, re&ories, &c.
The Romanifts again diftinguifh benefices into regu¬
lar and fecular. Regular or titular benefices are thofe
held by a religious, or a regular, who has made pro-
feffion of fome religious order; fuch are abbeys, prio¬
ries, conventuals, &c, ; or rather, a regular benefice is
03 ] BEN
that which cannot be conferred on any but a religious, Buiefice
either by its foundation, by the inftitution of fome Benjjfie](!
fuperior, or by prefcription : for prefcription, forty  ! 1
years poffeffion by a religious makes the benefice regu¬
lar. Secular benefices are only fuch as are to be given
to fecular priefts, /. e. to fuch as live in the world, and
are not engaged in any monaftic order. All benefices
are reputed fecular, till the contrary is made to appear.
They are called fecular benefices, becaufe held by fe-
culars ; of which kind are almoft all cures.
The canonifts diftinguifh three manners of vacating
a benefice, viz. X. De jure, when the perfon enjoying
it is guilty of certain crimes expreffed in thofe laws, as
herefy, fimony, &c. 2. Be fafto, as well as de jure, by
the natural death or the refignation of the incumbent;
which refignation may be either exprefs, or tacit, as
when he engages in a ftate, &c. inconfiftent with it,
as, among the Romanifts, by marrying, entering into
a religious order, or the like. 3. By the fentence of a
judge, by way of punifhment for certain crimes, as
concubinage, perjury, &c.
Benefice in comrnendam is that, the diredlion and
management of which, upon a vacancy, is given or
recommended to an ecclefiaftic, for a certain time, till
he may be conveniently provided for.
BENEFICIARII, in Roman antiquity, denote fol-
diers who attended the chief officers-of the army, being
exempted from other duty. Beneficiarii were alfo fol-
diers difcharged from the military fervice or duty, and
provided with beneficia to fubfift on. Thefe were pro¬
bably the fame with the former, and both might be
comprifed in the fame definition. They were old ex¬
perienced foldiers, who, having ferved out their legal
time, or received a difcharge as a particular mark of
honour, were invited again to the fervice, where they
were held in great efteem, exempted from all military
drudgery, and appointed to guard the ftandard, &c.
Thefe, when thus recalled to fervice, were alfo deno¬
minated evocati ; before their recal, emeriti.
Beneficiarii was alfo ufed for thofe raifed to a
higher rank by the favour of the tribunes or other
magiftrates. The word beneficiarius frequently occurs
in the Roman inferiptions found in Britain, where ccn-
fulis is always joined with it ; but befides beneficiarius
confulis, we find in Grutar beneficiarius tribuni, preeto-
rii, iegati, preefetti, proconfulis, &c.
BENEFICIARY, in general, fomething that re¬
lates to benefices.
Beneficiary, beneficiarius, is more particularly ufed
for a beneficed perfon, or him who receives and enjoys
one or more benefices. A beneficiary is not the pro¬
prietor of the revenues of his church ; he has only the
adminiftration of them, tho’ unaccountable for the fame
to any, but God.
Beneficiary is alfo ufed, in middle-age writers,
for a feudatory or vaffal. The denomination was alfo
given to the clerks or officers who kept the accounts of
the beneficia, and made the writings neceffary thereto.
BENEFICIUM, in military matters among the
Romans, denoted a promotion to a higher rank by the
favour of fome perfon in authority.
BENEFIELD (Sebaftian), an eminent divine of
the 17th century, was born in 1559, at Preftonbury
in Gloucefterftiire, and educated at Corpus Chrifti
college in Oxford. In 1608, he took the degree of
6 Z 3 doftor
BEN r 1104. 1 BEN
Benefit doflor in divinity ; and five years after, was chofen
II Margaret profefTor in that univerfity. He had been
T}cn"a1' prefented feveral years before to the reftory of Mey-
fey-Hampton, in Gloucefterihire. He publifhed Com¬
mentaries upon the firft, fecond, and third chapters of
Amos ; a confiderable number of fermons ; and fome
Latin treatifes. He died in 1630.
BENEFIT of Clergy. See Clergy.
BENESOEUF, a town of Egypt, feated on the
o weftern (bore of the Nile, and remarkable for its hemp
and flax. E. Long. 31. o. N. Lat. 29. 10.
BENEVENTE, a town of the province of Leon
in Spain, feated on the river Ella, in W. Long. 5. 5.
N. Lat. 42. 4.
BENEVENTO, a city of Italy, in the kingdom of
Naples, with an archbifhop’s fee. It is fituated near
the confluence of the rivers Sabato and Galore, in a
fertile valley called the Jirait of Benevento, full of gentle¬
mens feats and houfes of pleafure.' This town hath
frequently fuffered terribly by earthquakes; particu¬
larly in 1703, when a great part of it was overturned,
and the reft much damaged. E. Long. 14. 57. N.
Lat. 41. 6.
BENEVENTUM, (anc. geog.), a town of the
Samnites, formerly called Maleventum from the un-
wholefomenefs of the wind, and under that appellation
it is .mentioned by Livy ; but after a Roman colony
was led thither in the 485th year of the city, it came
to have the name of Beneventum, as a more aufpicious
title. It is mentioned by Horace as an ancient city
faid to have been built by Diomedes before the Trojan
war. Now Benevento : See that article.
BENEVOLENCE, in morals, fignifies the love of
mankind in general, accompanied with a defire to pro¬
mote their happinefs. See Morals.
BENFIELD, a town of Alface in France, whofe
fortifications were demolifhed in confequence of the
, treaty of Wettphalia. E. Long. 7. 45. N. Lat. 48. 14.
Boundaries. BENGAL, a vaft country of Afia, bounded by
the kingdom of Afham and Arracan on the eaft ; by
feveral provinces belonging to the Great Mogul on
the weft ; by frightful rocks on the north; and by
the fea on the fouth. It extends on both fides the
Ganges, which rifes from different fources in Thibet;
and, after feveral windings through Caucafus, penetrates
into India, acrofs the mountains on its frontier. This
river, after having formed in its courfe a great number
of large, fertile, and well-peopled iflands, difeharges it-
felf into the fea, by feveral mouths, of which only two
are known and frequented.
Towards the fource of this river, was formerly a
city called Pallibothra. Its antiquity was fo great,
that Diodorus Siculus makes no fcruple of affuring us
that it was built by that Hercules to whom the Greeks
aferibed all the great and furprifing aftions which had
been performed in the world. In Pliny’s time, its opu¬
lence was celebrated through the whole univerfe ; and
it was looked upon as the general mart for the people
a inhabiting both fides of the river that wafhed its walls.
Revcfiu- The hiftory of the revolutions that have happened
i.jiis. Jn Bengal, is intermixed with fo many fables, that it
does not deferve our attention. All we can dffcover,
is, that the extent of this empire has been fometimes
greater, and fometimes lefs; that it has had fortu¬
nate and unfortunate periods; and that it has alternate¬
ly been formed into one fingle kingdom, or divided Beng|5
into feveral independent ftates. It was under the do- ||
minion of one mafter, when a more powerful tyrant
Akbar, grandfather of Aurengzebe, undertook the |j
conqueft of it; which was begun in 1590, and com¬
pleted in 1595. Since this aera Bengal has always 1
acknowledged the Mogul for its fovereign. At firft,
the governor to whom the adminiftration of it was in- I
trufted, held his court at Raja-Mahul, but afterwards I
removed it to Dacca. Ever fince the year 1718, it |
has been fixed at Muxadavad, a large inland town two I
leagues diftant from Caffimbuzar. There are feveral
Nabobs and Rajahs fubordinate to this viceroy, who
is called fubab.
This important poll was occupied for a long time
by the fons of the Great Mogul; but they fo frequently
mifemployed the forces and treafure at their difpofal, |
to raife djfturbances in the empire, that it was thought
proper to commit that province to men who had lefs
influence, and were more dependent. True it is, the
new governors gave no alarm to the court of Delhi ; J
but they were far from being punftual in remitting the j
tribute they collefted to the royal treafury. Thefe
abufes gained further ground after the expedition of
Kouli Kan ; and matters were carried fo far, that the
emperor, who was unable to pay the Marattas what
he owed them, authorifed them, in 1740, tocolleftit
in Bengal themfelves. Thefe banditti, to the number
of 200,000, divided themfelves into three armies, ra- 1
vaged this fine country for 10 years together-, and ]
did not leave it till they had extorted immenfe firms.
During all thefe commotions, defpotic government,
which unhappily prevails all over India, maintained its j j
influence in Bengal; the fmall diftrid of Biffenpour i ’
excepted, which had preferved, and ftill continues to
preferve, its independence. See Bissenpour.
Though the reft of Bengal is far from enjoying the ComJi
fame happinefs, it is neverthelefs the richeft and moft inland,
populous province in the whole empire. Befides its
own confumption, which is neceffarily confiderable, its
exports are immenfe. One part of its merchandiie is
carried into the inland country. Thibet takes off a
quantity of its cottons, befides fome iron and cloths of
European manufa&ure. The inhabitants of thofe j
mountains fetch them from Patna themfelves, and give
mulk and rhubarb in exchange.
But the trade of. Thibet is nothing in comparifon :
of that which Bengal carries on with Agra, Delhi,
and the provinces adjacent to thofe fuperb capitals, in
fait, fugar, opium, iilk, filk-ftuffs, and an infinite
quantity of cottons, and particularly muflins. Thefe
articles, taken together, amounted formerly to more 1
than 1,750,000 1. a-yenr.- So confiderable a fum was
not conveyed to the banks of the Ganges ; but it was
the means of retaining one nearly equal, which muft
have iffued from thence to pay the duties, or for other
purpofes. Since the viceroys of the Mogul have made
themfelves nearly independent, and fend him no revenues
but fuch as they chufe to allow him, the luxury of the . •
court is greatly abated, and the trade we have been ;
fpeaking of is no longer fo confiderable.
The maritime trade of Bengal, managed by the na- j4aritinii
tives of the country, has not fuffered the fame dimi¬
nution, nor was it ever fo extenfive, as the other. It
may be divided into two branches, of which Catek is
BEN [ 1105 ] BEN
in pofleffion of the greater part.
Catek is a diftrift of fome extent, a little below the
mod weftern mouth of the Ganges. Balafore, fituated
upon a navigable river, ferves it for a port. The na¬
vigation to the Maldives, which the Englifh andFrench
have been obliged to abandon on account of the cli¬
mate, is carried on entirely from this road. Here
they load their vefiels with rice, coarfe cottons, and fome
filk-ftuffs, for thefe iflands; and receive cowries in ex¬
change, which are ufed for money in Bengal, and are
fold to the Europeans.
The inhabitants of Catek, and fome other people of
the Lower Ganges, maintain a confiderable correfpon-
dence with the country of Aiham. This kingdom,
which is thought to have formerly made a part of Ben¬
gal, and is only divided from it by a river that falls
into the Ganges, deferves to be better known, if what
is afferted here be true, that gun-powder has been dif-
covered there, and that it was communicated from
Afham to.Pegu, and from Pegu to China. Its gold,
filver, iron, and' lead mines, would have added to its
fame, if they had beenyiroperly worked. Inthemidft
of thefe riches, which were of very little fervice to this
kingdom, fait was an article of which the inhabitants
were fo much in want, that they were reduced to the
expedient of procuring it from a decoftion of certain
plants.
In the beginning of the prefent century, fome Bra-
mins of Bengal carried their fuperttitions to Afliam,
where the people were fo happy as to be guided folely
by the diftates of natural religion. The priefts per-
fuadedthem, that it would be more agreeable to Brama
if they fubftituted the pure and wholefome fait of the
fea to that which they ufed. The fovereign confented
to this, on condition that the exclufrve trade Ihould be
in his hands; that it fliould only be brought by the
people of Bengal; and that the boats laden with it
fhould flop at the frontiers of his dominions. Thus
have all thefe falfe religions been introduced by the in¬
fluence and for the advantage of the -prielts who teach,
and of the kings who admit, them. Since this arrange¬
ment has taken place, 40 veflels from 500 to 600 tons
burden each are annually fent from theGanges to Afham
laden with fait, which yields 200per cent, profit. They
receive in payment a fmall quantity of gold and filver,
ivory, mufk, eagle-wood, gum-lac, and a large quan¬
tity of filk.
Excepting thefe two branches of* maritime trade,
which, for particular reafons, have been confined to
the natives of the country, all the reft of the veffels fent
from the Ganges to the different fea-ports of India be-
. long to the Europeans, and are built at Pegu *.
A ftill more confiderable branch of commerce, which
the Europeans at Bengal carry on with the reft of In¬
dia, is that of opium. Patna, fituated on the Upper
Ganges, is the moll celebrated place in the world for
the cultivation of opium. The fields are covered with it.
Befides what is carried into the inland parts, there are
annually 3000 or 4000 chefts exported, each weighing
300 pounds. It fells upon the fpot at the rate of be¬
tween 24 and 25 1. a cheft on an average. This opium
is not purified like that of Syria and Perfia, which
we make ufe of in Europe; it is only a pafte that has
undergone no preparation, and has not a tenth part of
the virtue of purified opium.
The Dutch fend rice and fugar from their fettlements Bengal
to the coaft of Coromandel, for which they are paid in
fpecie, unlefs they have the good fortune to meet with
fome foreign merehandife at a cheap rate. They fend
out one or two veffels laden with rice, cottons, and
filk : the rice is fold in Ceylon, the cottons at Mala¬
bar, and the lilk at Surat ; from whence they bring
back cotton, which is ufefully employed in the coarfer
manufactures of Bengal. Two or three Ihips laden
with rice, gum-lac, and cotton Huffs, are fent to Baf-
fora; and return with dried fruits, rofe-water, and a
quantity of gold. The rich merchandife carried to A-
rabia is paid for entirely in gold and filver. The trade
of the Ganges with the other fea-ports of India brings
1,225,000!. annually into Bengal.
Though this trade paffes through the hands of the
Europeans, and is carried on under their protedion,
it is not entirely on their own account. The Moguls,
indeed, who are ufually fatisfied with the places they
hold under the government, have feldom any concern
in thefe expeditions; but the Armenians, who, fince
the revolutions in Perfia, are fettled upon the banks of
the Ganges, to which they formerly only made voyages,
readily throw their capitals into this trade. The In¬
dians employ ftill larger Aims in it. The impoflibility
of enjoying their fortunes under an oppreffive govern¬
ment does not deter the natives of this country from
labouring inceflantly to increafe them. As they would
run too great a rifque by engaging openly in trade, %
they are obliged to have recourfe to clandeftine methods. Gentoobro-
As foon as an European arrives, the Gentoos, who ^ers‘
know mankind better than is commonly fuppofed, ftudy
his chara&er ; and, if they find him frugal, aCtive, and
well informed, offer to aCt as his brokers and calhiers,
and lend or procure him money upon bottomry, or at
intereft. This intereft, which is ufually nine per cent.
at lead, is higher when he is under a neceffity of
borrowing of the Cheyks. <5
Thefe Cheyks are a powerful family of Indians, who Cheyks, a.
have, time immemorial, inhabited the banks of the
Ganges. Their riches have long ago procured them ^'ran fa:~
the management of the bank belonging to the court,
the farming of the public revenue, and the direction of
the money, which they coin afrefii every year in order
to receive annually the benefit ariling from the mint.
By uniting fo many advantages, they are enabled to
lend the government 1,750,000!. 2,625,000!. or even
4,375,0°ol. at a time. When the government finds i-t
impoffible to refund the money, they are allowed to in¬
demnify themfelvesbyoppreffing the people. That fo
prodigious a capital ftiould be preferved in the centre of
tyranny, and in the midll of revolutions, appears in¬
credible. It is not poffible to conceive how fuch a
ftruCture could be railed, much lefs how it could be
fupported for fo long a time. To explain the myftery,
it mutt be obferved, that this family has always main¬
tained a fuperior influence at the court of Delhi; that
the Nabobs and Rajahs in Bengal are dependent upon
it; that thofe who are about the perfon of the fubah
have conftantly been its creatures ; and that the fubah
himfelf has been maintained or dethroned by the in¬
trigues of this family. To this we may add, that the
different branches of it, and the wealth belonging to
them, being difperfed, it has never been poffible to ruin
above one half of the family at a time, which would
ftill
Bengal,
BEN [ 1106 ] BEN
{till have left them more refources than were neceflary feat of their commerce. Their flag is ftill difplayed, Bei
"to enable them to purfue their revenge to the utmoft. and there are a few unhappy wretches remaining there, \
The Europeans who frequent the Ganges have not been who have forgotten their country after having been
fufficiently alarmed at this defpotifm, which ought to forgotten by it. This fa&ory has no other employ- 1
have prevented them from fubmitting to a dependence ment than that of fupplying the Moors and the Dutch
upon the Cheyks. They have fallen into the fnare, by with miftrefles.
borrowing confiderable fums of thefe avaritious finan- The exports from Bengal to Europe confift of mufk, Expel
ciers, apparently at nine, but in reality at thirteen,/>er gum-lac, nicaragua wood, pepper, cowries, and fome
cent, if we take into the account the difference between other articles of lefs importance brought thither from
the money that is lent them, and that in which they other places. Thofe that are the immediate produce
are obliged to make their payments. The engagements of the country are borax, falt-petre, filk-ftuffs, muf-
entered into by the French and Dutch companies have lins, and feveral different forts of cottons,
been kept within fome bounds; but 'thofe of the En- It would be a tedious and ufelefs talk to enumerate j
glifh company have been unlimited. In 1755, they all the places where ticken, and cottons, fit for table
were indebted to the Cheyks about 1,225,000 1. linen or intended to be worn, plain, painted, or printed.
Such is the conduft of this confiderable fet of men, are manufa&ured. It will be fufficient to refer to '!
who are foie managers of the European trade at Bengal. Daca, which may be looked upon as the general |
The Portuguefe, who firft frequented this rich country, mart of Bengal, where the greateft variety of fineft j
had the wifdom to eftablifh themfelves at Chatigan, a cottons are to be met with, and in the greateft abun-
port fitnated upon the frontier of Arracan, not far dance. See Daca.
from the moft eaftern branch of the Ganges. The The fum total of the purchafes made in Bengal
Dutch, who, without incurring the refentment of an by the European nations amounted, a few years a-
enemy at that time fo formidable, were defirous of go, to no more than 870,000]. One third of this
fharing in their good fortune, were engaged in fearch- fum was paid in iron, lead, copper, woollens, and
ing for a port which, without obftrudding their plan, Dutch fpices : the remainder was difeharged in mo-
would expofe them the leaft to hoftilities. In 1603, ney. Since the Englifh have made themfelves ma-
their attention was diredlied to Balafore ; and all the fters of this rich country, its exports have been increa-
companies, rather through imitation than in confequence fed, and its imports diminiftred, becaufe the conquerors |
of any well concerted fchemes, followed their example, have carried away a greater quantity of merchandife.
Experience taught them the propriety of fixing as near and pay for it out of the revenues they receive from
as pofiible to the markets from whence they had their the country. There is reafon to believe, that this re-
merchandife; and they failed up that branch of the volution in the trade of Bengal has not arrived at its
Ganges which, feparating itfelffrom the main river at crifis, and that fooner or later it will be attended with
Mourcha above Caflimbuzar, falls into the fea near Ba- more important confequences and effedls.
lafore under the name of the river Hughly. The go- The conqueft of Bengal by the Britifh, which we Con‘
vernment of the country permitted them to ere£t ware- are now to relate, is an event fcarce lefs remarkable Ben^
houfes wherever there was plenty of manufactures, and for its fplendour and importance, than for the peculia-
y to fortify themfelves upon this river. rity of the circumftances that gave it birth ; circum-
PHncipal The firft town that is met with in paffing up the river fiances which, far from promifing to open fuch a field
towns. Js Calcutta, the principal fettlement of the Englifh of glory and power, feemed to threaten them with the
company. See Calcutta. moft fatal reverfe of fortune.
Six leagues higher is fituatedFrederic Nagore, found- A pernicious cuftom had for fome time prevailed in
ed by the Danes in 1756, in order to fupply the place this part of Afia. The governors of all the European
of an ancient fettlement where they could not main- fettlements took upon them to grant an afylum to fuch
tain their ground. This new eftablifhment has not yet of the natives of the country as were afraid of oppref-
acquired any importance, and there is all the reafon fion or punifhme'nt. As they received very confiderable
imaginable to believe that it will never become con- fums in return for their protection, they overlooked
fiderable. the danger to which the interefts of their principals
Two leagues and an half higher, lies Chandernagore, were expofed by this proceeding. One of the chief
5 See Chan- a fettlement belonging to the French *. officers of Bengal, who was apprifed of this refource,
ienagore. At the diftance,of a mile from Chandernagore, is took refuge among the Englifh at Calcutta, to avoid the
Chinfura, better known by the name of Dougli, being punifhment due to his treachery. He was taken under
fituated near the fuburbs of that anciently renowned their protection. The fubah,juftly irritated, put him-Cn
merely their fort; the territory round it depending took it. He put the garrifon into a clofe dungec
on the government of the country, which hath fre- where they were fuffocated in the fpace of 12 hours. Cl
quently made it feel its power by its extortions. Ano- Three and twenty of them only remained alive. Thefe
ther inconvenience attending this fettlement is a fand- wretched people offered large fums to the keeper of
bank that prevents fhips from coming up to it: they their prifon, to prevail upon him to get their deplo-
proceed no further than Tulta, which is 20 miles be- rable fituation reprefented to the prince. Their cries
low Calcutta; and this of courfe occafions an additional and lamentations were fufficient informations to the
expence to the government. people, who were touched with compaffion; but no
The Portuguefe had formerly made Bandel, which one would venture to addrefs the defpotic monarch up-
is eighty leagues from the mouth of the Ganges, and on the fubjeCt. The expiring Englifh were told that
a quarter of a league above the Hughly, the principal he was afleep; and there was not, perhaps, a Angle
perfoa
BEN [ 1107 ] BEN
1 gal. perfon in Bengal who thought that the tyrant’s flum-
| bers fhould be interrupted for one moment, even to
[ preferve the lives of 150 unfortunate men.
Admiral Watfon, who was juft arrived in India with
iv° his fquadron, and colonel Clive who had ft) remarkably
fuc- diftinguilhed himfelf in the war of the Carnatic, did not
delay to avenge the caufe of their country. They got
together the Englifh who had been difperfed, and were
flying from place to place; they went up the Ganges in
the month of December 1756, retook Calcutta, made
themfelves matters of feveral other places, and gained a
complete vidlory over the fubah.
Such a rapid and extenfive fuccefs becomes in a man¬
ner inconceivable, when we confider that it was only
with a body of 500 men that the Britilh were to ftand
againft the whole force of Bengal. But if their fupe-
riority was partly owing to their better difeipline, and
to other evident advantages that the Europeans have in
battle over the Indian powers ; the ambition of eaftefn
S chiefs, the avarice of their minifters, and the nature of
a government whofe only fprings are fear and prefent
intereft, were of ftill more effeftual fervice to them :
they had experience enough to take advantage of the
concurrence of thefe feveral circumftances in their firft
abah as we]i as jn every fucceeding enterprize. The fubah
«t& was ^ete^e<^ by all his own people, as tyrants gene-ral¬
ly are; the principal officers fold their intereft to the
Englilh ; he was betrayed at the head of his army, the
greateft part of which refufed to engage; and he him¬
felf fell into the hands of his enemies, who caufed him
I to be ftrangled iff prifon.
They difpofed of the fubahihip in favour of Jaffier-
Ally Khan, the ring-leader of the confpiracy ; who
ian; ceded to the company fome provinces, with a grant of
di- every privilege, exemption, and favour, to which they
e". could have any preteniion. But foon growing weary
e(j’s of the yoke he had brought upon himfelf, he was fe-
I cretly looking out for means to get rid of it. His de-
figns were difeovered, and he was confined in the cen¬
tre of his own capital.
Coffim-AIly-Khan, his nephew, was proclaimed in
his Head. He had purchafed that ufurpation with an
immenfe fum of money. But he did not enjoy it long,
but Impatient of the yoke, as his predecefibr had been, he
ami gave fome tokens of his difpofition, and refufed to fub-
r.mer mit to the laws the company impofed upon him. Upon
' this the war broke out again. The fame Jaffier-Ally-
Khan, whom the Engliih kept in confinement, was a-
gain proclaimed fubah of Bengal. They marched a-
gainft Coffim-Ally-Khan. His general officers were
corrupted : he was betrayed and entirely defeated : too
happy, that, whilft he loft his dignity, he ftill preferved
u the iminenfe treafures he had amafled.
1- Notvvithftanding this revolution, Coffim-Ally did
’b- not drop his hopes of vengeance. Full of refentment,
r and loaded with treafure, he fet out for the nabob of
1 j,ob Bennares, chief vizier in the Mogul’s empire. He and
llnares. all the neighbouring princes re-united in oppofition to
the common enemy, who threatened them all equally.
But now the conteft lay no longer between them and
a handful of Europeans juft arrived from the coaft of
Coromandel; they were to engage with the whole
ftrength of Bengal, of which the Britilh were matters.
Elated with their fuccefles, they did not wait to be at¬
tacked; they fet out diredtly,and made head againft fo
formidable a league; marching on with all the confi- Bengal,
dence which Clive could infpire, a leader whofe name
feemed to have become the pledge of conqueft. How¬
ever, Clive did not care to hazard any thing. Part of
the campaign was fpent in negociations ; but in rime
the treafures which the Englifh had already drawn from
Bengal, ferved to enfure them new conquefts. The
heads of the Indian army were corrupted; and when the
nabob of Bennares was defirous of coming to aftion, he
was obliged to fly with his men without ever being able
to engage. rts
By this victory, the country of Bennares fell into the Defeated,
hands of the Britifh : and it feemed as if nothing o£
could hinder them from annexing this fovereignty to Bennares
that of Bengal: but, either from moderation or pru- laid under
dence, they were content to levy 8,ooo,oqol. by eontri- contribu-
bution : and they offered peace to the nabob on condi- tlon,~
tions which would render him incapable of doing them
any hurt; but fuch as they were, he moft readily agreed
to them, that he might regain the poffeffion of his own
provinces.
In the midft of thefe calamities, Coffim-Ally ftill
found means to preferve part of his treafures, and re¬
tired to the Cheyks, a people fituated in the neighbour¬
hood of Delhi, from whence he made an attempt to
procure fome allies, and to raife up a body of enemies
to oppofe the Britifh. *7
While matters were thus circumftanced in Bengal, ofBen'al^
the Mogul having been driven out of Delhi by the Pat- cededtodie
tans, by whom his fon had been fet up in his room, Britift by
was wandering from one province to another in fearch the Mogul.
of 3'place of refuge in his own territories, and requeft-
ing fuccour from his own vaffals, but without fuccefs.
Abandoned by his fubjefts, betrayed by his allies, with¬
out fupport, and without any army, he was allured by
the power of the Englifh, and implored'their protec¬
tion : they promifed to condudl him to Delhi, and re-
eftablifh him on his throne ; but they infilled that he
fhould previoufly cede to them the abfolute fovereignty
over Bengal. This ceffion was made by an anthentic
act, and attended with all the formalities ufually prac-
tifed throughout the Mogul empire.
The Englifh, poffefled of this title, which was to give
a kind of legitimacy to their ufurpation, at leaft in the
eyes of the vulgar, foon forgot the prpmifes they had
made. They gave the Mogul to underftand, that par¬
ticular circumftances would not fuffer them to be con¬
cerned in fuch an enterprife ; that fome better oppor¬
tunity was to be hoped for; and to make up for all his
Ioffes, they affigned him a penfion of 262,500!. with
the revenue of Illahabad, and Sha Ichanabad or Del¬
hi; upon which that unfortunate prince was reduced
to fubfift himfelf in one of the principal towns of the
province of Bennares, where he had taken up his reii •
dence. Thus the Mogul empire comes to be fhared be¬
tween two governing powers, one of which is acknow¬
ledged in the feveral diftrifts of India where the Eng¬
lifh company has any eftablifhments and authority; the
other in fuch provinces as border on Delhi, and in thofe
parts to which the influence of that company does not
extend. ,g
The Britifh, thus become fovereigns of Bengal, have Ancieiugo-
thought it incumbent on them to keep up the fhadow vermnentiB
of ancient forms, in a country where they have the lead, a^^r^cc
and, perhaps, the only power that is likely to be fecure *
and
Revenues
from Ben-
Methods
for fecurih
its fubjec-
tion.
Formerlau-
dable con-
du£l of the
Engliih.
BEN [ i
and lading. They govern the kingdom flill under the
name of a fubah, who is of their nomination and in
their pay, and feems to give his own orders. It is from
him that all public afts feem to proceed and iffue, tho’
the decrees are in faft the refult of the deliberations of
the council at Calcutta; fo that the people, notwith-
ftanding their change of mailers, have for a confider-
able time been induced to believe that they ftill fub-
mitted but to the fame yoke.
If we fnould wifh to know the amount of the public
revenues of Bengal, we fhall find, that at the period of its
conqueft it was equal to 3,500,000 1. The outgoings,
either for the government or defence of the province,
were ftatedat 1,797,750 1.; 262,500!. were agreed to
be given to the Mogul, and 131,250!. to the nabob; fo
that the remainder to the company was 1,312,500!.
Their purchafes in the different marts of India fliould
abforb a great part of this fum; but ftill it has been
thought there muft after all remain a furplus of feveral
millions to be carried into great Britain.
This new arrangement of matters, without having
wrought any fenfible change in the exterior form of the
Knglifh company, has effentially changed their object.
They are no longer a trading body ; they are a territo¬
rial power which farm out their revenues in aid of a
commerce that formerly was their foie exiftence, and
which, notwithftanding the extenfion it has received, is
no more than an additional objeft in the various combi-
nationsof their prefent real grandeur. The arrangements
intended to give ftability to a fituation fo profperous
are, perhaps, the moft reafonable that can be. Bri¬
tain has at prefent in India an ettablifhment to the a-
mount of 9800 European troops, and 54,000 fipahis
well armed and well difciplined. Three thoufand of
thefe Europeans and 25,000 fipahis are difperfed a-
long the borders of the Ganges.
The moft confiderable body of thefe troops has been
ftationed in Bennares, once the fource of Indian fcience,
and ftill the moft famous academy of thefe rich coun¬
tries, where European avarice pays no regard to any
thing. This fituation is chofen, becaufe it appeared
favourable for flopping the progrefs of thofe warlike
people who might defcend from the mountains of the
north; and in cafe of attack, the maintaining of a war
in a foreign territory would be lefs ruinous than in the
countries of which the company is to receive the reve¬
nues. On the fouth, as far as it has been found practi¬
cable, they have occupied all the narrow paffes by which
an enterpriiing and aCtive adverfary might attempt to
penetrate into the province. Daca, which is in the
centre of it, has under its walls a confiderable force al¬
ways ready to march wherever their prefence may be
neceflary. All the nabobs and rajahs who are depen¬
dent on the fubah of Bengal are difarmed, furrounded
by fpies in order to difcover their confpiracies, and by
troops to render them ineffectual.
The Englifh company till thefe latter times had al¬
ways held a conduCt fuperior to that of the other fet-
tlements. Their agents, their faCtors, were well chofen.
The moft part of them were young men of good fa¬
milies, already inftruCted in the rudiments of com¬
merce, and who were not afraid, when the fervice of
their country called upon them, tocrofs thofe immenfe
feas which Britain confiders but as a part of her em¬
pire. The company had generally taken their com-
08
] BEN
merce in a great point of view, and had almoft always Be
carried it on like an affociation of true politicians as
well as a body of merchants. Upon the whole, their
planters, merchants, .and foldiers, had retained more
honefty, more regularity, and more firmnefs, than thofe
of the other nations.
Who would ever have imagined that this fame com- A'te
pany, by a fudden alteration of conduct and change
of fyftem, could poffibly make the people of Bengal
regret the defpotifm of their ancient mailers ? That fa¬
tal revolution has been but too fudden and too real.
A fettled plan of tyranny has taken the place of autho¬
rity occafionally exerted. The exaCtions are become
general and fixed, the oppreffion continual and abfo-
lute. The deftruCtive arts of monopolies are carried
to perfection, and new ones have been invented. In a
word, the company have tainted and corrupted the
public fources of confidence and happinefs.
Under the government of the Mogul emperors, the 4^“
fubahs, who had the care of the revenues, were, from
the nature of the bufinefs, obliged to leave the re g;,] .
ceipt of them to the Nabobs, Polygars, and Jemi- un<l(
dars, who were a fort of under-fecurity to other In-
dians, and thefe ftill to others ; fo that the produce of
the lands paffed on, and was partly funk amidft a mul¬
titude of intermediate hands, before it came into the 1
coffers of the fubah, who, on his part, delivered but
a very fmall portion of it to the emperor. This ad- |
miniftration, faulty in many refpe&s, had in it one fa¬
vourable circumftance for the people, that the farmers
never being changed, the rent of the farms remained i
always the fame ; becaufe the leaft increafe, as it di-
fturbed the whole chain of advantage which every ‘
one received in his turn, would infallibly have occa- ;•]
fioned a revolt: a terrible refource, but the only one !
left in favour of humanity in countries groaning under ;
the oppreflions of defpotic rulers.
It is probable that in the midft of thefe regulations
there were many injuries and partial diftreffes. But,
at leaft, as the receipt of the public moneys was made
upon a fixed and moderate affeffment, emulation was
not wholly extinguiflied. The cultivators of the land, |
being fure of laying up the produce of their harveft |
after paying with exaCtnefs the rate of their farm, <
affifted the natural goodnefs of the foil by their labour ;
the weavers, mafters of the price of their works, be- -
ing at liberty to make choice of the buyer which beft j
fuited them, exerted themfelves in extending and im- '
proving their manufactures. Both the one and the . |
other, having no anxiety with regard to their fubfift- ]
ence, yielded with fatisfaClion to the moft delightful
inclinations of nature, or the prevailing propenfity of (
thefe climates ; and beheld in the increafe of their fa- - j
mily nothing more than the means of augmenting |
their riches. Such are evidently the reafons why in- j
duftry, agriculture, and population, have been carried - J
to fuch a height in the province of Bengal. One would i
think they might ftill be carried further under the go¬
vernment of a free people, friends to humanity ; but
the thirft of money, the moft tormenting, the moft 7
cruel of all palGons, has given rife to a pernicious and
deftruClive government. 0 *
The Englilh, become fovereigns of Bengal, not nieaft
content to receive the revenues on the fame footing as adopt
the ancient fubahs, have been defirous at oncetoaug- theE
ment
BEN [1109 ] BEN
a!, ment the produce of the farms, and to appropriate to It will be thought, without doubt, after thefe'de-
- themfelves the rents. To accomplifli both thefe ob- taik, it was impoffible that Bengal fhould have frelh "
je£Is, they are become the farmers to their own fubah, evils to dread. But, however, as if the elements, in Aggravated
that is, to a Have on whom they have juft conferred league with mankind, had intended to bring all at once dittrefles of
that empty title, the more fecurely to impofe upon the upon the fame people, every calamity that by turns lays natives.
people. The ccnfequence of this new plan has been t6
pillage thefarmers, in order to fubllitute in their room
the company’s agents. They have alfo monopolized
the fale of fait, tobacco, and betel, articles of imme¬
diate neceflity in thofe countries ; but they have done
wafte the univerfe,, a drought, of which there had never
been an inftance in thofe climates, came upon them, and
prepared the way for a moft dreadful famine in a coun¬
try of all the moft fertile.
In Bengal they have two harvefts; one in April, the
this under the name, and apparently on the account of, other in Otftober. The firft, called the little karvejl,
the fubah. They have gone ftill further, and have confifts of the fmaller grain: the fecond, ftyled the^rtf^
obliged the very fame fubah to eftablifh in their favour
an exclufiye privilege for the fale of cotton brought
from any other province, in order to raife it to an ex¬
orbitant price. They have augmented the duties, and,
to conclude all, have obtained an edi£l, which has been
publifhed, to forbid all Europeans, except the Englifh,
from trading freely in the interior parts of Bengal.
When we refleft on this cruel prohibition, it feems ;
harvejl, is fingly of rice. Themains which commence,
regularly in the month of Auguft, and end in the middle
of October, are the occafion of thefe different produc¬
tions ; and it was by a drought which happened in ) 769,
at the feafon when the rains are expected, that there
was a failure in the great harveft of 1769, and the lefs
harveft of 1770. It is true, that the rice on the higher
grounds did not fuffer greatly by this difturhance of
if it had been contrived only to deprive of every power the feafons; but there was far from a fufficient quantity
of mifehief that unfortunate countiy, whofe profperity, for the nouriftunent of all the inhabitants of the coun-
for their own intereft, ought to be the only obje<ft of try: add to which, the Englilh, who were engaged be-
the Englilh company. Befides, it is eafy to fee, that
the avarice of the members of the council at Calcutta
has didlated that Ihameful law. Their defign was to
enfure to themfelves the produce of all the manufac¬
tures, in order to compel the merchants of other na¬
tions, who chofe to trade from one part of India to an¬
other, to purchafe thefe articles of them at an exorbi¬
tant price, or to renounce their undertakings.
But ftill in the midft of this overbearing conduft, fo
fore hand to take proper care of their fubfiftence, as
well as of the fipahis belonging to them, did not fail to
keepjocked up in their magazines a part of the grain,
though the harveft was infufficient.
They have been accufed of having made a very bad
ufe of that neceffary fqrefight, in order to carry on the
moft odious and the moft criminal of all monopolies.
It may be true, that fuch an infamous method of ac¬
quiring riches may have tempted fome individuals: but
contrary to the advantage of their conftituents, thefe that the chief agents of the company, that the council
treacherous agents have attempted to difguife them- of Calcutta, could have adopted and ordered fuch a de-
felves under the malk of zeal. They have pretended, ftru&ive fcheme; that, to gain a few millions of rupees,
that as they were under the neceflity of exporting to
England a quantity of merchandife proportioned to the
extent of her commerce, the competition of private tra¬
ders was prejudicial to the purchafes of the company.
the council fhould coolly have devoted to deftruiftion
feveral millions of their fellow creatures, and by the
moft cruel means; this is a circumftance we never can
give credit to. We even venture to pronounce it im-
Underthe fame pretence, and in order to extend this pofiible; becaufe fuch wickednefs could never enter at
exclufion to the foreign fettlements while they appear
to refpedt their rights, they have of late years ordered
more merchandife than Bengal could furnilh. At the
fame time the weavers have been forbidden to work for
other nations until the Englilh orders were completed.
Thus the workmen, not being any longer at liberty to
chufe among the feveral purchafers, have been forced
to deliver the fruits of their labour at any price they
could-get for them.
If to the pidlure of public diftreffes we were to add
that of private extortions, we thould find the agents of
the company, almoft every where, exa&ing their tri-
once into the minds and hearts of a fet of men, whofe
bufinefs it is to deliberate and a<St for the good of o-
thers.
But ftill this fcourge did not fail to make itfelf felt
throughout the extent of Bengal. Rice, which is com¬
monly fold at \cl. for three pounds, was gradually rai¬
led till it came fo high as to be fold at id. per pound,
and it was even up to about 3^.; neither indeed was
there any to be found, except in fuch places where the
Europeans had taken care to collefl; it for their own ufe.
The unhappy Indians were every day perilhing by
tjioufands under this want of fuftenance, without any
bate with extreme rigour, and raifing contributions for means of help and without any refource, not being able
them with the utmoft cruelty. We ftiould fee them
rying a kind of inquifition into every family, and fit¬
ting in judgment upon every fortune ; robbing indif-
to procure themfelves the leaft nouriflunent. They were
to be feen in their villages, along the public ways, in
the midft of our European colonies, pale, meagre, faint-
criminately the artifan and the labourer, imputing it ing, emaciated, confumed by famine; fome ftretched
as a crime that he is not fufliciently rich, and puniftiing on th^ ground in expoftation of dying, others fcarce
him accordingly. We fhould view them felling their able to drag themfelves on to feek for any nutriment,
favour and their credit, as well to opprefs the innocent and throwing themfelves at the feet of the Europeans,
as to fkreen the guilty. We fhould find, in confeqiience intreating them to take them in as their flaves.
of thefe irregularities, defpair feizing every heart, and To this defeription, which makes humanity fhudder,
an univerfal dejeftion getting the better of every mind, let us add other objefts equally fhocking; let imagina-
and uniting to put a flop to the progrefs and a&ivity tion enlarge upon them, if poffible; let us reprefent to
of commerce, agriculture, and population. ourfelves infants deferted, fome expiring on the breaft
Vol. II. 7 A of
BEN [ ii
Bengal, of their mothers; every where the dying and the dead
" mingled together; on all fides the groans of forrow,
and the tears of defpair; and we fhall then have fome
faint idea of the horrible fpeftacle Bengal prefented for
16 the fpace of fix weeks.
Three mil- During this whole time the Ganges was covered with
Hons perifh cgrcafes. the fields and highways were choaked up with
y amine. tjlem . infe&;ous vapours filled the air, and difeafes
multiplied; and one evil fucceeding another, it was
likely to happen, that the plague might have carried
off the remainder of the inhabitants of that unfortunate
kingdom. It appears, by calculations pretty generally
acknowledged, that the famine carried off a fourth part,
that is to fay, about 3,000,000.
But it is ftill more remarkable, and fervesto charac-
terife the gentlenefs, or rather the indolence, as well
moral as natural, of the natives, that amidft this terri¬
ble diftrefs, fuch-a multitude of human creatures, pref-
fed by the moll urgent of all neceffities, remained in an
abfolute inadlivity, and made no attempts whatever for
their felf-prefervation. All the Europeans, efpecially
the Englifh, were poflefied of magazines, and even thefe
were not touched ; private houfes were fo too ; no re¬
volt, no maffacre, nor the leaft violence prevailed. The
unhappy Indians, refigned to defpair, confined them-
felves to the requell of fuccour they did not obtain, and
peaceably waited the relief of death.
Let us now reprefent to ourfelves any part of Eu¬
rope afflidted by a fimilar calamity. What diforder!
what fury! what atrocious adts ! what crimes would
enfue! How Ihould we have feen, among us Europeans,
fome contending for their food with their dagger in
hand, fome purfuing, fome flying, and without remorfe
maffacring one another! how (hould we have feen men
at lad turn their rage on themfelves, tearing and de¬
vouring their own limbs, and, in the blindnefs of de¬
fpair, trampling under foot all authority, as well as
every fentiment of nature and reafon!
Culpability ^ ^een t^ie ^ate t^e Englilh to have had the
of the En- Kke events to dread on the part of the people of Ben-
glilh. gal, perhaps the famine would have been lefs general
and lefs deltrudlive. For fetting afide, as perhaps we
ought, every charge of monopoly, no one will under¬
take to defend them againft the reproach of negligence
and infenfibility. And in what crifis have they me¬
rited that reproach? in the very inllant of time when
the life or death of feveral millions of their fellow-crea¬
tures was in their power. One would think, that, in
fuch an alternative, the very love of human-kind, that
fentiment innate in all hearts, might have infpired them
with refources. Certain it is, that by timely exertions
much of the mifery that enfued might have been pre¬
vented. The barrennefs had been announced by a
drought; and it is not to be doubted, that if, inftead
of having folely a regard to themfelves, and remaining
in an entire negligence of every thing elfe, they had
from the firft taken every precaution in their power,
-they might have accomplilhed the prefervation of many
lives that were loft.
We mull allow that the corruption to which the
Englifli have given themfelves up from the firft be¬
ginning of their power, the opprefiion which has fuc-
ceeded it, the abufes every day multiplying, the en¬
tire lofs of all principle; all thefe circumftances to¬
gether form a contrail totally inconliftent with their
10 ] BEN
paft conduift in India, and the real conftitution of their Ben
government in Europe. But this fort of problem in ti
morals will be eafily folved, upon confidering with at- Bei^
tention the natural effedft of circumftances and events.
Being now become abfolute rulers in an empire where
they were but traders, it was very difficult for the En- j
glilh not to make a bad ufe of their power. At a di-
ftance from home, men are no longer reftrained by the
fear of being alhamed to fee their countrymen. In a 1
warm climate where the body lofes its vigour, the mind
mull lofe fome of its ftrength. In a country where na- \
ture and cuftom lead to indulgence, men are apt to be
feduced. In countries where they come for the purpofe
of growing rich, they eafily forget to be juft.
BENGO, a province of the kingdom of Angola
in Africa, having the fea on the weft, and the pro¬
vince of Mofeche on the eaft. It produces plenty |
of banana trees; but the Portuguefe have grubbed
up vaft quantities of thefe, and cultivated the land,
which now abounds with maize, and the manioc root
of which they make bread f. The province is divided t Sce
into a great number of diftridls, of which the chiefs irof'\
are natives, but tributary to Portugal, and obliged to
till the lands belonging to the Portuguefe. They are
Chriflians, and have eight churches.
BENGUELA, a province of the kingdom of An¬
gola in Africa, bounded on the eaft by the river Rim-
ba, on the north by the Coanza, and it extends weft- ,
ward quite to Cape Negro. Benguela was formerly I
governed by its own kings; but was entirely ruined'by
the incurfions of the barbarous Giagas, fo that its be¬
ing conquered by the Portuguefe proved a great hap- ,
pinefs. It ftill retains the title of kingdom, and is al¬
lowed to enjoy fome fmall privileges ; but is far from
being reftored to the ftate of plenty it enjoyed before
its deftru&ion by the Giagas already mentioned. It pro¬
duces abundance of fait, but inferior in quality to that
which is made in the province of Chiffama. The zim-
bis alfo, vvhofe (hells are current as money through
many countries of Africa, are caught upon the coaft.
The country, which is moftly mountainous, abounds
with elephants, rhinocerofes, lions, tigers, crocodiles^ ■
&c. which are very dangerous, and deftroy great num¬
bers of cattle.
BENJA.MIN. See Laurus, and Benzoin.
BENIARAX, an ancient and confiderable town '
in the kingdom of Algiers in Africa, feated in W.
Long. o. 30. N. Lat. 35. o.
BENIN, a country of Guinea, in Africa, has part ;
of the gulph called the Bite of Benin, and the Slave j
Coaft, on the weft; part of Gago and Biafara, on the
north ; Myjac and Makoko, on the eaft; and Congo on j
the fouth, where it extends about one degree beyond
the equino&ial line : the length, from eaft to weft, is :
about 600 miles ; but its north and fouth bounds are |
not fo well determined. The land in general is low,
and woody; in fome parts it has rivers and lakes, but in.
others there is a fcarcity of water. There are here a.
great number of wild beafts, particularly elephants,
lions, tygers, leopards, baboons, monkeys, wild boars,
deer, &c. The birds are partridges, of which fome are
blue and fame green, turtles, wild ducks, woodcocks, 1
&c. Their grain is Indian corn: they have no po¬
tatoes ; but plenty of yams, which are of the potatoe
kind, but vaftly larger and more coarfe: thefe are their
ordinary
BEN [ i
ordinary food, and ferve in the room of bread; they
have two forts of beans, like horfe-beans, but not near
fo good. The fruits are cocoa-nuts, cormantine apples,
bananas, wild figs, &c.
■ The negroes have feveral colours which might ferve
for painting, and a good fort of foap made with palm-
oil and wood-alhes; they have a great deal of cotton,
which not only ferves for their own ufe, but is exported to
diftant places. The river Rio or Benin has a great many
arms; fome of which are fo large, that they deferve the
name of rivers: it abounds with fifh, which the inha¬
bitants eat fmoke-dried as well as frefii. The place of
trade in this river is at Arebo, about 120 miles diftant
from its mouth ; and to this place the ftiips may fail
up. Thofe who take this voyage fee the mouths of a
great many rivers fall into the principal channel to the
fight and the left ; but how far it afcends into the
country is not known. A little higher up, the country
is very low and marfhy, and feems to be divided into
iflands; and yet there are trees of all fizes growing on
the banks ; this renders the country very unhealthy, as
many of our Britilh failorshave found to their coft; it
is alfo incommoded with vaft numbers of flies, called
mufquitoes, which fling terribly, and render the fkin
full of pullules. There are three principal villages, to
which the negroes come from the inland countries to
traffic. One is called Boodadou, and confifts of about 50
houfes, or rather huts, for they are made with reeds
and covered with leaves. The fecond, called Arebo, was
mentioned above: this is much larger than the former,
and pretty well flocked with inhabitants; and the houfes
have much more room, but they are built after the fame
manner. The third has the name of Agaton, and was
built upon a hill. It was almoft ruined by the wars;
but the negroes lately rebuilt it, on account of its a-
greeable fituation. Great Benin is the place of re-
fidence of the king.
The inhabitants of Benin are very exadl in their
trading, and will not recede from any of their old cu-
ftoms: this renders them very flow in their dealings,
and backward to pay their debts, which fometimes ob¬
liges the traders to fail before they receive fatisfac-
tion ; but then they are paid as foon as they return.
Some of the merchants are appointed by the govern¬
ment, which demands a fort of cuftom ; but it is very
trifling. There are three forts of officers under the
king ; the firft are always near him, and none can ad-
drefs him but by their means : there are feveral of the
fecond fort; one takes care of the flaves, another of
the cattle, another of the ftreets, another of war, and
fo on.
Children go almoft naked till they are 14, and then
they wrap a cotton cloth round their middles : the
richer fort put on a fort of callico gowns when they
go abioad, with a kind of drawers; but within they
are contented with their ufual cloth : the better fort of
women wear their cotton cloths like petticoats, and
have a covering round their ftioulders, but take care
it fhall be open before.
The richer fort of the inhabitants of Benin live upon
beef, mutton, and poultry ; their drink is water, and
brandy when they can get it. The poorer fort live
upon dried fifh, bananas, and beans; their drink is
water and palm-wine. Their chief handicraft men are
fmiths, carpenters, and curriers; but they perform all
in] BEN
their work in a very bungling manner. The'men have
as many wives as they can keep, which they take with¬
out any ceremony, except treating their relations. The
wives of the lower fort may go wherever they have a
mind; but thofe of the rich are flmt up : they allow
their wives to be very familiar with the Europeans, and
yet pretend to be very jealous of their own country¬
men. When a woman is caught in adultery, fhe is
turned away, and the goods of the man are forfeited to
the hufband; but if the relations of the woman are rich,
they prevail with him to overlook the fault by dint of
preients.
They ufe circumcifion, which is performed feven
days after the children are born, at which time the fa¬
ther makes a feaft for the relations; they have alfo cu-
ftoms, relating to uncleannefs, refembling thofe of the
Jews. Thieves are punifhed by making the party a-
mends, if they can, otherwife they are baftinadoed ; but
murder is always punifhed with death. When a perfon
is only fufpedted of a crime, they hare feveral ways of
putting him to a trial, like the fire ordeal, or the bit¬
ter water of the Jews; but they are of fuch a nature,
that the innocent may be as often condemned as the
guilty.
With regard to their religion, they believe in an al¬
mighty and invifible God; yet worfhip images in a hu¬
man form, and in thofe of all forts of animals, making
them offerings, every one being his own prieft : they
look upon thefe leffer deities as mediators between him
and man ; fome of thefe idols are in the houfe, and fome
in cabins by themfelves. Every fifth'day is holy; on
which the rich kill cows, fheep, and goats, and others
dogs, cats, and fowls, which they diftribute among
their poor neighbours.
Benin, the capital of a kingdom of the fame name,
is the refidence of their kings, and is feated pretty far
in the country : itftands in a plain, and is about four
miles in compafs. The ftreets are long and broad; and
there are markets twice a-day, where they fell cows,
cotton, elephants teeth, European merchandizes, and .
whatever the country produces. The houfes are large,
with clay walls, and at a diftance from each other;
they are covered with reeds, ftraw, and leaves. The
women in this place are the greateft flaves; for they go
every day to market, manage the houfehold affairs,
take care of the children, cook the victuals, and till
the ground. The king’s palace makes great part of
the town; and, its great extent excepted; there is no¬
thing worth taking notice of, it being only a confufed
heap of buildings, made with boards and clay, without
regularity or neatnefs. In the middle, there is a
wooden tower, about 70 feet high, made like a chim¬
ney ; and on the top is a brazen ferpent, hanging with
his head downwards : this is pretty well made, and is
the moft curious thing in the town : there is a gal¬
lery of ftatues, but fo wretchedly carved, that there is
no knowing what they reprefent without being told ;
behind a curtain, there are 11 brazen heads, with an
elephant’s tooth on each ; thefe are the king's idols :
his throne is made of ivory, on which he fits in a pavi¬
lion of India fluff. The king fhows himfelf but once
a-year, on the day of a certain feftival; and then he
is furrounded with his wives and a great number of his
officers, who walk out in proceffion to begin the feaft
by facrificing to their gods; this done, he beftows vic-
7 A 2 tuals
BEN
BEN [ii
Benifh, tuals and wine among the multitude, which is imitated
liennct. of[icers. All the inhabitants of this town and
country go under the denomination of the king’s flaves; -
and fome relations fay, that none of them wear any ha¬
bit till given them by the king : but this feems to be
only a falvo to account for the great number of men
mid women that are daily feen naked in the ftreets;
for if it be true, that the king of Benin can bring
100,000 fighting men into the field, his fubje&s muft
be very numerous; and probably his majefty is not rich
enough to beftow garments upon them all. The Eu¬
ropeans refort hitherto purchafe flaves. E. Long. 5. 4.
N. Lat. 7. 40. _ ,
BENISH-days, among the Egyptians, a term for
three days of the week, which are days of lefs cere¬
mony in religion than the other four, and have their
name from the benijh, a garment of common ufe, not
of ceremony. In Cairo, on Sundays, Tuefdays, and
Thurfdays, they go to the pafhaw’s divan ; and thefe
are the general days of bufinefs. Fridays they flay at
home, and go to their mofques at noon ; but, though
this is their day of devotion, they never abftain from
bufinefs. The three other days of the week are the
beni(h-days, in which they throw off all bufinefs and
ceremony, and go to their little fummer-houfes in the
country.
BENNET (Henry), earl of Arlington, was born
of an ancient family in Middlefex. In the beginning
of the civil war, he was appointed under-fecretary to
George Lord Digby, fecretary of ftate; afterward en¬
tered himfelf as a volunteer for the royal caufe, and did
his majelty good fervice, efpecially at Andover in
Hamplhire, where he received feveral wounds. When
the wars were ended, he left not the king when fuccefs
did, but attended his intereft in foreign parts. He
was made fecretary to the duke of York ; received the
honour of knighthood from Charles II. at Bruges, in
1658 ; and was fent envoy to the court of Spain. His
majefty, upon his return to England, called him home,
made him keeper of his privy purfe, and principal fe¬
cretary of ftate. He had always a peculiar hatred to
the lord chancellor Hyde; who, on the other hand,
confidered him as a concealed Papift. In 1670 he was
one of the council diftinguiibed by the title of the Ca¬
bal, and one of thofe who advifed (hutting up the ex¬
chequer. In 1672 he was made Earl of Arlington and
Vifcount Thetford, and foon after Knight of the Gar¬
ter. In 1673, he was appointed one of the three ple¬
nipotentiaries from the court of Great Britain to Co-
logn, to mediate a peace between the emperor and the
king of France. The houfe of Commons, in 1673,
drew up articles of impeachment againft him. In
1674 he was made chamberlain of his majefty’s houfe-
hold, with this public reafon, that it was in recom-
penfe of his long and faithful fervice, and particularly
for his having performed the office of principal fecre¬
tary of ftate for the fpace of 12 years, to his majefty’s
great fatisfa&ion. But afterward his intereft began to
decline, while that of the earl of Danby increafed; for
upon his return from his unfuccefsful journey to Hol¬
land in 1675, his credit was fo much funk, that feveral
perfons at court diverted the king with mimicking his
perfon and behaviour; yet he held his lord chamberlain’s
place to the day of his death, in 1685. Hisefteemed
letters to Sir William Temple were publiftied after his
(2 ]
death. Ben
Bennet (Chriftopher), an eminent phyfician in the I!
16th century, was the fon of John Bennet, of Rayn- Benff;
ton, in Somerfetlhire. He was educated at Lincoln
college, Oxford; and gave the public a treatife on con-
fumptions, intitled, Theatri Tabidorum VeJUbuhmi, See.
alfo Extrcit at tones Diagnoftiae, cum Hijloriis demon-
Jirativis, quibus Alimentorum et Sanguinis vitia dete-
guntur in plerifque niorbis, &c.
Bennet (Dr Thomas), an eminent divine, born at <<
Salilbury, on the 7rtl of May, 1673, and educatedi at J
St John’s pollege, Cambridge. In 1700, he was made |
-reftor of St James’s, in Colchefter ; afterwards he was |
lecturer of St Olave’s, Southwark, and morning- 1
preacher at St Lawrence, Jewry ; and at laft was pre- j
fented to the vicarage of St Giles’s, Cripple-gate,
worth 5001. a year. While he was in this ftation, he (j
was engaged in feveral expenfive law-fuits in defence ' |
of the rights of the church, to which he recovered 150 h
a-year. He wrote, 1. An anfwer to the Difienters
Plea for Separation. 2. A Confutation of Popery. 1
3. A Difcourfe of Schifm. 4. An Anfwer to a book
intitled Thomas againft Bennet. 5. A confutation of 1
Quakerifm. 6. A brief Hi (lory of the joint.Ufe of j
pre-conceived Forms of Prayer. 7. An Anfwer to
Dr Clarke’s Scripture-doftrine of the Trinity. 8. A ,,
Paraphrafe, with Annotations, on the Book of Com¬
mon-Prayer. 7. An Hebrew Grammar; and other 1
pieces. He died O&ober 9th, 1728, in the 56^ year of i1
his age.
BENOIT (Renatus), a famous doftor of the Sor- J
bonne, and curate of Euftathius at Paris in the 16th
century. He was a fccret favourer of the Proteftant '1
religion; and that his countrymen might be able to ^
read the bible in their own tongue, he publiftied at Pa- |
ris the French tranflation, which had been made by the
reformed minifters at Geneva. This tranflation was «
approved of by feveral do&ors of the Sorbonne before |
it went to the prefs, and King Charles IX. had granted
a privilege for the printing of it. Yet when it was pu-
blilhed, it was immediately condemned. He had been i
before that time confeffor to the unhappy Mary queen I
of Scotland, during her ftay in France, and attended .
her when the returned into Scotland. Some time be- j
fore the de^th of Henry III. Dr Benoit, or fome of ^
his friends with his affiftance, publifhed a book intitled,
Apokgie Cathclique, i. e. The Catholic Apology ; in
which it was ftiowed, that the Proteftant religion, which j
Henry king of Navarre profdfed, was not a fufficient l
reafon to deprive him of his right of fucceeding to the »
crown of France. When Henry IV. was relolved to
embrace the Catholic religion, he affifted at that af-
fembly in which King Henry abjured the reformed
religion. The king promoted him to the biflioprick of ^
Troyes in Champagne 1597, but he could never ob- ;
tain the pope’s bulls to be inftalled. However, he en-
joyed the temporalities of that biflioprick till he re-
figned it. He died in 1608.
BENSERADE (Ifaac de), an ingenious French ;
poet of the 17th century, was born at Lions. He made
himfelf known at court by his verfes and his wit, and
had the good fortune to pleafe the cardinals de Rich-
lieu and Mazarin. After the death of Richlieu, he got
into favour with the duke de Breze, whom he accom¬
panied in moft of his expeditions; and when this noble-
mam V
r
BEN
man dietj, Ke returned to court, where his poetry be¬
came highly efteemed. Ke wrote, i. A Paraphrafe
upon Job. 2. Verfes for Interludes. 3. Rondeaux
upon Ovid. 4. Several Tragedies. A fonnet which
he fent to a young lady with his paraphrafe on Job,
being put in competition with the Urania of Voiture,
caufedhim to be much fpoken of; for what an honour
was it to behead of a party againil this celebrated au¬
thor ? Thofe who gave the preference to Benferade’s
performance were llyled the JobiJis, and their antago-
nifts the Uranijls ; and the difpute long divided the
whole court and the wits. Some years before his death,
he applied himfelf to works of piety, and tranflated al-
moft all the Pfalms.
M. L’Abbe Olivet fays, that Benferade, towards the
latter end of his life, withdrew from Court, and made
Gentilly the place of his retirement. When he was a
youth, he fays it was the cutlom tp vilit theremainsof
the ornaments with which Benferade had embeljifhed
his houfe and gardens, where every thing favoured of
his poetical genius. The barks of the trees were full of
infcriptions ; and, amongft: others, he remembers the
firft which prefented itfelf was as follows :
Adieu fortune, honneurs, adieu vous et hi voltes,
Je viens ici vous oublier.
Adieu toi-meme amour, biea plus quo les autres
Difficile a congedier.
Fortune and honours, ail adieu,
And whatfoe’er belong to you.
I to this re tirement run.
All your vanities to fliun.
T'hou too adieu, O powerful love;
From thee ’tis horde ft to remove.
Mr Voltaire is of opinion that thefe infcriptions were
the bell of his produ&ions, and he regrets that they
have not been collefled.
Benferade fuffered at iaft fo much from the ftone,
that, notwithftanding his great age, he refolved to fub-
mit to the operation of cutting. But his conftancy
was not put to this laft proof; for a fyrgeon letting
him blood, by way of precaution, pricked an artery,
and, inftead of endeavouring to (top the effufion of
blood, ran away. There was but juit time to call F.
Commire, his friend and confefibr, who came foon e-
nough to fee him die. This happened the I9rh of Oc¬
tober, 1691, in the 82d year of his age.
BENSHEIM, a town of Germany in the Palatine of
the Rhine, feated in E. Long. 8. 4J. N. Lat. 52. 23.
BENSON (Dr George), a learned diffenting mini-
fter, born at Great Salkeld, in Cumberland, in 1699.
His love of learning was fo fuccefsful, that, at 11 years
of age, he was able to read the Greek Teftament. He
afterwards ftudied at Dr Dixon’s academy at White¬
haven, from whence he removed to the univerfity of
Glafgow. In 1721, he was chofen pallor of ,a con¬
gregation of diffenters at Abingdon, in Berklhire ; in
1729, be received a call from a fociety of diffenters in
Southwark, with whom he continued 11 years ; and
in 1740, was chofen, by the congregation of Crutched
Friars, colleague to the learned and judicious Dr Lard-
ner. From the time of his engaging in the miniftry he
propofedto himfelf the critical ftudy of the Scriptures,
particulary of the New Teftament, as a principal part
of his bufinefs. The firft fruits of thefe ftudies
rwhich he prefented to the public was, A defence of the
ircafonablencfs of prayer, with A tranflation of a dif-
13 ] BEN
courfe of Maximus Tyrius containing fome popular
objections againft prayer, and An anfwer to thefe.
The light which Mr Locke had thrown on the-obfeureft
parts of St Paul’s epiftles, by making him his own ex-
pofitor, encouraged and determined Mr Benfon to at¬
tempt to illuftrate the' remaining epiftles in the fame
manner. In 1731, he publiftied A paraphrafe and notes
on the epiftle to Philemon, as a fpecimen. This was
well received, and the author encouraged to proceed in
his defign. With the epiftle to Philemon, was pub¬
liftied “ A ftiort differtation, to prove from the fpirit
and fentiments the apoftle difeovered in his epiftles,
that he was neither an enthufiaft nor impoftor; and con-
fequently that the religion which he afferted he received
immediately from heaven, and confirmed by a variety of
miracles, is indeed divine.” This argument hath fince
been improved and illuftrated, with great delicacy and
firength, in a review of the apoftle’s entire conduCl and
cha„ra6ter, by lord Lyttleton. Mr Benfon proceeded
with great diligence and reputation to pubiifn Para-
phrafes and notes on the two epiftles to the Theffalo-
nians, the firft and fecond to Timothy, and the epiftle
to Titus ; adding, Differtations on feveral important
fubjeCls, particularly on infpiration. In the year 1735,
our author publiftied his Pliftory of the firft planting of
Chriftianity, taken from the afts of the apoftles, and
their epiftles, in two vols 410. In this work, befides
illuftrating throughout the hiftory of the ads, and moil
of the epiftles, by a view of the hiftory of the times,
the occafion of the feveral epiftles, and the ftate of the
churches to whom they were addreffed, he eftabliflied
the truth of the Chriftian religion on a number of fads,,
the moft public, important, and inconteftable. He alfo
wrote, The reafonablenefs of the Chriftian religion ;
The hiftory of the life of Jefus Cbrift; A paraphraie
and notes on the feven catholic epiftles ; and feveral
other works which procured him great reputation.
One of the univerfities in Scotland Tent him a diploma
with a dodor’s degree; and many of high rank in the
Church of England, as Herring, Hoadley, Butler,
Benfon, Coneybeare, &c. fhewetl him great marks of
favour and regard. He purfued the fame ftudies with
great application and fuccefs,.till the time of his deaili,
which happened in the year 1763, in the 64th year of
his age.
BENTHAM (Thomas), bidiop of Litchfield and
Coventry, was born at Shirburn in Yorkftiire, in the
year 15x2, and educated in Magdalen college, Oxford.
He took the degree of bachelor of arts fu 1543, and
in 1546 was admitted perpetual fellow, and proceeded
mafter of arts the year following, which was that of
Edward VI.’s acceflion to the crown. He now threw
off the malic of Popery, which, during the equivocal
reign of Henry VIII. he had worn with reluctance.
When Mary came to the crown, being deprived of hia
fellowlhip by her vilitors, he prudently retired to Ba-
fil in Switzerland, where for fome time he expounded
the feriptures to the Englifh exiles in that city ; but^
being folicited by fome Proteftants in London, be re¬
turned to London before the death of the queen, and
was appointed fuperintendant of a private congregation
in the city. Immediately on the acceffion of Elizabeth,
Bentham was preferred in the diurch, and in the fe¬
cond year of her reign was confecrated bilhop of Litch¬
field and Coventry. He died at Eccleftial in Stafford-
flute.
Ben ft
Bcnth;;
BEN
f
11
BEN
Bentivoglio
Bentley.
, {hire, in 1578, aged 65. He was buried in the chan¬
cel of the church there ; and a monument was erec¬
ted, with the effigy of himfelf, his wife, and four chil¬
dren, with the following infeription :
Hue jacet in tumba Benthamus, epifeopus ills
Daftus, divinity largus, pafeens, pius, alums.
Ob. ip Feb. 1578.
Bifhop Bentham had the charafter of a pious and
zealous reformer, and was particularly celebrated for
his knowledge of the Hebrew language. His works
are, 1. Expofition of the afts of the apoftles; manu-
feript. 2. A fermon on Chrift’s temptation 5 Lond.
8vo. 3» Epiftle to M. Parker; manufeript. 4. The
Pfalms, Ezekiel, and Daniel, tranflated into Englifli,
in queen Elizabeth’s Bible.
BENTIVOGLIO (Guy), cardinal, born at Ferrara,
in the year 1579. He went to ftudy at Padua, where
he made a confiderable proficiency in polite literature.
Upon his leaving the univerfity, he went to refide at
Rome, where he became univerfally efteemed. He was
fent~ nuncio to Flanders, and then to France ; in both
which employments his behaviour was fuch as gave
great fatisfa&ion to Paul V. who made him a cardinal,
which was the laft promotion he made, a little before
his death, which happened on the 28th of January
1621. Bentivoglio was at this time in France, where
Lewis XIII. and all the French court congratulated
him on Isis new dignity; and when he returned to Rome,
his Chriftian majefty entrufted him with the manage¬
ment of the French affairs at that court. Pope Ur¬
ban VII. had a high regard for him, on account of his
fidelity, difintereflednefs, and confummate knowledge
in bufinefs. He was beloved by the people, and efteemed
by the cardinals; and his qualities were fuch, that in
all probability he would have been railed to the ponti¬
ficate on the death of Urban, which happened on the
29th of July, 1644; but having gone to the conclave
during the time of the moft intolerable heats at Rome,
it affe&ed his body to fuch a degree, that he could not
fleep for 11 nights afterwards; and this want of reft
•threw him into a fever, of which he died the 7th of Sep¬
tember 1644, aged 65. He has left feveral works;
the moft remarkable of which are, A hiftory of the
civil wars of Flanders, An account of Flanders, with
Letters and Memoirs.
Bentivoglio, a fmall town of Italy in the terri¬
tory of Bologna, with a caftle, fituated in E. Long.
11. 34. N. Lat. 44. 47.
BENTLEY (Richard), an eminent critic and di¬
vine, was the fon of a mechanic tradefman at Wake¬
field in Yorkfnife, where he was born in the year 1662,
and probably received the firft part of his education at
the free-fehool in that town; whence being removed to
St John’s college in Cambridge, he followed his ftudies
with indefatigable induftry; and his inclination leading
him ftrongly to critical learning, his fkill and know¬
ledge therein was taken notice of by Dr Edward Stil-
lingfleet, who was bred at the fame college, and in 1685
appointed him private tutor to his fon. Mr Bentley
had not been above a year in the Do&or’s family,
when he had compiled, in a thick volume in 410, a kind
of Hexapla; in the firft volume of which was every
word of the Bible alphabetically difpofed; the various
interpretations whereof from the Chaldee, Syriac, vul¬
gar Latin, Septuagint, and the verfions of Aquila,
H 1
Symmachus, and Thcodofian, had their proper place
in the other five volumes; befides another 410 volume
of the various le&ions and emendations of the Hebrew
text drawn out of thofe ancient verlions. In 1692, his
patron being advanced to the fee of Worcefter, colla¬
ted him to a prebend in that church, and alfo made him
his domeftic chaplain. That learned prelate, as well as
Dr Will. Lloyd, then biffiop of Litchfield, had feen
many proofs of our author’s extraordinary merit, when
they concurred in recommending him as a fit perfon to
open the leftures upon Mr Boyle’s foundation in de¬
fence of natural and revealed religion. This gave him
a fine opportunity of eftablilhing his fame. He faw it
well; and refolved to pulh it to the utmoft. Sir Ifaac
Newton’s Principia had been puhlifhed but a few years,
and the book was little known and lefs underftood: Mr
Bentley therefore determined to fpare no pains in dif-
playing to the beft advantage the profound demonftra-
tions which that excellent work furnifhed in proof of a
Deity; and that nothing might be wanting to com¬
plete the defign, he applied to the author, and recei¬
ved from him the folution of fome difficulties which had
not fallen within the plan of his treatife *. In ftiort,
our author’s fermons at Boyle’s lectures were univer¬
fally admired, and highly raifed his reputation as a
preacher; notwithftanding that efcape which laid him
open to the raillery of Dr Keil, viz. of proving the
moon not to turn round her axis becaufe file always
fhews the, fame face to the earth. In 1693, he was
made keeper of the royal library at St James’s; foon
after which arofe the famous difpute between him and
the honourable Mr Boyle, in relation to the genuine-
nefs of the Epiftles of Phalaris. In 1701 he was pre*
fented to the mafterfhip of Trinity college, Cambridge,
which is reckoned worth near 1000I. per annum. Upon
this promotion he refigned his prebend of Worcefter,
and, in 1707, was collated to the archdeaconry of Ely;
befides this, he was prefented to a good benefice in that
fee. Being thus placed in a ftate of eafe and affluence,
he took his degree of doftor of divinity, entered into
matrimony, and indulged his inclination in critical pur-
fuits; and the fruits of his labours, which he occafion-
ally publifhed, all difplayed fuch erudition and faga-
city, that, by degrees, he obtained the character of be¬
ing the greateft critic of the age. In the mean while,
however, he carried matters with fo high a hand in the
government of his college, that, in 1709, a complaint
was brought before the bifhop of Ely, as vilitor, againft
him, by feveral of the fellows, who charged him with
embezzling the college money, and other mifdemeanors.
In anfwer to this, he prefented his defence to the bi¬
fhop, which he publifhed in 1710, under the title of
The prefent State of Trinity College, 8vo; and thus be¬
gan a quarrel, which was carried on with the moft vi¬
rulent animofity on each fide, for above 20 years, when
it at laft ended in the Doftor’s favour. During the
courfe of this difpute, he had been promoted to the re-
gius profefforfhip of divinity ; and his majefty king
George I. on a vifit to the univerfity in 1717, having,
as ufual, nominated by mandate feveral perfons for a
doftor’s degree in that faculty, our profeffor, to whofe
office it belonged to perform the ceremony called crea¬
tion, demanded four guineas from each perfon, befides
a broad piece of gold, and abfolutely refufed to create
any dodlor without thefe fees: hence there arofe a long
via;
Letter
Sir 1ft
Newt
Dr Bt
i75«.
B E R fn
and warm difpute, during which, the do£tor was fir ft
fufpended, and then degraded; but on a petition to his
majefty for relief from that fentence, the affair was re¬
ferred to the court of kingVbench, where the pro¬
ceedings againft him being reverfed, a mandamus was
iffued, charging the univerfity to reftore him.—Dr
Bentley was endued with a natural hardinefs of tem¬
per, which enabled him to ride out both thefe ftoms
without any extraordinary difturbance, or interruption
to his literary purfuits. In his private chara&er, tho*
he is generally allowed to have been too fond of money,
he was hearty, fincere, and warm in his friendftiip, an
affe&ionate hufband, and a moft indulgent father. He
loved hofpitality and refpeft; maintained the dignity
and munificence of the ancient abbots in houfe-keep¬
ing at his lodge, which he beautified ; and, in conver-
fation, tempered the feverity of the critic with fuch a
peculiar ftrain of vivacity and pleafantry, as was very
entertaining. He died at his lodge in Trinity college,
on the 14th of July, 1742, at 80 years of age. The
Do&or’s principal works, befides thofe already men¬
tioned, were, 1. His animadverfions and remarks on
the poet Callimachus. 2. Remarks upon Collins’s dif-
courfe of free-thinking. 3. Beautiful and corredf edi¬
tions of Horace, Terence, Phtedrus, and Milton, with
notes; but as the Doftor had not a poetic genius,
many of his notes on our Britifh poet, in which he has
endeavoured to make emendations of the original, have
been greatly and juftly cenfured.
BENZOIN, in materia medica, a concrete refinous
juice, obtained from a fpecies of laurus *. The refin
is brought from the Eaft Indies in large maffes, com-
pofed of white and light-brown pieces, with yellowifh
fpecks: it eafily breaks betwixt the hands. That which
is whiteft is moft efteemed. It has very little tafte;
but its fmell is very fragrant and agreeable, efpecially
when heated. The principal ufe of benzoin is in per¬
fumes, and as a cofmetic; and enters in fubftance only
into one officinal compofition, the balfamum tranma-
ticum. Its flowers, which is a white faline concrete ob¬
tained by committing it to the fire in proper veffels, are
recommended in diforders of the breaftf.
BERAMS, a coarfe cloth, all made with cotton-
thread, which comes from the Eaft Indies, and parti¬
cularly from Surat.
BERAR, a province of Afia, in the dominions of
the Great Mogul, near the kingdom of Bengal. It
abounds in corn, rice, pulfe, and poppies, from which
laft they extradf opium; and fugar-canes grow almoft
without cultivation. The capital tdwn is called Sha-
pour.
BERAUM, a royal city of Bohemia, and capital of
a circle of the fame name. E. Long. 14. 25. N. Lat.
5°. 2.
BERAY, a town of Normandy in France, fituated
in W. Long. 1. 20. N. Lat. 49. 6.
BERBERIS, the barberry, or pipperidge bujh;
a genus of the monogynia order, belonging to the hex-
andria clafs of plants.
Species. 1. The vulgaris, or common barberry,
grows naturally in hedges in many parts of England,
as alfo in fome parts of Scotland; but is alfo cultiva¬
ted in gardens on account of its fruit, which is pickled,
and ufed for garniffiing difties. It rifes to the height
of eight or ten feet, with many ftalks, which have a
15 ] B E R
white bark, yellow on the infide: the ftalks and
branches are armed with fltarp thorns, which commonly
grow by threes; the leaves are oval, obtufe, and flightly
fawed on their edges. The flowers come out from the
wings of the leaves, in fmall ramofe bunches, like thofe
of the currant bufli, and are of a yellow' colour; thefe
are fucceeded by oval fruit, which are at firft green,
but w'hen ripe turn to a fine red colour. The flowers
appear in May, and the fruit ripens in September.
There are two or three varieties of this ffirub, which,
by fome, have been taken for diftinft fpecies: one is
the barberry without ftone; another, the barberry with
white fruit; and a third is called by Tournfort ta//er
eajlern barberry with a black fweet fruit. Of thefe Mr
Miller obferves, that the firft certainly depends on the
age of the plant; becaufe the fuckers taken from thofe
buffies commonly produce fruit with {tones: the fecond,
he fays, feldom bears any fruit; the leaves are of a
lighter green colour, and the bark of the ftalks are
whiter than thofe of the common kind; the third ap¬
pears to be the fame with the common fort, excepting
the colour and flavour of its fruit, which can never in¬
dicate a fpecific difference. 2. The canadenfis, is a
native of that country from whence it takes its name,
and was formerly much more common in Britifh gar¬
dens than at prefent. The leaves are much broader and
fliorter than thofe of the common fort, and the fruit is
black when ripe. 3. The cretica, wfith a Angle flower
in each footftalk, is at prefent very rare in Britain; the
plants being tender whilft young, and moft of them
killed by fevere froft. This never rifes more than three
or four feet high in Britain; but fends out many ftalks
from the root, which are ftrongly armed with fpines
at every joint: the leaves are produced without order,
and are ffiaped like thofe of the narrow leaved box-
f:e: the flowers come out from between the leaves,
ch having a {lender footftalk; but they are not fup-
ceeded by fruit in Britain.
Culture. The firft fort is generally propagated by
fuckers, which are fent out in. great plenty from the
root; but fuch plants are very apt to fend out fuckers
in greater plenty than thofe .that are propagated by
layers; fo the latter method is preferable. The beft
time for laying down the branches is in the autumn,
when the leaves begin to fall: the young {hoots of the
fame year are the beft for this purpofe; thefe will be
well rooted by the next autumn, w'hen they may be
taken off, and planted where they are defigned to re¬
main. Where this plant is cultivated for its fruit, it
{hould be planted Angle, not in hedges as was formerly
the pradlice; the fuckers fttould be every autumn taken
away, and the grofs {hoots pruned out: by this means
the fruit will be much fairer and in greater plenty than
on thofe that are fuffered to grow wild. The other
forts may be propagated in the fame manner; only the
third fliould be planted in pots, and fheltered as foon as
the young {hoots are taken off, till the plants have ac¬
quired ftrength, when they may be turned out, and
planted in a warm fituation.
- Medicinal and other qualities. The berries, which
are fo acid that birds will not feed upon them, are mo¬
derately aftringent; and have been given with fuccefs
in bilious fluxes, and difeafes proceeding from heat, a-
crimony, and thinnefs of the juices. Among the E-
gyptians barberries are ufed in fluxes and in malignant
fevers,.
Berber! s.
Bcvlicus
I!
Bercnga-
rianifm.
B E R [ ii
fevers, for abating heat, quenching thirfL, raifing the
ftrength, and preventing putrefadlion : the fruit is ma¬
cerated for a day and a night, in about 12 times its
quantity of water, with the addition of a little fennel-
feed, or the like, to prevent offence to the ftomach ;
the liquor ftrained off, and fweetened with fugar or
fyrup of citrons, is given the patient liberally to drink.
Profper Alpinus, from whofe treatife de medicina JEgyp-
torum Dr Lewis extrafted this account, informs us, that
he took this medicine himfelf with happy fuccefs, in a
peftilential feveraccompanied with an immoderate bilious
diarrhoea. The leaves alfo are gratefully acid. The
flowers are offenfive to the fmell when near, but at a di-
ftance their odour is extremely fine. An infufion of the
bark in white-wine is purgative. The roots boiled in ley
dye wool yellow. In Poland they dye leather of a moft
beautiful yellow with the bark of the root. The inner
bark of the ftems dyes linen of a fine yellow with the
affiftance of alum. This fhrub fhould never be permit¬
ted to grow in corn lands ; for the ears of wheat that
grow near it never fill, and its influence in this refpedh
has been known to extend acrofs a field of 300 or 400
yards. Cows, fheep, and goats, eat it; horfes and
fwine refufe.
BERBICE, a river of Terra Eirma in America,
which falls into the North Sea, in S. Lat. 6. 30. This
is the only river in the country, and waters a great
number of plantations of cotton, Sic. belonging to the
Dutch.
BERCHEROIT, or Berkoits, a weight ufed at
Archangel, and in all the Ruffian dominions, to weigh
fuch merchandizes as are heavy and bulky: it weighs
about 364 lib. Engliih avoirdupois weight.
BERCHETT (Peter), an eminent hiftory-painter,
was born in France in 1659, and at the age of 18 was
employed in the royal palaces. He came to England
in 1681, to work under Rambour, a French painter ds
of architefture; but, after flaying a year, returned to
Marli. He came again, and was fent byking William
to the palace he was building at Loo, where he was
employed 15 months; and then came a third time to
England, where he had fufficient bufinefs. We are in¬
formed by Mr Walpole, that he then painted the del¬
ing’ of the chapel of Trinity college, Oxford, the flair-
cafe at the duke of Schomberg’s in Pall-Mall, and the
fummer-houfe at Ranelagh. His drawings in the aca¬
demy were much approved. Towards the clofe of his
life he retired to Marybone, where he painted only
fmall pieces of fabulous hiflory, and died there in Ja¬
nuary 1720.
BERECYNTHIA; the mother of the gods, in the
Pagan theology.
BERENGARIANISM, a name given by eccle-
fiaflical writers to the opinion of thofe who deny the
truth and reality of the body and blood of Chrift in
the eucharifl. The denomination took its rife from
Berengarius, archdeacon and fcholiafticus of the church
of St Mary at Anjou about the year 1035, who main¬
tained, that the bread and wine, even after confecration,
do not become the true body and blood of our Lord,
but only a figure and fign thereof.
Berengarianifm was flrenuoufly oppofed by Lanfranc,
Guitmond, Adelmannus, Albericus, &c. Divers fy-
nods were held, wherein the author was condemned at
Rome, Verfailles, Florence, Tours, &c. He retraded,
1
16 ] B E R
and returned again more than once; figned three feveral Berel
catholic confenions of faith, the firfl in the fecond
council of Rome, the fecond in the third, and the |
third in the fourth council of the fame city. But he |
flill relapfed to his former opinion when the florm was •
over; though Mabillon maintains he foon recovered ' |
from his fourth fall, and died an orthodox catholic in I
1088.
BERENICE, daughter of Ptolemy Auletes king of |
Egypt, fucceeded her father before his death. This |,
baniflied prince implored the affillance of the Romans. 11
Pompey reftored him. Berenice, to fupport herfelf on | I
the throne, allured a prince, whofe name was Seleucus, |
defeended from the kings of Syria, and admitted him
to her nuptial bed, and to her feeptre. She was foon s
weary of him, and put him to death. She next call 1
her eye on Archelaus, who married her, and put him- M
felf at the head of her troops to repulfe the Romans. il
He was killed in a battle. Ptolemy returned to A- 1
lexandria, and put his rebellious daughter to death.
Berenice, wife of Ptolemy Evergetes king of E- 1
gypt, cut off her hair in purfuance of a vow, and con- tl
fecrated it in the temple of Venus. This depofit be¬
ing afterward loft, Conon the mathematician, in com¬
pliment to her, declared that the queen’s locks had been ‘
conveyed to heaven, and compofed thofe feven liars
near the tail of the bull, called to this day coma Be- 1
re?iices..
Berenice, daughter of Coftobarus and of Salome |
lifter to Herod the Great, was married firll to Arifto-
bulus, fon of the fame Herod and Mariamne. He
having a brother who married the daughter of Arche¬
laus. king of Cappadocia, often upbraided Berenice J
that he was married below himfelf in wedding her.
Berenice related all thefe difeourfes to her mother, and j
exafperated her fo furioully, that Salome, who had
much power over Herod’s mind, made him fufpedl A- |
rillobulus, and was the principal caufe that urged this *
cruel father to get rid of him. She married again; and
having loft her fecond hulband, went to Rome, and !
got into the favour of Auguftus. But, above all, Ihe .
infinuated herfelf into the good graces of Antonia, the
wife of Drufus, which in the end proved of great fer- ]
vice to Agrippa. ^ . |
Berenice, grand-daughter of the preceding, and
daughter of Agrippa I. king of Judea, has been much j|
talked of op account of her amours. She was betrothed a
to one Marcus, but he died before the marriage. Soon
after, Ihe married his uncle Herod, who at the delire 1
of Agrippa both his brother and father-in-lawj was j
created king of Chalcis by the emperor Claudius. She
loft her hulband in the 8 th year of the emperor Clau- {
dius; and in her widowhood, it was rumoured, Ihe
committed inceft with her brother Agrippa. To put
a Hop to this report, Ihe offered herfelf in marriage to 5
Polemon king of Cilicia, provided he would change his (
religion. He accepted her offers, was circumcifed, i
and married her. Berenice foon left him to follow her I
own ways, and he abandoned Judaifm to return to his
former religion. She was always very well with her
brother Agrippa, and feconded him ip the defign of
preventing the defolation of the Jews. She got Titus
into her fnares; but the murmurs of the Roman people
hindering her from becoming his wife, there remained
nothing for her but the title of xniftrefs or concubine of
B E R [ ii
the emperor. The French ftage, in the century,
refounded with the amours of Titus and Berenice.
Berenice, (anc. geog.), the name of feveral cities,
particularly of a celebrated port-town on the Sinus A-
rabicus, now Suez; which fee.
Berenice’s Hb.\9.,Coma Berenices. See Berenice.
BE RE-reg is, a town in Dorfetfhire in England,
in W. Long. 2. 15. N. Lat. 50. 40.
BERESOW, a divifion of the province of To-
bollk in. Siberia. It is bounded on the north by the
ftraits ofWaigatz, on the eaft by a large bay of the
frozen ocean which runs into the land towards thefouth,
and at the 65th degree of latitude feparates into two
arms; one of which is called the Objkaia-Guba, or
Oby-bay ; and the other Tazoiv/kaia-Cuba, or the bay
of Tazo’ui. The river Oby empties itfelf into the former,
and the Taz into the latter. This-diftridl was under
the Ruffian dominion long before the other parts of
Siberia were conquered, being reduced by the Czar
Gabriel fo early as the year 1530.
BERG, a duchy of Germany, in the circle of Weft-
phalia. It is bounded on the north by the duchy of
Cleves, on the weft by the county of Mark and the
duchy of Weftphalia, on the fouth by Wefteravia, and
on the eaft by the diocefe of Cologne, from which it is
feparated by the Rhine. It is about 150 miles in length,
and 24 in breadth. It is very fruitful along the Rhine,
but mountainous and woody towards the county of
Mark It is fubjeft to the ele&or Palatine, but his
right is difputed by Pruffia and Saxony. The princi¬
pal town is Duffeldorp; and the principal rivers, befides
the Rhine, are the Wipper, Agger, and Sieg.
Berg (St Winox), a town of the Low Countries,
in the country of Flanders, fortified by Vauban, and
fubjeft to France. It is feated on the river Colme, fix
miles from Dunkirk, and 21 from Ypres. The air is
often very unwholefome, efpecially to ftrangers. It
has an hofpital for foldiers, taken care of by friars
called Bans Fieux, and two feminaries for young Un¬
dents. The river Colme ferves inftead of a canal to go
to Hondftiote, St Omer’s, and Gravelines. There is
likewife another canal to go to Dunkirk. The villages
in its territory are very famous for butter and cheefe,
of which they fend a great quantity to Flanders. Fort
Lapin and Fort Suifle are within a cannon’s (hot of
this place, and Fort St Francis is feated on the canal,
near three miles from the town. E. Long. 2. 35. N.
Lat. 50. 57.
Berg-zabern, a town of France, in Alface. E.
Long. 7. 55. N. Lat. 49. 4.
Berg-G/-«/«, in natural hiftory, the name of an
earth ufed in painting, and properly called greets okre,
tho’ not known among the colour-men under that name.
It is found in many parts of Germany, Italy, and Eng¬
land, commonly in the neighbourhood of copper-mines,
from particles of which metal it receives its colour.
In many parts of Germany, they have a purer kind of
this, diftinguifhed by no peculiar name, but feparated
by, art from; the waters draining from the copper-mines,
and diftering no otherwife from this native fubftance,
than as the waihed okres of Oxfordfhire, &c. do from
thefe fent us in their natural condition. The charadters
by which the native kind is known from other green
earths, are thefe : it is a denfe compadt fubftance, con-
fiderably heavy, and of a pale but not difagreeablc
Vol. II.
17 ] B E R
green ; of a rough and uneven, but not dufty furface, Bergjmafco
and fomewhat unthious to the touch. It adheres firmly II
to the tongue; does not break eafily between the fin- Bergfn'
gers ; nor at all ftains the hands. It is of a brackilh
difagreeable tafte, and does not ferment with acids.
BERGAMASCO, a province of Italy, in the ter¬
ritory of Venice. It is bounded on the eaft by the
Breffan, on the north by the Valteline, on the weft
and fouth by the Milanefe. It extends about 36 leagues
from north to fouth, and 30 from eaft to weft. It is
watered by feveral rivers which render it very fertile,
and particularly it produces a great number of chefnuts.
It has mines of iron, and quarries of marble, and other
ftones of which they make milftones. There are a
great number of villages, but no city except Bergamo
the capital. The people are very induftrious, and make
the belt of their natural produdlions. They are well
flocked with cattle, and make fine tapeftry. Their
language is the moft corrupt of any in Italy.
BERGAMO (James Philip de), an Auguftin monk,
born at Bergamo in J434, wrote in Latin a Chronicle
from the creation of the world to the year 1503, and
a Treatife of Uluftrious Women. He died in 1518.
BERGAMO, anciently Bergomum, a large and
ftrong town of Italy, in the Venetian territory, and
capital of the province of Bergamafco. It has a ftrong
citadel, and is the fee of a bifhop. Its fituation near
the Alps makes the inhabitants fubjedf to fwellings in
their throats, owing to the badnefs of the Alpine wa¬
ters. E. Long. 9. 38. N. Lat. 45. 42.
BERGAMOT, a fpecies of citron, produced at firft
cafually by an Italian’s grafting a citron on the flock
of a bergamot pear-tree, whence the fruit produced by
this union participated both of the citron-tree and the
pear-tree. The fruit hath a fine tafte and fmell, and
its efiential oil is in high efteem as a perfume. The
eflence of Bergamot is alfo called ejfentia de cedra. It
is extrafted from the yellow rind of the fruit by firft
cutting it in fmall pieces, then immediately fqueezing
the oil out of them into a glafs veflel. This liquor is
an etherial oil. A water is diftilled from the peel as
follows: Take the outer rind of three bergamots, a
gallon of pure proof fpirit, and four pints of pure wa¬
ter ; draw off a gallon in a balneum mari-E, then add
as much of the beft white fugar as will be agreeable.
Or, take of the effence of bergamot three drams and a
half, of rettified fpirit of wine three pints, of volatile
fal ammoniac a dram; diftil off three pints in a balneum
mariae.
BERGARAC, a very rich, populous, and trading
town of France, feated on the river Dordogne, in E.
Long. o. 37. N. Lat. 50. 57.
BERGAS, a town of Romania in European Turky,
and the fee of a Greek archbifliop. It is feated on the
river Lariffa, in E. Long. 27. 30. N. Lat. 41. 17.
BERGEN, anciently Bergi, a city of Norway, and
capital of the province of Bergenhus. It is the fee of
a biftiop, and has a ftrong caftle and a good port. It
is a large place; but fubjett to fires, as being all built
of wood. It is furrounded with mountains almoft in-
acccffible; and little or no corn grows in all the coun¬
try: that which they ufe is all imported, and diftri-
buted from thence throughout the kingdom. The
principal trade is in ftock-filh, firs, and deal-boards.
E. Long. 5. 45. N. Lat. 60. 11.
7 B
Bergen,
Bergen
1)
Bena.
B E R [ ii
Bergen, a town of Pomerania in Germany, and ca¬
pital of the Ifle of Rugen, fnbjeft to the Swedes. E.
Long. 13.0. N. Lat. 54. 30.
Bergen-op-zoom, a town of the Low Countries,
in Dutch Brabant, and in the marquifate of the fame
name. It is feated on an eminence, in the middle of a
morafs, about a mile and a half from the eaftern branch
of the Scheld, with which it has a communication by
a navigable canal. The houfes are well built, and the
market-places and fquares handfome and fpacious. The
church, before the laft fiege, was reckoned a good
building, and fo was the marquis’s palace. It has a
good tra& of land under its jurifdittion, wdth feveral
villages, and fome iflands in the Scheld. It has a very
advantageous fituation on the confines of Brabant, Hol¬
land, Zealand, and Flanders. It is ftrong by nature
as well as by art, being fo fecurted by the moraffes a-
bout it, which are formed by the river Zoom, that it
was reckoned impregnable. It was, however, taken
in 1747 by the French, but it is thought not without
the help of treachery. The fortifications are allowed
to be the mafter-piece of that great engineer Cohorn.
It had been twice befieged before, without fuccefs. The
marquis of Spinola was the laft but one wdio invefted it,
and he was forced to raife the fiege with the lofs of
10,000 men. E. Long. 4. 15. N. Lat. 51. 30.
BERGHEM (Nicholas), a Dutch painter and en¬
graver, had a genius truly paftoral. The fimplicity of
Arcadian manners is no where better defcribed than in
his works. We have a large colle&ion of prints from
his defigns ; many etched by himfelf, and many by o-
ther mafters. Thofe by himfelf are flight but mafter-
ly. His execution is inimitable. His cattle, wdiich
are always the diftinguifhing part of his pieces, are
well drawn, admirably charadterized, and generally
well grouped. Few painters excelled more in compo-
fition than Berghem ; and yet we have more beautiful
inftances of it in the prints etched by others, than in
thofe by himfelf. Among his own etchings a few fmall
plates of Iheep and goats are exceedingly valued.—
He died in 1683.
BERGHMONT, an afiembly or court held upon a
hill in Derbyftiire, for deciding controverfies among
the miners.
BERIA, Berie, Berry, fignifies a large open field;
and thofe cities and towns in England which end with
that word are built on plain and open places, and do not
derivetheir names from boroughs, as Sir Henry Spelman
imagines. Moft of our glofibgraphers in the names of
places have confounded the word berie with that of bury
and borouph, as if the .appellative of ancient towns:
whereas the true fenfe of the word berie is a flat wide
campaign, as is proved from fufficient authorities by the
learned Du Frefne, who obferves that Beria Sancti Ed-
mundi, mentioned by Mat. Parif. fub. ann. 1174. is not
to be taken for the town, but for the adjoining plain.
To this may be added, that many flat and wide meads,
and other open grounds, are called by the name of
lories and beryfields : the fpacious meadow between
Oxford and lilay was in the reign of king Athelftan
called Bery ; as is now the largeft pafture ground in
Quarendon in the county of Buckingham, known by
the name of Beryfield. And though thefe meads have
been interpreted demefne or manor meadows, yet they
were truly any flat or open meadows that lay adjoin-
18 ]
B E R
ing to any villa or farm. Ber
BERING (Sinus), of Copenhagen, a Latin lyric B£rl
poet, flouriflied about 1560.
BERKELEY (George), the celebrated bilhop of
Cloyne, was the fon of a clergyman in Ireland, dif-
tinguifhed only by his piety and learning. He was
educated at Trinity college in Dublin, of which he
attained a fellowfhip. His firft efiays as a writer were
publiftied in the Spedlator and Guardian, which enter¬
taining works he adorned with many pieces in favour
of virtue and religion. His learning and virtues, his
wit and agreeable converfation, introduced him to the
acquaintance, and procured him the efteem and friend-
(hip, of many great and learned men ; and among others
the earl of Peterborough, Dr Swift, and Mr Pope. \
The earl made him his chaplain, and took him as his
companion on a tour through Europe.
He was promoted to the deanery of Clogher after
his return ; and in this fituation, formed a moft bene- f
volent and charitable plan for the better fupplying of 1
the churches in our foreign plantations, and converting I
the favage Americans to chriftianity, by ere&ing a |
college in the Summer illands. The propofal was well 1
received; and he obtained a charter for the foundation;' ]
with a parliamentary grant of 20,0001. toward carry- 1
ing it intp execution : but he could never get the mo¬
ney ; fo that, after two years ftay in America on this
bufinefs, the defign dropped.
He was warmly engaged too, in concert with Swift, 1
Bolingbroke, and others, in a fcheme for eftablifhing a !
fociety for the improvement of the Englilh language, j
in imitation of the academy of Francei But Harley, j
the great patron of it, falling from power, this defign j
too proved abortive.
In the year 1734, he was advanced from the dean- j
ery of Derry to the bifiioprick of Cloyne, where he
diftinguiflied himfelf by paftoral vigilance and conftant
refidence ; and at once endeared himfelf to his people,
by promoting their temporal and fpiritual happinefs. -v!
He endeavoured by all means to raife a fpirit of induf- ,
try, and propagate the arts of cultivation and agricul- s
ture in that negledted country.
The earl of Chefterfield, when he was lord lieutenant
of Ireland, offered him a richer fee; but he declined
it, faying, his neighbours and he loved one another,
and he could not think of forming new connedfions in
his old days, and tearing himfelf from thofe friends
whofe kindnefs to him was his greateft happinefs.
Finding the infirmities of age come upon him, and
that he was unable to difeharge the functions of hifr
office, he retired to Oxford, there to fpend the re¬
mainder of his days in converfation with learned men,
and to fuperintend the education of his fon. And
that the revenues of the church might not be mifap-
plied, nor the interefts of religion fuller by his abfence
from his diocefe, he made great intereft for leave to
refign his bilhoprick, and to obtain in lieu of it a ca-
nonry of Chrift-church. But foon after his arrival in
Oxford he died very fuddenly and without a groan,
January 14. 1753, in the 73d year of his age. His
remains were interred at Chrift-Church, Oxford; where
there is a handfome monaftery eredted to his memory,,
with an infeription drawn up by Dr Markham, in La¬
tin. Dr Watkinfon fays he was particularly fond of
mufic, and that he always kept one or two exquifite- •
■ per-
B E R [ mg ] B E R
! performers to amufe his leifure hours. Mr Pope Aims have greatly contributed to the embellifliment of the Berlin.
jnr up his charafter in one line. After he has mentioned grandeur of Berlin; inafmuch as they have introduced 
|~ fome particular virtues that chara&erize other prelates, all kinds of manufa&ures, and various arts,
f I he afcribes Berlin is divided into five parts, without reckoning
To Berkley ev’ry virtue under heav’n. the fuburbs, which are very large. The houfes in
He publifhed many ingenious works, particularly thefe laft are almoft all of wood; but fo well pfaftered,
< The Principles of Human Knowledge, the Angular that they feem to be of ftone. In the fuburb called
1 notions in which gave rife to much controverfy : A Spandau is a houfe belonging to the royal family,
new theory of vifion ; Alciphron, or the minute phi- with well contrived apartments, and furnifhed in a
| lofopher ; one of the moll elegant and genteel defences very fine tafte. In the fuburb of Stralau is a houfe
I of that religion which he was born to vindicate both and garden belonging to the king. The royal
I by his virtues and his ingenuity : and Siris, or a Trea- gate of the city is defended by a half moon, and
Itife on tar water, which, under his fanftion, became two baftions, covered with brick ; it fronts the royal
for a while a very popular medicine. ftreet, which is one of the longed and mod frequented
BERKSHIRE, an inland county of England, in in the city. It contains very handfome houfes, par-
| the diocefe of Salifbury, divided on the north and ticularly thofe belonging to fome of the miniders of
I north-ead by the Thames from Oxfordfhire and Buc- date.
V kinghamfhire, on the wed it is bounded by Glouceder- The royal dreet is croffed by five others, which are
1 fiiire and Wiltlhire, on the fouth-ead by Surry, and on large and fine. On the new bridge, which is of done,
I the fouth by Hamplhire. It is 120 miles in circum- over the Spree, is an equedrian datue of William the
I ference, and contains about 527,000 acres. The air Great, which is edeemed an exquifite piece of work-
j is fweet, and foil fruitful. It has plenty of corn, cat- manlhip. The eleftor is reprefented in a Roman ha¬
ll tie, wild-fowl, wool, and timber, efpecially oak and bit, and his horfe dands on a pededal of white marble
P beech. The rivers are the Thames, Kennet, Ocke, adorned with bafib relievos, and four daves bound to
|j Loddon, and Lambourn. The Kennet is now made the bafe.
1* navigable by aft of parliament. This county fends After this bridge is pad, the king’s palace appears,
nine members to parliament, has 140 parifhes, and 12 which is a grand and fupdrb edifice ; it is four dories
market towns. The principal towns are Reading, high, and the apartments are extremely magnificent.
Abingdon, Windfor, Wallingford, Maidenhead, Hun- No place in Europe has fuch a great quantity of filver
I gerford, Newbury, Farringdon, Wantage, Lower tables, dands, ludres, branched candledicks, &c. In the
Lambourn, Ead Ilfly, and Oakingham. The royal knights hall there is a buffet, which takes up all one
palace and cadle at Windfor, built by Edward III. fide, where there are bafons and ciderns of gilt filver,
| are remarkable for their fine fituation, rich furniture, of an extraordinary magnitude. The furniture of the
paintings, and many other curiofities. In St George’s great apartment is extremely rich; and there is a very
chapel are held the chapters oFthe order of the garter handfome gallery, adorned with paintings, reprefent-
indituted by the above king Edward III. A few ing the principal aftions of Frederic I. Formerly there
miles to the fouth-ead of this town is the figure of a were fine gardens to the palace, but they are now
white horfe, covering an acre of ground, cut in a hill turned into a place for arms. The king’s dables are
fl 1 of chalk, from whence it may be feen at a great di- large, dand near the palace, and front the great dreet.
dance, and is faid to have been made by direftion of Externally they make a Gothic appearance, but within
I king Alfred, in memory of a great viftory he obtained, they are very magnificent. The mangers are of done,
The neighbouring people have from time immemo- and the pillars that divide the dalls are of iron, adorned
rial a kind of fedival, called fcouring the horfe., when with the king’s cypher, gilt. Over the racks are pic-
they cleanfe it of weeds, whereby the chalky bottom tures reprefenting the fined horfes which the king’s
dill preferves a fine effeft at a confiderable didance, dud has produced. Over the dables there are large
—Near Reading is a natural curiofity, thought to have rooms, containing all forts of horfe furniture, particu-
remained ever fince the flood. It is a bed of oyder larly the horfe-equipage of Frederic I. all the metallic
I Ihells and fand, 30 or 40 feet under the furface of part of which is gold, fet with diamonds. Befides
a hill, and covered with different drata. Thefe fliells thefe, there are handfome lodgings for the officers of
retain the true figure and colour, but moulder with a the dables. Over the riding houfe is a theatre, where
fmall preffure. In this county are alfo remains of Rd- plays have been afted, and balls have been made for
man antiquities and fortifications, with fome of the fa- the entertainment of the court.
mous caufeway called Icknild-Jireet. The arfenal confids of four grand buildings, that
BERLIN, a city of Germany, capital of the elec- form a court in the middle, like a college : each front
torate of Brandenburg, and of the whole Pruffian do- has three large portico’s. On the principal gate is a
minions, feated in E. Long. 13. 37. N. Lat. 52. 53. medallion of the late king, in bronze; and the four
This city is one of the larged, bed built, and bed cardinal virtues, of a coloffal dature, placed on pedef-
governed, of any in Germany. The dreets are large, tals on each fide of the portico, feem to look at the
draight, clean, and well paved, and fome of them very portrait of the king, which is fupported by Fame and
long and elegant. There are alfo feveral large and beau- Viftory. The Corinthian order is prevalent in the
tiful fquares, with pleafant walks. It is furrounded fird dage, and is managed with a great deal of art.
with handfome gardens, which produce excellent fruit. The whole edifice is furrounded in the upper part with
The river Spree, that croffes the city, has a commu- a balludrade, adorned with trophies and datues, among
nication with the Havel, Oder, and Elbe, which which is Mars feated on a heap of feveral forts of arms,
greatly facilitate commerce. The French refugees This altogether forms a noble and majedic decoration.
7 B 2 It
B E R
Berlin. Jt is bounded with iron in the fliape of cannon, which
” are placed at proper diftances, and fupport iron chains,
that hang like feftoons, to prevent paflengers from ap¬
proaching the windows below. The lower rooms are
filled with a great number of brafs cannon ; the walls
and pillars which fuftain the floor are fet off with cui-
rafles and helmets. The upper ftory contains feveral
rooms filled with arms, which are difpofed in a curious
order. Behind the arfenal is the houfe of the general
of the artillery, which includes the foundery, where
they are continually at work. Befides this there are
other places where they keep the train of artillery.
The opera-houfe is an elegant modern edifice. The
front has a noble portico fupported by Corinthian
columns, and a pediment adorned with baflb relievos
andftatues. The columns that fupport the roof throw
the wdiole into a grand faloon. It has three galleries,
and is faid to be capable of containing 2000 perfons.
A rampart andfofle feparate Worder from Dorothea
Stadt, or the New Town, inhabited chiefly by French.
There are feven great alleys or walks, which divide
this quarter into two parts. The middle walk is broader
than the reft, and is furrounded with balluftrades, ha-
ving a grafs-plat in the middle : this is for perfons
that take the air on foot. The alleys on each fide are
paved, and ferve for thofe that come abroad in coaches.
Thefe alleys, which are about three miles in length,
are terminated with a bar, that leads towards the park.
The alleys with trees are bounded by rows of houfes.
In one of thefe is a building, formerly called the lef-
fer jlables, and now made into lodgings for the guards.
The apartments above thefe are occupied by the aca¬
demy of painting and the academy of arts and fciences.
Behind thefe is the obfervatory, where there is a great
number of aftronomical and mathematical inftruments.
There are other things worthy of obfervation, fuch
as the cabinet of medals, and of the antiquities belong¬
ing to the king ; that of natural curiofities ; the che¬
mical laboratory, and its furnaces and medals, of a
new invention; the theatre for anatomical demonftra-
tions ; the royal library, which is one of the com-
pleteft in Germany, and has many fcarce books and
manufcripts.
The city was taken in 1760 by an army of Ruffians,
Auftrians, Saxons, &c. who entered on the 9th of
O&ober. They totally deftroyed the magazines, ar-
fenals, and founderies, feized an immenfe quantity of
military (lores, and a number of canon and arms ;
called firft for the immediate payment of 800,000
guilders, and then laid on a contribution of 1,900,000
German crowns : not fatisfied with this, many irregu¬
larities were committed by the foldiery ; but on the
whole, though fome (hocking adlions were committed,
a far more exaft difcipline was obfervedthan from fuch
troops could have been expected upon fuch an occa-
fion, where there was every incentive which could work
upon the licence of a conquering army. Their officers
no doubt with great difficulty preferved even that de¬
gree of order.
But though their behaviour was tolerable with re¬
gard to the private inhabitants, there was fomething
fhocking and ungenerous in their treatment of the
king's palaces. The apartments of the royal caftle of
Charlottenburg were entirely plundered, the precious
furniture fpoiled, the pictures defaced, without even
B E R
fparing the antique ftatues colle&ed by cardinal Polig-
nac, which had been purchafed by the houfe of Bran¬
denburg. The caftle of Schonhaufen, belonging to
the queen, and that of Fredericsfeld, belonging to the
Margrave Charles, were alfo plundered.
The palace of Potfdam, the famous Sans-fouci, had
a better fate; Prince Efterbafi commanded there, and it
was preferved from the fmalleft violation. The prince,
on viewing the palace, only afked which pi&ure of the
king refembled him mod ; and being informed, defired
that he might have leave to take it, together with two
German flutes which the king ufed, to keep them, he
faid, in memory of his majefty. This was a fort of
taking very different from pillage.
They (laid in the city four days : but hearing that
the king, apprehenfive of this ftroke, was moving to
the relief of his capital, they quitted it on the 13'“ of
Odtober ; and having wafted the-whole country round
for a vaft extent, and driven away all the cattle and
horfes they could find, retreated by different routes out
of Brandenburgh.
BERME, in fortification, a fpace of ground left
at the foot of the rampart, on the fide next the coun¬
try, defigned to receive the ruins of the rampart, and
prevent their filling up the foffe. It is fometimes pali-
fadoed, for the more fecurity ; and in Holland it is
generally planted with a quick-fet hedge. It is alfo
called liziere, relais, foreland, retraite, pais defouris, &c.
BERMUDAS, or summer-islands, a clufter of
final! iflands in the Atlantic ocean, lying almoft in the
form of a (hepherd’s crook, in W. Long. 65. N. Lat.
32. 30'. between 200 and 300 leagues diftantfrom the
neared place of the continent of America, or any of
the other Weft-India iflands. The whole number of
the Bermudas iflands is faid to be about 400, but very
few of them are habitable. The principal isSt George’s,
which is not above 16 miles long, and three at mod in
breadth. It is univerfally agreed, that the nature of
this and theother Bermudas iflands has undergone a fur-
prifing alteration for the worfe fince they were firft dif-
covered ; the air being much more inclement, and the
(oil much more barren, than formerly. This is afcribtd
to the cutting down thofe fine fpreading cedar-trees for
which the iflands were famous, and which (heltered
them from the blafts of the north-wind, at the fame
time that it protedled the undergrowth of the delicate
plants and herbs. In (hort, the Summer-iflands are now
far from being defirable fpots; and their natural pro-
dudlions are but juft fufficient for the fupport of the
inhabitants, who, chiefly for that reafon, perhaps, are
temperate and lively even to a proverb: at firft tobacco
was railed upon thefe iffands; but being of a worfe
quality than that growing on the continent, the trade
is now almoft at an end. Large quantities of amber¬
gris were alfo originally found upon the coafts, and
afforded a valuable commerce ; but that trade is alfo
reduced, as likewife their whale trade, tho’ theperqui-
fites upon the latter formpart of the governor’s revenue,
he having L. 10 for every whale that is caught. The
Bermudas iflands, however, might dill produce fome
valuable commodities, were they properly cultivated.
There is here found, about three or four feet below the
furface, a white chalk (tone which is eafily chiffeled,
and is exported for building gentlemens houfes in the
Weft-Indies. Their palmetto leaves, if properly ma-
[ 1120 ]
nu»
B E R [ ii
» Mas. nufaftured, might turn to excellent account in making
womens hats ; and their oranges are ftill valuable.
’ I Their foil is alfo faid to be excellent for the cultivation
> | of vines, and it has been thought that filk and cochi-
i, neal might be produced ; but none of thefe things have
| yet been attempted. The chief refource of the inha-
1 3 bitants for fubfiftence is in the remains of their cedar-
■ I wood, of which they fabricate fmall floops, with the
I affiftance of the New England pine, and fell many of
’ them to the American colonies, where they are much
admired. Their turtle-catching trade is alfo of fer-
I vice; and they are ftill able to rear great variety of
| tame-fowl, and have wild ones abounding in vaft plenty.
| All the attempts to eftablifh a regular whale-fiftiery on
jj thefe iflands have hitherto proved unfuccefsful; they
I have no cattle, and even the black hog breed, which
i was probably left by the Spaniards, is greatly decreafed.
I The water on the iflands, except that which falls from
1 the clouds, is brackifh; and at prefent the fame difeafes
■ reign there as in the Caribbee iflands. They have fel-
I dom any fnow, or even much rain ; but when it does
| fall, it is generally with great violence, and the north
or north-eaft wind rendersthe air very cold. The ftorms
^ generally come with the new moon; and if there is a
I halo or circle about it, it is a fure fign of a tempeft,
which is generally attended with dreadful thunder and
I, lightning. The inhabited parts of the Bermuda iflands
are divided into nine diftrifts called i. St George.
I 2. Hamilton. 3. Ireland. 4. Devonfhire. 5. Pem-
I broke. 6. Pagets. 7. Warwick. 8. Southampton.
I 9. Sandys. There are but two places on the large
I ifland where a fhip can fafely come near the fhore, and
I thefe are fo well covered with high rocks that few will
j choofe to enter in without a pilot; and they are fo well
I defended by forts, that they have no occafion to dread
I an enemy. St George’s town is at the bottom of the
1 principal haven ; and is defended by nine forts, on which
I are mounted 70 pieces of cannon that command the
I. entrance. The town has a handfome church, a fine
I library, and a noble town-houfe, where the governor,
I council, &c. affemble. Befides thefe there are about
I 1000 houfes well- built. The tribes of Southampton
V and Devonfhire have each a parifh-church and library,
1 and the former has a harbour of the fame name ; there
j are alfo fcattered houfes and hamlets over many of the
| iflands, where particular plantations require them. The
inhabitanfs are clothed chiefly with Britifh manufac¬
tures, and all their implements for tilling the ground
j and building are made in Britain.
It is uncertain who were the firft difcoverers of the
Bermudas iflands. John Bermudas a Spaniard is com¬
monly faid to have difcovered them in 1527 ; but this
is difputed, and the difcovery attributed to Henry May
an Englifhman. As the iflands were without the reach
1 of the Indian navigation, the Bermudas were abfo-
lutely uninhabited when firft difcovered by the Euro-
! peans. May abovementioned was fhipwrecked upon
l St George’s ; and with the cedar which they felled
there, aflifted by the wreck of their own fhip, he and
his companions built another which carried them to
! Europe, where they publifhed their accounts of the
iflands. When lord Delawar was governor of Virgi¬
nia, Sir Thomas Gates, Sir George Summers, and
captain Newport, were appointed to be his deputy go¬
vernors j but their fhip being feparated by a ftorm from
21 J B E R
the reft of the fqnadron, was in the year 1609 wrecked Bermudas,
on the Bermudas, and the governors difagreeing among '
themfelves, built each of them a new fhip of the cedar
they found there, in which they feverally failed to Vir¬
ginia. On their arrival there, the colony was in fuch
diftrefs, that the lord Delawar, upon the report which
his deputy-governors made him of the plenty they
found at the Bermudas, difpatched Sir George Sum¬
mers to bring provifions from thence to Virginia in the
fame fhip which brought him from Bermudas, and which
had not an ounce of iron about it, except one bolt in
the keel. Sir George, after a tedious voyage, at laft
reached the place of his deftination, where, foon after
his arrival, he died, leaving his name to the iflands,
and his orders to the crew to return with black hogs to
the colony of Virginia. This part of his will, how¬
ever, the failors did not chufe to execute; but fetting
fail in their cedar fhip for England, landed fafely at
Whitchurch in Dorfetfhire.
Notwithftanding of this dereli&ion of the ifland,
however, it was not without Englifh inhabitants. Two
failors. Carter and Waters, being apprehenfive of
punifhment for their crimes, had fecreted themfelves
from their fellows when Sir George was wrecked upon
the ifland, and had ever fince lived upon the natural
produ&ions of the foil. Upon the fecond arrival of
Sir George they enticed one Chard to remain with
them ; but differing about the fovereignty of the ifland.
Chard and Waters were on the point of cutting one
anothers throats, when they were prevented by the
prudence of Carter. Soon after, they had the good
fortune to find a great piece of ambergris weighing
about 80 pounds, befides other pieces, which in thofe
days were fufficient, if properly difpofed of, to have
made each of them mafter of a large eftate. Where
they were, this ambergris was ufelefs; and therefore
they came to the defperate refolution of carrying them¬
felves and it in an open boat to Virginia or to New¬
foundland, where they hoped to difpofe of their trea-
fure to advantage. In the mean time, however, the
Virginia company claimed the property of the Ber¬
mudas iflands ; and accordingly fold it to 120 perfons
of their own fociety, who obtained a charter from king
James for their pofiefiing it. This new Bermudas com¬
pany, as it was called, fitted out a fhip with 60 planters
on board to fettle on the Bermudas, under the command
of one Mr Richard Moor, by profeffion a carpenter.
The new colony arrived upon the ifland juft at the time
the three failors were about to depart with their am¬
bergris ; which Moor having difcovered, he imme¬
diately feized and difpofed of it for the benefit of the
company. So valuable a booty gave vaft fpirit to the
new company; and the adventurers fettled themfelves
upon St George’s ifland, where they raifed cabins. As
to Mr Moor, he was indefatigable in his duty, and car¬
ried on the fortifying and planting the ifland with in¬
credible diligence ; for we are told, that he not only
built eight or nine forts or rather blockhoufes, but
inured the fettlers to martial difcipline. Before the firft
year of his government was expired, Mr Moor received
a fupply of provifionS and planters from England ; and
he planned out the town of St George as it now ftands.
The fame of this fettlement foon awakened the jea-
loufy of the Spaniards, who appeared off St George’s
with fome veflels; but being fired upon from the forts,,
they
B E R [ 1122 ] B E R
they (heered off, tho’ the EngHfh at that time were fo ill
provided for a defence, thattheyhadfcarceafinglebarrel
of gim-powderon the ifland. During Moor’s govern¬
ment the Bermudas were plagued with rats which had
been imported into them by the Englifh fhips. This
vermin multiplied fo fafl in St George’s ifland, that
they even covered the ground, and had nefts in the
trees. They deftroyed all the fruits and corn within
doors; nay, they encreafed to fuch a degree, that St
George’s ifland was at laft unable to maintain them,
and they fwam over to the neighbouring iflands, where
they made as great havock. This calamity lafted five
years, tho’probably notin the fame degree, and at laft:
it ceafed all of a fudden.
On the expiration of Moor’s government, he was
fucceeded by captian Daniel Tucker, who improved all
his predeceffor’s fchemes for the benefit of the ifland,
and particularly encouraged the culture of tobacco.
Being a fevere difciplinarian, he held all under him fo
rigidly to duty, that five of his fubjeft planned as bold
an enterprize for liberty as was perhaps ever put in exe¬
cution. Their names were Barker, who is faid to have
been a gentleman ; another Barker, a joiner ; Good¬
win, a fhip-carpenter; Pact, afailor; and Saunders, who
planned the enterprize. Their management was as art¬
ful as their defign was bold. Underftanding that the
governor was deterred from taking the pleafure of
fifhing in an open boat, on account of the dangers at¬
tending it,, they propofed to build him one of a parti¬
cular conftruftion, which accordingly they did in a fe-
cret part of the ifland; but when the governor came to
view his boat, he underftood that the builders had put
to fea in it. The intelligence was true: for the adven¬
turers, having provided themfelves with the few necef-
faries they wanted, failed for England ; and notwith-
ftanding the ftorms they encountered, their being plun¬
dered by a French privateer, and the incredible mife-
ries they underwent, they landed in 42 days time at
Corke in Ireland, where they were generoufly relieved
and entertained by the earl of Thomond.
In 1619, captain Tucker refigned his government
to captain Butler. By this time the high charadter
which the Summer iflands bore in England, rendered it
fafhionable for men of the higheft rank to encourage
their fettlement ; and feveral of the firft nobility of
England had purchafed plantations among them. Cap¬
tain Butler brought over with him 500 paflengers, who
became planters on the iflands, and raifed a monument
to the memory of Sir George Summers. The ifland
was now fo populous, (for it contained about a thou-
fan'd whites), that captain Butler applied himfelf to
give it a new conftitution of government by introdu¬
cing an afiembly, the government till this time being
adminiftered only in the name of the governor and
council. A body of laws was likewife drawn up, as
agreeable to the laws of England as the fituation of the
ifland would admit of. One Mr Barnard fucceeded
captain Butler as governor, but died fix weeks after
his arrival on the ifland ; upon which the council made
choice of Mr Harrifon to be governor, till a new one
fhould be appointed. No fewer than 3000 Englifti
were now fettled in the Bermudas, and feveral perfons of
diftin&ion had curiofity enough tovifit it from England.
Among thefe was Mr Waller, the poet, a man of for¬
tune, who being embroiled with the parliament and
commonwealth of England, fpent fome months in the Bern*..
Summer iflands, which he has celebrated in one of his 
poems as the moft delightful place in the world. The
dangers attending the navigation, and the untowardly 1
fituation of thefe iflands, through their diftance from 1
the American continent, feem to be the reafons why the f 1
Bermudas did not now become the beft peopled iflajids '|j
belonging to England ; as we are told that fome time . 1
ago they were inhabited by no fewer than ten thoufand J:
whites. The inhabitants, however, never ftiowed any |
great fpirit for commerce, and thus they never could j |
become rich. This, together with the gradual alter- it
ation of the foil and climate already taken notice of, , 1
foon caufed them dwindle in their population; and it is 1
computed that they do not now contain above half the
number of inhabitants they once did, and even thefe ’
feem much more inclined to remove to fome other place I
than to ftay where they are ; fo that, unlefs fome bene- ;'
ficial branch of commerce be found out, or fome ufe- j|
ful manufacture eftabliflied, the ftate of the Bermudas
muft daily grow worfe and worfe.
BERN, one of the cantons of Switzerland, wdn'ch I j
holds the fecond rank among the 13 ; but as it is by 1 I
far the largeft in extent, containing almoft one third of I L
the whole country, it feems juftly entitled to the firft. ]
It is bounded to the north by the cantons of Bafil and I
Solothurn, and the Auftrian foreft-towns; to the fouth :
by the lake of Geneva, the Valais, and duchy of Sa- J
voy ; to the eaft by Uri, Underw^ald, Lucern, and the 1 i
county of Baden ; and to the weft by Solothurn, 1
Neufchatel, Franche-Comte, the diftrift of Biel, and ' |
the land of Gex. It is the moft fruitful, the richeft, |
and by much the largeft, of all the cantons, extending I
in length about fixty leagues, and about thirty where 1
broadeft. It yields not only plenty of grain, fruit, and |
pafture; but alfo good wine, a variety of coloured 1 j
earths and clays, fand-ftone, mundick, gypfum, pit- 1
coal, fulphur, and iron-ore. Here likewife are large |
herds of cattle, great and fmall; and, in confequence *■
of that, great quantities of milk, butter, and cheefe. 1
The rivers that water this canton are the Aar, the Em- 1
mat, the Wigger, the Aaa, the Rufz, the Limmat, 1
the Sanen, the Senfen, and the Kandel. The principal J
lake is that of Geneva; the length of which is about 1
18 leagues, and the greateft breadth between three and I
four. The depth in fome places is near 400 fathom, J
in others not above 40. The Rhone enters it at the I
eaft end near Bouveret, and iflues out again at the j
weft clofeby Geneva. In fummer its waters are much 1
fwelled by the melting of the fnow on the mountains. j
This lake, however, is not entirely furrounded by the j
territory of Bern, but partly by Savoy and the country }
of Gex; the former of which belongs to the king of j
Sardinia, and the latter to France, and the territory of |
Sion. Its borders are extremely fertile and beautiful,
being much embellifhed with vineyards, which yield ex- 1 '
cellent wine, and interfperfed with towns and villages, *
betwixt which a confiderable commerce is carried on.
The other great lakes, that are wholly or partly within
this canton, are thofe of Neufchatel, Biel, Murte,
Thun, Brien, and Halwyl, which all abound in fifti,
particularly that of Geneva, where trouts are fometimes
caught weighing 40 or 50 pounds. In that of Biel,
called alfo the NydauAake, are two fmall iflands, one
of which is very beautiful. This lake is about three
league*
IB E R [ 1123 ] B E R
leagues in length, and one in breadth. Along the fequently muft be much more fo now ; that, intlead Kern
whole weft and'north-weft fides of the canton runs that of the plainnefs and honeft fimplicity of their anceftors,
chain of mountains called by the general name of the love of fuperfluities and high living greatly pre-
Jura ; but the feveral mountains of winch it is com- vailed ; that luxury, pomp, and that infatuation for fo-
pofed have all their particular names. This canton is reign produftions, w hich had infefted moft parts of
well cultivated, and very populous, the number of its Europe, had alfo extended its contagious influence to
fnbjefts being computed at 400,000. German is the Switzerland, though not to fuch a degree as in many
prevailing language, but almoft all the people of fafhion other countries. 13r Burnet fays, that drinking is fo
fpeak either French or Italian ; even the-common peo- common, and produces fo many quarrels and difforders,
|| pie in the Pais de Vaud, and other places th^t lie to- that the bailiffs not only fubfift by the fines payable for
' wards France or Italy, fpeak a corrupt French’or Ita- them, but often get eftates, carrying, perhaps, twenty
l| lian, or a jargon compofed of both. The eftablifhed thouland crowns at the end of five years to Bern;
i§ religion here, and the other Proteftant cantons, is Cal- that their law is ftiort and clear, infomuch that the
v ;, vinifm, the fame both in doftrine and difcipline as in
IB Holland ; nor-is any other tolerated, except in the
»■{ common bailiages, and the vale of Frick. The mi-
rl nifters are divided into deaneries and claffes, and hold
yearly chapters or fynods. They are kept in a greater
>1 dependence on the civil power here, than in the other
cantons, and not fuffered to interfere with matters of
t| ftate. The city of Bern firft joined the confederacy in
t'l the year 1353. Towards the defence thereof the can-
t ton .now furnifhes 2000 men. Eveiy male, from 16
' to 60, is enrolled in the militia, and about a third of
! them regimented. There are officers for every diftridf,
I 1 whofe province it is tO fee that the men be regularly
' etfercifed ; that their arms, ammunition, and cloathing,
1 be in good condition ; and that they be kept in a con-
flant readinefs to march. Once a-year they are drawm
out to a general review. The fame attention is paid to
thofe that belong to the train of artillery. Some regi¬
ments confift of mafried, and fome of unmarried men ;
fome of foot, others of dragoons. There is alfo one
3 regiment and a troop of cuiraffiers. The latter confifts
entirely of burghers of Bern. Both the horfemen and
footmen find their horfes, arms; and accoutrements.
Befides the arms and artillery in the arfenal at Bern, all
the caftles, where the country governors or bailitfs re-
fide, are well furnifhed with them. At Bern is a con-
ftant guard or garrifon of 200 men, and a fmall gar-
rifon at fort Arburg. In the fame city is alfo an office,
which grants licences for levies to foreign powers, and
where the recruits make their appearance, and are re-
giftered. The bailiffs have the chief direction of af¬
fairs in their feveral diftri&s, being generals of the mi¬
litia, and prefiding in the courts of juftice; but, in
civil caufes, above a certain value, an- appeal lies from
them to Bern ; and, in capital cafes, their fentence
muft be confirmed by the great council before it can be
executed. When any bailiwic is to be difpofed of, as
many balls as there are competitors are put into a bag,
whereof one is gilt, and he that draw's that has the
[ bailiwic.
Mr Keyfler obferves, that the wealthieft peafants in
! Switzerland are thofe of Bern; it being difficult to find a
villagewithoutone, atleaft, who isworthbetween 20,000
and 30,000 guilders, and fometimes even 60,000. He
fays, the common people of both fexes wear ftrawr-
hats, and that the w'omens petticoats are tied up fo
near their arm-pits, that hardly an hand’s-breadth is
left for their lhape ; that the inns, not only in this
canton but throughout Switzerland, are in general very
good ; that the manners of the people were, in many
refpe&s, greatly changed within 50 years before he
m vifited them, which was about 39 years ago, and con-
moft Intricate fuit is ended after two or perhaps three
hearings, either in the firft inftance, before the bailiff,
or in the fecond, at Bern ; that the civility expreffed
in this country to women, at firft meeting them, is not
by faluting them, but by ftiaking them by the hand,
and that none but ftrangers take off their hats to them.
Mr Addifon fays, that the peafants are generally
clothed in a coarfe kind of canvas, the manufacture
of the country, and that their holiday clothes go from
father to fon ; fo that it is not uncommon to fee a coun¬
tryman in his great-grandfather’s doublet and breeches;
that the belief of witchcraft prevailed among them fo
much, that there w'ere fome. executions on that account
w'hile he was in the country ; that the queftion, or tor¬
ture, is ufed not only in this canton but all over Swit¬
zerland ; that though the fubjefts of the ftate are rich,
the public is poor; and though they could oppofe a
fudden invafion, yet that their unkindly foil requires
fuch a number of hands to cultivate it,, that they could
not fpare the reinforcements and recruits that would be
neceffary in a long war. Upon extraordinary occafions,
however, they boaft that they could raife eighty thou-
fand men in 24 hours. This canton is divided into the
German country, that is, that part of the canton in
which the German tongue is fpoken, and which is alfo
called the ancient canton, extending from Morat to the
county of Baden ; and the Roman, called alfo the
Waal, and Pais de Vaud. The former of thefe con¬
tains 35 bailiwics, and about 300 parifties.
Bern, a city of Switzerland, and capital of the can¬
ton of that name, is fituated in E. Long. 7..40. N.
Lat. 40. o. It is faid that the taking of a bear on the
day on which the foundation of this city was laid, gave
occafion to its name ; hence it is often in Latin called
Arftopolis, i. e. the city of the bear, and has a bear'
for its coat of arms. It is almoft furrounded by the ri¬
ver Aar. The houfes are moftly built of white free-
ftone, and, in the principal ftreets, have piazzas or
arches under them, for the conveniency of walking dry
in wet weather. Moft of the ftreets are paved with
flints, and traverfed by a canal lined with free-ftone,
which is brought from a confiderable diftance,. and is
very ufeful in carrying off the filth of the city, extin-
uilhing fires, and other purpofes. The city is large,
anding aimoft in the middle of the canton, and con¬
taining feveral churches, of which one is called the
'Great Church, and the firft minifter thereof the dean*
who is the head of the city-clergy. From an infcrip-
tion near the great door of this church, it appears, that
the firft ftone of it w’as laid in 1421. Over the fame
door is a reprefentation of the laft judgment, in which,
the fculptor hath placed the pope among the damned.
B E R [ 1124 ] B E R
Bern. In this city is alfo a college with eight profeffors, a
‘ “large public library, and a mufeum ; a (lately granary,
in which a great quantity of corn is always kept; a
guildhall; a well ftored arfenal ; and fevcral hofpitals.
In the arfenal is a wooden ftatue of the famous Tell,
which reprefents him as taking aim at the apple placed
on the head of his fon. There is alfo the ftatue of
Berch told von Zahringen, the founder of the city ;
and two large horns of buffaloes or wild bulls, called
in Latin Uri, fuch as are ufed in war by the can¬
ton of Uri inftead of trumpets, and taken from it in
the year 1712. Hard by alfo hang the grotefque
dreffes of thofe who blew them. The inhabitants of
Uri, who boaft their defcent from the old Tau, bear a
buffalo’s head in their fifci, coat of arms; and the per-
fon who blows the great horn in time of war, is called
the bull of Uri. In the Dominican church, a hole in
the wall is always (hewn to ftrangers, by means of
which, it having a communication with the cell of a
monk in an adjoining monaftery, the pious fraud of
making an image of the Virgin appear to fpeak was
once carried on, which for a while anfwered the pur-
pofes of the monks very well; but they were at laft de¬
tected and punifhed. This city, though larger, is not
fo populous nor fo well built as that of Zurich. On the
eafl fide of it is a handfome (lone bridge; and near the
great church is a very fine platform fome hundred feet
in height, which makes a moft delightful walk, being
planted with limes, and commanding a charming pro-
TpeCt, particularly of the mountains of the Grifons, co¬
vered with fnow in the midft of fummer. In 1654 a
fludent of divinity, being on horfeback, and in liquor,
leaped over this terrace without receiving any other
hurt than breaking a leg, and lived many years after,
but the horfe was killed. In the upper part of the city
are always kept a number of bears in two inclofures,
with fir-trees for them to clamber and play upon. Of
the burghers of Bern, only thofe are qualified for the
government and magiftracy of the city, who are the de-
fcendants of fuch as were made burghers before the
year 1635. Other qualifications are alfo neceffary; in
particular, they mull not be under 30 years of age,
and muft be enrolled in one of the 12 companies. To
obtain a country government, or to hold any confider-
able employment, the candidate alfo mull be married.
The great council, in which the fovereignty of the
canton, is veiled, confilts, when full, of 229; but is ge¬
nerally much Ihort of that number, 80 or more often
dying before their places are filled up. The lelfer
council fenate, or, as it is called, the daily council, be-
caufe it meets every day, Sundays and holidays ex¬
cepted, confills of 27 members, including the two pras-
tors or advoyers, the four tribunes of the people, the
two treafurers, and the two heimlichers or fecrecy-
men, fo called becaufe to them all fecrets relating to
the Hate are difcovered. The members of the great
and little councils mutually fill up the vacancies that
happen in thefe two colleges. How the bailiffs are
chofen we have already taken notice. Our limits will
not permit us to enter into any further detail with re-
fpeft to the government: only it is to be obferved in
general, that all the officers of any note are chofen out
of the great or little councils; and that all the bailiffs
and callellans of the canton continue fix years in office.
The trade of the city is not very great, but was lefs
before the French refugees fettled therein: fome, how. |
ever; doubt whether it has been a gainer by them; as —|
by their introduction of French modes and luxury, they |
have helped to banilli the ancient Helvetic fimplicity i
and frugality. The territory immediately under itsju- t
rifdiftion is divided into four governments, with which M
the four venners, or llandard-bearers, are inverted. It
declared for the reformation in 1528, after a folemn s
deputation. Here the Britilh envoy to the cantons
refides.
Bern-7)/^/W, the name of an engine for rooting
up trees, invented by Peter Sommer, a native of Bern
in Switzerland.
This machine is reprefented by a figure on plate I
LVII. fig. 2. drawn from a model in the machine- I
room of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, j
&c. It confiftsof three principal parts; the beam, the j
ram, and the lever. The beam ABC, (n° t.) of 1
which only one fide is feen in the figure, is compofed 1
of two ftout planks of oak three inches thick at leaft, I
and feparated by two tranfverfe pieces of the fame wood j
at A and C, about three inches thick. Thefe planks j
are bored through with correfponding holes, as repre- ■
fented'in the figure, to receive iron pins, upon which ;
the lever aCls between the two fides of the beam, and l
which are Ihifted higher and higher as the tree is i
raifed or rather pulhed out of its place. The fides 3
are well fecured at the top and bottom, by ftrong iron j
hoops. The iron pins on which the lever refts fhould
be an inch and u quarter, and the holes through j
w'hich they pafs an inch and a half, in diameter. The J
pofition of thefe holes is fufficiently indicated by the i
figure. The foot of the beam, when the machine is i
in aftion, is fecured by Hakes, reprefented at G, dri- *3
ven into the earth. The ram D, which is made of
oak, elm, or fome other ftrong wood, is capped with )
three ftrong iron fpikes, reprefented at f which take \
fall hold of the tree. This ram is fix or eight inches
fquare; and a flit is cut lengthwife through the middle ‘1
of it, from its lower end at K, to the firll ferule a, in |
order to allow room for the chain g h to play round the
pulley K, which Ihould be four inches thick, and nine y
inches in diameter. This ram is raifed by means of the i
chain g h, which Ihould be about ten feet long, with
links four inches and three quarters in length, and an j
inch thick. One end of this chain is faftened to the j
top of the beam at C, while the other, after palling
through the lower part of the ram, and over the pulley
K, terminates in a ring or link reprefented n° 3. the |
two ears m n of which ferve to keep it in a true poll- y;
tion between the two planks of the beam. In this ring
the hook P is inferted. The hook is reprefented in j
profile, n° 2. where F is the part that takes hold of
the ring. But it mull be obferved, that the parts of i|
this machine, reprefented in n° 2, 3, are drawn on a
fcale twice as large as the whole engine. The hook '
F, n° 2. Ihould be made of very tough iron, as well as
the handle D, and the arch E c. This handle Ihould '
be two inches thick at z, where it joins to the hook,
and the thicknefs gradually lefien by degrees up to >
the arch, which need not be more than half an inch
thick. On each fide of the pin z, is a femi-circular
notch, x, y, which refts alternately on the pins when j
the machine is worked. The hole D, and the arch |
E c, ferve to fix a long lever of wood E F, n° 1. by-
means
B E R [ 1125 ] B E R
rn means of two iron pins ; and by this contrivance the le- child ofhim, that (he ihould bring forth a white dog,
ver is either raifed or deprefied at pleafure, in order to whofe barking ihould be very loud. Being aftonifhed
^. render the working of the machine eafy in whatever at this dream, (he confulted a monk, who faid to her,
part of the beam the lever may be placed : for with¬
out this contrivance the extremity of the lever EF,
would, when the handle was near the top of the beam,
be much higher than: men Handing upon the ground
I could reach. It muft however be remembered, that the
lever is often Ihortened by this- contrivance, and confe-
quently its power lelfened.”
The machine is. worked in the following manner : It
is placed againft a tree, in. the manner reprefented in
the figure, fo that the iron fpikes at f may have hold
of the tree, and the end of the beam A be lupported
by (lakes reprefented at G. The iron handle, n° 2. is
I placed in the opening between the two planks of the
beam, and the wooden lever fixed to it by means of the
iron pins already mentioned. The hook F takes hold
of the chain, and one of the iron pins is t hr lift into the
outer row of holes, by which means the outer notch x
will reft on the pin, which will be now the centre of
motion ; and the end of the lever E, nQ 1. being preffed
downwards, the other notch n° 2. will be raifed,
and at the fame time the chain, and confequently the
| ram. The other iron pin is now to be thruft into the
hole in the inner row, next above that which was be¬
fore the centre of motion, and the end of the lever E
elevated or pufhed upwards, the latter pin on which
the notch y refts now becoming the centre of motion.
By this alternate motion of the lever, and fnifting the
pins, the chain is drawn upwards over the pulley K,
and confequently the whole force of the engine ex¬
erted againft the tree. There is a fmall wheel at L,
in order to leffen the fridlion of that part of the ma¬
chine.
From this account the reader will very eafily perceive
that the machine is nothing more than a (ingle pulley,
compounded with a lever of the firft and fecond order.
It miiit however he remembered, that as the pnfh of
the engine is given in an oblique direftion, it will exert
a greater or leffer force againft the horizontal roots of
II the tree in proportion to the angle formed by the ma¬
chine with the plane of the horizon ; and that the
I angle of 450 is the maximum, or that when the ma¬
il chine will exert its greateft force againft the horizontal
roots of the tree.
BERNACLE, in ornithology. See Anas.
BERNARD (St), the firft abbot of Clairvaux, was
born in the year 1091, in the village of Fountaine, in
Burgundy. He acquired fo great a reputation by his
zeal and abilities, that all the affairs of the church ap¬
peared to reft upon his (boulders, and kings and prin-
ces feemed to have chofen him for a general arbitrator
of their differences. It was owing to him that Inno¬
cent II. was acknowledged fovereign pontiff, and after
; the death of Peter Leonis anti-pope, that Viftor, who
I had been narc\z&fucceffor, made a voluntary abdication
| of his dignity. Fie convidted Abelard at the council
of Sens, in the year 1140. He oppofed the monk
; Raoul ; he perfecuted the followers of Arnaud de Bref-
fe ; and, in 1148, he got Gilbert de la Porvice, bi-
,ftiop of Poitiers, and Eonde 1’Etoile, to be condemned
in the council of Rheims. By fuch zealous behaviour
he' verified (fays Mr Bayle) the interpretation of his
I mother’s dream. She dreamed, when (he was with
Vol. II.
“ Be of good courage; you (hall have a fon who (hall
guard the houfe of God, and bark loudly againft the
enemies of the faith.” But St Bernard went even be¬
yond the prediction, for he barked fometimes againft
chimerical enemies : he was more happy in extermi¬
nating the heterodox, than in ruining the infidels; .and
yet he attacked thefe laft, not only with the ordinary
arms of his eloquence, but alfo ivith the extraordinary
arms of prophecy. He preached up the crufade under
Lewis the Younger, and by this means he enlarged
the troops of the crufaders beyond expreffion : but all
the fine hopes with which he flattered the people were
difappointed by the event; and when complaint was
made, that he had brought an infinite number of
Chriftians to daughter, without going out of his own
country, he cleared himfelf. faying, that the fins of the
Croifes had hindered the effect of his prophecies. In
fliort, he is faid to have founded 160 monafteries, and
to have wrought a great number of miracles. He died
on the 20th of Auguft, 1153, at 63 years of age. The
beft edition of his works is that o( 1690, by father
Mabillon.
Bernard (Dr Edward), a learned aftronomer, lin-
guift, and critic, was born at Perry St Paul, on the
2d of May, 1638, and educated at Merchant-Tay-
lor’s fchool, and St John’s college, Oxford. During
his (lay at fchool, he had laid in an uncommon fund of
claffical learning; fo that, on his going to the univerii-
ty, he was a great mafter of all the elegancies of the
Greek and Latin tongues, and not unacquainted with
the Hebrew. On his fettling in the univerfity, he ap¬
plied himfelf with great diligence to hiftory, philology,
and philofophy ; and made himfelf mafter of the He¬
brew, Syriac, Arabic, and Coptic languages, and then
applied himfelf to the ftudy of the mathematics under
the famous Dr Wallis. Having fucceftively taken the
degrees of bachelor and mafter of arts, and afterwards
that of bachelor of divinity in 1668, he went to Ley¬
den to confult feyeral oriental manufcripts left to that
univerfity by Jofeph Scaliger and Levinus Warnerus.
At his return to Oxford, he collated and examined the
mod valuable manufcripts in the Bodleian library ;
which induced thofe who publifhed any ancient au¬
thors, to apply to him for his obfervations or emenda¬
tions from the manufcripts at Oxford; which he readily
imparted, grudging neither time nor pains to ferve the
learned; and by this means he became engaged in a
very extenfive correfpondence with the learned of meft
countries. In the year 1669, the famous Chriftopher
Wren, Savilian profeffor of aftronomy at Oxford, ha¬
ving been appointed furveyor-general of his majefty’s
works, and being much detained at London by this
employment, he obtained leave to name a deputy at
Oxford, and pitched upon Mr Bernard, which enga¬
ged the latter in a more particular application to the
ftudy of aftronomy. In 1676, he was fent by the earl
of Arlington to France, in order to be tutor to the
dukes of Grafton and Northumberland, fons to King
Charles II. by thedutchefs of Cleveland, who then li¬
ved with their mother at Paris: but the fimplicity of
his manners not fuiting the gaiety of the dutchefs’s fa¬
mily, he returned, about a year after, to Oxford, and
7 C pur-
Bernarr!.
B E R [ n
Bernard, purfued his ftudies; in which he made great proficien-
——— cy, as his many learned aftronomical and critical works
fliew. He compofed tables of the longitudes, lati¬
tudes, right afcenfions, &c. of the fixed ftars ; Obfer-
vations in Latin on the Obliquity of the Ecliptic ; and
other pieces inferted in the Philofophical Tranfaftions.
He alfo wrote, I. A Treatife of the ancient Weights
and Meafures. 2. Chronologic Samaritan# Synopjh, in
two tables. 3. Teftimo’nies of the Ancients concern¬
ing the Greek Verfioh of the Old Teftament-Ly the
Seventy ; and feveral other learned works. He was a
perfon of great piety, virtue, and humanity ; and died
on the 12 Ln of January, 1696, in the 59rh year of his
age, leaving behind him a great number of learned and
valuable manufcripts.
Bernard (James), profefibr of philofophy and ma-
thenlatics, andgminilberof the Walloon church at Leyden,
was born September xsr, 1658, at Nions in Dauphine.
Having ftudied at Geneva, he returned to France in
1679, and was chofen minifter of Venterol, a village
in Dauphine. Some time after, he was removed to the
church of Vinfobres in the fame province. But the
perfecutions raifed againft the Proteftants in France
having obliged him to leave his native country, he re¬
tired to Holland, where he was received with great ci¬
vility, and was appointed one of the penfionary mmi-
fters of Ganda. In July 1688, he began a political
publication intitled Hiftoire abregee de L’Europe, &c.
which he continued monthly till December 1688, and
makes five volumes in I2m0. In 1692, he began his
Lettres Hifloriques, containing an account of the molt
important tranfadlions in Europe, with necefiary reflec¬
tions. He carried on this work, which was alfo pu-
blilhed monthly, till the end of the year 1698. It was
afterwards continued by other hands, and confifts of a
great many volumes. Mr Le Cierc having left off his
Bibliotheque univerfelle, in 1691, Mr Bernard wrote
the greateft part of the 20th volume, and by himfelf car¬
ried on the five following to the year 1693. In 1699,
he colle&ed and publilhed Acies et negotiations de la
paix de Ryfwic, in four volumes I2m0. In 1698 he be¬
gan the Nouvelles de republique des lettres, which he
continued till December 1710. Mr Bernard having
acquired great reputation by his works, as well as by
his fermons at Ganda, and the Hague, the congrega¬
tion of the Walloon church at Leyden became extreme¬
ly defirous to have him for one of their minifiers ; and
a vacancy happening in 1705, he was unanimoufly cho¬
fen. About the fame time, Mr de Voider profeffor of
philofophy and mathematics at Leyden' having re-
ligned, Mr Bernard was appointed his fucceffor ; and
the univerfity prefented him with the degrees of doftor
of philofophy and mailer of arts. His public and
private leftures took up a great part of his time; yet
he did not negleft his paftoral fun6lion, but compofed
his fermons with great care : he wrote.alfo two excel¬
lent treatifes, one on a late repentance, the other on
the excellency of religion. In 1716, he publilhed a
fupplement to Moreri’s dictionary in two volumes folio.
The fame year he refumed his Nouvelles de la repu-
llique des lettres ; which he continued till his death,
which happened the 27th of April, 1718, in the 60th
year of his age.
Bernard the Great (St); a mountain in Savoy and
Switzerland, between Valais and the valley of Aouft,
26 ] B E R
at the fource of the rivers Drance and Doria. The Bern
top is always covered with fnow, and there is a great Berj*
monaftery feated thereon, where the monks always en-  :
tertain travellers without diftin&ion of religion for three ]
days.
BERNARDINE (St), was born at Maffa in Tuf- ,
cany, in 1380. In 1404 he entered into a Francifcan ]
monaftery near Sienna, where he became an eminent
preacher; and was afterward fent to Jerufalem, as
commiffary of the Holy Land. On his return to Italy,
he vifited feveral cities, where he preached with fuch
applaufe, that the cities of Ferrara, Sienna, and Ur-
bino, defired Pope Eugenius IV. to appoint him their •
bilhop : but Bernardine refufed the honour, accepting ;
only the office of vicar-general of the friars of the ob-
fervance for all Italy. He repaired and founded above
300 monafteries in that country; died in 1444; was
canonized in 1450 by Pope Nicholas, and his works
were publilhed at Venice, in 1591, in 4 vols 4t0.
BERNARDINES, an order of monks, founded by
Robert abbot of Moleme, and reformed by St Ber- ;
nard. They wear a white robe with a black fcapu-
lary ; and when they officiate they are clothed with a j
large gown, which is all white, and hath great fleeves,
with a hood of the fame colour.—The Bernardines dif¬
fer very little from the Ciftercians. They had their ori¬
gin toward the beginning of the 12th century.
BERNAY, a town of Upper Normandy in France, J
feated on the river Garantone, in E. Long. o. 50. N. |
Lat 49. 6.
BERNBURG, a town of Germany, in the circle of
Upper Saxony, and principality of Anhalt, where a
branch of the houfe of Anhalt refides. It is feated on i
the river Sara, in E. Long. 12. 30. N. Lat. 51. 55.
BERNERA, one of the Weitern Hies of Scotland,
lying about two leagues to the fouthward of Harries. !
It is about five miles in circumference; the foil is fandy,
but, when manured with the alga marina, extremely
fertile, producing an increafe of 30 fold of barley ; nay,
one grain has been known to produce 14 ears when the
feafon was remarkably favourable. The face of the
illand is extremely agreeable in fummer, exhibiting a
pleafing variety of corn fields and clover pafture. Here - \
is a frelh-water lake called diverfified with
fmall iflands, and abounding with eels, which the na¬
tives, by the help of lights, catch in the night-time, as
they fall down a rivulet towards the fea in heaps twilled j
together. There are two chapels in this ifland dedica- |
ted to St Afaph and St Columbus ; and near the for¬
mer is a ftone Handing about 8 feet above the ground.
At the call end of this ifland there is a ftrange reci¬
procation of the flux and reflux of the fea, and another
no lefs remarkable upon the weft fide of the long ifland. '(
The tides from the fouth-weft run along northward; fo
that during the ordinary courfe of the tides the flood
runs eaft in the frith where Berncra lies, and the ebb
runs weft: thus the fea ebbs and flows regularly for
four days before, and as long after, the full and change
of the moon; the fpring-tides generally rifing 14 feet
perpendicular, and the others proportionably: but for 1'
four days before, and as many after, the quarter moons, !
there is a Angular variation ; at that time a foutherly
moon making high water, the courfe of the tide being j
eaftward, it begins to flow at half an hour after nine in
the morning, and continues to flow till half an hour af-
tec
B E R [ 11
ter three In the afternoon, when it is high water; but
when it begins to ebb, the current ftill runs eaftward,
until it is low water; fo that the tide runs eaftward 12
hours together, that is, from half pall nine in the morn¬
ing, till half pall nine at night; yet when the night
tide begins to flow, the current turns and runs weftward
all night for 12 hours, during both flood and ebb: thus
the reciprocations continue, one flood and ebb running
eaftward, and another weftward, till within four days
of the full and change of the moon ; then they refume
their ordinary courfe, running eaft during the fix hours
of flood, and weft during the fix hours of ebb. There
is another phenomenon in thefe tides no lefs remark¬
able than that juft now mentioned. Between the vernal
and autumnal equinox, that is, during one half of the
year, the tides about the quarter moons run all day eaft¬
ward, and all night weftward; and during the other fix
months their courfe is reverfed, being weftward in the
day, and eaftward in the night.
BERNICLA, in ornithology, the trivial name of a
fpecies of anas. See Anas.
BERNICLE, in zoology. See Lepas.
BERNIER (Nicholas), an eminent mufician and
compofer, was born at Mante on the Seine, in the year
1664. By his merit in his profeffion he attained to be
condu&or of the mufic in the chapel of St Stephen,
and afterwards in that of the king. The regent duke
of Orleans admired his works, and patronized their au¬
thor. This prince having given him a motet of his
own compofition to examine, and being impatient for
his obfervations thereon, went to the houfe of Bernier,
and entering his ftudy, found the abbe de la Croix
there criticifing his piece, while the mufician himfelf
was in another room caroufing and finging with a com¬
pany '>f his friends. The duke broke in upon and in¬
terrupted their mirth, with a reprimand of Bernier for
his inattention to the talk afligned him. This mufician
died at Paris in 1734. His five books of Cantatas and
Songs for one and two voices, the words of which were
written by Roufleau and Fufelier, have procured him
great reputation. There are befides of his compofition
Les Nuits de Sceaux, and many motets, which are ftill.
in great efteem.
Bernier (Francis), furnamed the Mogul, on ac¬
count of his travels and refidence in that country, was
born at Angers, in France; and after he had taken his
degree of doctor of phyfic at Montpellier, left his coun¬
try in 1654, went to Egypt, to the Holy Land, and
to the kingdom of the Mogul, where he was phyfician
to that monarch, attended him in his journeys, and
flayed there 12 years. Upon his return to France, he
publiflied the Hiftory of the countries he had vifited;
and fpent the remainder of his life in compofing vari¬
ous other works, particularly an Abridgement of the
philofophy of Galfendus in S vols i2mo. His firft work
is efteemed to be the bell account we have of the coun¬
tries which are the fubjedl of it.
BERNINI (John Laurence), commonly called Ca-
valiero Bernin, a Neapolitan, famous for his fldll in
painting, fculpture, architecture, and mechanics. He
firft began to be known under the pontificate of Paul V.
Rome is indebted to this artift for fome of its greateft
ornaments; and there are in the church of St Peter, no
lefs than 15 different works of his hand. He died at
Rome, in 1680.
27 ] HER
BERNO, abbot of Richenou, in the diocefe of Con-
ftance, who flourilhed about the yean008, is celebra¬
ted as a poet, rhetor, mulici ia, philofopher, and divine.
He was the author of feveral treatifes on mufic, parti¬
cularly of one Dc Infiruinentis Mujicalibus, beginning
with the words Muftcam non effe content! which he de¬
dicated to Aribon, Archbilhop of Mentz. He alfo
wrote De Menfura Monochordi. But the moll celebra¬
ted of his works is a treatife De Mufica feu Tonis,
which he wrote and dedicated to Pelegrinus archbi-
fhop of Cologne, beginning Vero mundi ijli advent
et peregrino. This latter trad is part of the Baliol
manufcript, and follows the Enchiridion of Odo :
it contains a fummary of the doftrines delivered by
Boetius, an explanation of the ccclefiaftical tones, in¬
termixed with frequent exhortations to piety, and the
application of mufic to religious purpofes. He was
highly favoured by the emperor Henry II. for his great
learning and piety ; and fucceeded fo well in his endea¬
vours to promote learning, that his abbey of Richenou
was as famous in his time as thofe of St Gaul and Clunf,
then the moft celebrated in France. He died in 1048;
and was interred in the church of his monaftery, which
but a Ihort time before he had dedicated to St Mark.
BERNOUILL1 (James), a celebrated mathema¬
tician, born at Bafil, the 27th of December 1654. Ha¬
ving taken his degrees in the univerfity of Bafil, heap-
plied himfelf to divinity, not fo much from inclination
as complaifance to his father. He gave very early
proofs of his genius for mathematics, and foon became
a geometrician, without any affiftance from mailers,
and at firft almoft without books: for he was not al¬
lowed to have any books of this kind; and if one fell
by chance into his hands, he was obliged to conceal it,
that he might not incur the reprimands of his father,
who defigned him for other ftudies. This feverity made
him chufe for his device, Phaeton driving the chariot
of the fun, with thefe words, Invito patre ftdera verfo,
“ I traverfe the liars againft my father’s inclination:”
l his had a particular reference to aftronomy, the part
of mathematics to which he at firft applied himfelf.
But the precautions of his father did not avail, for he
purfued his favourite ftudy with great application. In
1656 he began his travels. -When he was at Geneva,
he fell upon a method to teach a young girl to write,
though Ihe had loll her fight when Ihe was but two
months old. At Bourdeaux he compofed univerfal gno-
monic tables, but they were never publilhed. He re¬
turned from France to his own country in 1680. About
this time there appeared a comet, the return of which
he foretold; and wrote a fmall treatife upon it, which
he afterwards tranflated into Latin. He went foon af¬
ter to Holland, where he applied himfelf to the fludy of
the new philofophy. After having vifited Flanders and
Brabant, he went to Calais, and palled over from thence
to England. At London he contra&ed an acquaint¬
ance with all the moft eminent men in the feveral fci-
ences; and had the honour of being frequently prefent
at the philofophical focieties held at the houfe of the
famous Mr Boyle. He returned to his native country
in 1682 ; and he exhibited at Bafil a courfe of experi¬
ments in natural philofophy and mechanics, which con-
filled of a variety of new difcoveries. In 1682, he pu¬
blilhed his effay of a new fyllem of comets; and the
year following, his differtation on the weight of air.
7 C 2 Mr
B
Bernouilli
Berre. >
B E R [ II:
Mr Leibnitz, about this time, having published in the
Atta Eruditofum at Leipfic fame eflays of his new Cal¬
culus differentialis, or infinimens petits, but concealed
the art and method of it ; Mr Bernouilli, and one of
his brothers, difeovered, by the little which they few,
the beauty and extent of it: they endeavoured to un¬
ravel the fecret; which they did with fuch fuccefs, that
Mr Leibnitz declared, that the invention belonged to
them as much as to himfelf. In 1687, the profeflbr-
Ihip of mathematics at Bafil being vacant, Mr Bernou¬
illi was appointed his fucceflbr. He difeharged this
trull with univerfal applaufe; and his reputation drew
a great number of foreigners from all parts to hear his
leftures. He had an admirable talent in teaching,'and
adapting himfelf to the different genius and capacity
of his fcholars. In 1699, he was admitted into the aca¬
demy of fciences at Paris as a foreign member, and in
1701 the feme honour was conferred upon him by the
academy of Berlin. He wrote feveral pieces in the
Afia Eruditorum of Leiplic, the Journal des Scavans,
and the Hijloire dc Pacaden ie des fciences. His affiduous
application to his ftudies brought upon him the gout,
and by degrees a flow fever, of which he died the 16th
of Auguft 1705, in the 58th year of his age.-'-Archi¬
medes having found out the proportion of a fphere to
a cylinder circumfcribed about it, ordered it to be en¬
graven upon his monument. In imitation of him, Mr
Bernouilli appointed, that a fpiral logarithmical‘curve
fhould be inferibed upon his tomb, with thefe words,
Eadem mutata refurgo; in allufion to the hopes of the
refurredtion, which are reprefented in fome meafure by
the properties of the curve which he had the honour of
difeovering.
B'EROEA, (anc. geog.) a noble city of Macedonia-
to the fouth of Edefla, or d£gte, and fouth-eafl of Cyr-
tus. The people are commended in Scripture for their
reception of the Gofpel on a fair and impartial exami¬
nation ; now fuppofed to be Aleppo. See that article.
BE ROOT, a town of Phoenicia, a province of Sy¬
ria in Turky in Afia. It is the ancient Berytus; but
there are now no remains of its former beauty, except
its fituation, which is very agreeable, and in a fertile
foil. It is juft far enough from the fea to prevent the
inconveniences of an inundation. There are very fine
ftreams of water which flow from the mountains, and
are difperfed into beautiful fountains through feveral
parts of the town. The great Chriftian church is
turned into a mofque, and there is a poor old one for
the ufe of the Greeks. It is adorned with feveral old
pictures, particularly that of St Nicephorus, with a
beard down to his feet. The wall on ‘the fouth fide of
the town is yet entire, and feems to have been built out
of the ruins of the old city. At a little diftance from the
city there are pillars of granite, and the ruins of floors
of Mofeic work. On the fea-fhore is an old ruined
caftle, and the remains of a mole. E. Long. 35. 38.
N. Lat. 34. l8.
BEROSUS, .prieft of the temple of Bolus at Baby¬
lon, in the time of Ptolemy Philadelphus, wrote the
Hiftory of Chaldea, which is often cited by the an¬
cients, and of which Jofephus gives fome curious frag¬
ments. The Athenians, according to Pliny, caufed his
ftatue, with a golden tongue, to be placed in their Gym-
nalium.
J3ERRE, a town of Provence in France, feated on
18 ] B E R
a lake of the fame name. It is remarkable for the
quantity and goodnefs of the felt that is made there,
but the air is very unwholefome. E. Long. 4. 32. N.
Lat. 43. 32.
BERRIMAN (Dr William), was the fon of Mr
John Berriman apothecary in Bilhopfgate-ftreet, Lon- •
don, where he was born on the 24th of September
1688. He ftudied at Oriel-college, Oxford, where he
took his fevcral-degrees, and became curate and leftu-
rer of All-hallows, in Thames-ftreet, and le&urer of
St Michael’s, Queenhithe. In 1720, he was appointed
domeftic-chaplain to Dr Robinfon bifliop of London,
who foon after collated him to the living of St An¬
drew’s Underlhaft; and in 1727, he was eledhed fellow
of Eton-college. He died on the 5th of February, 1750,
in the 62d year of his age- He wrote, 1. A feafon-
able review of Mr Whiflon’s account of primitive dox-
ologies. 2. An hiftori.cal account of the Trinitarian
controverfy, in 8 fermons, at lady Moyer’s‘ lecture.
3. Brief remarks on Mr Chandler’s introdu&ion to the
hiftory of the inquifition. 4 . Sermons .at Boyle’s lec¬
tures, 2 vob 8vo. 5. Chriftian dodlrines and duties
explained and recommended, in 2 vols 8vo; and other
works.
BERRY. See Baoca.
Berry, a province of France, with the title of a
duchy. It is bounded on the north, by Solome ; on
the fouth, by Marche 4 on the eaft, by Nivernois and
Bourbonnois^ and bn -the weft, by Touraine. It is 90
miles in length from north to fouth, and 73 in breadth
from eaft to weft. The air is very temperate; and the
foil produces wheat, rye, -and wine little inferior to
Burgundy ; that of Sancevve, St Satur, and Laver-
nufle, is the bell. The fruits are in plenty, and pretty
good. The paftures sire proper to fatten fheep. • This
country produces alfo a good deal of hemp and flax.
There are mines of iron and (liver, but they are neglec¬
ted. The ftone quarries, w ithin half a league of Bour-
ges, are very ferviceable. In the parifti of St Hilare
there is a mine of oker, made ufe of in melting metals,
and For painting. Near Bo urges there is a coldmine-
ral fpring, which has a clammy fat pellicle over it every
morning, of different colours. It lets fall a fine black
fmooth fediment, which has the feme fmell, and almoft
the feme tafte, as gunpowder, which makes fome-con¬
clude it partakes of fulphur,, vitriol, and oker. The
pellicle is as thick as a crown-piece; and when put on
a red hot fire-fhovel will bounce and fparkle, as will alfo
the fediment. It is certain there is falt-petre in thefe
waters, though vitriol feems to be the mod predomi¬
nant. Thefe waters, drank on the fpot, temperate the
heat of the blood and humours,-open obftruftions, and
ftrengthen the fibres. Berry is watered by feveral ri¬
vers, the principal of which are the Loire, the Creufe,
the Cher, the Indre^theOrron, the Evre, the Aurette,
the Maulon, the great and little Saudre, the Nerre, &e.
Near Liniers, there is a lake 20 miles round. Berry is
divided into the upper and the lower, and Bourges is
the capital city. The inhabitants of Bourges carry on
a fmall trade with-com down the Loire ; but that 0/ the
wine above mentioned is much morecon fide table, it be¬
ing tranfported to Paris by means of that river and the
canal of Briare. But the principal commerce confifts
in the -fat cattle which -they fend to-Paris, and the great
number of fheep; thefe laft bear fine wool, which is
v ufed.
B E R [ ii
ufed in the manufactures of this province, and other parts
of the kingdom. There are two forts of manufactures
in Berry, the one for cloths and ferges, and the other
for knit and wove ftockings. There is likewife a great
quantity of hemp, which is tranfported elfewhere, for
they have not yet got the art of manufacturing it fhem-
felves. At Aubigny there are 2000 perfons generally
employed in the making of cloth.
BERSELLO, a fortified town of Italy in the Mo-
denefe. It was taken by prince Eugene in 1702, and
by the French in 1703, who were obliged to abandon
it in 1767. It is feated near the confluence of the ri¬
vers Linza and Po, in E. Long. 10. 30. N. Lat. 44. 55,
BERSUIRE, a town of France in Lower PoiCtou.
W. Long. o. 27. N. Lat. 46. 32.
BERTINERO, a town of Romagnia'in Italy, with
a ftrong citadel. It is the fee of a biihop; and is feated
on an hill, in E. Long. 11. 47. N. Lat. 44. 8.
BERTRAND (St)., an epifcopal town of France,
in Gafcony, and capital of the country of Comminges.
E. Long. o. 38. N. Lat. 43. 2.
BERVY, a fea-port and parliament town in the
county of Mearns in Scotland. W. Long. 2. o. N.
Lat. 36. 40.
BERWICK (the duke of), was natural fon of
James II. by Mrs Arabella Churchill, fitter to the great
duke of Marlborough. He followed the fate of his fa¬
ther, and came into France after the revolution with
Jathes II. Here the duke of Berwick was recommend¬
ed to the court by bis fuperior merit : he was created
marfhal of France, knight of the Holy Ghott, duke
and peer of France, grandee of Spain, commander in
chief of die ’French armies 7 in all which ftations his
behaviour was fitch, that few equalled, perhaps none
furpailed, him. He lived in an age when the renowned
prince of Grange and many other of the greateft men
commanded againft; him. His courage was of the cool,
ftendy kind ; always pdfleffing himfelf, taking all advan¬
tages, not foolittily, rafhly, or wantonly throwing away
the lives of his foldievs. He kept up on all occatjons the
moft ftridt difcipline; and did not fpare punifliment a-
mong his foldiers formarauding and other crimes, when
properly deferved; for Which fome inconfiderate people
have blamed him. He has been reflected upon by the
very zealous and violent adherents of the Stuart family,
for not being fufficiently attached to that party, which
was his own family. But by a cool examination of Lis
actions, it will appear, that his behaviour in this par¬
ticular was, as in moft parts of his life, fertfible and
juft. When he accepted of employments, received ho.-
nours, dignities, and became a naturalized Frenchman,
he thought it his duty, as an honeft man, to become a
Frenchman, and a real fubjeft to the monarch who
gave him bread; and to be, or not to be, in the intereft
of the Stuart family, according to the will and com¬
mands of the fovereign whom he ferved, and in the in-
tereft of France according to time and circumftances;
for there is no ferving two matters well. But when
ordered hy his king to be in that family’s intereft,
he a&ed with the greateft fincerrty; and took the
moft effe&ual and fenfible methods to ferve that un¬
happy houfe, as the following anecdote, if true, and it
has great appearance and probability on its fide, proves.
The duke of Marlborough, after the figning of the
treaty df'Utrecht, w *scenfured by the Britiih parlia-
29 ] B E R
ment for fome of the army contrafts in relation to
bread and forage ; upon which he retired into France:
aqd it was then credibly afferted, the duke of Marlbo¬
rough was brought over to the intereft of the Stuart
family; for it is now paft a doubt that queen Anne had
a very ferious intention of having her brother upon the
throne of England after her death: and feveral circum¬
ftances, as well as the time of that duke’s landing in
England, make many people believe be was gained
over to the Stuart party. If the duke of Berwick was,
direftly or rndiredtly, the means of gaining his uncle
over to that intereft, he more effe&ually ferved it than
that rafh mock army of unhappy gentlemen who were
taken prifoners at Prefton in 1715 had it in their power
to do. In a word, the duke of Berwick was, without
being a bigot, a moral and religious man; and (hewed
by his life and adlions, that morality and religion are
very compatible and confident with the life of a ftatef-
man and a great general ; and if they were oftener
united in thole two profeffions, it would be much hap¬
pier for the reft of mankind. He was killed by a can¬
non-ball at the fiege of Philipftrargh, in 1738.
Berwick, a {hire in Scotland, bounded by the river
Tweed, on the fouth; by Lothian, on the north; by
the German Ocean, on the eaft; and by Teviotdale on
the weft. It abounds with corn and grafs, and has in
it feveral feats of perfons of quality. The principal ri¬
vers are the Tweed, the Whiteater, Blackadder, Eye,
and Ednel. The principal place is the town and caille
of Dunfe, which is the heft place for trade in the coun¬
try. It fends-two members to parliament.
Berwick (’North), a town of Scotland, in the coun¬
ty of Lothian, feated on the Frith of Forth. It was
near this place that general Cope was defeated by the
rebels in 1743, and made his efcape to Berwick-upon-
Tweed. W. Long. 2. 29. N. Lat. 3. 36.
Berwick-upon-Tnueedi is a town on the borders of
England and Scotland, and a county pf itfelf. It ftands
on the north or Scotch fide of the river Tweed ; and is
pleafantly fituated on an eafy declivity, almoft clofe to
the fea. It has a ditch on the north and eaft; but on
the fouth and weft it has high walls, regularly fortified,
and planted with cannon, and to which the river ferves
as a moat. The houfes are generally well built; and
the town-houfe is a handfome ft.rudture, with a lofty
turret, in which are eight bells, and a fine clock, wbidh
tells the quarters, with four dials, one on each fide the
fquare. The church is a neat building, but has no
bells. The bridge is 947 feet long, and is fupported
by-fifteen arches. The barracks form a large regular
fquare, and will hold two regiments of foot very con¬
veniently. The town is governed by a mayor, recor¬
der, town-clerk, and four bailiffs; and .has a coroner,
a treafurer, four ferjeants at mace, and a water bailiff.
It had a ftrong caftle, which now lies quite in ruins.
It has a market on Saturdays, extremely well fupplied;
and a fair on Friday in Trinity-week for black cattle
and horfes. Corn and eggs are (hipped from hence for
London and other ports; but the principal trade is
the falmon which are caught in the Tweed, and rec¬
koned to be as good as any in the kingdom. .Some.are
fent alive, and fome pickled in kits by perfons who fnb-
fift on that employment and are called falmon coopers.
In June and July falmon is.fold for a penny a pound.
The living is a redtory, rated at 201. a year in the
king’s
Berwick.
B E S [ 1130 ] B E S
Scry king’s books. W. Long. r. 35. N. Lat. 53. 58.
, t., EERY, or Bury, the vill or feat of habitation of a
 ‘J. nobletnan, a dwelling or manfion-houfe, being the chief
of a manor: from the Saxon beorg, which fignifies a
kill or cajlie; for heretofore noblemens feats were caftles
lituated on hills, of which we have ftill fome remains;
as in Herefordfhire, there are the bevies of Stockton,
Hope, &c. It was anciently taken for a fanftuary.
BERYL, in natural hiftory, called by our lapida¬
ries aqua marina, is a pellucid gem of a bluilh green
colour, found in the Eall Indies and about the gold
mines of Peru : we have alfo fome from Silefia, but
what are brought from thence are oftener coloured
cryilals than real beryls; and when they are genuine,
they are greatly inferior both in hardnefs and luftre to
the oriental and Peruvian kinds.
The beryl, like moft other gems, is met with both in
the pebble and columnar form, but in the latter moll
frequently. In the pebble form it ufually appears of a
roundidi but flatted figure, and commonly full of fmall
flat faces, irregularly difpofed. In the columnar or
cryflalline form it always confifts of hexangular co¬
lumns, terminated by hexangular pyramids. It never
receives any admixture of colour into it, nor lofes the
blue and green, but has its genuine tinge in the degrees
from a very deep and dufky to the paleft imaginable of
the hue of fea-water.
The beryl, in its perfeft date, approaches to the
hardnefs of the garnet, but it is often fofter; and its
fize is from that of a fmall tare to that of a pea, a
horfe-bean, or-even a walnut. It may be imitated, by
adding to 20 pounds of cryftal-glafs made without
magnefia, fix ounces of calcined brafs or copper, and
a quarter of an ounce of prepared zaffre.—The pro¬
perties of the beryl were very wonderful in the opinion
of the ancient naturalifts; it kept people from falling
into ambufeades of enemies, excited courage in the
fearful, .cured difeafes of the eyes and ftomach. It
does none of thefe things now ; becaufe people are not
Ample enough to believe it has the virtue to do them.
Ys^.K'ix.-cryJlal, in natural hiftory, a fpepies of what
Dr Hill calls ellipomacrojlyla, or imperfect cryftals, is
of an extreme _ pure, clear, and equal texture, and
fcarce ever fubjeft to the flighted films or blemiihes. It
is ever conftant to the peculiarity of its figure, which
is that of a long and flender column, remarkably ta¬
pering towards the top, and very irregularly hexangu¬
lar. It is of a very fine tranfparence, and naturally of
a pale brown ; and carries fuch evident marks of diftinc-
tion from all brown cryftals, that our lapidaries call it,
by way of eminence, the bevyl-cryjlal, or fimply the beryl.
BERYTUS, (anc. geog.), a fea-port town of Phoe¬
nicia on the Mediterranean, fo ancient as to be thought
to have been built by Saturn. It was deftroyed by
Tryphon, but rebuilt by the Romans. Agrippa placed
here two legions, whence it became a colony. It enjoyed
the jus Italicum, and had an excellent fchool for the
ftudy of the law in Juftinian’s time. Now Beroot;
which fee.
BES, or Bessis, in Roman antiquity, two thirds
of the as. See As.
See Jug(' Bes alfo denotes two thirds of the jugerum *.
BESAILE, fignifies the father of a grand-father.
Besaile, in law, a writ that lies where the great¬
grandfather was feifed in fee of any lands, &c. at the
time of his death ; and after his deceafe, a ftranger en¬
ters ther‘eon, the fame day, and keeps out the heir.
BESANCON, a city of France, capital of the
Franche Compte, and one of the moft ancient cities of
Europe. It is the fee of an archbifhop, and has a
parliament as well as a univerfity. It is feated on the
river Dreux, which divides it into two parts, the great-
eft of which is a peninfula. The entrance is fhut up
by a mountain, on which they have built a large cita¬
del, which commands all the city. There are many
names of places in and about the city, that are plainly
corruptions of the Latin, and are marks of its anti¬
quity, as Chamars, Campus Martis, Chamufe, Campus
Mufarum, Chandane, Campus Dianae, &c. The me¬
tropolitan church is built at the bottom of St Stephen’s
hill; and is a very handfome ftructure, with a high
tower fteeple. The great altar is placed in the middle
choir, where on high days they expofe reliques in filver
flirines, enriched with gold and jewels. There are feve-
ral tombs and other things remarkable in the churches ;
and after you have paft the church of Notre Dame,
and the fquare that it looks into, you come to a trium¬
phal arch, crewed in honour of the emperor Aurelian,
on which are feveral figures of men and animals, pretty
entire. It ferves as a gate to the cloifter of St John the
Great. The great hofpital of the order of the Holy
Ghoft is a ftrudlure worth feeing. The ftreets are
wide and handfome ; and the houfes are well built with
free-ftone, and covered with flate, chiefly about the
fquare called Battan, which is adorned with a fountain,
the water of which proceeds from the ftatue of Bac¬
chus. The river Dreux is pafled over on a ftone bridge,
to enter from one part of Befancon into the other.
The market-place is at the entrance; and on the left is
another fquare, adorned with a fountain, where the
great ftreet begins, which traverfes all this part, from
the bridge to St John the Great. The new fquare is
not far from this ftreet, from whence you go to the
town-houfe, which is a large ftru&ure, with four wings,
before the front of which is the ftatue of Charles V.
in bronze, with a globe in one hand, and a fword in
the other. The imperial eagle is raifed over a large
bafon, and fpouts out water by both his beaks. The
governor’s palace is the moft magnificent in the pro¬
vince, and there is a fountain a little farther, adorned
with the figure of a naked woman, with water fpring-
ing out at her nipples. E. Long. 6. 10. N. Lat. 47. 26.
BESANT, or Bezant, a coin of pure gold, of an
uncertain value, ftruck at Byzantium, in the time of
the Chriftian emperors ; from hence the gold offered
by the king at the altar, is called befant or bifant.
BESANTED, or Bezanted. This word means
full of befants; and is ufed to denote a field, ordinary
or charge, covered with above eight befants: for if
there be but eight or fewer, their number muft be par¬
ticularly mentioned.
BESELEEL and Ooliah, archite&s, fculptors,
and painters, fuppofed to have made all the ornaments
in brafs, filver, &c. of the firft tabernacle in the wil-
dernefs, 1490 B. C.
BESIERS, or Beziers, an ancient and handfome
town of France, in Lower Languedoc, with a bilhop’s
fee, and the title of a vifeounty. It has a delightful
fit nation ; and the country in which it Hands is fertile
in corn, oil, and produces excellent wine. It is feated
B E S [ ii
on a hill near the river Orbe, in E. Long. 3. 23. N. Lat.
43. 21.
BESISTAN, or Berstein : Thus at Conftanti-
nople, Adrianople, and in fome other towns within
the Grand Signior’s dominions, they call thofe places
where the merchants have their (hops, and expofe their
merchandizes to fale. Each fort of merchants have
their particular befiftan, which muft alfo be underftood
of the workmen, all thofe of the fame trade working
in the fame place. Thefe befiftans are commonly large
galleries, vaulted over, whofe gates are fliut every night.
Sometimes the wardens and keepers of the befiftans
will anfwer for the merchandizes, on paying them a
very moderate perquifite for every (hop.
BESLERIA, (from Bafilius Befler an apothecary
at Nuremberg, author of a book intitled Hortis Ey-
J}etenfts)i a genus of the angiofpermia order, belonging
to the didynamia clafs of plants. Of this genus there
are three fpecies, the melittifolia, with branching foot-
ftalksand oval leaves ; the lutea, with fimple foot-ftalks
growing in clufters, and fpear fhaped-leaves ; and the
criftata, with ftalks growing fingle, and a five-leaved
involucrum. All thefe are natives of the warm parts
of America, and cannot be preferved in this country
without artificial heat. But as they are remarkable
neither for beauty nor any other property, we forbear
any particular defcription.
BESORCH, a coin of tin, or fome alloyed metal,
current at Ormus, at the rate of parts of a farthing
fterling.
BESSARABIA, a territory of Turky in Europe,
lying between Moldavia, the Danube, the Black-fea,
and Little Tartary. It is inhabited by independent
Tartars, who maintain themfelves by their cattle, huf-
bandry, and by robbery. Their religion, manners,
andcuftoms, are the fame with thofe of the Crim Tar¬
tars. When there are any force? fent againft them,
they retire among the mountains near the Black-fea,
where it is impoflible to come at them on account of
the'morafles and defiles.
BESSICA, (aiic. geog.), a diftrict of Thrace to¬
wards mount Hajmus to the fouth of the Hebrus. It
was inhabited by a fierce and barbarous people noted
for th^ir robberies. Their chief city Ufcudama is now
known by the name of Adrianople. They lived under
their own kings till the confulate of M. Licinius Lu-
cullus and C. Calfius Varus; when the conful Lucullus
invaded their country, and having gained a great vic¬
tory over them, took their metropolis, and fubje&ed
the whole nation to the Roman laws. The Romans,
notwithftanding they had fubdued them by force of
arms, itill fuffered them to live under their own kings;
for Pifo, while he governed Macedon in quality of pro-
conful, having treacheroufty feized Rabocentus, whom
Suetonius calls prince of the Befli, caufed him to be
publicly beheaded. This affront fo exafperated the
whole nation, that they revolted ; but were overthrown
in a great battle by O&avius the father of Auguftus.
During the civil wars of Rome they attempted anew
to recover their liberty, but were again defeated by the
famous M. Brutus. In the reign of Auguftus one Vo-
logefes, a native of the country, and prieft of Bacchus,
having, under pretence of religion, drawn together
great crowds of people, made himfelf mafter of the
whole country, and, entering the Cherfonefus, com-
31 I BET
mitted there the moft dreadful ravages. He was at
laft, however, overcome by L. Pifo ; who obliged the
favage inhabitants to lay down their arms, and fubmit .
to fuch conditions as he was pleafed to impofe upon
them. From this time the Befii continued fubjeft to
the Romans without attempting any more to regain
their liberty.
BESSIS. See Bes.
BESTAIL, or Bestial, in ancient ftatutes, all
kinds of beafts, or cattle, efpecially thofe purveyed for
the king’s provifion.
BESTIARII, in Roman antiquity, fuch as fought
againft beafts, or thofe who were expofed to them by
fentence of the law. There were four kinds of befti-
arii : the firft were thofe who made a trade of it, and
fought for money ; the fecond were fuch young men as,
to fhew their ftrength and dexterity in managing their
arms, fought againft beafts ; the third kind was, where
feveral beftiarii were let loofe at once, well armed,
againft a number of beafts ; and the fourth kind were
thofe condemned to the beafts, confifting either of ene¬
mies taken prifoners in war, or as being flaves, and
guilty of fome enormous crime ; thofe were all expofed
naked, and without defence.
BESTRICIA, a town of Tranfylvania, remarkable
for the gold mines in its neighbourhood. E. Long.
22. 5. N. Lat. 48. o.
BETA, the Beet; a genus of the digynia order,
belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants.
Species. 1. The maritima, or fea-beet, grows na¬
turally by the fea-fide, and in fait marfties, in many
parts of England, as alfo on the Bafs ifland at the
mouth of the Forth in Scotland. It has been fuppofed
by many to be only a variety of the common white
beet; but Mr Miller affures us he has been unable to
make any variation in them by culture. 2. The hor-
tenfis, or common white beet, is cultivated in gardens
for the fake of its leaves, which are frequently ufed in
foups. The root of this fort feldom grows larger than
a man’s thumb ; the fpikes of flowers come out from
the wings of the leaves, which are long, and have nar¬
row leaves placed between the flowers: The lower
leaves of the plant are thick and fucculent, and their
footftalks broad. The varieties of this are, the white
beet, the green beet, and the Swifs or chard beet.
Thefe will vary from the pne to the other, but have
never been found to change to the firft or third fort.
3. The vulgaris, or red beet, with a pyramidal root,
hath large, thick, fucculent leaves, which are for the
-moft part of a dark-green or purple colour. The
roots of this are large, and of a deep red colour. The
larger thefe roots grow’, the tenderer they are; and the
deeper their colour, the more they are efteemed. The
varieties of this fpecies are, the common red beet, the
turnip-rooted beet, and the green-leaved red beet.
Culture. The common white beet is commonly
fown by itfelf in the beginning of March, upon an
open fpot of ground, not too moift. When the plants
have put out four leaves, the ground fhould be hoed as
is pradlifed for carrots, carefully cutting up all the
weeds, and alfo the plants where they are too near
each other, leaving them at lealt fix inches afunder.
In three weeks or a month’s time the ground Ihould be
hoed a fecond time to cut up the weeds and thin the
plants to a greater dittauce, for by this time they will
BET [ 1132 ] BET
Beta be out of danger ; fo fhould not be left nearer than
?iul or n‘ne inches, if regard is had to the goodnefs
 'LLl   of the leaves ; and if it is of the Swifs kind, with broad
leaves, the plants mud not be nearer than a foot. In
fix weeks after, the ground fliould be hoed over a third
time, whicfy if properly done will deftroyall the weeds.
After this the plants will fpread and prevent the weeds
from growing, therefore will want but little cleaning
for a confiderable time, and the leaves will foon be fit
for ufe. The outer larger leaves fhould be firft gathered,
leaving the fmaller inner ones to grow large; by which
method a fmall fpot of ground will fupply a moderate
family for a whole year, provided the plants are not
allowed to run to feed, for in that cafe they will not
be good.
The red beet is frequently fown with onions, car¬
rots or parfnips; but if thefe are not to be foon removed,
the beets ought to be fown by themfelves. This fort
requires a deep light foil ; the feeds fhould be fown in
March, and muft be treated in the fame manner as the
former fort: but the plants fhould not be left nearer
than a foot diftance, or in a good land a foot and a
balf; for the leaves will cover the ground at that dif¬
tance. The roots will be fit for ufe in autumn, and
continue good all winter ; but in the fpring, when they
begin to {hoot, they will be hard and ftringy.
Medicinal and other ufes. Decoctions of beets gen¬
tly loofen the belly; hence they have been ranked among
the emollient herbs : the plants remaining after the
boiling are fuppofed to have rather a contrary effeCt.
They afford little nourifhment, and are faid by fome
to be prejudicial to the ftomach. The juice expreffed
from the roots is a powerful errhine. The^root of the
red beet is fometirnes ufed to improve the colour of
claret; and Mr Margraff found that good fugar might
be produced from the roots of the white kind by the
methods pra&ifed abroad for procuring it from the fu¬
gar cane. By fome it is reccotnmcnded to cultivate
* See Agri- the white beet in large quantities, as food for cattle*.
culture, BETANZOS, a town of Galicia in Spain, feated
11 i0‘ on the Mandeo, and a bay of the fea, in W. Long. 7.
50. N. Lat. 43. 21.
BETEL, or Betle, in botany, an Indian plant of
great ufe and etleem in the eafl, where it makes a con-
iiderahle article of commerce. It is a creeping and
climbing plant like the ivy ; and its leaves a good deal
refemble thofe of the citron, though they are longer
and narrower at the extremity. It grows in all parts
of India, but thrives belt in moifl places. The na¬
tives cultivate it as we do the vine, placing props for
it to run and climb upon ; and it is a common practice
to plant it againft the tree which bears the areca-nut.
At all times of the day, and even in the night, the
Indians chew the leaves of the betel, the bitternefs of
which is correfted by the areca that is wrapped up in
them. There is conftantly mixed with it the chinam,
a kind of burnt lime made of fliells. The rich frequently
add perfumes, either to gratify their vanity or their
fenfuality.
It would be thought a breach of politenefs among
the Indians to take leave for any long time, without
prefenting ea_ch other with a purfe of betel. It is a
pledge of friendfhip that relieves the pain of abfence.
No one dares to fpeak to a fuperior unlefs his mouth is
perfumed with betel; it would even be rude to negledl
this precaution with an equal. The women of gallan- Betel
try are the. moft lavifh in the ufe of betel, as being a Bct^
powerful incentive to love. Betel is taken after meals;
it is chewed during a vifit ; it is offered when you meet,
and when you feparate ; in fhort, nothing is to be done
without betel. If it is prejudicial to the teeth, it affifts
and {Lengthens the ftomach. At leaft, it is a general
fafhion that prevails throughout India.
BETELFAGUI, a town of Afia, in Arabia Felix,
famous for the vaft quantity of coffee bought and fold
there; being the mart where the country-people bring
their coffee to fell ; and where the Europeans come, or
fend their fa&ors or brokers to purchafe it. E. Long.
57. 20. N. Lat. 15. 40.
BETHLEHEM, a town of Paleftine, famous for
the birth of Jefus Chrift. It was once a flourifhing *;
town, but is now only a poor village. It is feated on
the ridge of a hill, which runs eaft and weft. Here is
a church, built by St Helena, in the form of a crofs,
which is very large ; and from its top may be feen all
the country round about. The roof is lofty, flat, and
compofed of cedar on the infide, and leaded without. |
Both Tides of the nave are fupported by two rows of
marble pillars, each made of one piece, and eleven in a
row, infomuch that they make as it were five naves,
feparated from each other by thefe- rows of pillars, in
each of which is the picture of fome faint. On the wall
over the pillars there is a very beautiful Mofaic work,
on a gold ground. The walls were formerly overlaid
with fine marble, but the Turks have taken it to adorn
their mofques. The three upper ends of the crofs ter¬
minate ^in three femicircles, having in each an altar.
Over the chancel there is a ftately cupola, covered with
lead on the outfide, and within adorned with Mofaic
work. Clofe to the church is the monaftery of the
Francifcans; which is large, but indifferently built.
The gardens are defended with ftrong walls, and at *
the north-weft of them ftands a tower now almoft in
ruins. Their chapel is better taken care of. Through
this there is a paffage to p fquare cave, where they fay
the Innocents were buried. Beyond this there are
paflages to the tombs of St Jerom, St Paula, Eufto-
chium, and Eufebius of Cremona. Beyond thefe there . l)
is a grot or cell, which they fay was the lodging-place
of St Jerom when he tranflated the Bible. Another
entrance leads to a vault or chapel, 12 feet wide and
40 long, whofe floor is paved, and fides lined with
white marble, and the roof is adorned with Mofaic
work, no\V much decayed. At the end of this there is
an arched concavity, with an altar, over which is a
pi&ure of the nativity, and under it a vault, the mid¬
dle of which is a ftar made with ftones of various co¬
lours, to mark the place where they fay our Saviour f
was born ; and near this is the manger where they pre¬
tend he was laid ; it is hewn out of a rock, and is now
flagged with white marble. The few cottages that are
yet ftanding are inhabited by Greeks and Armenians,
who get a poor livelihood by felling the model of the
fepulchre and grot of the nativity to ftrangers, cut in
wood or ftone ; as alfo by attending on pilgrims. Beth¬
lehem is about fix miles weft of Jerufalem. E. Long.
35. 55. N. Lat. 31. 30.
Bethlehem, a town of the Netherlands, in the
province of Brabant, fubjeft to the houfe of Auftria.
E. Long. 4. 40. N. Lat. 51.2.
1
BET [ i
BETHUNE (Maximilian de), duke of Sully, grand-
mafter of the artillery, and marlhal of France, fovereign
prince ofEnrichemont and Bois-Bell, marquis of Rofny,
and one of the ableft and moft upright minifters France
ever had, was defcended from an illuftrious houfe, and
was born in 1560. He entered very young into the
fervice of Henry of Bourbon then king of Navarre,
afterwards Henry IV. of France, who was juft feven
years his elder. He was bred in the reformed religion,
and continued in the profeffion of it to the end of his
life, though from political motives he advifed his mafter
to abjure it, as the only method of putting an end to
the miferies of France. After Henry had gained pof-
fellion of the kingdom, Sully performed all the duties
of a great and good minifter, while his mafter exercifed
all the offices of a great and good king. He had been
at the battles of Contras, Arques, and Ivry ; at the
fieges of Paris, Noyon, Rouen, and Laon ; and fig-
nalized himfelf on every important occafion. In 1597,
he was made chief overfeer of the highways of France;
and the following year, was railed to the poll of fuper-
intendant of the finances. Though he was then but
40 years of age, and had hitherto fignalized himfelf
only in the army, he put the king’s finances in fuch
order, that he paid his debts, which amounted to two
hundred millions of livres, and laid up great fums in
the king’s treafury. In 1601, he was made grand-
mafter of the artillery, the next year governor of the
Baftile, and afterwards fuperintendant of the fortifica¬
tions. He was then fent into England as ambaflador
extraordinary; and had, at his return, the government
of Poiftou. At laft Henry IV. in 1606, ere&ed, in
his favour, the territory of Sully on the Loire into a
duchy and peerage, and made him grand mafter of the
ports and havens. After the murder of that great
prince in 1610, the duke of Sully, who had fervedhim
with the greateft zeal and fidelity, was obliged to re¬
tire to one of his houfes, where he enjoyed a private
life; but in 1634 he was made marfhal of France, upon
which he refigned the poft of grand-mafter of the ar¬
tillery. He died in his caftle of Villebon, on the-2ist
of December, 1641, at 82 years of age. His Me¬
moirs are ranked among the beft books of Frenqh hi-
ftory : they contain a moft particular account of what¬
ever paffed from the peace of 1570, to the death of
Henry IV. in 1610 : and acquire additional value from
the many curious perfonal anecdotes preferred in them.
They were tranflated into Englilh by Mrs Lennox in
1757-
Bethune, a town of France, in Artois, con¬
taining upwards of 5000 inhabitants. There is an en¬
trance into this city through four gates, and it is fur-
rounded with walls and fortified. The city and the
caftle taken together- are of a triangular figure, but the
caftle itfelf is a very irregular building. The houfes
are very indifferent, and the ftreets ill paved; however,
there is a large handfome fquare, and feveral churches.
In the marfhy lands, near the city, there are feveral
canals, cut for the conveniency of whitening linen. It
is feated on a rock by the river Belfe. E. Long. 2.
48. N. Lat. 50. 32.
BETIS, governor of Gaza under Darius, famous
for his valour and loyalty ; he defended a place of con-
fequence with a few men againft Alexander, who was
there (hot through the fhoulder. Betis thinking him
Vou IL
33 ] BET
flain, returned triumphantly to the city; but in a fe-
cond affault he was wounded and brought to Alexander,
who cruelly ordered him to be put to death.
BETLEY, a town of Staffordffiire in England.
It is feated on the confines of the county, next to
Cheftiire, in a barren fandy foil. W. Long. 2. 15.
N. Lat. 53. o.
BETLIS, a ftrong town of Armenia or Turcomania
belonging to a bey or prince of the country, who is
very powerful, and is fubjeft to neither the grand fig-
nior nor king of Perfia. It lies on the road from-Tau-
ris to Aleppo, and the prince can ftop caravans when¬
ever he pleafes; for the paffage between the mountains
is fo narrow, that ten men can defend it againft 1000.
The town is feated between two mountains about a can¬
non Ihot from each other, and the caftle is on an emi¬
nence exaftly in the middle. This eminence is in the
fhape of a fugar loaf; and is fo fteep on all fides, that
it is impoffible to get up but by winding round about
it. The people in and about the town are Ihepherds,
but are ready to take up arms at the command of their
prince. E. Long. 42. 40. N. Lat. 37. 20.
BETONICA, or Vetonica, (from the Vetones
an ancient people of Spain who firft ufed this plant),
betony ; a genus of the gymnofpermia order, belong¬
ing to the didynamia clafs of plants.
Species, See. Of this genus botanical writers enu¬
merate the following fpecies. 1. The officinalis, purple
or wood betony. 2. The danica, or greater Danifli
betony. 3. The alpina, or leaft Alpine betony. 4. The
orientalis, or eaftern betony, wfith very long narrow
leaves, and a thicker fpike of flowers. 5. The incana,
or hoary Italian betony, with a flefti coloured flower.
Of thefe the firft fpecies only deferves notice. It is a
low plant growing in wmods and ftiady places in feveral
parts both of England and Scotland; the flowers come
forth in June and July, of a purplifh colour, and ftand
in fpikes on the top of the ftalks. The leaves and
flowers have an herbaceous, roughiffi, fomewhat bit-
terilh tafte, accompanied with a very weak aromatic
flavour. This herb has been long a favourite among
writers on the materia medica, w'ho have not failed to
attribute to it abundance of good qualities. Experience,
however, does not difeover any other virtue in be¬
tony than that of a mild corroborant: as fuch, an
infufion or light deco&ion of it may be drank as tea ;
or a faturated tin&ure in re&ified fpirits given in fuit-
able dofes, in laxity or debility of the vifeera, and dif-
eafes proceeding from thence. The powder of the
leaves fnuffed up the nofe provokes fneezing; and hence
betony is fometimes made an ingredient in fternutatory
powders : this effedt does not feem to be owing, as is
generally fuppofed, to any peculiar ftimulating virtues
in the herb, but to the rough hairs with which the
leaves are covered. The roots of this plant differ greatly
in their quality from the other parts : their tafte is
very bitter and naufeous; taken in a fmall dofe, they
vomit and purge violently, and are fuppofed to have
fomewhat in, common with the roots of hellebore.
According to Simon Paulli and Bartholinus, this plant
affedts thofe who gather any confiderable quantity of it
with a diforder refembliiig drunkennefs. Its leaves are
fometimes fmoaked like tobacco.
Betonica Aquatica. See Scrophularia.
Betomca Pauli. See Veronica.
7 D BE-
Bedfy
II
Bclonica.
Betony
Uetterton.
BET [ n
BETONY. SeeBETONicA.
BETROTHMENT, a mutual promife or compaft
between two parties for a future marriage. The
word imports as much as giving one’s troth; that is,
true faith, or promife. Betrothment amounts to the
fame with what is called by civilians and canonifts fpon-
falia, or efpoufals ; fometimes dcfponfation, and by the
French jiancaillcs.
BETTERTON (Thomas), the celebratedaftor, was
the fon of Mr Betterton under-cook to King Charles I.
and was born in Tothill-ftreet, Weftminfter, in the year
1635. Having received the firft rudiments of a gen¬
teel education, his fondnefs for reading induced him
to requell of his parents that they would bind him ap¬
prentice to a book-feller, which was readily complied
with, fixing on one Mr Rhodes, near Charing-crofs,
for his mailer. This gentleman, who had been ward¬
robe-keeper to the theatre in Black-friars before the
troubles, obtained a licence in 1659, from the powers
then in being, to fet up a company of players in the
Cock-pit in Drury-Lane, in which company Mr Bet¬
terton entered himfelf, and, though not much above 20
years of age, immediately gave proof of the moll ca¬
pital genius and merit.
Prefently after the reftoration, two diftin£l theatres
were eilablilhed by royal authority; the one in Drury-
Lane in confequence of a patent granted to Henry Kil-
ligrew, Efq ; which was called the king's company : the
other in Lincoln’s-Inn-Fields wdio ftyled themfelves
the duke of Tork's fervants, the patentee of which was
the ingenious Sir William Davenant: which la ft men¬
tioned gentleman having long had a clofe intimacy with
and warm friendlhip for Mr Rhodes, engaged Mr Bet¬
terton, and all who had afted under Mr Rhodes, into
his company; which opened in 1662, with a new play
of Sir William’s, in two parts, called the fege of Rhodes.
In this piece, as well as in the fubfequent charafters
which Mr Betterton performed, he increafed his repu¬
tation and efteem with the public, and indeed became
fo much in favour with king Charles II. that by his
majefty’s fpecial command he went over to Paris, to
take a view of the French ftage, that he might the
better judge what would contribute to the improvement
of our own ; and it was upon this occafipn, as is gene¬
rally fuppofed, that moving feenes were firft introduced
upon the Englilh theatre, which before had been only
hung with tapeftry.
In the year 1670, he married one Mrs Sanderfon,
a female performer on the fame ftage, who, both as an
aftrefs and a woman,, was every thing that human per-
fe&ion was capable of arriving at, and with whom he
through the whole courfe of his remaining life pofleffed
every degree of happinefs that a perfeft union of hearts
can beftow.
When the duke’s company removed to Dorfet-Gar-
dens, he ftill continued with them ; and on the coali¬
tion of the two companies in 1684, he acceded to the
treaty, and remained among them ; Mrs Betterton
maintaining the fame foremoft figure among the wo¬
men,. that her hulband fupported among the male per¬
formers. And fo great was the eftimation that they
were both field in, that in the year 1675, whenapaf-
toral called Califto or the Chafe Nymph, written by
Mr Crown at the defire of queen Catherine confort to
Charles II. -was to be performed at court by perfons
34 1 BET
of the greateft diftin&ion, our Englilh Rofciuswas em¬
ployed to inftruft the gentlemen, and Mrs Betterton
honoured with the tutorage of the ladies, among whom
were the two princeffes Mary and Anne, daughters of
the duke of York, both of whom fucceeded to the
crown of thefe realms. In grateful remembrance of
which, the latter of them, when queen, fettled a pen-
fion of X 00 \. per annum on her old in-ftrudlrefs.
In 1693, Mr Betterton having founded the incli¬
nations of a feledl number of the aftors whom he found
ready to join with him, obtained, through the in¬
fluence of the earl of Dorfet, the royal licence for a6l-
ing in a feparate theatre ; and was very foon enabled,
by the voluntary fubferiptions of many perfons of qua¬
lity, to ereft a new play-houfe within the walls of
the Tennis Court in Lincoln’s-Inn-Fields. To this
ftep Mr Betterton is faid to have been induced, partly
by ill treatment from the managers; and partly with a
view to repair, by the more enlarged profits of a mana¬
ger, the lofs of his whole fortune (upwards of 20001.)
which he had undergone in the year 1692, by adven¬
turing it in a commercial fcheme to the Eaft-Indies. Be
this however as it will, the new theatre opened in 1695,
with Mr Congreve’s Love for Love, the fuccefs bf
which'was amazingly great. Yet in a few years it ap¬
peared that the profits arifing from this theatre, oppo-
fed as it was by all the ftrength of Cibber’s and Van¬
brugh’s writings at the other houfe, were very infignifi-
cant; and Mr Betterton growing now into the infirmities
of age, and labouring under violent attacks of the gout,,
he gladly quitted at once the fatigues of management,,
and the hurry of the ftage.
The public, however, who retained a grateful fenfe
of the pleafure they had frequently received from this
theatrical veteran, and fenfible of the narrownefs of his
circumftances, refolved to continue the marks of their
efteem to him, by giving him a benefit. On the 7tir
of April 1709, the comedy of Love for Love was per¬
formed for that purpofe, in which this gentleman him¬
felf, though then upwards of 70 years of age, adled-
the youthful part of Valentine ; as in the September
following he did that of Hamlet, his performance of
which the author of the Tatler has taken a particular
notice of. On the former occafion, thofe very emi¬
nent performers, Mrs Barry, Mrs Bracegirdle,, and
Mr Dogget, who had all quitted the ftage fome years
before, in gratitude to one whom they had had fo many
obligations to, a&ed the parts of Angelica, Mrs Frail,,
and Ben ; and Mr Rowe wrote an epilogue for that
night, which was fpoken by the two ladies, fupport-
ing between them this once powerful fupporter of the
Englilh ftage. The profits of this night are faid to
have amounted to upwards of 500 L the prices having
been raifed to the fame that the operas and oratorios are
at prefent; and when the curtain drew up, almoft as
large an audience appearing behind as before it.
The next winter Mr Betterton was prevailed on by
Mr Owen M'Swinney, then manager of the opera
houfe in the Hay market (at which plays were a£ted
four times a-week), to continue performing, tho’ but
feldom. In confequence of which, in the enfuing
fpring, viz. on the 25th of April 1710, another play
was given out for, this gentleman’s benefit, viz. The
Maid's "Tragedy of Beaumont and Fletcher, in which
he himfelf performed his celebrated part of Melanthus.
This*
B E T [ ii
ton This, however, was the laft time of his appearing up-
la on the ftage. For having been fuddenly feized with
  the gout, ajid being impatient at the thoughts of difap-
pointing his friends, he made life of outward applica¬
tions to reduce the fwellings of his feet, which enabled
him to walk on the itage, though obliged to have his
foot in a flipper. But although he afted that day with
unufual fpirit and briflcnefs, and met with univerfal ap-
_plaufe, yet he paid very dear for this tribute he had
paid to the public; for the fomentations he had made
ufe of occafioning a revulfion of the gouty humour to
v the nobler parts, threw the diftemper up into his head,
and terminated his life on' the 28th of that month. On
the 2d of May his body was interred with much cere¬
mony in the cloyfter of Weftminfter, and great honour
paid to his memory by his friend the Tatler, who has
related in a very pathetic, and at the fame time the
moft dignified manner, the procefs of the ceremonial.
As an author, Mr Betterton had a confiderable de¬
gree of merit. His dramatic works are, j. Amorous
Widow, a comedy. 2. Dioclefian, a dramatic opera.
3. Mafque in the Opera of the Prophetefs. 4. Re¬
venge, a comedy. 5. Unjuft Judge, a tragedy. 6.
Woman made a Juftice, a comedy.
As an attor, he was certainly one of the greateft of
either his own or any other age; but thofe who are
defirous of having him painted out in the moft lively
colours to their imagination, we muft refer to the de-
feription given of him by his cotemporary and friend
Colley Cibber, in the Apology for his own life. And
as a man, it is fcarcely poffible to fay more, and it would
be injuftxce to fay lefs, than that he was as unblemilhed
a pattern of private and focial virtues, as he was a per-
feft model of theatrical a&ion and dramatic execution.
BETUE, or Betaw, a territory of the Low Coun¬
tries in the duchy of Guelderland, between the rivers
Rhine and Leek. The ground is very moift, and the
rains often render the roads impaffible. It is divided
into the Upper and Lower.
BETULA, the Birch-tree ; a genus of the te-
trandria order, belonging to the moncecia clafs of plants.
Species. 1. The alba, or common birch-tree, is fo
well known as to need no defeription. 2. The nana,
or dwarf-birch, with roundifti leaves, grows naturally
in the northern parts of Europe, and on the Alps. It
feldom rifes above two or three feet high, having flen-
der branches garniftied with round leaves, but feldom
produces flowers here. It is preferved in fome curious
gardens for the fake of variety, but is a plant of no ufe.
3. Thelenta, with oblong, pointed, heart-lhaped, fawed
leaves. 4. The nigra, or black Virginia birch-tree.
Both thefe are natives of North America. In Canada
they grow to a large fize, and the third fort is there
called merifier. 5 The alnus, or alder-tree. Of this
there are two varieties, one with round leaves, and the
other with long ones.
Culture. The firft fort is not much efteemed for its
wood; but, however, may be cultivated to advantage
upon barren land where better trees will not thrive ;
for there is no foil fo bad but this tree will thrive in it.
It will grow in moift fpringy land, or in dry gravel or
fand where there is little furface; fo that upon ground
which produced nothing but mofs, thefe trees have
been known to fucceed fo well as to be fit for cutting
ki ten years after they were planted. The beft method
35 ] BET
of railing thefe trees is, to procure the young plants
from the woods where they naturally grow, and where
they are ufually found in great plenty; but in places
where thefe young plants cannot be procured, they may
be raifedfrom feeds, which ftiould be carefully gathered
in the autumn as foon as the feales under which they
are lodged begin to open, otherwife they will foon fall
out and be loft. The feeds are fmall, fo ftiould not be
buried deep in the ground. The beft time for flowing
them is in the autumn in dry ground, and the fpring
in moift. The plants will thrive better in a ftiady fi-
tuation than if expofed to the fun. If the wild plants
are ufed, they ought to be taken up carefully, fo as
not to injure their roots. The ground where they are
to be planted requires no preparation ; all that is ne-
ceflary to be done is to loofen the foil with a fpade or
mattock in the places where the plants are to ftand,
making holes to receive their roots, covering them a-
gain when the plants are placed, and clofing the earth
hard to their roots. If the plants are young, and have
not much top, they will require no pruning; but where
they have buftiy heads, they ftiould be fhortened to pre¬
vent their being ftiaken and difplaced by the wind.
Wherl the plants have taken root, they will require no
other care but to cut down the great weeds which
would overhang them. This need not be repeated
oftener than twice in a fummer the firft two years ; af¬
ter which the plants will be ftrong enough to keep
down the weeds, or at leaft be out of danger from them.
Thefe trees may be planted any time from the middle
of Oftober to the middle of March when the ground
is not frozen. They ought to be planted four met di-
ftance from each other, that they may foon cover the
ground, and by Handing clofe they will draw one ano¬
ther up. If the plants take kindly to the ground, they
will be fit to cut in about ten years; and afterwards
they may be cut every feventh or eighth year if defigned
for the broom-makers only ; but if defigned for hoops,
they fhould not be cut oftener than every twelfth year.
The nana, lenta, and nigra, are to be propagated in the
fame manner ; but the alder maybe propagated either
by layers, or planting truncheons about three feet high.
The beft time for £his is in February, or the beginning
of March. They ftiould be ftiarpened at one end, and
thruft at leaft two feet deep in the ground, to prevent
their being blown out of it after they have made ftrong
ftioots. The beft time for laying down the branches
is in the month of October, and they may be tranf-
planted in OiStober following.
Ufes. In fome of the northern parts of Europe the
wood of the birch is much ufed for making carriages
and wheels, being hai'd and of long duration. In
France it is generally ufed for making wooden ftioes,
and in Britain for making womens ftioe-heels, packing-
boxes, brooms, hoops, &c. It alfo makes very good
fuel, and is planted along with hazel to make charcoal
for forges. The bark of the birch tree feems in a man¬
ner incorruptible. In Sweden the houfes are covered
with it, and it lafts many years. It frequently hap¬
pens that the wood is entirely rotten, when the bark
is perfedly found and good. In Kamtfchatka it is ufed
for making drinking cups. It abounds with arefinous
matter, to which its durability is certainly owing. In
confequence of this matter, it is highly inflammable;
and in the northern countries torches are made of this
7 D 2 bark
B E V [ 1136 ] B E V
Betula bark fliced and twifted together. The bark itfelf con- ing to a mould which is laid on one fide of its furface.
II fifts of two different fubftances; athick brittle brownifh « In order to hew any piece of timber to its proper ^
Bevelling. re(j one . ail(j feverai vcry thin, fmooth, white, tranf- bevel, it will be neceffary, firft, to make one fide fair _
arent membranes. In thefe laft the inflammable and ok# of 'winding} a term ufed to fignify that the
property refides. The thick brittle part is lefs refi- fide of a timber fhould be a plane. If this fide be up-
nous, and has a roughifli tafte. It has been thought permoft, and placed horizontally, or upon a level, it
to poffefs fome medical virtues, but concerning thefe is plain, if the timber is to be hewed fquare, it may be
experience has as yet determined nothing certain. Upon done by a plummet and line; but if the timber is not
deeply wounding or boring the trunk of the tree in hewed fquare, the line will not touch both the upper
the beginning of fpring, a fweetifh juice iffues forth, and lower edge of the piece ; or if a fquare be applied
fometimes, as is faid, in fo large quantity as to equal the to it, there will be wood wanting either at the upper
weight of the whole tree and root; one branch will bleed or lower fide. This is called 'within or 'without a fquare.
a gallon or more in a day. This juice is recommended in When the wood is deficient at the under-fide, it is call-
fcorbutic diforders, and other foulncffes of the blood ; ed under-bevelling ; and when it is deficient on the up-
its mod fenfible effeil is to promote the urinary dif- per-fide, it is called Jlanding-bevelling „• and this deii-
charge. By proper fermentation with the additipn of ciency will be more or lefs according to the depth of
fugar, this juice makes a pleafant wine. The birch- the piece; fo that before the proper bevellings of the
tree is faid to be prejudicial to pafturage. _ timbers are found, it will be fometimes very convenient
The alder tree flourilhes beft in low marfhy fituations, to afiign the breadth of the timbers ; nay, in moft ea¬
rn which it is frequently planted to make hedges, and fes it will be abfolutely necefiary, efpecially afore and
is alfo of great ufe for fecuring the banks of rivers, abaft: tho’ the breadth of two timbers, or the timber
Grafs grows well beneath its fhade: the wood is foft and room, which includes the two timbers and the
and brittle; but lafts a long time under water, and fpace between them, may be taken without any fenfible
confequently is of ufe for pipes, and to lay under the error, as far as the fquare body goes. For as one line
foundations of buildings fituated upon bogs: womens reprefents the moulding-fide of two timbers, the fore-
thoe-heels, ploughman’s clogs, and various articles of fide of the one being Tuppofed to unite with the aft-
the turner kind, are made of it. The bark gives a red fide of the other ; the two may be confidered as one
colour, and with the addition of copperas a black': it entire piece of timber.’ Murray s Ship-building.
is chiefly ufed by fiihermen to ftain their nets. In BEVERAGE, in a general fenfe, fignifies a drink.
the Highlands of Scotland near Dundonnel, Mr Pen- Hence neftar is faid to be the beverage of the gods. In
nant fays the boughs cut in the fummer, fpread over writers of the middle age, beverage, beveragium, or
the fields, and left to rot in the winter, are found to biberagium, denotes money given to an artificer, or
anfwer as a manure. In March, the ground is cleared other perfon, to drink, over and above his hire or wages,
of the undecayed parts, and then ploughed. The frelh BEVERIDGE (William), alearnedEngliflibifhop,
gathered leaves are covered with a glutinous liquor; ;n the beginning of the 18th century, was born in the
and fome people ftrewthem on their floors to kill fleas, year 1638, and educated in St John’s college, Cam-
Thefe infe&s are faid to be entangled in the glutinous bridge, where he dillinguiihed himfelf very early by
liquor of the leaves, as birds are by birdlime. The his extenfive learning, and particularly by his knowledge
whole plant is aftringent, and its bark has been recom- of the oriental languages. Upon the deprivation of
mended in intermittent fevers. Horfes, cows, goats, Dr Thomas Ken, bilhop of Bath and Wells, for not
and ftieep, eat all the fpecies of betula ; but fwine re- taking the oaths to the government in 1691, he refufed
fufe them. the offer of that fee, tho’ he was then chaplain to king
BETULEIUS (Sixtus), an able grammarian, a William and queen Mary. In 1704 he was confecrated
good Latin poet, and philofopher, born at Memmin- to the bifliopric of St Afaph; in which high function
gin, in the year 1500; his true name was Birck. He he fo behaved himfelf all along, and difeharged it in
taught the belles lettres and philofophy with reputation; f0 exemplary a manner, that he approved himfelf a truly
and became principal of the college of Auglburg, primitive prelate. He died at his lodgings in the Cloi-
where he died on the 16th of June, 1554- He pub- flers in Weftminfter-abbey, in 1707, aged 71. As
lifhed feverai works in profe ; and his dramatic pieces his whole life was fpent in ads of piety apd charity, fo
of Jofeph, Sufannah, and Judith, are efleemed. he gave remarkable inftances of both at his death,
BEVECUM, a town of the Auftrian Netherlands, leaving the bulk of his eftate for the propagation of
in the province of Brabant. E. Long. 4. 50. N. Lat. the gofpel, and promoting of Chriftian knowledge, at
jo, 4j. home as well as abroad. His Private Thoughts upon
BEVEL, among mafons, carpenters, &c. a kind a Chriftian Life, Js delervedly a very popular book,
of fquare, one leg whereof is frequently crooked, ac- He wrote feverai other ufeful and learned works on va-
cording to the fweep of an arch or vault. It is move- rious fubjeds, particularly on the oriental tongues,
able on a centre, and fo may be fet to any angle. BEVERLAND (Hadrian), a man of excellent ge-
BEVEL-/^«^/e, any other angle befides thole of 90 niUs in the end of the 16th century, but who proftituted
er 45 degrees. See Angle. it in the ftudy and compofition of books of a very ob-
BEVELAND (NorthandSouth), two iflands inthe noxious kind. He was a perfed mafter of Ovid, Ca-
province of Zealand, between the eaftern and weftern tullus, Petronius, and authors of that ftamp. He is
branches of the river Scheld, making part of the Uni- famous for his book on Original Sin, in which he
ted Provinces. maintained, that Adam’s fin confifted in his commerce
BEVELLING, in fhip-building, the art of hew- with his wife, and that original fin is nothing elfe
ing a timber with a proper and regular curve, accord- but the inclination of the fexes to each other : it was
con-
B E V [ 1137 ] B E V
' < y, condemned to be burnt. He led a fcandalous life, but tumults and confufions that prevailed in the church, Beverungen
s [7* feems to have repented of his wicked manners and lewd divefled himfelf of his epifcopal charafter, and retired II.
r«! writings ; for he publilhed a treatife in the end of his to Beverly ; where he died four years after, on the 7th of £Vin‘
1 life, De Fornicatione cavenda, in 1698. It is faid he May, 721. —Bede and other monki/h writers afcribe
o , died mad. feverai miracles to him. Between 300 and 400 years
BEVERLEY, a town of Yorkfhire, governed by after his death, his body was taken up by Alfric arch-
;5 , a mayor, a recorder, 12 aldermen, &c. and fends two bifhop of York, and placed in a fhrine richly adorned
t members to parliament. The minfter here is a very with filver, gold, and precious (tones: and in 1416,
.( fair and neat ftru&ure, and the roof is an arch of the day of his death was, by a fynod held at London,
( 1 (tone ; in it are feverai monuments of the Percies, earls appointed a feftival. We are told that William the
> of Northumberland, who had added a little chapel to Conqueror, when he ravaged Northumberland with a
> the choir, in the windows whereof there are feverai numerous army, fpared Beverly alone, out of a reli-
pidtures of that family painted on glafs ; at the upper gious veneration for St John of that place. This pre-
1 1) end of the choir, at the right of the altar-place, (lands late wrote fome pieces, which are mentioned by Bale
t -j the freed-ftool, made of one entire (lone, to which and Pits, viz. 1. Pro Luca exponenda. 2. Homilix in
' everyone that fled had a right of prote&ion ; at the Evaugelia. 3. Epiftola ad Hildam Abbatijfam. 4. E-
| upper end of the body of the church, next the choir, pifioU ad Herebaldumy Andenum, et Bertinum.
hangs an ancient table, with the pi6lure of king Athel- BEVERUNGEN, a town of Germany, in the
I (lane, who founded the church; between them is this diocefe of Paderborn, feated at the confluence of the
I infeription : Als free ma-ke I thee, rivers Beve and Wefer, in E. Long. 9. 30. N. Lat.
As heart car. with, or egh can fee. ^ j. ^0-
Ij Hence the inhabitants pay no toll in any town or port BEVILE, in heraldry, a thing broken or opening
I in England. In the body of the church (lands an an- like a carpenter’s rule: Thus we fay, he beareth argent,
I cient monument, called the virgins'* totnb, becaufe two a chief bevile, vert, by the name of beverlis.
I virgin-fifters lie buried there, who gave the town a. BEVIN (Elway), a mufician eminently (killed in
I piece of land, into which any free man may put three the knowledge of practical compofition, flouriflied to-
I milk cows from Lady-day to Michaelmas; at the wards the end of queen Elizabeth’s reign. He was of
1 lower end of the body of the church is a large font WeKh extraction, and had been educated under Tallis,
1 of agate (lone. upon whofe recommendation it was that, in 15.89, he
Near the minfter, on the fouth fide of it, is a place was fworn in, gentleman extraordinary of the chapel;
| called Hall-Garth, w'herein they keep a court of record, from whence he was expelled in 1637, it being difeo-
| called ProvoJPs-court ; in this caufes arifmg within the vered that he adhered to the Romifli communion. He
;| liberties may be tried for any fum. The liberties con- was alfo organift of Briftol cathedral, but forfeited
tain above 100 towns and parts of towns, in Hoi- that employment at the fame time with his place in the
I dernefle and other parts of the eaft-riding belonging chapel. Child, afterwards do&or, was his fcholar.
I to it. The town is a mile in length, having pleafant He has compofed fundry fervices, and a few anthems. Hawkins's
I fprings running quite through it. It is beautified with Before Bevin’s time the precepts for the compofition of Hft-
I two (lately churches; and has a free-fehool, with two canon were known to few. Tallis, Bird, Waterhoufe,
I fellowftiips, fix fcholarftiips, and three exhibitions in and Farmer, were eminently (killed in this moll abftrufe
j St John’s college, Cambridge, belonging to it; befides part of mufical pra&ice. Every canon as given to the
| fix alms-houfes, where none are admitted but thofe that public, was a kind of enigma. Compofitions of this
1 give bond to leave their effe&s to the poor when they kind were fometimes exhibited in the form of a crofs,
| die. The principal trade of this town is making malt, fometimes in that of a circle : there is now extant one
I oat-meal, and tanned leather ; and the poor people refembling a horizontal.fun-dial; and the (as
i chiefly fupport themfelves by making bone-lace. A- it was called) of a canon, which was the refolving it in
I bout a mile eaft from the town, there is a mineral wa- toils elements, and reducing it into fcore, was deemed
| ter, which cures eruptions of the (kin, and is benefi- a work of almoft as great difficulty as the original
j cial in the king’s evil. E. Long. o. 9. N. Lat. 53. compofition : but Bevin, with a view to the improve-
8 50. ment of (ludents, generoufly communicated the refult
BEVERLY (John of), in Latin Joannes Beverla- of many years ftudy and experience in a treatife which
| cius, archbiftiop of York in the eighth century, was is highly commended by all who have taken occafion
I born of a noble family, at Harpham, in Northumbcr- to fpeak of it. This book was publilhed in 410, 1631,
I land, and was juftly efteemed one of the bed fcholars and dedicated to Goodman biffiop of Gloucefter, with
I of his time. He was firft a monk, and afterwards the following title : ‘ A briefe and ffiort inftrudtion of
1 abbot of the monaftery of St Hilda, when his merit 1 the art of muficke, to teach how to make difeant of
I recommended him to the favour of Alfred king of ‘ all proportions that are in ufe: very necelfary for all
I Northumberland, who, in the year 685, advanced him * fuch as are defirous to attain to knowledge in the art;
j to the fee of Haguftald, or Hexham, and, in €87, ‘ and may by praftice, if they can ling, foone be able
1; tranflated him to the archbiftiopric of York. This ‘ to compofe three, four, and five parts, and alfo to
| prelate was tutor to the famous Bede; and lived in the * compofe all forts of canons that are ufuall, by thefe
II ilridleft friendftup with Acca and other Anglo-Saxon ‘ directions of two or three parts in one upon the
I dodors, feverai of whom he engaged to write comments ‘ plain fang.’ The rules contained in this book for
on the Holy Scriptures. In 704, he founded a college compofition in general are very brief; but for the com¬
at Beverly, for fecular priefts ; and after he had go- pofition of canon there are in it a gi-eat variety of ex-
verued the fee of York 34 years, being tired of the amples of almoft all the poffible forms in which it is
capa-
TBewdly
I!
B E Z [ 1138 ] B E Z
capable of being conllrufted, even to the extent of 60
parts.
BEWDLY, a town of Worcefterfhire in England,
feated on the bank of the river Severn, in W. Long.
2. 20. N. Lat. 52. 25. It has its name Bewdley,
Bsanvley, or Beaulieu, from its pleafant fituation on the
declivity of a hill overlooking the river, and command¬
ing a fine profpedt of the country, and formerly of the
foreft. of Wyre, remarkable for its tall {lately oaks and
other trees, which have fince been either blown or cut
down. It was formerly- accounted fo delightful a place,
that Henry VH. built a houfe here for prince Arthur,
which he called Tiken-hall. Bewdley fent burgefles to
parliament very early, and had charters and great pri¬
vileges from Edward IV. and Henry VII. which were
confirmed, with the addition of others, by Henry VIII.
in whofe time it was annexed to the county of Wor-
cefter. King James I. granted it a charter ; of which
a furrender was procured in Charles II.’s time, and
the corporation was new-modelled. King James II.
compelled it to accept of a new charter; but the
former furrender, upon a trial, was held void, and a
new charter -was obtained of queen Anne. In confe-
quence of this it is governed by a bailiff and burgeffes,
recorder, fteward, town-clerk, &c. The town is neat
and well built; and carries on a confiderable trade, by
means of the Severn, in fait, glafs, iron ware, and
Manchefter goods; but its chief manufafture is in
caps, commonly called Monmouth caps. It has a good
market for corn, malt, leather, and hops.
BEWITS, in falconry, pieces of leather, to which
a hawk’s bells are faftened, and buttoned to his legs.
BEY, among the Turks, fignifies a governor of a
country or town. The Turks write it begh, or bek, but
pronounce it bey.
This word is particularly applied to a lord of a ban¬
ner, whom, in the fame language, they call fangiac
beg or bey. Every province in Turky is divided into
feven fangiacs, or banners, each of which qualifies a
bey ; and thefe are all commanded by the governor of
the province, whom they alfo call begler-beg, that is,
lord of all the beghs or beys of the province : thefe
beys are much the fame as bannerets were formerly in
England.
Bey of Tunis, the fame with the dey of Algiers, is
the prince or king of that kingdom.
1 BEYS (Giles), a celebrated printer at Paris, in the
16th century, and the firft introducer of the confonants
j and v.
BEZA (Theodore),'one of the principal pillars of
the reformed church, was born at Vezelai, in Burgun¬
dy, June 24th, 1519. He was brought up by his
uncle Nicholas de Beza, counfellor of the parliament
of Paris, till the month of December, 1528, when he
fent him to ftudy at Orleans, and afterwards at
Bourges, where he was under the care of Melchior
Wolmar, under whom he made an extraordinary pro-
grefs in polite learning, and from him imbibed the
principles of Calvinifm. His uncle intended him for
the bar; but the law not fuiting his difpofition, he
fpent moft of his time in reading the Greek and Latin
authors, and in compofing verfes. In 1539, he took
up his licentiate’s degree, and went to Paris. He fell
into fnares in his youth, and wrote fome licentious
things. Sicknefs awakened him; and he purfued a
vow he had formerly made, of entering into the re¬
formed religion. According to this refolution he went
to Geneva, and made’public profeffion of the reformed
religion. In 1549, he accepted of the Greek pro-
feflbrfhip at Laufanne, where he alfo read le£tures in
French on the New Teftament to the refugees of both
fexes who dwelt in that city. Having fettled at Geneva,
he adhered to Calvin in the ftridtelt manner, and be¬
came in a little time his colleague in the church and in
the univerfity. He was fent to Nerac, at the felicita¬
tion of fome great men of the kingdom, to convert
the king of Navarre, and to confer with him upon af¬
fairs of importance. This was when the Guifes had
got the authority under the reign of Francis II. to the
prejudice of the princes of the blood. The king of
Navarre having teftified, both by letters and deputies,
that he defired that Beza might affift at the conference
of Poiffi, the fenate of Geneva confented. The af-
fembly hearkened attentively to his harrangue, till,
fpeaking of the real prefence, he faid, that the body
of Jefus Chrift was as diftant from the br,ead and wine,
as the higheft heaven is from the earth. This made a
murmur: fome cried out, Blajphemavit! others got up
to go away. Cardinal de Tournon, who fat in the
firft place, defired the king and queen either to filence
Beza, or to permit him and his company to withdraw.
The king did not ftir, nor any of the princes, and
leave was given to go on. Throughout the whole con¬
ference he behaved himfelf with great ability. He
often preached before the queen of Navarre, the prince
of Conde, and in the fuburbs of Pails. After the
maflacre of Vaffi, he was deputed to the king to com¬
plain of this violence. The civil war followed foon
after, during which the prince of Conde kept him
with him; and while the prince was imprifoned, he
lived with admiral de Coligni, and did not return to
Geneva till after the peace, 1563. In 1571, he was
chofen moderator at the national fynod of Rochelle ;
and the year after, aflifted at that of Nifmes ; after
this, he aflifted at the conferences of Montheliard, and
at thofe of Bern. The infirmities of old age be¬
ginning to fall heavy upon him in 1597, he could fel-
dom fpeak in public ; and at laft he left it off entirely
in the beginning of the year 1600. However, in 1597,
he wrote fome animated verfes againft the Jefuits, on
occafion of the report that was made of his death, and
of his having before he died made profefiion of the
Roman faith. He lived till the 13th of Oftober, 1605.
He was a man of extraordinary merit, and one who
did great fervices to the Proteftant caufe. This, how¬
ever, expofed him to innumerable flanders and calum¬
nies ; but he {hewed both to the Catholics and Luthe¬
rans, that he underftood how to defend himfelf. He
wrote, 1. A Tranflation of the New Teftament;
2. Turned the Pfalms into Latin verfe ; 3. Publilhed
a Treatife on the Sacraments; 4. Some Sermons on
on the Paflion of Jefus Chrift and on Solomon’s Song;
5. A Verfion of the Canticles, in lyric verfe; 6. A
French tragi-comedy, intitled. The Sacrifice of Abra¬
ham ; and many other pieces.
BEZANS, cotton cloths, which come from Ben¬
gal ; fome are white, and others ftripped with feveral
colours.
BEZANTLER, the branch of a deer’s horns next
below the brow-antler.
BE-
B E Z [ i!
!'. BEZOAR, in natural hiftory and medicine, a ge-
rf"1 neral name for certain animal-fubftances fuppofed to be
i| elfedlual in preventing the fatal confequences of poifon.
|! The word comes from the Perfian baclzcber, bazcher,
31 or pahazar, which fignifies an antidote.
The firft mention made of bezoar is in Avenzoar,
I an Arabian phyfician, who gives a very romantic ac-
) | count of its origin. He defcribes it as generated of
| the tears or gum of the eyes of ftags ; who, after eat-
! ing ferpents, ufed to run into the water up to the nofe,
I where they ftood till their eyes began to ooze a hu-
I mour, which, collefting under the eyelids, gradually
I thickened and coagulated, till, being grown hard, it
i was thrown off by the animal in rubbing frequently.
I Other opinions no lefs fabulous obtained till the time
I of Garcias al Horto, phyfician to the Portuguefe vice-
I roy of the Indies, who gave the firft genuine account
I of it. Kempfer afterwards gave a defcription of it, with
I fome new particulars.
[ The bezoar is a calculous concretion found in the
a '>ra. ftomach of certain animals of the goat kind *. It is
compofed of concentrical coats furrounding one ano¬
ther, with a little cavity in the middle, containing a
i bit of wood, ftraw, hair, or the like fubftances.
There are two forts of bezoar; one brought from
Perfta and the Eaft Indies, the other from the Spanifh
Weft Indies. The firft or beft fort, called oriental be¬
zoar, is of a Alining dark-green or olive colour, and
an even fmooth furface ; on removing the outward coat,
that which lies underneath it appears likewife fmooth
and (hining. The occidental has a rougfti furface, and
lefs of a green colour than the foregoing ; it is likewife
much heavier, more brittle, and of a loofer texture ;
the coats are thicker, and on breaking exhibit a num¬
ber of ftriae curiouAy interwoven. The oriental is ge¬
nerally lefs than a walnut ; the occidental for the moft
part larger, and fometimes as big as a goofe egg. The
firft is univerfally moft efteeifted, and is the only fort
now retained by the London college : the Edinburgh,
in the edition of their pharmacopoeia preceding the pre-
fent, dire&ed both ; but they now feem to allow them
to be ufed promifeuoufiy, retaining in their catalogue
only the name bezoar lapis.
This ftone is in high efteem among the Perfians, and
even of greater value than in Europe ; which, with
fundry other circumftances needlefs to relate here, has
given dccafion to many to fufpeft, that the true bezoar
is never brought to us. Some authors relate with great
confidence, that all the ftones commonly fold under this
name are artificial compofitions. That fome of them
are fo, is evident; hence the great difierences in the
accounts which different perfons have given of their
qualities : the ftones examined by Slare as oriental be¬
zoar did not diffolve in acids ; thofe which Grew and
! Boyle made trial of, did ; thofe employed by Geoffroy
(in fome experiments related in the French memoirs
1710) did not feem to be adled on by rectified fpirit;
| yehilft fome of thofe examined by Neumann at Berlin
almoft totally diflblved therein. The common mark
of the goodnefs of this ftone, is its ftriking a deep green
I colour on white paper that has been rubbed with chalk.
Bezoar was not known to the ancient Greeks, and
is firft taken notice of by the Arabians, (as above men¬
tioned), who extol it in a great variety of diforders,
particularly againft poifons. Later writers alfo beftow
39 ] B E Z
extraordinary commendations on it as a fudorific and ,
alexipharmac ; virtues to which it certainly has no pre- Bezoar<!:'
tence. It has no fmell or tafte, is not digeftible in the
ftomach of the animal in which it is found, and is fcarce.
capable of being ailed on by any of the juices of the
human body. It cannot be coniidered in any other
light than as an abforbent ; and is much the weakeft
of all the common fubftances of that clafs. It has been
given to half a dram, and fometimes a whole dram,
without any fenfible effeft ; though the general dofe
(on account of its great price) is only a few grains.
Bezoar, in a more extenfive fenfe, includes all fub¬
ftances formed ftratum fuper ftratum in the ftomachs or
inteftines of animals ; in which fenfe pearls, the con¬
cretions called crabs-eyes, &c. belong to the clafs of
bezoars. To this alfo belong the hippolithus, or be¬
zoar equinum, a ftone fometimes found in the ftomach
or inteftines of a horfe ; the monkey-bezoar, a ftone
faid to be found in the ftomachs of certain monkeys in
Brazil and the Eaft Indies, harder than the oriental be¬
zoar, of a dark-green colour, and vel y coftly on ac¬
count of its fcarcity.—Bezoar bovinum, is a yellowifii
ftone found in the ox’s gall-bladder..—Human bezoars
are ftony fubftances found in the inteftines of feveral
perfons, formed from the ftones of plums, or other
fruits, retained in the caecum or other guts, and grow¬
ing coated over, of which we have an inftance given
by Dr Cole, Phil. Tranf. n° 235.—Bezoar mierocofnit-
cum is the fame with the human calculus ; and is vari¬
ous in its degrees of hardnefs, as well as in its fize and
figure. It has been ufed in the place of the more coftly
forts.—As to the bezoar hyjlricis, a concretion found
in the gall-bladder of an Indian porcupine ; and the
German bezoar, or that found in mountain-deer, Spe¬
cially on the Alps; thefe, not being ftones, are more »
properly called by late writers eegagropiLe * ; the for- * See
mer confifting of woolly fibres, and a bitter friable
matter, having neither laminae nor membranes; the
latter being a ball of hair or herbs, or perhaps roots,
compared in the ftomach of the animal They are all,
as medicines, unworthy of regard. The bezoar bovi¬
num, or ox-bezoar, is ufed by miniature-painters ia
feveral cafts of yellow- 0
JbzzoAia-mineral. See Pharmacy, n® 794 
From this preparation, mixed with other metals va¬
rious ways, arife other compound bezoardics ; as, the
bezoardicum folare, lunale, martiale, joviale, &c. or
bezoar with gold, with filver, with iron, with tin, &c.
in difrepute. The laft differs very little from the me//-
hetiicum Potcrii, an exploded medicine.
Bezoar, is a kind of figured ftone, formed,
like the animal bezoar, of feveral coats or ftrata ranged
round fome ‘extraneous body which forms a nucleus,
and fuppofed to have the fame virtues. It is found
chiefly in Sicily, in fand and clay pits. It is of a pur¬
ple colour, with a rough furface, the fize of a walnut,
and light. When broken, it is found to be an irony
cruft, containing in its hollow a fine greenifti white earth
refembling pale bezoar. The earth is ufed, and not the
(hells. It feems to be 9! the pature of bole armeniac.
It is alfo called Sicilian earth..
BEZOARDIC, an appellation given to whatever
partakes of the nature of bezoar ; alfo to compound
medicines whereof bezoar makes an ingredient.
Bezoardic Powder. See Pharmacy, n° 814.
BIA„
B I A [ 1140 ] BIB
"Ria "BIA, in commerce, a name given by the Siamefe
II to tbofe fmall fhells which are called cowries throughout
B,as‘ almoft all the other parts of the Eaft: Indies f.
See Cjw- ■ "' BliEUM, in rhetoric, denotes a kind of
ties. counter-argument, whereby fomething alleged for the
adverfary is retorted againft him, and made to conclude
a different way : for inftance, OccidiJU, quia adjiitifti
interfefto.—/’lawt-, Immo quia [adJUti interfeBoy non oc-
cidi; natn ft id effet, in fugam me conjeciffem. “ You
killed the perfon, becaufe you were found (landing by
liis body. Bijeuttiy Rather I did not kill him becaufe
I was found Handing by his body; fince, in the other
cafe, I fhould have fled away.”
Bi^um, in the Grecian laws, was an aftion brought
again ft thofe who ravifhed women, or ufed violence to
any man’s perfon.
BIAFAR, or Biafra, a kingdom of Africa, fitu-
ated to the eaft of Benin, to the weft of Medra, from
which it is divided by a chain of mountains, and ex¬
tending fouthward to the fourth degree of north lati¬
tude. The natives are the moft of all negroes addi&ed
to, and infatuated with, magic; imagining themfelvcs
capable of caufing rain, thunder, and lightning : there¬
fore they worfhip the devil with great zeal, and even
facrifice their children to him.
BIAFORA, in the cuftoms of the middle age, a
form of cry, or alarm to arms ; on the hearing whereof,
the inhabitants of towns or villages were to iffue forth,
and attend their prince. The word feems originally
from Gafcony ; and the Italians even now, on a fudden
infurrediion of the people, commonly cry, Via-fora,
by an ufual change of the letter B into V.
BIARCHUS, an officer in the court of the em¬
perors of Conftantinople, intrufted with the care and
infpedlion of the provifions of the foldiery.
BIALOGOROD, or Akerman, a ftrong town of
Beflarabia, in European Turky. It is feated on a lake
called Vidono, near the fea fide; in E. Long. 22. 50.
N. Lat 46. 24.
BIANA, a town of Afia in the dominions of the
Great Mogul, remarkable for its excellent indigo. E.
Long. 77. o. N. Lat. 26. 20.
BIANCHINI (Francis), @ne of the moft learned
men of his time, was born at Verona, in 1662, of a noble
and ancient family. His tafle for natural philofopby and
mathematics induced him to cftablifh the acadenjy of
Aletofili, at Verona. Fie went to Rome in 1684;
and was made librarian to cardinal Ottoboni, who was
afterwards Pope under the name of Alexander VIII.
He alfo became canon of St Mary de la Rotonda, and
at length of St Lawrence in Damafo. He was e-
fleemed by the learned ; and was a member of many a-
cademies. He publifhed feveral ingenious difierta-
tions, &c. and died in 1729, aged 67.
BIAS, one of the feven fages of Greece, flou-
rifhed about 608 before Chrift. He was accuftomed to
fay, “ It is a ficknefs of the mind to wifti for impof-
fible things.” During the fiege of Priena, his native
city, being afked why he was the only one who retired
from the place without carrying any thing with him,
he replied, That he carried his all with him; meaning,
that his knowledge and virtue were the only bleffings
that were peculiarly his own, fince they could not be
taken from him. He expired while pleading for one
of his friends.
Bias, or Biafs, in a general fenfe, the inclination or Bi
bent of a perfon’s mind to one thing more than ano- J||
ther.—It alfo fignifies the lead or weight put into a  M
bowl, that draws or turns the courfe of it any way to j
which the bias looks.
BIBERACH, a free and imperial city of Suabia in lj
Germany. It has a large manufadure in fuftians, and 7
is feated in a pleafant fertile valley on the river Rufs. ;
E. Long. 10. 2. N. Lat. 48. 4.
BIBERSBERG, a town of Upper Hungary, fi-
tuated in E. Long. 17. 25. N. Lat. 48. jy.
BIBIENA (Ferdinand Galli), an excellent painter >
and archited, was born at Bologna, in 1657; and was I
furnamed Bibicna from a territory of that name in |
Tufcany, in which his father was born. He acquired
fuch reputation by his fkill in architedure, the deco¬
rations of the theatre, and perfpedive, that the duke of ||
Parma invited him to his court, and made him his firft 1
painter and archited. Bibiena at length went to the %,
emperor’s court, where he had the fame honours and
advantages. He wrote two books of architedure; and 1
died at Bologna, at above 80 years of age. His fons 1
followed, with fuccefs, the fame profefiions.
BIBLE, (in Greekthe book'), a name applied
by Chriftians, by way of eminence or diftindion, to the |
collodion of facred writings, or the holy fcriptures of |
the Old and New Teftaments; known alfo by various ’
other appellations, as, the Sacred Books, Holy Writ, ,1
Infpired Writings, Scriptures, <bc. The Jews ftyled i
the Bible (that is, the Old Teftament) mikra; which
fignifies Lcjfon, or Lefture.
This collodion of the facred writings, containing |
thofe of the Old and New Teftament, is juftly looked
upon as the foundation of the Jewifh as well as the
Chriftian religion. The Jews, it is true, acknow¬
ledged only the fcriptures of the Old Teftament, the I
correding and publifhing of which is unanimoufly
afcribed, both by the Jews and Chriftians, to Ezra.
Some of the ancient fathers, on no other foundation
than that fabulous and apocryphal book, the fecond J
book of "Efdras, pretend, that the fcriptures were en- J
tirely loft and deftroyed at the Babylonifh captivity, |
and that Ezra reftored them all again by divine revela- j
tion. What is certain is, that in the reign of Jofiah
there was no other book of the law extant befides that
found in the temple by Hilkiah; from which original, I
by order of that pious king, copies wrere immediately |
written out, and fearch made for all the other parts of t
the fcriptures, (2 Kings xxii.) ; by which means co- |
pies of the whole became multiplied among the people, 3
who carried them with them into their captivity. Af¬
ter the^return of the Jews from the Babylonifh capti- |
vity, Ezra got together as many copies as he could of
the Sacred writings, and out of them all prepared a cor-
red edition, difpofing the feveral books in their proper j I
order, and fettling the canon of fcripture for his time.
Thefe books he divided into three parts. 1. The Law.
1. The Prophets. 3. The Cetubim, or Hagiogra-
phia, i. e. The holy writings.
L The Law contains. 1. Genefis. 2. Exodus.
3. Leviticus. 4. Numbers. 5. Deuteronomy.
II. The writings of the prophets are, 1. Jofhua.
2. Judges, with Ruth. 3. Samuel. 4. Kings. 5. I-
faiah. 6. Jeremiah, with his Lamentations. 7. E-
zekiel. 8. Daniel. 9. The twelve minor Prophets.
i°. | i
.
B I B
TO. Job. II. Ezra. 12. Nehemiah. 13. Efther.
III. And the Hagiographia confifts of, 1. The
Pfalms. 2. The Proverbs. 3. Ecclefiaftes. 4. The
Song of Solomon. This divifion was made for the fake
of reducing the number of the facred books to the num¬
ber of the letters in their alphabet, which amount to
22. At prefent, the Jews reckon 24 books in their
canon of fcripture, in difpofing of which the law ftands
as it did in the former divifion, and the prophets are di-
ftributed into the former and latter prophets.
The former prophets are,
Joihua, Judges, Samuel, Kings.
The latter prophets are,
Ifaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the 12 minor prophets.
And the hagiographia confifts of,
The Pfalms, the Proverbs, Job, the Song of Solomon,
Ruth, the Lamentations, Ecclefiaftes, Efther, Daniel,
Ezra, the Chronicles.
Under the name of Ezra, they comprehend Nehe¬
miah. It is true this order hath not always been ob-
fervec£ but the. variations from it are of little or no mo¬
ment.
The five books of the law are divided into 54 fec-
tions. This divifion many of the Jews hold to have
been appointed by Mofes himfelf; but others, with
more probability, afcribe it to Ezra. The defign of
this divifion was, that one of thefe feftions might be
read in their fynagogues every fabbath-day. The num¬
ber was 54, becaufe in their intercalated years, a month
being then added, there were 54 fabbaths. In other
years, they reduced them to 52, by twice joining to¬
gether two fhort fe&ions. Till the perfecution of An-
tiochus Epiphanes, they read only the law; but the
reading of it being then prohibited, they fubftituted in
the room of it 54 fe&ions out of the Prophets; and
when the reading of the law was reftored by the Mac¬
cabees, the feftion which was read every fabbath out
of the law ferved for their firft leffon, and the fe&ion
out of the prophets for their fecond. Thefe fedtions
were divided into verfes, of which divifion, if Ezra was
not the author, it was introduced not long after him,
and feems to have been defigned for the ufe of the Tar-
gumifts, or Chaldee interpreters ; for after the return
of the Jews from the Babylonilh captivity, when the
Hebrew language ceafed to be their mother tongue, and
the Chaldee grew into ufe inftead of it, the cuftom was,
that the law ftiould be firft read in the original Hebrew,
and then interpreted tc- the people in the Chaldee lan¬
guage, for which purpofe thefe ftiorter fections or pe¬
riods were very convenient.
The divifion of the fcriptures into chapters, as we at
prefent have them, is of much later date. Some attri¬
bute it to Stephen Langton, archbiftiop of Canterbury,
in the reigns of John and Henry III. But the true
author of the invention was Hugo de Sandto Caro, com¬
monly called Hugo Cardinalis, becaufe he was the firft
Dominican that ever was raifed to the degree of cardi¬
nal. This Hugo flourilhed about the year 1240. He
wrote a comment on the fcriptures, and projefted the
firft concordance, which is that of the vulgar Latin bi-
ble. The aim of thh work being for the more eafy
finding out any word , paiTage in the fcriptures, he
found it neceffary tod .L the book into fedlions, and
the fedlions into fubdiyifions ; for till that time the vul¬
gar Latin Bibles wu* without any divifica at all.
Vox,. II.
B I B
Thefe fedlions are the chapters into which the Bible Bible,
hath ever fince been divided. But the fubdivifion of
the chapters was not then into verfes, as it is now.
Hugo’s method of fubdividing them was by the letters
A, B, C, D, E, F, G, placed in the margin at an e-
qual diftance from each other, according to the length
of the chapters. The fubdivifion of the chapters into
verfes, as they now ftand in our Bibles, had its origi¬
nal from a famous Jewifh rabbi, named Mordecai Na¬
than, about the year 1445. This rabbi, in imitation
of Hugo Cardinalis,drew up a concordance to the He¬
brew Bible, for the ufe of the Jews. But though he
followed Hugo in his divifion of the books into chap¬
ters, he refined upon his invention as to the fubdivi¬
fion, and contrived that by verfes: this being found
to be a much more convenient method, it has been
ever fince followed. And thus, as the Jews borrowed
the divifion of the books of the holy fcriptures into
chapters from the Chriftians, in like manner the Chri-
ftians borrowed that of the chapters into verfes from
the Jews.
The order and divifion of the books of the Bible, as
well of the Old as the New Teftament, according to
the difpofition made by the council of Trent, by de¬
cree I. feffion iv. are as follow ; where we are to ob-
ferve, that thofe books to which the afterifms are pre¬
fixed, are rejefted by the Proteftants, as apocryphal *. * Se.e
Genefis, * ^ ^
Exodus,
Leviticus,
Numbers,
Deuteronomy,
Jofhua,
Judges and Ruth,
1 Samuel, or 1 Kings,
2 Samuel, or 2 Kings,
1 Kings, otherwife called iii. Kings,
2 Kings, otherwife called iv. Kings,
1 Chronicles,
2 Chronicles,
1 Efdras, (as the LXX and Vulgate call it), or the
book of Ezra,
2 Efdras, or (as we have it) the book of Nehemiah,
* Tobit,
* Judith,
Efther,
Job,
Pfalms,
Proverbs,
Ecclefiaftes,
Song of Solomon,
* The book of Wifdom,
* Ecclefiafticus,
Ifaiah,
Jeremiah and * Baruch,
Ezekiel,
Daniel,
Hofea,
Joel,
Amos,
Obadiah,
Nahum, which we place immediately after Micah,
before Habakkuk.
Jonah, which we place immediately after Obadiah.
Micah,
7 E Ha-
[ 1141 ]
The Eplftle of
St Paul to
The general
Epiftle of
1142 ] BIB
guage being grown wholly into ufe among the Jews, he B!
thought proper to change the old Hebrew charadler for
it, which hath fince that time been retained only by the
Samaritans, among whom it is preferred to this day.
Prideaux is of opinion that Ezra made additions in
feveral parts of the Bible, where any thing appeared
neceffary for illuftrating, connecting, or completing
the work; in which he appears to have been affifted
by the fame fpirit in which they were firft written. 1
Among fuch additions are to be reckoned the laft chap¬
ter of Deuteronomy, wherein Mofes feems to give an
account of his own death and burial, and the fucceffion
of Jofhua after him. To the fame caufe our learned
author thinks are to attributed many other interpola¬
tions in the Bible, which created difficulties and objec¬
tions to the authenticity of the facred text, no ways to ;;
be folved without allowing them. Ezra changed the
names of feveral places which were grown obfolete, and
inftead of them put their new names, by which they
were then called, in the text. Thus it is that Abra¬
ham is faid to have purfued the kings who carried Lot
away captive, as far as Dan ; whereas that place in
Mofes’s time was called Laijh; the name Dan, being
" unknown till the Danites, long after the death of Mo¬
fes, pofleffed themfelves of it.
The Jewiffi canon of Scripture was then fettled by
Ezra, yet not fo but that feveral variations have been
made in it. Malachi, for inltance, could not be put in
the Bible by him, fince that prophet is allowed to have
lived after Ezra; nor could Nehemiah be there, fince
mention is made, in that book, of Jaddus, as high-pried,
and of Darius Codomannus, as king of Perfia, who
were at lead 100 years later than Ezra. It may be
added, that in the fird book of Chronicles, the genea- j
logy of the fons of Zerubbabel is carried down for fo
many generations as mud ncceffarily bring it to the
time of Alexander, and confequently this book could
not be in the canon in Ezra’s days. It is probable, the
two books of Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, Edher, and
Malachi, were adopted into the Bible in the time of
Simon the Jud, the lad of the men of the great fyna-
gogue.
As the Jews were very backward in having any in-
tercourfe with drangers, it was a long time before their
facred books came to be known and read in other na¬
tions. Jofephus afcribes the little that is faid of the
Jews by Pagan writers to this, that the latter had no
opportunity of being acquainted with their hidorians,.
for want of a tranflation of their books into the Greek
language. Arideas indeed pretends, that there was an
imperfedt verfion of the Scriptures before the time of
Demetrius Phalereus; and thatTheopompus intending
Tedament, are thefe, the book of the Righteous, or of to infert a part of them in his verfes, was deprived of
T " -rc_- /T-n. .. .« hjg underdanding; but of this there is no proof.
The Jews, upon their return from the Babyloniffi
captivity, having brought with them their Chaldaic or
Afiyrian language, which from that time became their
mother-tongue, gave birth to the Chaldee tranflations,
or rather paraphrafes of the Bible, called Targum *. * Se
Greek Bible. It is a matter of difpute among an-gum.
B I B
Habakkuk,
Zephaniah,
Haggai,
Zechariah,
Malachi,
* 1 Maccabees,
* 2 Maccabees.
The books of the New Tedament are,
£ St Matthew,
rru. /I r 1 r S St Mark,
The Gofpel of j St Luke>
CSt John.
The ads of the Apodles,
’the Romans,
the Corinthians, I.
the Corinthians, II.
the Galatians,
the Ephefians,
the Philippians,
the Coloffians,
the Theffalonians, I.
the Theffalonians, II.
Timothy, I.
Timothy, II.
Titus,
Philemon,
.the Hebrews,
'St James,
St Peter, I.
St Peter, II.
St John, I.
St John, II.
St John, III.
I St Jude,
The Revelations of St John.
The apocryphal books of the Old Tedament, ac¬
cording to the Romanids, are, the book of Enoch (fee
Jude 14.), the third and fourth books of Efdras, the
third and fourth books of Maccabees, the prayer of
Manaffeh, the Tedament of the twelve Patriarchs, the
Pfalter of Solomon, and fome other pieces of this na¬
ture.
The apocryphal books of the new Tedament are the
epidle of St Barnabas, the pretended epidle of St Paul
to the Laodiceans, feveral fpurious gofpels, Ads of the
Apodles, and Revelations ; the book of Hermas, in-
titled the Shepherd, Jefus Chrid’s Letter to.Abgarus,
the epidles of St Paul to Seneca, and feveral other
pieces of the like nature, as may be feen in the collec¬
tion of the apocryphal writings of the New Tedament
made by Fabricius.
The books which are now lod, and cited in the Old
.re thefe, the book of the Righteous, c
Jaffier, as our verfion of the Bible has it, (Jodi. x. 13.
and 2 Sam. i. 18.); the book of the wars of the Lordj
(Numb. xxi. 14.); the annals of the kings of Ifrael, fo
often cited in the books of the Kings and Chronicles.
The authors of thefe annals were the prophets, who li¬
ved in the kingdoms of Judah and Ifrael. We have
likewife but a part of Solomon’s 3000 proverbs, and his
005 fangs, (1 Kings iv. 32.) ; and we have entirely thors whether there was a Greek verfion of the Old Te-
lod what he wrote upon plants, animals, birds, fifhesj
and reptiles.
Ezra, in the opinion of mod learned men, publidied
the fcriptures in the Chaldee character : for that lan-
dament more ancient than the Septuagint f. f See
Before our Saviour’s time, there was no other Greek agwU
verfion of the Old Tedament, befides that which went
under the name of the Septuagint: but after the eda-
bliftiment
B I B
[ 1.43 ] BIB
i bk. bllftiment of Chriftianity, fome authors undertook new
tranflations, under pretence of making them more con¬
formable to the Hebrew text. The firft who performed
this defign was the Jewiih profelyte Aquila, of the city
of Synope in Pontus, difciple to Rabbi Akiba, who
put it in execution the twelfth year of the emperor A-
driah, A. D. 128. St Epiphanius pretends, that be¬
ing excommunicated after his converlion, for addidling
. Kimfelf to judicial aftrology, he fet about this verfion
out of hatred to the Chriftians, and with a wicked de¬
fign of corrupting the paffages of the prophets relating
to Jefus Chrift. St Jerom fays, his verfion is made word
for word, and with too ferupulous a nicety.
The fecom1 Greek verfion after the Septuagint is.that
of Symmachus, a Samaritan by birth, who firll turned
Jew, then Chriftian, and at lall Ebionite. He compo-
fed it, according to Epiphanius, in the reign of the em¬
peror Severus. His verfion was more free than the reft;
for he applied himfelf chiefly to the fenfe,' without
I tranflating word for word; wherefore his verfion comes
nearer the Septuagint than that .of Aquila. The third
Greek verfion is that of Theodotion of Ephefus. It is
faid he was a difciple of Marcion, and that, having had
fome difference with thofe of his feci, he turned Jew.
The verfion of this author was the beft of the three,
becaufe he kept a juft medium between Aquila and
Symmachus, not confining himfelf fo fervilely to the let¬
ter as the firft did, nor wandering fo far from it as the
fecond did.
There were, befides thefe, three other Greek ver-
fions, whofe authors are unknown.
Syriac Bible. The Syrians have in their language
a verfion of the Old Teftament, which they pretend to
be of great antiquity. A great part of it, they fay, was
made in Solomon’s time, and the reft in the time of
Abgarus king of Edefla. They relate, that Hiram king
of Tyre defired Solomon to communicate the ufe of let¬
ters and writing to the Syrians, and to get tranflated
for them the facred books of the Hebrews; which So¬
lomon complied with, and fent them the Pentateuch,
Joftma, Judges, Ruth, Samuel, Pfalms, Proverbs, Ec-
clefiaftes, Solomon’s Song, and Job, which were the
only books then extant; the remaining books of Scrip¬
ture, they add, were tranflated into Syriac after the death
of Chrift, by the care of Abgarus king of Edefla. But
this account is looked upon as fabulous. It is true, the
Syriac verfion which we have now mull be very ancient,
fince it is often cited by the fathers. Dr Prideaux is
of opinion, it was made within the firft century; that
the author of it was fome Chriftian of the Jewifh na¬
tion; and that it is the beft tranflation of the Old Te¬
ftament. This verfion is not always agreeable to the
original; but in fome places is more conformable to the
Samaritan Pentateuch, and in fome to the verfion of the
Septuagint. In the Pfalms, the tranflator has taken
| the liberty to leave out the ancient titles and infcrip-
tions of each Pfalm, inftead of which he gives an ab-
ftra£t of the contents of each Pfalm.
Latin Bible. It is paft difpute, that the Latin
| churches had, even in the firft ages, a tranflation of the
Bible in their language, which being the vulgar lan¬
guage, and confequently underftood by every one, oc-
cafioned a vaft number of Latin verfions. Among all
thefe, there was one which was generally received, and
called by St Jerom the vulgar, or common tranflation.
St Auftin gives this verfion the name of the Italic, and Bible,
prefers it to all the reft: but we referve a diftinft arti-
cle for this verfion. See Vulgate.
St Jerom undertook to revife and corredl the Latin
verfion of the Bible ; but, having afterwards attained
to a more perfect knowledge of the Hebrew language,
he fet about a new tranflation of fome books of the Old
Teftament from the Hebrew ; and continuing, at the
felicitation of his friends, to tranflate the reft, he at laft
perfedled an entire new verfion of all the books con¬
tained in the Hebrew canon. In his tranflation he fol¬
lowed as nearly as he could the verfion of the Septua¬
gint, and retained the very expreflions of the ancient
vulgar Latin; as far as was confiftent with purity
of ftyle and true Latinity. This tranflation was fo
highly applauded by the Chriftian church, that fome
authors have pretended it was brought to pevfedlion by
the infpiration of the Holy Ghoft. But St Auguftine
looked upon the author to be fo well fkilled in the He¬
brew language, as to be able to undertake and bring
to perfedlion fuch a work by the ftrength of his own
abilities. St Jerom’s verfion was foo'n received in many
churches; and in the fixth century it became as gene¬
ral, and in as great efteem, as the ancient Vulgate.
It was not till the 16th century that any new Latin
tranflations were made of the Bible from the Hebrew
text. Sandies Pagninus, a Dominican monk, was the
firft who'undertook a new verfion of the books of Scrip¬
ture from the modern Hebrew text. His defign was
encouraged by pope Leo X.; and his verfion made its
firft appearance at Lyons in the year 1527. It adheres
too fcrupuloufly to the words of the text, which makes
it obfeure, and favour of barbarity in many places. Pie
is likewife often mifled as to the fenfe, having affedled
too much to follow the explications of the Jewifh Rab¬
bins. It is however a very ufeful work, and very pro¬
per to explain the literal fenfe of the Hebrew text. A-
rias Montanus, when he compiled the edition of the
Biblia Polyglotta, revifed this tranflation of Pagninus.
Cardinal Cajetan, though not verfed in the Hebrew,
undertook a tranflation of fome parts of the Bible by
the afliftance of two perfons well fkilled in that lan¬
guage, the one a Jew, the other a Chrillian. After
him Ifidore Clarius, a monk of Mount Caflin, fet him¬
felf to reform the vulgar verfion of the Bible after the
Hebrew text; in the doing of which, he pretends to
have corre&ed above 8000 paffages of the Bible. Be¬
fides thefe tranflations, made by Catholic authors, there
are fome likewife performed by Proteftant tranflators;
the firft of whom was Sebaftian Munfter. His verfion
is more intelligible, and in much better Latin, than that
of Pagninus. Huetius beftows on him the charadler
of a tranflator well verfed in the Hebrew, and whofe
ftyle is very exaft and conformable to the original.
The tranflation of Leo Juda, a Zuinglian, printed at
Zurich in 1543, and afterwards by Robert Stephens in
1545, is written in a more elegant ftyle than that of
Munfter; but he often departs from the literal mean¬
ing of the Hebrew text for the fake of an elegant Latin
expreflion. However, in this he has not taken fo great
a liberty as Sebaftian Caltalio, who undertook to give
the world an elegant Latin verfion of the Bible : but
there are critics who cenfure him for departing from
the noble fimplicity and natural grandeur of the ori¬
ginal, and deviating into an affected effeminate ftyle,
7 E 2 over-
\
BIB [ 1144 ] BIB
Bible. overcharged with falfe rhetoric, and not always true La-
‘ Unity. The verfion of Junius and Tremellius, has much
more of the true natural fimplicity: the chief Hebra-
ifms are preferred in it, and the whole is ftri&ly con¬
formable to the Hebrew text. We mull not forget the
verfion of Theodore Beza, a Proteftant divine of Ge¬
neva, in the 16th century. Sebaftian Caftalio found
fault with this verfion, and Beza wrote an apology for
it about the year 1564.
Arabic Bible. The Arabic verfions of the Bible
are of two forts; the one done by Chriltians, the other
by Jews. There is one of the Old Teftament, whofe
author is fuppofed to be Saadias Gaon, a Jew of Baby¬
lon, who wrote the fame about the year of Chrift 900.
Of this whole work the Pentateuch alone is printed.
The Jews have another Arabic verfion in Hebrew cha-
rafters, which Erpenius publiihed in Arabic charadters
at Leyden in the year 1622. Among the Arabic
tranflations done by Chriftians, there is one printed in
the polyglots of Paris and London; but both the au¬
thor, and the time when it was written, are unknown.
It muft have been made fince the publication of the Ko¬
ran, becaufe the author in many places has evidently
followed it. In this verfion the Pentateuch'is tranfla-
ted from the Hebrew text; Job, from the Syriac; and
the reft from the Septuagint, and two other verfions of
the Pentateuch, the manufcripts of which are in the
Bodleian library. There are alfo fome Arabic tranfla¬
tions of thePfalms; one. printed at Genoa in 1516, the
other at Rome in 1619: and there is a manufcript ver¬
fion of the prophets in this language preferved in the
Bodleian library.
The gofpel being preached in all nations, there is no
doubt but that the Bible, which is the foundation of
the Chriftian religion, was tranflated into the refpeftive
languages of each nation. St Chryfoftom and Theo-
doret both teftify, that the books of the Old and New
Teftament had been tranflated into the Syrian, Egyp¬
tian, Indian, Perfian, Armenian, iEthiopic, Scythian,
and Samaritan languages. Socrates and Sozomen tell
us, that Ulphilas bilhop of the Goths, who lived about
the middle of the fourth century, had tranflated the
holy Scriptures into the Gothic language; and pope
John VIII. gave his approbation to the verfion of the
holy Scriptures made into the Sclavonian.
JEtbiopic Bible. The Aithiopic verfion of the Old
Teftament is made immediately from the Greek text of
the Septuagint; and there is a very plain agreement be¬
tween this tranflation and the Alexandrian manufcript:
the order of the chapters, the infcriptions of the Pfalms,
and every thing elfe being exa&ly alike. The ./Ethio¬
pians attribute this verfion to Frumentius, the apoftle
of ./Ethiopia, fent thither by Athanafius bilhop of Alex¬
andria.
Coptic or Egyptian Bible. The Coptic or Egyptian
tranflation is likewife made from the Greek of the Sep¬
tuagint, in which the Egyptian tranflator fo pun&ually
followed the Greek text, that he refufed to make ufe
of the labours of Origen and others, who had been at
the pains to compare the Greek verfion with the He¬
brew text. We are quite in the dark as to the author
and the time of this verfion, but probably it is very an¬
cient, fince we cannot fuppofe the Egyptian church was
long without a tranflation of the Scriptures in their
mother tongue.
Perfian and Turki/Jo Bible. There are feveral ver- Bible.
fions of the Bible in the Perfian language, moft of T
which are in manufcript. There is a tranflation of the ||
Pfalms by one father John, a Carmelite; and another
of the fame book done from the Latin by the Jefuits. j|
Walton, in the London Polyglot, has publilhed the
Gofpels, tranflated by one Simon fon of Jofeph, a Chri- 9
ftian of Perfia, who lived in the year 1341. We have
likewife fome manufcript tranflations of the Bible in the
Turkifh language, particularly a verfion of the New |
Teftament printed at London in the year 1666.
Armenian and Georgian Bible. The Armenians
have an old tranflation of the Scriptures in their lan- |S
guage, taken from the Greek of the Septuagint. Three
learned Armenians were employed about it, in the time
of the emperor Arcadius, viz. Mofes firnamed the , li
Grammarian, David the Philofopher, and Mampraeus. •i'l
The Armenians, in 1666, procured an edition of the
Bible in their language to be made at Amfterdam, un¬
der the dire&ion of an Armenian bjfhop. Another was
printed at Antwerp in 1670, by the procurement of
Theodorus Patrseus, and the New Teftament feparately
in 1668.
The Georgians have likewife a tranflation of the Bible i
in the old Georgian language: but as this language is
known only to a very few perfons, and the people of the
country are extremely ignorant, there is fcarce any one |j
who either reads or underftands this verfion.
Whilft the Roman empire fubfifted in Europe, the ji
reading of the Scriptures in the Latin tongue, which
was the univerfal language of that empire, prevailed
every where. But fince the face of affairs in Europe ,||
has been changed, and fo many different monarchies e-
refted upon the ruins of the Roman empire, the Latin
tongue has by degrees grown into difufe: whence has
arifen a neceffity of tranflating the Bible into the re-
fpedfive languages of each people; and this has produ¬
ced as many different verfions of the Scriptures in the
modern languages, as there are different nations pro-
fefling the Chriftian religion. Hence we meet with
French, Italian, Spanifh, German, Flemifh, Danifh,
Sclavonian, Polifh, Bohemian, and Ruffian or Mufco- ;■
vite Bibles; befides the Anglo-Saxon, and modern En-
glifti and Irifli Bibles.
French Bible. The oldeft Frence Bible we hear of
is the verfion of Peter de Vaux, chief of the Waldenfes, " rj
who lived about the year 1160. Raoul de Prefle tranf- I;
lated the Bible into French in the reign of Charles V.
king of France, about the year 1380. Befides thefe, I
there are feveral old French tranflations of particular
parts of the Scripture. The dodfors of Louvain pub-
lifhed the Bible in French at Louvain, by order of the Ij
emperor Charles V. in 1550. There is a verfion by
Ifaac le Maitrede Sacy, publifhed in 1672, with expla¬
nations of the literal and fpiritual meaning of the text, I j
which was received with wonderful applaufe, and has
been often reprinted. As to the New Teftaments in
French, which have been printed feparately, one of the
moft; remarkable is that of F. Amelotte of the oratory,
compofed by the direft ion of fome French prelates, and
printed with annotations in the year 1666, 1667, and \M
1670. The author pretends he had been.at the paina |
to fearch all the libraries in Europe, and collate the
oldeft manufcripts. But, in examining his work, it ap¬
pears that he has produced no confiderable various read-
BIB [
ings, which had not before been taken notice of either
in the London Polyglott or elfewhere. The New Te-
ftament of Mons printed in 1665, with the archbifhop
of Cambray’s permiffion, and the king of Spain’s li¬
cence, made a great noife in the world. It was con¬
demned by pope Clement IX. in 1668, and by pope
Innocent XI. in 1679, and in feveral bifhoprics of
France at feveral times. The New Teftament publiihed
at Trevoux in 1702, by M. Simon, with literal and cri¬
tical annotations upon difficult paffages, was condemned
by the biihops of Paris and Meaux in 1702. F. Bo-
hours, a Jefuit, with the affiftance of F. F. Michael Tel-
lier, and Peter Bernier, Jefuits likewife, publifhed a
tranilation of the New Teftament in 1697: but this
tranflation is, for the moft part, harfh and obfcure,
which was owing to the author’s keeping too ftriftly
to the Latin text from which he tranflated.
There are likewife French tranflations publiftied by
Proteftant authors ; one by Robert Peter Olivetan,
printed at Geneva in 1535, and fince often reprinted
with the correftions of John Calvin and others; ano¬
ther by Sebaftian Caftalio, remarkable for particular
ways of expreffion never ufed by good judges of the
language. John Diodati likewife publifhed a French
Bible at Geneva in 1644; ^ut find fault with his
method, in that he rather paraphrafes the text than
tranflates it. Faber Stapalenfis tranflated the New Te¬
ftament into French, which was revifed and accommo¬
dated to the ufe of the reformed churches in Piedmont,
and printed in 1534. Laftly, M. John Le Clerc pu¬
blifhed a New Teftament in French at Amfterdam in
1703, with annotations taken chiefly from Grotius and
Hammond ; but the ufe of this verfion was prohibited
in Holland by order of the States-General, as tending
to revive the errors of Sabellius and Socinus.
Italian Bible. The firft Italian Bible publifhed by
the Romanifts, is that of Nicholas Malerme, a Bene-
didline monk, printed at Venice in 1471. It was tranf¬
lated from the Vulgate. The verfion of Anthony Bru-
cioli, publifhed at Venice in 1532, was prohibited by
the council of Trent. The Calvinifts likewife have
their Italian Bibles. There is one of John Diodati in
1607 and I64i* and another of Maximus Theophilus
in 1551, dedicated to Francis de Medicis duke of Tuf-
cany. The Jews of Italy have no entire verfion of the
Bible in Italian ; the inquifition conftantly refufing to
allow them the liberty of printing one.
Spanijh Bible. The firft Spanifh Bible that we hear
of, is that mentioned by Cyprian de Valera, which he
fays was publifhed about the year 1500. The Epiftles
and Gofpels were publifhed in that language by Am-
brofe de Montefin in 1512; the whole Bible by Caffio-
dore de Reyna, a Calvinift, in 1569; and the New Te¬
ftament, dedicated to the emperor Charles V. by Fran¬
cis Enzinas, otherwife called Driander, in 1543. The
firft Bible which was printed in Spanifh for the ufe of
the Jews, was that printed at Ferrara in 1553, in Go¬
thic chara&ers, and dedicated to Hercules d’Eft duke
of Ferrara. This verfion is very ancient, and was pro¬
bably in ufe among the Jews of Spain before Ferdi¬
nand and Ifabella expelled them out of their dominions
in 1492.
German Bible. The firft and moft ancient tranfla-
tfon of the Bible in the German language, is that of
Ulphilas bifhop of the Goths, about the year 360. This
1145 1 j3 1 B
bifhop'Jeft out the book of Kings, which treat chiefly
of wrar, left it fhould too much encourage the martial
humour of the Goths. An imperfeft manufcript of this
verfion was found in the abbey of Verden near Cologn,
written in letters of filver, for which reafon it is called
Codex Argenteus; and it was publifhed by Francis Ju¬
nius in 1665. The oldeft German printed Bible extant,
is that of Nuremberg, printed in 1447; but who the
author of it was, is uncertain. John Emzer, chaplain to
George duke of Saxony, publifhed a verfion of the New
Teftament in oppofition to Luther. There is a German
Bible of John Eckius in 1537, with Emzer’s New Te¬
ftament added to it; and one by Ulembergius of Weft-
phalia, procured by Ferdinand duke of Bavaria, and
printed in 1630. Martin Luther having employed ele¬
ven years in tranflating the Old and New Teftament,
publifhed the Pentateuch in 1522, the hiftorical books
and the Pfalms in 1524, the books of Solomon in 1527,
Ifaiah in 1529, the Prophets in 1531, and the other
books in 1530: he publifhed the New Teftament in
1522. The learned agree, that his language is pure,
and the verfion clear, and free from intricacies: it was
revifed by feveral perfons of quality, who were mafters
of all the delicacies of the German language. The Ger¬
man Bibles which have been printed in Saxony, Swit¬
zerland, and elfewhere, are for the moft part the fame
as that of Luther, with very little variation. In 1604,
John Pifcator publifhed a verfion of the Bible in Ger¬
man, taken from that of Junius and Tremellius: but
his turn of exprefiion is purely Latin, and not at all a-
greeable to the genius of the German language: the
Anabaptifts have a German Bible printed at Worms in
1529. John Crellius publiflied his verfion of the New
Teftament at Racovia in 1630; and Felbinger his, at
Amfterdam, in 1660.
Flemijh Bible. The Flemifh Bibles of the Roma¬
nifts are very numerous, and for the moft part have no
author’s name prefixed to them, till that of Nicolas
Vinck, printed at Lovain in 1548. The Flemifh ver-
fions made ufe of by the Calvinifts till the year 1637,
were copied principally from that of Luther. But the
fynod of Dort having in 1618 appointed a new tranf¬
lation of the Bible into Flemifli, deputies were named
for the work, which was not finifhed till the year 1637.
Danifh Bible. The firft Danifti Bible was publiftied
by Peter Palladius, Olaus Chryfoftom, John Synnin-
fpus, and John Maccabaeus, in 1550, in which they fol-
owed Luther’s firft German verfion. There are two
other verfions, the one by John Paul Refenius bifhop of
Zealand, in 1605 ; the other, being the New Tefta¬
ment only, by John Michel, in 1524.
Bible. In 1534 Olaus and Laurence pub¬
lifhed a Swedifh Bible from the German verfion of Mar¬
tin Luther. It was revifed in 1617, by order of king
Guftavus Adolphus, and was afterwards almoft univer-
fally received.
Bohemian, Polijh, Ruffian or Mufcovite, and Sclavo-
nian Bibles. The Bohemians have a Bible tranflated
by eight of their doftors, whom they had fent to the
fchools of Wirtemberg and Bafil, on purpofe to ftudy
the original languages. It was printed in Moravia in
the year 1539. The firft Polifh verfion of the Bible, it
is faid,was that compofed by Hadewich wife of Jagel-
lon, duke of Lithuania, who embraced Chriftianity in
the year 1390. In 1599, there was a Polifli tranflation
BIB [ 1146 ] BIB
n'M«  of the Bible puBlifhed at Cracow, which was the work
of feveral divines of that nation, and in which James
Wieck, a Jefuit, had a principal {hare. The Proteftants,
in 1596, publifhed a Polifh Bible from Luther’s Ger¬
man verfion, and dedicated it to Uladiflaus IV. king of
Poland. The Ruffians orMufcovites publiffied the Bible
in their language in 1581. It was tranflated from the
Greek by St Cyril, the apoftle of the Sclavonians; but
this old verfion'being too obfcure, Erneft Gliik, who
had been carried prifoner to Mofcow after the taking
of Narva, undertook a new tranflation of the Bible in
the Sclavonian ; who dying in 1705, the Czar Peter
appointed fome particular divines to finifh the traufla-
tion: but whether it was ever printed, we cannot fay.
' Englijh-Saxon, and modern EnglifbJ!>\ni,TLS. If we
inquire into the verfions of the Bible of our own coun¬
try, we (hall find that Adelm biihop of Sherburn, who
lived in 709, made an Engliffi-Saxon verfion of the
Pfalms; and that Eadfrid, or Ecbert, biffiop of Lin-
disferne, who lived about the year 730, tranflated feve¬
ral of the books of Scripture into the fame language. It
is faid likewife, that venerable Bede, who died in 785,
tranflated the whole Bible into Saxon. But Cuthbert,
Bede s difciple,in the enumeration of his mailer’s works,
fpeaks only of his tranflation of the Gofpel; and fays
nothing of the reft of the Bible; Some pretend, that
king Alfred, who lived in 890, tranflated a great part
of the Scriptures. We find an old verfion in the An-
glp-Saxon of feveral books of the Bible, made by El-
fric abbot of Malmefbury: it was publiflied at Oxford,
in 1699. There is an old Anglo-Saxon verfion of the
four Gofpels, publifhed by Matthew Parker, archbifhop
of Canterbury, in 1571, the author whereof is unknown.
Dr Mill obferves, that this verfion was made from a
Latin copy of the old Vulgate.
As to the Euglifli verfions of the Bible, the moft an¬
cient is that of John de Trevifa, a fecular prieft, who
tranflated the Old and New Teftament into Englifli, at
the requeft of Thomas lord Berkley : he lived in the
reign of Richard II. and finiflied his tranflation in the
year 1357. The fecond author, who undertook this
work, was the famous WicklifF, who lived in the reigns
of Edward III. and Richard II. The manufcript of his
verfion is in feveral libraries in England. In the year
1534, an Englifli verfion of the Bible, done partly by
William Tindal, and partly by Miles Coverdale, was
brought into England from Antwerp. The bifhops
found great fault with this tranflation ; upon which a
motion was made in convocation for an Englifti tranf¬
lation of the Bible to be fet up in all churches. This
motion, though oppofed by bifhop Gardiner and his
party, fucceeded at laft. The king gave orders for fet-
ting about it with all poffible hafte, and within three
years the impreffion of it was finiflied. Cromwell pro¬
cured a general warrant from the king, allowing all his
fubje&s to read it; for which Cranmer wrote his thanks
to Cromwell, “ rejoicing to fee the work of reforma¬
tion now rifen in- England, fince the word of God did
how ftiine over it all without a cloud.” Cromwell like¬
wife gave out injundtions, requiring the clergy to fet
up Bibles in all their churches, and to encourage the
people to read them. In 1542, an adl pafled for re-
ftraining the ufe of the Bible. The preamble fets forth,
that “ many feditious and ignorant people had abufed
the liberty granted them Tor reading the Bible; and
that great diverfxty of opinions, animofities, tumults, Biff
and ichifms had been occafioned by perverting the ~1i
fenfe of the Scripture. To retrieve the mifchiefs ari- *
fing from hence, it is enafted, that a certain form of or- I
thodox do&rine be fet forth, as a ftandard of belief;
and that Tindal’s falfe tranjlation of the Old and New |j
Teftament be fupprened, and forbidden to be read in any ;
of the king’s dominions.” In the reign of Edward VL -?
Fuller mentions another tranflation of the Bible, prin- 1
ted in two editions; the firft in 1549, the other in 1551,
but neither of them divided into verfes.
In the reign of queen Elizabeth came out the biftiops JI
Bible, fo called, becaufe feveral of that order were con- 1
^erned in that verfion. The work was divided into fe- ,|
varal parcels, and affigned to men of learning and cha- J
rafter. Moft of the divifions are marked with great ini¬
tial letters, fignifying either the name or the titles of 4,
the perfons employed. Archbifliop Parker had the
principal direftion of this affair; he revifed the perform- ^
ance, and perhaps put the finifliing hand to it. He 1
likewife -employed feveral critics in the Hebrew and |
Greek languages, to review the old tranflation, and j
compare it with the original.
The laft Englifli Bible is that called King James's f
Bible, which proceeded from the Hampton-court con- ■
ference in 1603, where many exceptions being made to
the biftiops Bible, king James gave orders for a new
one, not, as the preface expreffes it, for a tranflation al¬
together new, nor yet to make of a bad one a good j
one, but to make a good one better; or of many good
ones, one beft. Fifty-four learned perfons were ap¬
pointed for this office by the king, as appears by his
letter to the archbiftiop, dated in 1604, which being <j
three years before the tranflation was entered upon, it
is probable feven of them were either dead, or had de- j
dined the talk, fince Fuller’s lift of the tranflators makes
but 47, who, being ranged under fix divifions, entered |
on their province in 1607. It was publiflied in 1610, j
with a dedication to king James, and a learned preface,
and is commonly called king James's Bible. After this
all other verfions dropped, and fell into difufe, except .
the Epiftles and Gofpels in the Common-prayer book,
which were ftill continued, according to the biftiops j
tranflation, till the alteration of the Liturgy in 1661,
and the Pfalms and hymns, which are to this day con¬
tinued as in the old verfion.
The judicious Selden, in his Table Talk, fpeaking
of the Bible, fays, “ The Englifti tranflation of the
Bible is the beft tranflation in the world, and renders
the fenfe of the original beft, taking in for the Englifti
tranflation the biftiop’s Bible, as well as king James’s.
The tranflators in king James’s time took an excellent
way. That part of the Bible was given to him who
was moft excellent in fuch a tongue, (as the Apocry¬
pha to Andrew Downs), and then they met together,
and one read the tranflation, the reft holding in their
hands fome Bible either of the learned tongues, or
French, Spanifti, Italian, &c. If they found any fault, |
they fpoke; if not, he read on.” \
King James’s Bible is that now read by authority in'
all the churches in England.
Iri/h-HbinnK. Towards the middle of the 16th cen¬
tury, Bedell, bifliop of Kilmore, fet on foot a tran¬
flation of the Old Teftament into the Irifti language;
the New Teftament and the Liturgy having been be¬
fore ,
BIB [ 1147 ] BID
fore tranflated into that language. The bifhop ap- with what are otherwife called memoirs or journals of Biblifts
pointed one King to execute this work, who, not un- literature, except that thefe laft are confined to new
derftanding the oriental languages, was obliged to books ; but there are other bibliothecas, that differ in 1<;> c*
tranflate it from the Engliih. This work was received nothingfromcataloguesofthe writers on certain fubjefts.
by Bedell, who, after having compared the Iriih tran- BIBLISTS, fo the Roman-catholics call thofe
flation with the Engliffi, compared the latter with the Chriftians who make fcripture the foie rule of faith ;
Hebrew, the LXX. and the Italian verfion of Diodati. in which fenfe, all Proteffants either are, or ought to
When this work was finifhed, the bifhop would have be, biblifts.
been himfelf at the charge of the impreffion, but his BIBLUS, in botany, an aquatic plant in E-
defign was flopped upon advice given to the lord-lieu- gyp^ called alfo papyrus ; of the fltin whereof the an-
tenant and the archbifhop of Canterbury, that it would cient Egyptians made their paper. See Papyrus.
prove a fhameful thing for a nation to publifh a Bible BIBRACTE, (anc. geog.), a citadel of the ^Edui,
tranflated by fuch a defpicable hand as King. How- according to Strabo; but Caefar defcribes it as a town
ever, the manufcript was not loft, for it went to prefij well fortified, very large and populous, and of the
in the year 1685. 9 greateft authority among that nation. Now Beureft,
Some years ago, Dr Kennicott made a propofal for or Bevray; a defolate place four miles to the north-weft
procuring a more correct copy of the Hebrew bible, of Autun.
by collecting and comparing together all the ancient BIBROCI, (anc. geog.)_, an ancient people of Bri-
manufcripts of it to be found in the Britifh dominions, tain, now the Hundred of Bray in Berks.
This was eagerly embraced by the learned, not only in BICANER, a city of Afia, on the river Ganges,
Britain, but throughout all Chriftendom ; and perfons belonging to the great Mogul. E. Long. 87. 20..
of the moft eminent ftations encouraged the work by * N. Lat. 28.40.
liberal fubfcriptions. The work was begun in 1760, BICE, or Bise, among painters, a blue colour pre-
and in 1776 one volume was publifhed in folio. To pared from the lapis armenus *. * See Se¬
this work is prefixed fuch a lift of fubfcribers as, we Bice bears the beft body of all bright blues ufed in menui laP:s'
believe, never appeared in favour of any literary per- common work, as houfe-painting, &c. but it is the
formance whatever. In this lift are included no fewer paleft in colour. It works indifferently well, but in-
than feven crowned heads, befides princes, cardinals, dines a little to fandy, and therefore requires good
archbifhops, bifhops, univerfities, public libraries, and grinding. Next to ultramarine, which is too dear to
many of the moft eminent literati in different parts of be ufed in common work, it lies beft near the eye of
Europe. What is very extraordinary, Dr Kennicot’s all other blues.
work feemed equally to draw the attention of Proteftants BICEPS, the name of feveral mufcles: as the biceps
and Papitts, and was recommended and encouraged humeri, or cubiti; biceps tibiae ; &c f. t See An»-
both by the church of Rome and of Geneva. The labour BICESTER, a ftraggling town of Oxfordfhire in oftheltluT'
attending it muft appear ailonifhing, when we confider England, feated on the road between Oxford and c;cs_
that the Dodtor colle&ed, from all parts of the world, Buckingham.
almoft 700 MSS. and that thefe were compared togc- BICHET, a quantity or meafure of corn, which
ther, and with the common Hebrew bible, not only differs according to the places where it is ufed. The
word by word, but letter by letter. Certainly no un- bichet is not a wooden meafure, as the minot at Paris,
dertaking ever deferred greater praife, nor promifed to or the bufhel at London; but is compounded of feveral
be of more important utility. In particular, the nu- certain meafures. It is ufed in maay parts of France, &c,
merous various readings which he hath fupplied cannot BICLINIUM, in Roman antiquity, a chambe.-
with two beds in it; or when two beds only were
round a table.
BICORNES, an order of plants in the fragment a
methodi naturalis of Linnaeus, fo termed from the an-
BIBLIANDER (Theodore), profeffor of divinity therae having in appearance two horns. See Botany.
at Zurich in the 16th century. As he underftood the BIDACHE, a town of Lower Navarre in France,
Oriental languages, he fet about a new edition of the feated on the river Bidoufe. W. Long. 10. o. N. Lat.
Koran, the text of which he corre&ed, by collating 41. 31.
the Arabic and Latin copies. To this edition he fub- BIDAL, or Bidale, in our ancient cuftoms, denotes
joined the life of Mahomet and his fucceffors ; and pre- the invitation of friends to drink ale at fome poor man’,
fixed an apology by way of preface, which has been houfe, who, in confideration hereof, expedfs fome con-
loudlv exclaimed againft. tribution for his relief. This cuftom itill obtains in
BIBLIOTHECA, in its original and proper fenfe, the weft of England, and is mentioned in fome of our
denotes a library, or place for repofiting books. ancient ftatutes.
Bibliotheca, in matters of literature, denotes a BIDDLE (John), one of the moft eminent Eng-
treatife giving an account of all the writers on a certain lifh writers among the Socinians, was born at Wot-
fubjedl: thus, we have bibliothecas of theology, law, ton-under-Edge in Gloucefterftiire, and educated in
philofophy, &c. the free fchool of that place. Being a hopeful youth.
There are likevvife univerfal bibliothecas, which treat he was taken notice of; particularly by lord George
indifferently of all kinds of books; alfo feleft biblio- Berkeley, who allowed him an exhibition of ten
thecas, which give account of none but authors of re- pounds a-year. This caufed him vigoroufly to ap-
putation. ply himfelf to his ftudies ; and he w'as, while at
Many of the bibliothecas agree, in moft refpedts, fchool, author of a tranflation of Virgil’s Bucolics,
and
fail to demonftrate the expediency of a new tranfla¬
tion of the Old Teftament, or at leaft of an amendment
of the prefent tranflation, at the fame time that they
will furniftithe proper means of accompliftiing it.
BID [ 1148 ] BID
Biddle and of the two firft fatircs of Juvenal. He conti-
li. nued at fchool till he was 13 years of age. However,
'*(ing' having manifefted in that early period a lingular piety
and contempt of fecular affairs, he wasfent to the uni-
verfity of Oxford, and entered a ftudent in Magdalen
hall. In 1641, the magiftrates of Gloucefter chofe
him mafter of the free fchool of that city ; and he was
much efteemed : but falling into fome opinions con¬
cerning the Trinity, different from thofe commonly
received, and expreffing his thoughts with too much
freedom, he fuffered various perfecutions and imprifon-
ments in the time of the commonwealth. • During one of
thefe confinements, which lafted for feveral years, being
reduced to great indigence, he was employed by Roger
Daniel of London to correft the imprefiionof the Greek
Septuagint Bible, which that printer was about to
publifh with great accuracy. In 1651, the parliament
publilhed a general ad! of oblivion, which reltored him
to his full liberty. He was afterwards imprifoned on
account of his tenets; and at lad the protedlor banilhed
him for life to St Mary’s cafile in the ifle of Scilly,
and fenthim thither in Odfober 1655. Soon after> lie
was allowed 100 crowns a-year for fubfillence. In
1658, he was fet at full liberty. After the reftoration
of king Charles II. he was fined in 100 1. and each of
his hearers in zo 1. to lie in prifon till paid; which
being put in execution, the want of the frefh air and
exercife made him dontfad! a difeafe, of which he
died on 22d of September 1662, in the 47th year of
his age. His life was publilhed in Latin, in 1682,
by 'Mi' Farrington of the Inner Temple, who repre-
fents him as poffelfed of extraordinary piety, cha¬
rity, and humility : he would not difcourfe of thofe
points in which he differed from others, with thofe that
did not appear religious according to their knowledge;
and was a ftrid! obferver himfelf, and a fevere exadtor
in others, of reverence in fpeaking of God and Chrift.
He had fo happy a memory, that he retained word
for word the whole New Teftament, not only in Eng-
lilh, but in Greek, as far as the fourth chapter of the
Revelations of St John.
BIDDIFORD, a town of Devonfhire, feated on the
river Toridge, over which there is a fine ftone-bridge
with 24 arches. It is a large and populous place, and
carries on a confiderable trade. W. Long. 4. 10. N.
Lat. 51. 10.
BIDDING, or Offering, denotes the raifing the
*See^»r- price of a thing at a fale or audtion *. The French
non. call this encherir. It anfwers to what the Romans cal¬
led licitari: they ufed to bid by holding up the hand
or finger.
Bidding is alfo ufed for proclaiming or notifying.
In which fenfe we meet with bidding of the banns,
* See Bans, the fame with what is otherwife called a/king,*.
BiDDiNG-P/vyer. It was one part of the office of
the deacons in the primitive Chriftian church, to be a
fort of monitors and diredlors of the people in the exer¬
cife of their public devotions in the church. To which
end they made ufe of certain known forms of words, to
give notice when each part of the fervice began. This
was called by the Greeks %ngvTTuit and by the Latins
fra: die are: which therefore do not ordinarily fignify
to preach, as fome miftake it; but to perform the of¬
fice of a crier or praco) in the affembly: whence
Synefius and others call the deacons the
holy criers of the church, appointed to bid or exhort
the congregation to pray and join in the feveral parts J|
of the fervice of the church. Agreeable to this ancient jl
practice is the form Let us pray, repeated before fe- 11
veral of the prayers in the Englifh liturgy.
Bidding of the Beads, a charge or warning which Jg
the parifli-prieft gave to his parilhioners at certain fpe- I
cial times, to fay fo many pater-nofters, See. on their 11
beads.
BIDENS, WATER-HEMP AGRIMONV, a gCUUS of ; 1
the polygamia aequalis order, belonging to the fynge- !
nefia clafs of plants. Of this genus Linnaeus enume- I
rates 13 fpecies; but none of them appear to merit no- §
tice except the tripartita, frequently found by the fides 1
of rivulets, ditches, and lakes, both in Scotland and
England. This grows to the height of two feet; and J
hath its leaves divided into three, or often five, lanceo- *i !||
late ferrated lobes, with yellow flowers, which are fuc- ; ||
ceeded by flattilh angular feeds, having two beards ari- !
fing from the angles, which are hooked or barbed
downwards ; and generally they have another fliorter ll
beard arifing from the middle of the back of the feed. |
“ As this plant (fays Mr Lightfoot f) is found by a f
chemical analyfis to pofiefs much the fame qualities as Uca'
the celebrated verbefina acmela, a plant belonging to a I
enus very nearly related to this, it is probable it would j
ave the fame good effects in expelling the ftone and i
gravel. A deco&ion of this plant with alum dyes yarn §
of a yellow colour. The yarn mull be firft fteeped in
alum water, then dried and fteeped in a decoflion of |
the plant, and afterwards boiled in the decoftion. The j
feeds have been known fometimes to deftroy the cypri- si
nus auratus, ox gold fiflo, by adhering to their gills and i
jaws.”
BIDENTAL, in Roman antiquity, a place blafted j
with lightning; which was immediately confecrated by |
an harufpex, with the facrifice of a bidens. This ]
place was afterwards accounted facred, and it was un- ■
lawful to enter it or to tread upon it; for which rea- J
fon it was commonly furrounded with a ditch, wall, 1
hedge, ropes, &c. See next article.
BIDENTALES, in Roman antiquity, priefts in- i
ftituted to perform certain ceremonies and expiations j
when thunder fell on any place. Their principal office I
was the facrificing a fheep of two years old, which in
Latin is called bidens ; from whence the place ftruck
with thunder got the name of bidental.
BIDIS, (anc. geog.), a fmall city of Sicily not far I
from Syracufe, whofe ruins are ftill to be feen in the ]
territory of Syracufe, about fifteen miles to the fouth- |
weft, with a church called S. Giovanni di Bidini.
BIDLOO (Godfrey), author of feveral treatifes in |
anatomy, was born at Amfterdam, March 12th, 1649. .'i
In 1688, he was profeffbr of anatomy at the Hague ; 4
and, in 1694, at Leyden; when king William III. of 3
England appointed him his phyfician; which he would ;|j
not accept but oti condition of holding his profeflbr- ;;!
fhip, which was readily granted him. He publifhed,
in Latin, 1. The Anatomy of the human Body, de- ,]•
monftrated in 105 cuts, explained by the difeoveries of
the ancient and modern writers. 2. An Oration upon U
the Antiquity of Anatomy. 3. A Letter to Anthony j
Leewenhoek on the animals fometimes found in the j
liver of fheep and other animals. 4. Two Decades
of DifTertations in Anatomy and Chirurgery; and
other
B I E [ 1149 ] BIG
w other pieces. He died at Leyden, in April, 1713.
BIDON,'a liquid meafure, containing'about five
pints of Paris, that is, about five quarts Englifli wine-
n| meafure. It is feldom ufed but among Ihips crews.
BIEEZ, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of
Eg Cracovia, remarkable for its mines of vitriol. It is
M fcated on the river Wefeloke, in E. Long. 2. 21.
^ N. Lat. 49. 50.
BIEL. See Bienna.
BIELA, a town of Rufila, and capital, of a pro-
v|f vince of the fame name, feated on the river Opfchaw,
J in E. Long. 34. 55. N. Lat. 55. o
Biela Osero, or Belozero, a town of the Ruf-
ftl fian empire, capital of a duchy, and fituated on a lake
si of the fame name, at the mouth of the river Confa, ih
l| E. Long. 39. 10. N. Lat. 58. 55.
Biela, a town of Piedmont in Italy, and capital
i| of the Bellefe near the river Cerva, in E. Long. 8.
k| 3. N. Lat. 45. 22.
BIELSKl, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of
[ 1 Polachia, near one of the fources of the river Narew.
I E. Long. 22. 55. N. Lat. 53. 50.
BIELSKOI, a town of Ruffia, in the province of
Smolenflco. E. Long..37. 5. N. Lat. 56. 40.
BIENNA, a town of Switzerland, feated on a lake
of the fame name. The inhabitants are Proteftants,
and in alliance with thofe of Bern, Soleure, and Fri-
burg. E. Long. 7. 14. N. Lat. 47. 11.
BIENNIAL plants ; plants, asthetitle bientiialim-
ports, that are only of two years duration. Numerous
plants are of this tribe, which being railed one year from
feed, generally attain perfe&ion either the fame, or in
about the period of a twelvemonth, or a little lefs or
more, and the following fpring or fummer {hoot up
llalks, flower, andperfefi feeds; foon after which they
commonly perifli ; or if any particular fort furvive ano-
, ther year, they aflume a dwindling and draggling
(growth, and gradually die off; fo that biennials are
always in their prime the firft or fecond fummer. Bien¬
nials confift both of efculents and flower-plants. Of
the efculent kinds, the cabbage, favoy, carrot, parf-
. nep, beet, onion, leek, &c. are biennials. Of the
flowery tribe, the Canterbury-bell, French honey-
' fuckle, wall-flower, ftock-July-flower, fweet-William,
China-pink, common-pink, matted-pink, carnation,
fcabious, holly-hock, tree-mallow, vervain-mallow,
tree-primrofe, honefty, or moonwort, &c. are all of
the biennial tribe; all of which being fown in March,
April, or May, rife the fame year, and in fpring fol¬
lowing {hoot up into ftalks, flower, and perfeft feeds in
autumn; after which moft of them dwindle: though
fometimes the wall-flowers, hollyhocks, carnations,
pinks, will furvive and flower the following year ; but
the plants become draggling, the flowers iinall and
badly coloured : it is therefore eligible to raife a fupply
annually from feed ; although wall-flowers, carnations,
! and pinks, may be continued by flips and layers.
BIER, a wooden machine for carrying the bodies
of the dead to be buried. The word comes from the
Frejich biert, which fignifies the fame. It is called in
Latin feretrum, a ferendo. Among the Romans the
common bier, whereon the poorer fort were carried,
was called fandapila ; that ufed for the richer fort,
iettica, leftica funebris, fometimes leflus. The former
was only a fort of wooden chefi, vilis area, which was
Vol. II.
burnt with the body ; the latter was enriched and gil- Hici
ded for pomp. It was carried bare, or uncovered, ^ li
when the perfon died a natural and eafy death ; when Klgaroy‘
he was much disfigured or diftorted, it was veiled or
covered over.
Bier is more particularly ufed for that whereon the
bodies of faints are placed in the church to reft, and
expofed to the veneration of the devout. This is alfo
called, in middle-age writers, Icflus, feretrum, leftica,
and loculus ; and was ufually enriched with gold, filver,
and precious ftones, which was the caufe that the bier
of St Benedict was pillaged, and all its ornaments car¬
ried off.
BIEROLIET, a town of the Netherlands in Dutch
Flanders, where William Bruckfield, or Beukelings,
who invented the method of pickling herrings, died in
1397. E. Long. 3. 42. N. Lat. 51. 25.
BIFER.2E, plants that flower twice a-year, in
fpring, and autumn, as is common between the tropics.
BIGA, in antiquity, a chariot drawn by two horfes
abreaft. Chariot-races, with two horfes, wrere intro¬
duced into the Olympic games in the 93J Olympiad :
but the invention was much more ancient, as we find
that the heroes in the Iliad fight from chariots of that
kind. The moon, night, and the morning, are by
mythologifts fuppofed to be carried in biga, the fun in
quadriga. Statues in biga were at firft only allow¬
ed to the gods, then to conquerors in the Grecian
games; under the Roman emperors, the like ftatues,
with biga, were decreed and granted to great and well-
deferving men, as a kind of half triumph, being erect¬
ed in moft public places of the city. Figures of biga
were alfo ftruck on their coins. The drivers of biga
were called bigarii ; a marble buft of one Florus a bi-
garius is ftill Teen at Rome.
BIGAMY, properly fignifies being twice married;
but with us is ufed as fynonymous to polygamy, or ha¬
ving a plurality of waves at once. Such fecond mar¬
riage, living the former hufband or wife, is Amply void,
and a mere nullity, by the ecclefiaftical law of Eng¬
land : and yet the legiflature has thought it juft to
make it felony, by reafon of its being fo great a viola¬
tion of the public oeconomy and decency of a well or¬
dered ftate. For polygamy can never be endured un¬
der any rational civil eftablilhment, whatever fpecious
reafons may be urged for it by the eaftern nations, the
fallacioufnefs of which has been fully proved by many
fenfible v/riters: but in northern countries the very na¬
ture of the climate feems to reclaim againft it; it never
having obtained in this part of the world, even from
the time of our German anceftors, who, as Tacitus
informs us, “ prope foil barbarorum Jingulis uxoribus
“ contenti funt.', It is therefore punifhed by the
laws both of ancient and modern Sweden with death.
And in Britain it is enadled by ftatute 1 Jac. I.
c. ix. that if any perfon, being married, do after¬
wards marry again, the former hufband or wife being
alive, it is felony; but within the benefit, of clergy.
The firft wife in this cafe {hall not be admitted as a»
evidence againft her hufband, becaufe {he is the true
wife ; but the fecond may, for flie is indeed no wife at
all : and fo, vice verfa, of a fecond hufband. This
a<9: makes an exception to five cafes, in which fuch
fecond marriage, though in the three firft it is void, is
yet no felony. 1. Where either party hath been con-
7 F tinually
BIG [ 1150 ] BIG
liigati tinually abroad for feven years, whether the party in
II England hath notice of the other’s being alive or no.
lgllor1' 2. Where either of the parties hath been abfent from
the other feven years within this kingdom, and the re¬
maining party hath had no knowledge of the other’s
being alive within that time. 3. Where there is a di¬
vorce (or reparation a menfa et thoro) by fentence in
the ecclefiaftieal court. 4. Where the firll marriage is
declared abfolutely void by any fuch fentence, and the
parties loofed a vinculo. Or, 5. Where either of the
parties was under the age of confent at the time of the
firft marriage ; for in fuch cafe the firft marriage was
voidable by the difagreement of either party, which
the fecond marriage very clearly amounts to. But, if
at the age of confent the parties had agreed to the
marriage, which completes the contraft, and is indeed
the real marriage ; and afterwards one of them fhould
marry again ; Judge Blackftone apprehends that fuch
fecond marriage w'ould be within the reafon and penal¬
ties of the a£t.
BIGATI, in antiquity, a kind of ancient Roman
filver coins, on one fide whereof was reprefented a biga,
or chariot drawn by two horfes. The bigatus was pro¬
perly the Roman denarius, whofe imprefiion, during the
times of the commonwealth, was a chariot driven by
viftory, and drawn either by two horfes or four, ac¬
cording to which it was either denominated bigatus
or quadrigatus.
BIGGLESWADE, a town of Bedfordfhire in
England, feated on the river Ivel, over which there is
a handfome bridge. The town is much more confide-
rable now than formerly, on account of its commodious
inns for paffengers, it lying on the principal road from
London to York. W. Long. o. 15. N. Lat. 52. 5.
BIGHT, among feamen, denotes one roll, or round,
of a cable or rope, when coiled up.
BIGNON (Jerome), a French writer, was born at
Paris in 1J90. He gained an uncommon knowledge,
under the care of his father, in philofophy, mathema¬
tics, hiftory, civil law, and divinity, in a very (hort time;
and was almoft at the end of his ftudies at an age when
it is ufual to fend children to fchool. At ten years of
age he gave the public a fpecimen of his learning, in a
Defcription of the Holy Land ; and two years after,
he publilhed aDifcourfe concerning the principal anti¬
quities and curiofities of Rome; and A fummary trea-
tife concerning the eleftion of Popes. Henry IV. de-
iired to fee him, and appointed him page to the dau¬
phin, who was afterwards Louis XIII. He appeared
at court with all the politenefs of manners imaginable.
He wrote at that time a Treatife of the precedency
of the kings of France, which he dedicated to Hen¬
ry IV. who gave him an exprefs order to continue his
refearches on that fubjeft : but the death of that prince
interrupted his defign. He publilhed, in 1613, the
Formulae of Marculphus. He was in 1620 made advo¬
cate-general in the grand council; and difcharged that
poll with fuch reputation, that the king nominated
him fome time after counfellor of ftate, and at lalt ad¬
vocate-general in the parliament. He refigned his of¬
fices in 1641 ; and the year following was appointed
chief library-keeper of the king’s library. He w’as
obliged to refume his office of advocate-general, and
held it till his death. He was employed in the moll
important affairs of ftate. At laft this great man, who
had always made religion the bafis of his other virtues, Bigi
died with the moft exemplary devotion in 1656. B'j|
BIGNONIA, Trumpet-flower, or Scarlet
Jasmine, a genus of the angiofpermia order, belonging ]
to the didynamia clafs of plants.
Species. Of this genus Linnaeus enumerates 17 fpe- j
cies ; of which the following are the moft remarkable, yj
1. The radicans, or climbing alh-leaved bignonia, is I
a native of Virginia and Canada. It rifes 30 or 40 feet p| j
high, having pinnated oppofite leaves of four pair of fig. 4
ferrated lobes, and an odd one : all the ffioots and !
branches being terminated by beautiful clufters of large I]
trumpet-ffiaped fcarlet flowers. The hummingbirds de- 1
light to feed on thefe flowers, and by thruftingthemfelves 3
t6o far into them are fometimes caught. Of this fpecies fj I
there is a variety with fmaller flowers. 2. Thefemper- ■|1
virens, or evergreen climbing Virginia bignonia, is a na-
tive of Virginia, Carolina, and the Bahama iflands. The 49
ftalks are more {lender than thofe of the former fpecies; i
yet they rife, upon proper fupports, to the height of 11
20 or 30 feet; the flowers are trumpet-fhaped, ere£t, 1
and of a yellow colour, proceeding from the fides and ■
ends of the ftalks and branches. 3. The catalpa, is a i|
native of the fame countries. It hath a ftrong woody m
Item and branches, rifing 20 feet high, ornamented fl
with large heart-lhaped leaves, five or fix inches long, |1|
and almoft as broad, placed by threes, with whitifti 1 j
yellow-ftriped flowers coming out in panicles towards
the end of the branches. This deferves a place in all ||
curious fhrubberies, as during the fummer feafon no m
tree makes a more beautiful appearance; for which |
reafon it fliould be placed confpicuoufly ; or fome might I
be planted fingly upon fpacious lawns, or other large fa
opens of grafs ground, and permitted to take their na- ||
tural growth.
Culture. The two firft fpecies may be propagated T1
by layers ; every fhoot laid down will readily grow, S
and will flower in two or three years. Cuttings of the
ftrong fhootswill alfo put out roots freely. They may 4
be alfo propagated by feeds procured from America. 'M
Thefe fliould b6 fown in the fpring, in pots placed in tj
a moderate hot-bed, from which the plants muft be Jj
inured to the open air in fummer; they are to be Ihel- j
tered from the froft. in winter, and next fpring may be i]
planted in the ground where they are to remain : but - J
plants thus raifed feldom flower in lefs than fix or feven Ig
years. The catalpa may be propagated from the cut- Jj
tings of its young flioots planted in the fpring in pots ||
plunged into a hot-bed. They will take root in a month Jj
or fix weeks, when they muft be hardened to the open
air, in which they may ftand till the month of Odfober, 11 ;
and then be moved to a place of occalional ftielter from •J
froft, and in the following fpring planted out in the {
nurfery. They may be raifed from feeds planted either i
in a warm border, or in pots plunged in a moderate hot- 1
bed, which will facilitate the germination of the feed 1
that is otherwife apt to remain a year in the ground |f
before it begins to grow;
BIGORRE, a territory or county of France, in J
the province of Gafeony. It is bounded on the eaft
by the valley of Aure, the vifcounty of Neboufla, Ri- j
viere Verdun, and Pardiac ; by Bearn on the weft ; on Vi
the fouth, by the valleys of Brotou and Penticoufe in ]
Arragon ; and on the north, by the county of Riviere- <3
Bas incorporated with Armagnac. It is 40 miles long
from
B I L [ 1151 ] B I L
from north to fouth, and 30 in breadth from eaft to blood in the liver, collected in the porus bilarias and niisitulgetfcl
weft. It is divided into three parts, the mountains, gall-bladder, and thence difeharged by the common
the plains, andtheruftan. The mountains are inclo- du6t into the duodenum *. *SctAna-
fed between thofe of the valley of Aure on the eaft, BILEDULGERID, or Belad Al Jerid, the tomy<
thofe of Arragon on the fouth, and of Bearn on the Country of dates, a kingdom of Africa. It is almofl 35S'
weft. This part contains two principal valleys, Lave- of a fquare form, extending itfelf more than So leagues
dan and Barege. The valley of Bigorre is of an oval every way, from 28. 30. to 32. 50. north latitude, and
form, and has the hills of Ruftan on the eaft. There- from 6 to 12 degrees of weft longitude. It is bounded
markable towns are Tarbes the capital, Bagneres, on the north by the kingdom of Tunis, on the eatt by
Lourd, &c. The mountains are a barrier between a ridge of lofty mountains which divide it from Tripoli
France and Spain, and there are four different paflages and part of Gudamis, on the weft by the countries
which the inhabitants are obliged to guard. Bigorre of Zeb and Mezeb, and on the fouth by the province
yields marble, jafper, ftone, and flate : there are alfo ofVerghela. The whole country is barren, fandy, and
mines of feveral forts, but they are not worked. The mountainous, producing little or nothing befides dates,
rivers are the Adour, the Elches, the Arrofet, and the which grow here in fuch profufton, that the face of
Gave of Lavedan; there are alfo three lakes. half the kingdom is covered over with date-trees, and
BIGOT, a perfon obftinately and perverfely wedded from hence the whole country takes its name. The
to fome opinion or praiftice, particularly of a religious climate is hot and unhealthy : the people lean, fwarLky,
nature. Cambden, perhaps, has hit upon the true ori- and fhrivelled in their complexions; with their eyes in-
ginal of the word. He relates, that when Rollo, duke flamed, owing to the reflection of the fun-beams from
of Normandy, received Gifla, the daughter of Charles the white hard foil; and the fhowers of duft and fand
the foolijh, in marriage, together with the inveftiture driven by the high winds that blow here at certain fea-
of that dukedom, he would not fubmit to kifs Charles’s fons are frequently fo violent as to bmy men and
foot: and when his friends urged him by all means to cattle under them. Another inconvenience with which
comply with that ceremony, he made anfwer in the the inhabitants are affli&ed, for which no other rea-
Englifli tongue, Ne se by God, i. e. Not fo by God. fon is given befides their conftant living on dates, is.
Upon which, the king and his courtiers deriding him, an inveterate feurvy in their gums, whence all their
and corruptly repeating his anfwer, called him bigot; teeth drop out; though it frequently fpreads over their
from whence the Normans were called bigodi, or bigots, whole bodies, and then they become the molt unhappy
BIHAEZ, a ftrong town of Croatia in Hungary, and loathfome objefts. They are almoft entirely free
feated in an ifle formed by the river Anna, in E. Long, from other difeafes; fo that when not afHi&ed with this,
16. 2. N. Lat. 44. 35. they live to a good old age; though it is obfervable
BILBILIS, (anc. geog.), a town of Hifpania Ci- that they difeover a furrowed countenance, ftirivelled
terior, the birth-place of Martial; now fuppofed to be ikin, hoary locks, and other fymptoms of old age, very
Calatajud in Arragon on the Xalon. See Calatajud. early in life, and before decrepitude, infirmity, or any
BlLBOA, a large, handfome, and rich town of Spain, decay of their faculties, appear. The plague is not
capital of Bifcay, with a well frequented harbour. It known in Biledulgerid, though fo frequent in Barbary,
is remarkable for the wholefomenefs of its air and the and though a conftant intercourfe is kept up between
fertility of the foil about it. The inhabitants have al- the two countries ; whence it would feem, that in cer-
ways preferred themfelves from a mixture with the tain cafes this terrible diftemper is not fo infe&ious as
Jews and Moors; and therefore will admit no family it is ufually thought to be. The fame may be faid of
to fettle among them but who can prove themfelves to the fmall-pox, a difeafe little lefs contagious and fatal
be of Chriftian extradtion, nor will they admit any in hot countries than the plague itfelf. The natives
Haves among them as in the other parts of Spain. The are reprefented as a lewd, treacherous, thievifti, and fa-
exports are wool, and fword-blades, with fome other vage people, who delight in murder and robbery,
manufadlures of iron and fteel. The town is feated at They are moftly a mixture of Africans and wild Arabs
the mouth of the river Ibaicabal, in W. Long. 4. 20. who mingled themfelves with them. The former live
N. Lat. 43. 23. with fome regularity and civil order in a kind of villages
BILBOWS, a punifhment at fea, anfwering to the com^ofed of a number of little huts; the latter in tents,
flocks at land. The offender is laid in irons, or flocks, ranging from place to place in queft of food and plun-
which are more or lefs ponderous according to the qua- der. The Arabs, who pride themfelves in their fupe-
lity of the offence of which he is guilty. riority of birth and talents above the primitive inhabi-
BILDESTON, a town of Suffolk in England, feated tants, are wholly independent and free, frequently hi-
on a creek on the river Breton. The principal manu- ring themfelves in the fervice of the neighbouring prin-
fadlure is in woollen goods, efpecially blankets. E. cesatwar; from which policy arife the moft valuable
Long. o. 45. N. Lat. 52. 20. branches of their public revenue, if any thing can be
BILDGE of a {hip, the bottom of her floor, or the called common or public in a nation of lawlefs rob-
breadth of the place the fhip refts on when fhe is a- bers. The reft purfue no other occupation befides
ground. Therefore, is that which lies on hunting and plundering; the firft of which is their
her floor, and cannot go to the well of the pump: common employment, efpecially hunting of oftriches.
And bildge-pumps, or burr-pumps, are thofe that carry which are faid to be of a prodigious ftature in this
off the bildge-water. They likewife fay the fhip is country, and as high as a man mounted oh a tall
bildged, when fhe has fome of her timber ftruck off on horfe. The inhabitants eat the flefh of thefe ani-
a rock or anchor, and fprings a leak. mals; barter their feathers for corn, pulfe, and other
BILE, a yellow, bitter juice, feparated from the things they want; ufe their hearts in their necroman-
7 F 2 tic
B I L [ 1152 ] B I L
Cilsvelt tic and religious rites, their fat as a medicine of fove-
II reign virtue, their talons for ear-pendants and other or-
11' naments, and their ilcins they convert into pouches and
knapfacks,fothat notapartof the animal hut is employ¬
ed in fome ufeful purpofe. Bdides dates and oftriches,
the Arabs live likewife on the flefh of goats and ca¬
mels; drinking either the liquor or broth in which that
flefh is boiled, or the milk of their camels; for they
feldom tafte Water, that element being more fcarce in
this country than milk itfelf. In the whole country
there is fcarce a town of any note, or even a ftream of
water that deferves notice, or that is not dried up half
the year.
BILEVELT, a town of Germany, in the circle of
Weftphalia and county of Ravenfburg, fubjedt to the
king of Ptuffia, in E. Long. 8. 20. N. Lat. 52. o.
BILINGUIS, in a general fenfe, fignifies one that
fpeaks two languages ; but in law, is ufed for a jury
that paffes in any cafe between an Englifhman and a
foreigner, whereof part ought to be Englifh, and part
ftrangers.
BILIOUS, in general, denotes fomething belonging
to, or partaking of, the nature of bile. Hence,
Bilious Fevers are thofe occafioned by the over-co-
* See the pioufnefs or bad qualities of the bile *.
Index fub- BILL, in mechanics, an inftrument made of iron,
Jjvre?«e edged in the form of a crefcent, and adapted to a
e .cme. it js ufecj by plurnbers, to perform feveral
parts of their work; by baiket-makers, to cut the lar-
geft pieces of chefnut-trees and other wood; and by
gardeners, to prune trees. When fhort, it is called a
hand-bill; and when long, a hedge-bill.
Bill, in law, a fecurity for money under the hand,
and fometimes the feal of the debtor. It is of two forts,
a Angle bill without or with a penalty; the latter is the
fame as a bond, except its being without a condition.
Bill alfo implies a declaration in writing, expreffing
either fome wrong the complainant has fullered from the
defendant, or a fault committed by the perfon com¬
plained of againft fome law or ftatute.—This bill ia
fometimes exhibited to juftices at the general affixes, by
way of indidtment, or referred to others having jurif-
ditiion; but is more generally addreffed to the lord
chancellor. It contains the fadt complained of, the
damage fultained, and a petition or procefs againft the
defendant for redrefs; and is ufed both in criminal
and civil cafes. In the former, the words bill a vera
are indorfed by- the grand jury upon a prefentment,
implying that they And fhe fame founded on pro¬
bable evidence, and therefore worthy of further conft-
deration.
In Scots law, every fummary application in writing,
by way of . petition to the court of feffion, is called a
bill.
of Attainder. See Attainder.
Bill of Appeal. See Appeal.
Bill Agniftes alfo a paper, either written or printed,
in very large charadlers, which is polled up in fome o-
pen and public place, to give notice of the fale of any
merchandize or Ihip, or of the failing of any velfel in¬
to foreign parts.
Bill, in trade, both wholefale and retail, as alfo
among workmen, AgniAes an account of merchan¬
dizes, or goods delivered to a perfon, or of work done
for one.
j9rf«i-BiLL, a private inftrument whereby private
perfons become intitled to a part in the bank-ftock.
Bill of Entry, an account of the goods entered at
the cuftom-houfe, both inwards and outwards. In
this bill mull be exprelfed, the merchant exporting or
importing; the quantity of merchandize, and the di¬
vers fpecies thereof; and whither tranfported, or from
whence.
Bill of Exchange, is a fecurity, originally invented
among merchants in different countries, for the more
eafy remittance of money from the one to the other,
which has Ance. fpread itfelf into almoft all pecuniary
tranfa&ions. It is an open letter of requeft from one
man to another, defiring him to pay a fum named there¬
in to a third perfon on his account; by which mean,
a man at the moft diftant part of the world may have
money remitted to him from any trading country. If
A lives in Jamaica, and owes B who lives in England
IOOO 1. now if C be going from England to Jamaica,
he may pay B this 1000I. and take a bill of exchange
drawn by B in England upon A in Jamaica, and re¬
ceive it when he comes thither. Thus does B receive
his debt, at any diftance of place, by transferring it
to C ; who carries over his money in paper-credit,
without danger of robbery or lofs. This method is
faid to have been brought into general ufe by the Jews
and Lombards, when banilhed for their ufury and
other vices ; in order the more eaftly to draw their ef¬
fects out of France and England, into thofe countries
in which they had chofen to reflde. But the invention
of it was a little earlier ; for the Jews were banifhed
out of Guienne in 1287, and out of England in 1290,
and in 1236 the ufe of paper-credit was introduced in¬
to the Mogul empire in China.—In common fpeech,
fuch a bill is frequently called a draught; but a bill of
exchange is the more legal as well as mercantile ex-
preffion. The perfon, however, who writes this letter
is called, in law, draper; and he to whom it is
written, the drawee; and the third perfon or negociator
to whom it is payable (whether fpecially named, or
the bearer generally) is called the payee.
Thefe bills are either foreign, or inland; foreign,
when drawn by a merchant reliding abroad upon his
correfpondent in England, or vice verfa ; and inland,
when both the drawer and the drawee reAde within the
kingdom. Formerly foreign bills of exchange were
much more regarded in the eye of the law than inland
ones, as being thought of more public concern in the
advancement of trade and commerce. But now by two
ftatutes, the one 9 & 10 VV. III. c. 17. the other 3
and 4 Ann. c. 9. inland bills of exchange are put upon
the fame footing as foreign ones ; what was the law
and cuftom of merchants with regard to the one, and
taken notice of merely as fuch, being by thofe ftatutes
exprefsly enailed with regard to the other. So that
there is now in la w no mannerof difference between themf. j,
Bill of Lading, an acknowledgment Agned by the
matter of a fhip, and given to a merchant, &c. contain¬
ing an account of the goods which the mafter has re¬
ceived on board from that merchant, &c. with a pro-
mife to deliver them at an intended place for a certain
falary. Each bill of lading muft be treble, one for the
merchant who loads the goods, another to be fent to
the perfon to whom they are conAgned, and the third
to remain in the hands of the mafter of the ihip. It
B I L [ 1153 ] B I L
ffiuft be obferved, however, that a bill of lading is ufed
only when the goods, fent on board a fhip, are but
part of the cargo : for when a merchant loads a whole
veffel for his own perfonal account, the deed pafied
between him and the mafter of the fhip is called charter-
party. See CHARTER-^r/y. ,
Bills of Mortality, are accounts of the numbers of
births and burials within a certain diftridt, every week,
month, quarter, or year. In this fenfe we fay ’weekly
hills, monthly hills, quarterly bills, yearly hills. The
London bills of mortality, which were the firft, are
compofed by the company of parifh-clerks, andexprefs
the number of chriftenings of each fex, and the number
of deaths from each difeafe.
Bill of Parcels, an account given by the feller to the
buyer, containing the particulars of all the forts and
prices of the goods bought.
Bill of Sale, is when a perfon wanting a fum of
money, delivers goods as a fecurity to the lender, to
whom he gives this bill, impowering him to fell the
goods, in cafe the fum borrowed is not repaid, with
intereft, at the appointed time.
Bill of Store, a licence granted at the cuftom-houfe
to merchants, by which they have liberty to carry, cu-
flom-free, all fuch ftores and provifions as they may
have occafion for during their voyage.
Bill of Sufferance, a licence granted to a merchant,
at the cullom-houfe, fuffering him to trade from one
Englifh port to another, without paying cuftom.
Lombard Bills, are inftruments of an uncommon
kind and figure, ufed in Italy and Flanders, and of late
alfo in France ; confiding of a piece of parchment, cut
to an acute angle about an inch broad at top, and ter¬
minating in a point at bottom ; chiefly given, where
private perfons are concerned in the fitting out a fhip
on any long voyage. The manner is thus : The party,
who is defirous to be concerned in the cargo or venture,
carries his money to the merchant, who fits out the
fhip, where it is entered down in a regifter : at the fame
time the merchant writes down on a piece of parch¬
ment, upwards of an inch broad, and feven or eight
inches long, the name of the lender, and the fum lent;
which being cut diagonal-wife, or from corner to cor¬
ner, each party retains his half. On the return of the
veflel, the lender brings his moiety to the merchant;
which being compared with the other, he receives his
dividend accordingly. Much the fame is pradtifed in
Holland by thofe who lend money on pledges: the
name of the borrower, and the fum, are written on a
like flip of parchment, which is cut in two, and half
given to the borrower, and the other half ftitched to
the pledge; that, upon comparing them together a-
gain, the borrower may receive his goods on paying
the money ftipulated.
Bill in Parliament, a paper containing propofitions
offered to the houfes to be paffed by them, and then
prefented to the king to pafs into a law.
To bring a bill into the houfe, if the relief fought
by it is of a private nature, it is firft neceflary to pre¬
fer a petition; which muft be prefented by a member,
and ufually fets forth the grievance defired to be reme¬
died. This petition (when founded on fadts that may
be in their nature difputed) is referred to a committee
of members, who examine the matter alleged, and ac¬
cordingly report it to the houfe; and then (or, other-
wife, upon the mere petition) leave is given to bring in
the bill. In public matters, the bill is brought in upon
motion made to the houfe, without any petition at all.
Formerly, all bills w'ere drawn in the form of petitions,
which were entered upon the parliament-rolls, with the
king’s anfwer thereunto fubjoined; not in any fettled
form of words, but as the circumftances of the cafe re¬
quired: and at the end of each parliament the judges
drew them into the form of a ftatute, which was en¬
tered on the ftatute-rolls. In the reign of Henry V. to
prevent miftakes and abufes, the ftatutes were drawn
up by the judges before the end of the parliament ;
and, in the reign of Henry VI. bills in the form of adts,
according to the modern cuftom, were firft introduced.
The perfons direfted to bring in the bill, prefent it
in a competent time to the houfe, drawn out on paper,
with a multitude of blanks, or void fpaces, where any
thing occurs that is dubious, or neceflary to be fettled
by the parliament itfelf; (fuch, efpecially, as the pre-
cife date of times, the nature and quantity of penalties,
or of any fums of money to be raifed) being indeed
only the ikeleton of the bill. In the houfe of lords,
if the bill begins there, it is (when of a private nature)
referred to tw-o of the judges, who examine and report
the ftate of the faffs alleged, to fee that all neceflary
parties confent, and to fettle all points of technical pro¬
priety. This is read a firft time, and at a convenient
diftance a fecond time; and after each reading the
fpeaker opens to the houfe the fubftance of the bill,
and puts the queftion, Whether it ftiall proceed any far¬
ther. The introdudlion of the bill may be originally
oppofed, as the bill itfelf may at either of the read¬
ings; and, if the oppofition fucceeds, the bill m.uft be
dropped for that feflion; as it muft alfo, if oppofed
with fuccefs in any of the fubfequent ftages.
After the fecond reading, it is committed ; that is,
referred to a committee: which is either felefted by the
houfe in matters of fmall importance; or elfe, upon a
bill of confequence, the houfe refolves itfelf into a com¬
mittee of the whole houfe. A committee of the whole
houfe is compofed of every member ; and, to form it,
the fpeaker quits the chair, (another member being
appointed chairman), and may fit and debate as a pri¬
vate member. In thefe committees the bill is debated
claufe by claufe, amendments made, the blanks filled
up, and fometimes the bill entirely new-modelled. Af¬
ter it has gone through the committee, the chairman
reports it to the houfe with fuch amendments as the
committee have made; and then the houfe reconiiders
the whole bill again, and the queftion is repeatedly put
upon every claufe and amendment. When the houfe
hath agreed or difagreed to the amendments of the
committee, and fometimes added new amendments of
its own, the bill is then ordered to be engroffed, or
written in a ftrong grofs hand, on one or more long
rolls (or prefles) of .parchment fewed together. When
this is finilhed, it is read a third time, and amendments
are fometimes then made to it; and if a new claufe be
added, it is done by tacking a feparate piece of parch¬
ment on the bill, which is called a ryder. The fpeaker
then again opens the contents; and, holding it up in
his hands, puts the queftion, Whether the bill lhall pafs.
If this is agreed to, the title to it is then fettled; which
ufed to be a general one for all the a&s paffed in the
feflxon, till in the fifth year of Hen. VIII. diftinft titles
were
B I L L 1154 ] B I L
were introduced for each chapter. After this, one of
~ the members is direfted to carry it to the lords, and
defire their concurrence; who, attended by feveral more,
carries it to the bar of the houfe of peers, and there de¬
livers it to their fpeaker, who comes down from his
woolfack to receive it.
It there palfes thro’ the fame forms as in the other
houfe, (except engrofling, which is already done); and,
if rejedled, no more notice is taken, but it paffes fub
filsntio, to prevent unbecoming altercations. But if it
"is agreed to, the lords fend a meffage by two mailers
in chancery (or fometimes two of the judges) that they
have agreed to the fame: and the bill remains with the
lords, if they have made no amendment to it. But if
any amendments are made, fuch amendments are fent
down with the bill to receive the concurrence of the
commons. If the commons difagree to the amend¬
ments, a conference ufually follows between members
deputed from each houfe; who for the moll part fettle
and adjull the difference: but, if both houfes remain
inflexible, the bill is dropped. If the commons agree
to the amendments, the bill is fent back to the lords by
one of the members, with a meflage to acquaint them
therewith. The fame forms are obferved, mutatis mu¬
tandis, when the bill begins in the houfe of lords. But,
when an aft of grace or pardon is paffed, it is firft
figned by his majefty, and then read once only in each
of the houfes, without any new engroffing or amend¬
ment. And when both houfes have done with any bill,
it always is depofited in the houfe of peers, to wait the
royal alfent; except in the cafe of a bill of fupply,
which after receiving the concurrence of the lords is
fent back to the houfe of commons.
The royal alfent may be given two ways: 1. In per-
fon ; when the king comes to the houfe of peers, in
his crown and royal robes, and fending for the com¬
mons to the bar, the titles of all the bills that have
palled both houfes are read; and the king’s anfwer is
declared by the clerk of the parliament in Norman-
French : a badge, it mull be owned, (now the only one
remaining) of conqueft; and which one could wilh to
fee fall into total oblivion; unlefs it be referved as a fo-
lemn memento to remind us that our liberties are mor¬
tal, having been once dellroyed by a foreign force. If
the king confents to a public bill, the clerk ufually de¬
clares, Le roy le veut, “ The king wills it fo to be;” if
to a private bill, Suit fait come il ejl defire, “ Be it as
it is defired.” If the king refufes his alfent, it is in
the gentle language of Le roy f avifera, “ The king will
advife upon it.” When a bill of fupply is pafl'ed, it
is carried up and prefented to the king by the fpeaker
of the houfe of commons; and the royal aflent is thus
expreffed, Le roy remeroie fes loyalfuljefls, accepte lour
benevolence, et aufileveut; “ The king thanks his loyal
fubjefts, accepts their benevolence, and wills it fo to
be.” In cafe of an aft of grace, which originally pro¬
ceeds from the crown and has the royal aflent in the firft
ftage of it, the clerk of the parliament thus pronoun¬
ces the gratitude of the fubjeft: Les prelate, feigneurs,
et commons, en ce prefent parliament affemblees, au nom
de touts vous autres fubjefts, remercient tres bumblernent
votre ivajefte, et prient a Dieu vous donner en fante bone
vie et longue} “ The prelates, lords, and commons, in
this prefent parliament aflembled, in the name of all
your other fubjefts, moft humbly thank your majefty,
and pray to God to grant you in health and wealth
long to live.” 2. By the ftatute 33 Hen. VIII. c. 21.
the king may give his aflent by letters patent under his _
great feal, figned with his hand, and notified in his ab-
fence to both houfes aflembled together in the high
houfe. And, when the bill has received the royal aflent
in either of thefe ways, it is then, and not before, a fta^
tute or aft of parliament.
This ftatute or aft is placed among the records of
the kingdom ; there needing no formal promulgation
to give it the force of a law, as was neceflary by the
civil law with regard to the emperor’s edifts : becaufe
every man in Britain is, in judgment of law, party to
the making of an edift of parliament, being prefent
thereat by his reprefentatives. However, a copy thereof
is ufually printed at the king’s prefs for the informa¬
tion of the whole land. And formerly, before the in¬
vention of printing, it was ufed to be publiflied by the
flieriflF of every county; the king’s writ being fent to
him at the end of every fefiion, together with a tran-
feript of all the afts made at that feflion, commanding
him, ut fatuta ilia, et omnes articulos in eifdem conten-
tos, in Jingulis locis ubi expedire viderit, publice procla-
mart, et fir miter teneri et obfervari fact at. And the
ufage was to proclaim them at his county court, and
there to keep them, that whoever would might read
or take copies thereof; which cuftom continued till the
reign of Henry VII.
An aft of parliament, thus made, is the exercife of
the higheft authority that this kingdom acknowledges
upon earth. It hath power to bind every fubjeft in the
land, and the dominions thereunto belonging; nay,
even the king himfelf, if particularly named therein.
And it cannot be altered, amended, difpenfed with,
fufpended, or repealed, but in the fame forms and by
the fame authority of parliament: for it is a maxim in
law, that it requires the fame ftrength to difiblve, as to
create, an obligation. It is true, it was formerly held,
that the king might in many cafes difpenfe with penal
ftatutes: but now by ftatute 1 W. and M. ft. 2. c. 2.
it is declared, that the fufpending or difpenfing with
laws by regal authority, without confent of parliament,
is illegal.
Bill of Rights. Seethe article Liberty.
BILLERICAY, a town of Eflex in England, feated
on a hill, in E. Long. o. 25. N. Lat. 51. 35.
BILLET, in heraldry, a bearing in form of a long
fquare. They are fuppofed to reprefent pieces of cloth
of gold or filver ; but Guillim thinks they reprefent a
letter fealed up, and other authors take them for bricks.
Billete fignifies that the efcutcheon is all over-ftrewed
with billets, the number not afeertained.
BiLLET-/FiW, fmall wood for fuel, cut three feet and
four inches long, and feven inches and a half in com-
pafs; the affize of which is to be inquired of by juftices.
BILLETING, in military affairs, is the quartering
of foldiers in the houfes of a town or village.—And, a-
mong fox-hunters, it fignifies the ordure and dung of
a fox.
BILLIARDS, an ingenious kind of game, played
on a reftangular table, covered with green cloth, and
placed exaftly level, with little ivory balls, which are
driven by crooked flicks, made on purpofe, into ha¬
zards or holes, on the edge and corners of the table,
according to certain rules of the game.
BIL-
B I M [ i
BILLINGHAM, a town of Northumberland in
England, feated in W. Long. i. 35. N. Lat. 55. 20.
BILLON, in the hiilory of coins, a compofition of
precious and bafe metals, where the latter predominate.
Wherefore gold under twelve carats fine, is called billon
of gold; and filver under fix penny-weight, billon of lil-
ver. So little attention was paid formerly to the purity
of gold and filver, that the term billon of gold was
applied only to that which was under twenty-one ca¬
rats, and billon of filver to that which was lower than
ten penny-weight.
Billon, a town of Auvergne in France, fituated in
E. Long. 3. 30. N. Lat. 45. 36.
BILSDON, a fmall town of Leicefterlhire in Eng¬
land, fituated in W. Long. o. 15. N. Lat. 52. 40.
BILSEN,a town of Germany, in the circle of Weft-
phalia and bilhopric of Liege, feated on the river Dem-
er, in E. Long. 5. 42. N. Lat. 50. 48.
BILSON (Thomas), bifhop of Winchefter, in which
city he was born and educated. In 1565, he was ad¬
mitted perpetual fellow of New college, and in 1570
completed his degrees in arts. He was made bachelor
of divinity in 1579, and doftor the year following.
His firll preferment was that of. mailer of Winchefter
fchool; he was next made prebendary, and afterwards
warden, of Winchefter college. In 1596 he was con-
fecrated bilhop of Worcefter ; and, about a year after,
tranflated to the fee of Winchefter, and fworn of queen
Elizabeth’s privy council. He was one of the prin¬
cipal managers of the Hampton-court conference in
1604; and the Englilh tranflation of the Bible in the
reign of king James 1. was finally corredled by this
prelate, and Dr Miles Smith bilhop of Gloucefter.
He died in the year 1616 ; and was buried in Weft-
minfter abbey, near the entrance of St Edmund’s cha¬
pel, on the fouth fide of the monument of king Ri¬
chard II. The feveral authors who have mentioned
bilhop Bilfon, agree in giving him the charafier of
a learned divine, an able civilian, and an upright
man. His ftyle is, in general, much more eafy and
harmonious than that of cotemporary ecclefiaftics. His
works are, I. Several Latin poems and orations. Ma-
nufcript, in Ant. Wood’s library. 2. The true diffe¬
rence between Chrijlian fubjetlion and unchrijlian rebel¬
lion. Oxf. 1585, 410. Loud. 1586, 8vo. 3. The
perpetual government of Chriffs church. Lond. 1593,
4to. Black Letter. 4. The effect of certain far, no ns
touching the full redemption of mankind by the death and
blood of Chrifty See. Lond. 1599, 4to. 5. The fur-
vey of Chriffs fufferings for man's redemption, and of
his defeent to Hades, or Hell. Lond. 1604, fol. 6. A
fermon preached before king James I. and his queen at
their coronation. Lond. 1603, 8vo.
BIMEDIAL, in mathematics. If two medial lines,
as AB and BC, commenfurable only in power, con¬
taining a rational re&angle, are compounded, the
whole line AC will be irrational, and is called a firft
bimedial line.
B
A + C
See Euclid, lib. X. prop. 38.
BIMINI, one of the Lucaya illands in North A-
merica, near the channel of Bahama. It is about eight
miles in length, and as much in breadth, covered with
trees, and inhabited by the native Americans. It is
155 ] BIN
very difficult of accefs on account of the ffioals, but
is a very pleafant place. W. Long. 79. 30. N. Lat.
25. o.
BIMLIPATAN, a fea-port town of Golconda in
the Eaft Indies, feated on the weft fide of the bay of
Bengal. Here the Dutch have a very fmall fadlory,
defigned for buying up the cloth manufa&ured by the
inhabitants. E. Long. 83. 5. N. Lat. 18. o.
BINACLE, a wooden cafe or box, which contains
the compaffes, log-glaffes, watch-glaffes, and lights
to fhew the compafs at night. As this is called bittacle
in all the old fea-books, even by mariners, it appears
evidently to be derived from the French term habitacle
(a fmall habitation), which is now ufed for the fame
purpofe by the feamen of that nation.—The binacle
(Plate LVII. fig. 4.) is furnifhed with three apart¬
ments, with Aiding ffiutters : the two fide ones, a b,
have always a compafs in each, d, to dire£l the ffiip’s
way ; while the middle divjfion, c, has a lamp or candle
with a pane of glafs on either fide to throw a light upon
the compafs in the night, whereby the man who fleers
may obferve it in the darkeft weather, as it ftands im¬
mediately before the helm pp the quarter deck. There
are always two binacles on the deck of a Ihip of war,
one being defigned for the man who fleers, and the
other for the perfon who fuperintends the fteerage,
whofe office is called conning.
BINAROS, a fmall town of Spain, in the king¬
dom of Valentia, remarkable for good wine. It is
feated near the fea, in E. Long. o. 15. N. Lat 40. 24.
BINARY arithmetic,that wffierein unity or 1 and
o are only ufed.—This was the invention of M. Leib¬
nitz, who fliews it to be very expeditious in difeover-
ing the properties of numbers, and in conftru&ing
tables: and Mr Dangecourt, in the hiftory of the
royal academy of fciences, gives a fpecimen of it con¬
cerning arithmetical progreffionals; where he ftiews,
that becaufe in binary arithmetic only two charadlers
are ufed, therefore the laws of progreffion may be
more eafily difeovered by it than by common arithmetic.
All the charadters ufed in binary arithmetic are o and
1 ; and the cypher multiplies every thing by 2, as in
the common arithmetic by xo. Thus 1 is one; io#
twro; xx, three; 100, four; 101, five; no, fix;
in, feven ; 1000, eight; xoox, nine; 1010, ten ;
which is built on the fame principles with common
arithmetic. The author, however, does not recom¬
mend this method for common ufe, becaufe of the great
number of figures required to exprefs a number; and
adds, that if the common progreffion were from 12 to
12, or from 16 to 16, it would be ftill more expeditious.
Binary Meafure, in inufic, is a meafure which is
beaten equally, or where the time of rifing is equal to
that of falling. This is ufually called common time.
Binary Number, that compofed of two units.
BINCH, a fmall fortified towm of the Low Coun¬
tries, in the county of Hainauit, fubjedt to the houfe
of Auftria. E. Long. 3. 21. N. Lat. 50. 23.
BIND, a country-word for a ftalk of hops.
Bind s/"Eels, a quantity, confifting of 250, or 10
ftrikes, each containing 25 eels. ^
BIND-weed, in botany. See Convolvulus.
BINDBROKE, a town of Lincolufliire in England,
feated in E. Long. o. 10. N. Lat. 53. 32.
BING, in the alum-works, denotes a heap of alum
thrown
£inilipata)i
I!
fcingazi
BIO [ 1156 ] B I R
thrown together in order to drain.
BINGAZI, a fea-port town of Africa, in the king¬
dom of Tripoli. E. Long. 19. 10. N. Lat. 32. 20.
BINGEN, an ancient and handfome town of Ger¬
many, in the archbilhopric of Mentz, feated at the
place where the river Nave falls into the Rhine. E.
Long. 7. 48. N. Lat. 50. 3.
BINGHAM (Jofeph), a learned divine, born at
Wakefield in Yorklhire, in September 1668, educated
at Univerfity college, in Oxford, and afterwards pre-
fented by John Radcliffe, M. D. to the re&ory of
Headbournworthy, near Winchefter. In this country
retirement he began his learned and laborious work,
Origines Ecclefiaflicx; or, The Antiquities of the Chri-
ftian church. The firll volume of which was publifiied
in 1708, and it was completed afterwards in nine vo-
lames more. He publifiied alfo feveral other books.
But notwithftanding his great learning and merit, he
had no other preferment than that of Headbourn-wor¬
thy till the year 1712, when he was collated to the rec¬
tory of Havant, near Portfmouth, by Sir Jonathan
Trelawney bifiiop of Winchelter^ to whom he dedi¬
cated feveral of his books. He died Auguft i^tb, 1723,
in the 55th year his age.
Bingham, a town of Nottinghamfiiire in England,
feated in the vale of Bel voir, in W. Long. 1. 10. N.
Lat. 50. 3.
BINGIUM, (anc. geog.), a village or town of the
Vangiones in Gallicia Belgica, feated at the confluence
of the Nave and Rhine. Now Bingen; which fee.
BINGLEY, a town in the weft, riding of Yorkftiire,
feated on the river Aire, in W. Long. 1. 35. N. Lat.
53. 20.
BINN, in country affairs, a place boarded up to put
corn in.
BINOCULAR telescope, a kind of dioptric te-
lefcope fitted with two tubes, joined in fuch a manner
that one may fee a diftant object with both eyes at the
fame time. See Optics.
BINOMIAL, in algebra, a root confiding of two
members conne&ed by the fign + or —. Thus a-\-b,
and 8—3, are binomials, confifting of the fums and dif¬
ferences of thefe quantities. See Algebra.
BINT AN, an ifiand of Afia, in the Eaft Indies, to
the fouth of the peninfula of Malacca, fituated in E.
Long. 103. 50. N. Lat. 1. o.
BIOGRAPHER, one who writes the lives of par¬
ticular perfons, as Plutarch, Suetonius, &c. See the
next article.
BIOGRAPHY, a fpecies of hiftory which records
the lives and chara&ers of remarkable perfons. This is
at once the moft entertaining and inftrudlive kind of
hiftory. It admits of all the painting and pafiion of ro¬
mance ; but with this capital difference, that our paf-
fions are more'keenly interefted, becaufe the charadters
and incidents are not only agreeable to nature, but
itridtly true. No books are fo proper to be put into the
hands of young people. See the Preface to this Work.
BION, a bucolic poet, native of Smyrna, lived
at the fame time with Ptolemy Philadelphus, whofe
reign reached from the fourth year of the 123d Olym¬
piad to the fecond year of the 133d. He was an in¬
comparable poet, if we may believe the lamentations
of his difciple Mofchus. His few pieces which are left
do not contradiA this teftimony. See Moschus.
Bion, firnamed Boryfthenites, becaufe he was of Do¬
ry fthenes, was a philofopher of a great deal of wit, but
of very little religion: he flourifhed about the x 20th O-
lympiad; but falling fick, he, like other profane per¬
fons, became fuperftitious.
BIORNBURG, a town of north Finland in Swe¬
den, feated on the river Kune near its mouth in the
Gulf of Bothnia. E. Long. 22. 35. N. Lat. 62. 6.
BIOTHANATI, a term fometimes ufed for fili¬
cides. See Suicides.
BIOUAC, in military affairs, a night-guard, per¬
formed by the whole army, when there is any appre-
henfion of danger from the enemy.
BIPENNIS, a two-edged ax, ufed anciently by the
Amazons in fight; as alfo by the feamen, to cut afun-
der the ropes and cordage of the enemy’s veffels. The
bipennis was a weapon chiefly of the oriental nations,
made like a double ax, or two axes joined back to
back, with a fiiort handle. Modern writers ufually
compare it to our halbard, or partizan; from which it
differed in that it had no point, or that its fhaft or handle
was much fhorter.
BIQUADRATIC power, root, equation, &c.
See Algebra.
BIR, or Berr, a town of the province of Diarbeck
in Tupky in Afia, with a caftle where the governor re-
fides, feated on the eaftern bank of the river Euphrates,
near a high mountain in a very pleafant and fertile coun¬
try. E. Long. 38. 6. N. Lat. 36. 10.
BIRAGUE (Clement), a Milanefe engraver, and
the inventor of the art of cutting diamonds, flouriflied
about the year 1580.
BIRCH-tree, in botany. See Betula.
BIRD (William), an eminent mufician and com-
pofer, was one of the children of the chapel in the reign
of Edward VI. and, as it is afferted by Wood in the
Aftimolean MS. was bred up under Tallis. It ap¬
pears, that in 1575 Tallis and Bird were both gentle¬
men and alfo organifts of the royal chapel; but the time
of their appointment to this latter office cannot now be
afcertained.
The compofitions of Bird are many and various;
thofe of his younger years were moftly for the fervice
of the church. He compofed a work, entitled Sa-
crarum Cantionum, quinque vocutn, printed in 1589;
among which is that noble compofition Civitas fan fit
tui, which for many years paft has been fung in the
church as an anthem to the words “ Bow thine .ear,
O Lord.” Fie was alfo the author of a work entitled
Gradualia, ac Cantiones facrx, quintjt quaternis, trinif-
que vccihus concinnatee. lib. primus. Of this there are
two editions, the latter publiflied in 16x0. Although
it appears by thefe his works that Bird was in the ftridf-
eft fenfe a church-mufician, he occafionally gave to the
world compofitions of a fecular kind: and he feems to
be the firft among Englifix muficians that ever made an
effay in the compofition of that elegant fpecies of vocal
harmony, the madrigal; the La Verginella of Ariofto,
which he fet in that form for five voices, being the moft
ancient mufical compofition of the kind to be met with
in the works of Englifh authors. Of his compofitions
for private entertainment, there are extant, ‘ Songs of
fundry natures, fome of grauitie, and others of myrth,
fit for all companies and voyces, printed in 1589;’ and
two other colledfions of the fame kind, the laft of them
printed
B I R
[
I-
printed in 1611. But the moft permanent memorials of
Bird’s excellencies are his motets and anthems; to which
0 may be added, a fine fervice in the key of D with the
U minor third, the firft compofition in Dr Boyce’s Ca¬
lf thedral Mufic, vol. III. and that well known canon of
[■; his, Non nobis Domine.
Befides his falaries and other emoluments of his pro-
P felfion, it is to bfc fuppofed that Bird derived fome ad-
1 vantages from the patent granted by queen Elizabeth to
I Tallis and him, for the foie printingof mufic and mufic-
!' paper: Dr Ward fpeaks of a book which he had feen
I with the letters T. E. for Thomas Eaft, Eft, or Efte,
f who printed mufic under that patent. Tallis dying in
| 1585, the patent, by the terms of it, furvived to Bird,
' who, no doubt for a valuable confideration, permitted
I: Eaft to exercife the right of printing under the protec-
I tion of it; and he in the title-page of moft of his pu-
1 blications ftyles himfelf the ajfignee of William Byrd.
j| Bird died in 1623.
BIRD, in zoology. See Zoology, n° 8.; Com-
| v&RATiviL-dnatomy, chap, iv.; and Ornithology.
ifeaw-BiRD, or Petty-chaps. See Motacilla.
Black-lbiM). f Turdus.
j9/m<?-Bird. Motacilla.
CVZ-Bird. Bird-Catching, infra.
Canary-BiRD. Fringilla.
Dung-BiRD. • See < Upupa.
Humming-BiRD. Trochilus; alfo Plate
LVII. at fig. 3.
Mocking-BiRD. Turdus.
Bird of Paradife. J [ Paradisea.
BiRD-Call, a little ftick cleft at one end, in which
j is put a leaf of fome plant, wherewith to counterfeit
1 the cryer’s call of feveral birds, and bring them to the
net, or fnare, or lime-twig, to be taken. A laurel-
leaf fitted on the bird-call, counterfeits the voice of
lapwings; a leek, that of nightingales, &c.
Bird-Catching, the art of taking birds or wild-fowl,
whether for food, for the pleafure of their fong, or for
their deftruftion as pernicious to the hufbandman, &c.
j| The methods are by bird-lime, nets, decoys, &c. See
Bird-Lime, infra ; and Decoy.
In the fuburbs of London (and particularly about
Shoreditch) are feveral weavers and other tradefmen,
I who, during the months of Oftober and March, get
By their livelihood by an ingenious, and, we may fay, a
fcientific, method of bird-catching, which is totally un¬
known in other parts of Great Britain. The reafon of
*ar‘ this trade being confined to fo fmall a compafs, arifes
from there being no confiderable fale for finging-birds
except in the metropolis: as the apparatus for this
purpofe is alfo heavy, and at the fame time muft be
carried on a man’s back, it prevents the bird-catchers
going to above three or four miles diftance.
This method of bird-catching muft have been long
pra&ifed, as it is brought to a moft fyftematical per-
fe&ion, and is attended with a very confiderable ex¬
pence.
The nets arc a moft ingenious piece of mechanifm;
are generally twelve yards and a half long, and two
Vol. II.
■ 57 ] B I R
yards and a half (vide ; and no one, on bare infpedlion,
would-imagine that a bird (who is fo very quick in all
its motions) could be catched by the nets flapping over
each other, till he becomes eye-witnefs of the pullers
feldom fajling.
The wild birds fly (as the bird-catchers term it)
chiefly during the month of Oftober, and part of Sep¬
tember and November; as the flight in March is muck
lefs confiderable than that of Michaelmas. It is to be
noted alfo, that the feveral fpecies of birds oiflight do
not make their appearance precifely at the fame time,
during the months of September, Oftober, and No¬
vember. The pippet (a), for example, begins to fly
about Michaelmas ; and then the woodlark, linnet,
goldfinch, chaffinch, greenfinch, and other birds of
flight fucceed ; all of which are not eafily to be caught,
or in any numbers, at any other time, and more parti¬
cularly the pippet and the woodlark.
Thefe birds, during the Michaelmas and March
flights, are chiefly on the wing from day-break to noon,
though there is afterwards a fmall flight from two till
night; but this however is fo inconfiderable, that the
bird-catchers always take up their nets at noon.
It may well deferve the attention of the naturalift
whence thefe periodical flights of certain birds can
arife. As the ground, however, is ploughed during
the months of October and March for fowing the winter
and lent corn, it fhould feem that they are thus fup-
plied with a great profufion both of feeds and in¬
fers, which they cannot fo eafily procure at any other
feafon.
It may not be improper to mention another cir-
cumftance, to be obferved during their flitting, viz.
that they fly always againft the wind: hence, there is
great contention amongft the bird-catchers who fhall
gain that point; if (for example) it is wefterly, the
bird-catcher who lays his nets moft to the eaft, is fure
almoft of catching every thing, provided his call-birds
are good : a gentle wind to the fouth-weft generally
produces the beft fport.
The bird-catcher, who is a fubftantial man, ancf
hath a proper apparatus for this purpofe, generally
carries with him five or fix linnets, (of which more are
caught than any finging bird), two gold-finches, two
green-finches, one wood-lark, one red poll, a yellow-
hammer, tit-lark, and aberdavine, and perhaps a bull¬
finch ; thefe are placed at fmall diftances from the nets
in little cages. He hath, befides, what are called flur-
birds, which are placed within the nets, are raifed upon
the flur (b), and gently let down at the time the wild
bird approaches them. Thefe generally confift of the
linnet, the gold-finch, and the green-finch, which are
fecured to the flur by what is called a (c); a
contrivance that fecures the birds without doing any
injury to their plumage.
It having been found that there is a fuperiority be¬
tween bird and bird, from the one being more in fong
than the other; the bird-catchers contrive that their
call-birds fhould moult before the ufual time. They,
therefore, in June or July, put them into a clofe box,
7 G under
(a) A fmall fpecies of lark, but which is inferior to other birds of that genus in point of fong.
(b) A moveable perch to which the bird is tied, and which the bird-catcher can raife at pleafure by means of a
long firing faftened to it.
f c) A fort of bandage, formed of a (lender filken firing that is faftened round the bird’s body, and under the wings,
in fo artful a manner as to hinder the bird from being hurt, let it flutter ever fo much in the raifing.
B I R [ 1158 ] B I R
under two or three folds of blankets, and leave their
dung in the cage to raife a greater heat; in which flate
they continue, being perhaps examined but once a-week
to have frefh water. As for food, the air is fo putrid,
that they eat little during the whole date of confinement,
which lafts about a month. The birds frequently die
under the operation ; ^nd hence the value of a ftopped-
bird rifes greatly. When the bird hath thus prema¬
turely moulted, he is in fong whiltt the wild birds are
out of fong, and his note is louder and more piercing
than that of a wild one ; but it is not only in his note
he receives an alteration, the plumage is equally im¬
proved. The black and yellow in the wings of the
gold-finch, for example, become deeper and more vi¬
vid, together with a mod beautiful glofs, which is not
to be feen in the wild bird. The bill, which in the
latter is likewife black at the end, in the dopped-bird
becomes white and more taper, as do its legs: in fliort,
there is as much difference between a wild anda dopped-
bird, as there is between a horfe which is kept in body-
clothes or at grafs.
When the bird-catcher hath laid his nets, he dif-
pofes of his call-birds at proper intervals. It mud be
owned, that there is a mod malicious joy in thefe call-
birds to bring the wild ones into the fame date of cap¬
tivity ; which may likewife be obferved with regard to
the decoy-ducks. See Decoy.
Their fight, and hearing, infinitely excels that-of the
bird-catcher. The indant that the (d) wild birds are
perceived, notice is given by one to the red of the call-
birds, (as it is by the fird hound that hits on the fcent,
to the red of the pack); after which, follows the fame
fort of tumultuous ecdacy and joy. The call-birds,
while the bird is at a didance, do not fing as a bird does
in a chamber ; they invite the wild ones by what the
bird-catchers call Jhort-jerks, which, when the birds are
good, may be heard at a great didance. The afcend-
ency by this call or invitation is fo great, that the wild
bird is dopped in its courfe of fiight; and, if not already
acquainted with the nets (e), lights boldly within 20
yards of perhaps three or four bird-catchers, on a fpot
which otherwife it would not have taken the lead notice
of. Nay, it frequently happens, that if half a flock
only are caught, the remaining half will immediately
afterwards light in the nets, and fhare the fame fate ;
and fhould only one bird efcape, that bird will fuffer
itfelf to be pulled at till it is caught; fuch a fafcinating
power have the call-birds.
While we are on this fubjedl of the jerking of birds,
we cannot omit mentioning, that the bird-catchers fre¬
quently lay confiderable wagers whofe call-bird can jerk
the longed, as that determines the fuperiority. They
place them oppofite to each other, by an inch of can¬
dle ; and the bird who jerks the oftened, before the
candle is burnt out, wins the wager. We have been
informed, that there have been indances of a bird’s giving
170 jerks in a quarter of an hour ; and we have known
a linnet, in fuch a trial, perfevere in its emulation till
it fwooned from the perch: thus, as Pliny fays of the
nightingale, vicla morte. finit fceps vitam, fpiritu print
deficiente quam cantu *. It may be here obferved, that
birds when near each other, and in fight, feldom jerk
or fing. They either fight, or ufe fliort and wheedling
calls; the jerking of thefe call-birds, therefore, face
to face, is a mod extraordinary indance of contention
for fuperiority in fong.
To thefe we may add a few particulars that fell within
our nqticeduring our inquiries among the bird-catchers;
fuch as, that they immediately kill the hens of every
fpecies of birds they take, being incapable of finging,
as alfo being inferior in plumage ; the pippets likewife
are indifcriminately dedroyed, as the cock does not
fing wed : they fell the dead birds for three-pence or
four-pence a dozen. Thefe fmall birds are fo good,
that we are furprifed the luxury of the age negledts fo
delicate an acquifition to the table. The modern Ita¬
lians are fond of fmall birds, which they eat under the
common name of beccaficos: and the dear rate a Roman
tragedian paid for one diflr of finging-birds is well
known ; (fee the article Mfop}.
Another particular we learned, in converfation with
a London bird-catcher, wasthe vad price that is fome-
times given for a fingle fong-bird, which had not learned
to whiflle tunes. The greated fum we heard of, was
five guineas for a chaffinch, that had a particular and
uncommon note, under which it was intended to train
others : and we alfo heard of five pounds ten fhillings
being given for a call-bird linnet.
A third Angular circumdance, which confirms an
obfervation of Linnseus, is, that the male chaffinches fly
by themfelves, and in the flight precede the females;
but this is not peculiar to the chaffinches. When the
tit-larks are caught in the beginning of the feafon, it
frequently happens, that forty are taken and not one
female among them : and probably the fame would be
obferved with regard to other birds, (as has been done
with relation to the wheat-ear), if they were attended
to. An experienced and intelligent bird-catcher in¬
formed us, that fuch birds as breed twice a-year, ge¬
nerally have in their fird brood a majority of males, and
in their fecond, of females, which may in part account
for the above obfervation.
We mud not omit mention of the bullfinch, though
it does not properly come under the title of a finging-
bird, or a bird of flight, as it does not often move farther
than from hedge to hedge ; yet, as the bird fells well
on account of its learning to whidle tunes', and fome-
times flies over the fields where the nets are laid, the
bird-catchers have often a call-bird to enfnare it, though
mod of them can imitate the call with their mouths.
It is remarkable with regard to this bird, that the fe¬
male anfwers the purpofe of a call-bird as well as the
male, which is not experienced in any other bird taken
by the London bird-catchers.
The nightingale is not a bird of flight, in the fenfe
the bird-catchers ufe this term. Like the robin, wren,
and many other finging birds, it only moves from hedge
to hedge, and does not take the periodical flights in
October and March. The perfons who catch thefe
birds, make ufe of fmall trap-nets, without call-birds;
and are confidered as inferior in dignity to other bird-
catchers, who will not rank with them. The arrival of
the
(d) It may be alfo obferved, that the moment they fee a hawk, they communicate the alarm to each other by a
plaintive note; not will they then jerk or call though the wild birds are near.
(e) A bird, acquainted with the nets, is by the cird-catchers termed which they endeavour to drive a--
way, as they can have no fport whilft it continues near them.
B I R [ ii59 ] B I R
the nightingale is expe&ed by the trappers in the
neighbourhood of London, the firft week in April: at
the beginning, none but cocks are taken; but in a few
days the hens make their appearance, generally by
themfelves, though fometimes a few males come along
with them. The latter are diftinguiihed from the fe¬
males not only by their fuperior fize, but by a great
fwelling of their vent, which commences on the firft ar¬
rival of the hens. They are caught in a net trap, the
bottom of which is furrounded with an iron ring; the
net itfelf is rather larger than a cabbage net. When
the trappers hear or fee them, they ftrew fome fre/h
mould under the place, and bait the trap with a meal¬
worm from the baker’s fhop. Ten or a dozen nightin¬
gales have been thus caught in a day.
BiRD-Zw/e, a vifcid fubftance, prepared after dif¬
ferent ways. The moft common bird-lime among us,
is made from holly-bark, boiled ten or twelve hours;
when the green coat being feparated from the other, it
is covered up a fortnight in a moift place; then pounded
into a tough pafte,. fo that no fibres of the wood are
difcernible, and wafhed in a running ftream till no
motes appear; put up to ferment four or five days,
Ikimmed as often as any thing arifes, and laid up for
ufe. To ufe it, a third part of nut-oil, or thin greafe,
muft be incorporated with it over the fire.
The juice of holly-bark, is a very peculiar fub¬
ftance. But if trials were made, it feems probable,
that many other juices would be found to have the fame
clammy nature. The mifletoe affords a juice, even fu¬
perior to that of the holly; and if a young fhoot of the
the common alder be cut through, there will a ftringy
juice draw out in threads, and follow the knife like
bird-lime, or the juice of the holly. It feems in this
tree to be lodged, not in the bark, but in certain veins
juft within the circle of the wood. The roots of all the
hyacinths alfo afford a tough and ftringy juice of the
fame kind; and fa does the afphodel, the narciffus, and
the black bryony root, in a furprifing quantity.
When twigs, &c. fmeared with bird-lime are to be
put in places fubjeft to wet, the common bird-lime is
apt to have its force foon taken away. It is neceffary,
therefore, to have recourfe to a particular fort, which
from its property of bearing water unhurt, is called •wa¬
ter bird-lime; and is prepared thus. Take a pound of
ftrong and good bird-lime ; waft it thoroughly in
fpring-water, till the hardnefs is all removed; and then
beat it well, that the water may be clean feparated, fo
as not a drop remains; then dry it well, and put it into
an earthen pot; add to it as much capon’s greafe as
will make it run. Then add two fpoonfuls of ftrong
vinegar, one fpoonful of oil, and a fmall quantity of
Venice turpentine. Let the whole boil for fome mi¬
nutes over a moderate fire, ftirring it all the time. Then
take it off; and when there is occafion to ufe it, warm
it, and cover the flicks well with it. This is the beft
fort of bird-lime for fnipes, and other birds that love
wet places.
The moft fuccefsful method of ufing the common
bird-lime is this: Cut down the main branch or bough
of any bufty tree, whofe twigs are thick, ftraight, long,
and fmooth, and have neither knots nor prickles. The
willow and the birch-tree afford the beft of this kind.
Let all the fuperfluous ftoots' be trimmed off, and the
twigs all made neat and clean ; they muft all be well Bird,
covered with the bird-lime, within four inches of the 1 ~
bottom ; but the main bough from which they grow,
muft not be touched with the lime. No part of the
bark, where the lime ftould come, muft be left bare:
but it is a nice matter to lay it on properly; for if it be
too thick it will give the birds a diftafte, and they will
not come near it ; and if there be too little of it, it
will not' hold them when they are there. When the
buft is thus prepared, it muft be fet up in fome dead
hedge, or among fome growing buftes near the out-
ftcirts of a town, a farmer’s back-yard, or the like, if
it be in the fpring; for thefe places are the refort of
the fmall birds at that time. If it be ufed in fummer,
the buft muft be placed in the midft of a quick-fet
hedge, or in groves, buftes, or white-thorn trees, near
fields of corn, hemp, flax, and the like; and in the win¬
ter, the proper places are about flacks of corn, hovels,
barns, and the like. When the lime-buft is thus planted,
the fportfman muft ftand as near it as he can, without
being difcovered ; and with the mouth, or otherwife,
make fuch fort of notes as the birds do when they at¬
tack or call to one another. There are bird-calls to be
bought for this ufe; but the moft expert method is to
learn the notes of call of the feveral birds, and imitate
them by a fort of whiftling. When one bird is thus enti¬
ced to the bufli, and hung faft, the bufinefs of the fportf¬
man is not to run up to take it, but to be patient: for it
will hang itfelf more faft, by its ftruggling to get away;
and its fluttering will bring more to the buft, fo that
feveral may be taken together. The time of the day
for this fport is from fun-rife to ten o’clock, and from
one to fun-fet. Another very good method of bring¬
ing the birds together, is by a ftale : a bat makes a
very good ftale; but it muft be faftened, fo as to be in
fight at a diftance. An owl is a ftill better ftale ; for
this bird never goes abroad, but it is followed by all
the fmall birds in the neighbourhood. They will ga¬
ther together in great numbers about it; and having no
convenient place to fit on, but the lime-buft, will be ta- „
ken in great numbers. If a living owl or bat is not to
be had, the Ikin fluffed will ferve the purpofe, and will
laft 20 years. Some have ufed the image of an owl
carved in wood, and painted in the natural colours; and
it has been found to fucceed very well.
Divination by Birds. A Augury.
Migration <j/'Birds. ( g£e ) Migration.
Nidijication of Rikj>s. C y Ornithology.
Singing of Birds. -J Singing.
Methods of preferving Birds from putrefaflion, and
fo as to retain their natural form and pofttion, as •well as
the beauty of their colours and plumage. A good anti-
feptic for animal fubftances has been much inquired
after; as, for want of it, many curious animals, and
birds particularly, come to our hands in a very imper-
feft Hate; fome from foreign parts entirely mifcarry,
and others of the fineft plumage are devoured by infeiSts.
Various methods of prefervation, therefore, have been
of late defcribed f ; but the following improved me- f See Pl'il*
thods by Dr Lettfom * feem to be the leaft troublefome Jraaf- for
and the moft complete.
“ After opening the bird by a longitudinal incifion * Natural-
from the breaft to the vent; differing the flefliy parts ift’s an<l >
from the bones; and removing the entrails, eyes, Companion
7 G 2 brains, p.T^rf/e"’
t Phil.
Tranf. Vol.
LX. p. sip.
* Natural
Hi (lory of
Guiana.
B I R
[ 1160 ]
B I R
brains (r), and tongue; the cavities and infide of th^
Ikin are to be fprinkled with the powders mentioned be¬
low: the eyes (g) are then to be inferted, and the head
ftuffed with cotton or tow: in the next place, a wire
is to be palled down the throat through one of the no-
Itrils, and fixed into the breaft-bone: wires are alfo to
be introduced through the feet, up the legs and thighs,
and inferted into the fame bone: next, fill the body
with cotton to its natural fize, and few the Ikin over it:
the attitude is laftlyto be attended to; and in whatever
pofition the fubje£t is placed to dry, that fame pofition
will be retained afterwards.
“ The drying compound is as follows:
Corrofive fublimate, - - ^-lb.
Saltpetre prepared or burnt, - 4- lb.
Alum burnt, - - 4:1b.
Flowers of fulphur, - - -i-lb.
Camphor, - - 4:1b.
Black pepper, - - i lb.
Tobacco ground coarfe, - i lb.
Mix the whole together, and keep it in a glafs veflel
Hopped clofe.
“ Small birds may be preferred in brandy, rum, ar¬
rack, or firft runnings; though in this manner the co¬
lour of the plumage is liable to be extracted by the
fpirit.
“ Large fea-fowl have thick, ftrong Ikins, and fuch
may be Ikinned ; the tail, claws, head, and feet, are care¬
fully to be preferred, and the plumage ftained as little
as poffible with blood. The infide of the Ikin may be
ftuffed as recommended above.
“ Kuckahn obferves -f-,that * baking is not only ufe-
‘ ful in frelh prefervations, but will alfo be of very great
‘ fervice to old ones, deftroying the eggs of infefts;
‘ and it ftiould be a conftant praftice once in two or
« three years to bake them over again, and to have the
‘ cafes frelh walked with camphorated fpirit, or the
‘ fublimate folution, which would not only preferve
* colleftions from decay much longer, but alfo keep
‘ them fweet.’
“ One of the beft prefervatives, is to procure clofe
boxes, well glazed: with fuch a precaution I have kept
them in a dry room many years without the leaft ap¬
pearance of injury.—Baking is apt to crimp and injure
the plumage, unlefs great care be ufed; and therefore
the proper degree of heat Ihould be afcertained by
means of a feather, before fuch fubje&s are baked.
“ When the fubjeft is to be kept for fotne time in
a hot climate, it Ihould be fecured in a box filled with
tow, oakum, or tobacco, well fprinkled with the fubli¬
mate folution.”
In Guiana, the number and variety of beautiful
birds is fo great, that feveral perfons in the colony ad-
vantageoufly employ themfelves, with their Haves and
dependents, in killing and preferving tliefe animals for
the cabinets of naturalifts in different parts of Europe.
The method of doing this, as related by Mr Bancroft *,
is, “ to put the bird which is to be preferved in a pro¬
per veffcl, and cover him with high wines, or the firft
running of the diftillation of rum. In this fpirit he is
fuffered to remain for 24 or 48 hours, or longer, ac¬
cording to his fize, till it has penetrated through every Biri
part of his body. When this is done, the bird is ta-  1
ken out; and his feathers, which are no ways changed 1
by this immerfion, are placed fmooth and Regular. It .1
is then put into a machine, made for the purpofe, a- |
mong a number of others, and its head, feet, wings, |
tail, &c. are placed exa&ly agreeable to life. In this
pofition they are all placed in an oven, very moderately '
heated, where they are flowly dried ; and will ever af- ;|
ter retain their natural pofition, without danger of pu¬
trefaction.”.
Mr Edwards Recipe for making Pittures of Birds, I
with their naturalfeathers *. Firft, take a thin board,
or pannel of deal, or wainfcot well feafoned, that it vd
may not (brink; then fmoothlypafte on it white paper, p.
and let it dry ; and if the wood calls its colour thro’,
you may pafte on a fecond paper, and it will be
whiter: let the fecond paper dry ; then get ready any
bird that you would reprefent, and draw it as exadl as
may be on your papered pannel, of its natural fize,
(middle-fized birds are beft for this work); then paint
what ground-work, or tree, or other thing,’ you de-
fign to fet your bird on, together with the bill and
legs of the bird in water-colours, leaving the bird to
be covered with its own natural feathers. You muft
firft prepare the part to be feathered, by laying on
pretty thick gum Arabic, diffolved in water, with a
large hair-pencil; then lay the pannel flat, and let it
dry hard; and when dry, cover it with your gum-water
a fecond time, and let it dry; and then a third^in cafe
you do not find it lie with a good body on the paper ;
the thicknefs of a (hilling, when dried hard, is fufli-
cient. When your piece is thus prepared, take the fea¬
thers off from your bird, as you ufe them ; beginning
always at the tail, and points of the wing, and working
upwards to the head ; obferving to cover that part of
your draught with the feather, that you take from the
fame part in your bird, letting them fall one over ano¬
ther in their natural order: you muft prepare your fea¬
thers by cutting off the downy part that is about their
bottoms ; and the larger feathers muft have the in-
fides of their (hafts (haved off with a knife to make
them lie flat ; the quills of the wings muft have
their inner webs clipped off, that in laying them the
gum may hold them by their fnafts. When you begin
to lay them, take a pair of Heel pliers to hold the fea¬
thers in; and have fome gum-water, not too thin, and
a large pencil, ready to moiften the gumed ground¬
work by little and little as you work it: then lay your
feathers on the moiftened parts; which muft not be wa-
terilh, but fomething tacky or clammy to hold the fea ¬
thers. You (hould prepare a parcel of fmall leaden
weights, in the form of fugar-loaves; which you may
call in fand, by firft making holes in its furface with
a pointed (lick: thefe weights will be neceffary to fet
on the feathers you have newly layed on, to hold them
to the gum till they are dry and fixed: but you muft
be cautious left the gum come through the feathers; for
it not only fmears them, but dries to the bottoms of
the weights, and you will be apt to pull off the fea¬
thers with the weights, which will diforder your work:
when
(f) In large birds, the brains may be extracted by the eyes; the beft inftrument for this purpofe is a director ufed
by furgeons, which may be had of an inftrument-maker at a trifling expence.
(g) Wax (ufed by fome) is not a proper fubftance for eyes; there are perfons in London, whofe bufinefs it is to
make glafs-eyes of any fize or colour, at a penny or two-pence a pair.
B I R [ n
' when you have wholly covered your bird with feathers,
you mult with a little thick gum ftick on a piece of pa-
^ per cut round, of the bignefs and in the place of the
eye, which you muft colour like the eye of the bird.
When the whole is dry, drefs the feathers round the
out-line, that may chance to flare a little, and reftify
what may be mended in any other part: then lay a
fheet of clean paper on it; and on that a heavy book,
or fome fuch thing, to prefs it: after which it may be
preferved in a frame covered with a glafs.
Birds, in heraldry, according to their feveral kinds,
reprefent either the contemplative or aftive life. They
are the emblems of liberty, expedition, readinefs, fwift-
nefs, and fear. They are more honourable bearings
than fiflies, becaufe they participate more of air and
fire, the two nobleft and higheft elements, than of earth
and water.—Birds muft be borne in coat-armour, as is
beft fitting the propriety of their natural aft ions of
going, fitting, ftanding, flying, &c. Birds that are
either whole footed, or have their feet divided, and yet
have no talons, are faid to be membered; but the cock,
and all birds of prey with (harp and hooked beaks and
talons for encounter or defence, are termed armed.
In the blazoning of birds, if their wings be not dif-
played, they are faid to be borne clofe ; as, he beareth
an eagle, &c. clofe.
Birds-in cookery, the neft of a fmall Indian
fwallow, very delicately tafted, and frequently mixed
among foups. On the fea-coafts of China, at certain
feafons of the year, there are feen vaft numbers of thefe
birds ; they leave the inland country at their breeding
time, and come to build in the rocks, and faftiion their
nefts out of a fpumous matter, which they find on the
(bore, waflied thither by the waves. The nature of
this fubftance is not yet afcertained. According to
Ksempfer, it is mollufcse or fea-worms; according to
M. le Poivre, fifti-fpawn ; and according to Dairymple,
fea-weeds. The nefts are of a hemifpheric figure, and
of the fize of a goofe’s egg, and in fubftance much
refemble the ichthyocolla or ifinglafs. The Chinefe
o-ather thefe nefts, and fell them to all parts of the
world; theydifolve in broths, &c. and make a kind of
jelly of a very delicious flavour.
BIR.EMIS, in Roman antiquity, a veflel with two
rows of oars ; concerning the difpofition of which au¬
thors are not agreed.
BIRETUM, or Birretujni, a fort of black bonnet,
or covering of the head, in form of a pyramid, much
ufed in Italy and France, about 500 or 600 years a-
go, as a badge of viftory, honour, or facerdotal pre¬
ferment.
BIRKENHEAD, or Berkenhead (Sir John), a
famous political author, born about the year 1615.
Being recommended to Dr William Laud archbiftiop
of Canterbury, he became his feCretary; in which of¬
fice he (hewed fuch capacity and diligence, that the
archbifhop, by his diploma, created him mafterofarts
in 1639 ; and in the year following, by letter commen¬
datory from the fame prelate, he was chofen proba¬
tioner fellow of All-Soul’s College. This obliged him
to refide conftantly at Oxford; and on King Charles I.’s
making that city his head-quarters during the civil
war, our author was made choice of to write a kind of
journal in defence of the royal caufe, by which he
gained great reputation. By his majefty’s recommen-
61 ] B I R
dation, he was chofen reader in moral philofophy ; Birkenhead
which employment he enjoyed till 1648, when he was
expelled by the parliament vifitors. He retired after-    1 
wards to London, where he wrote feveral poetical pie¬
ces ; and having adhered fteadily to his principles, he
acquired the title of the loyal poet, and fuffered feveral
imprifonments. He publifhed, while he thus lived in
obfcurity, fome very fatirical compofitions, moftly le¬
velled againft the republican grandees, and written
with great poignancy. Upon the reftoration of King
Charles II. our author was rewarded for his loyalty.
He was created, April 6th, 1661, on the king’s letters
fent for that purp'ofe, doftor of the civil law by the 11-
niverfity of Oxford; and in that quality, as an eminent
civilian, was confulted by the convocation on the que-
ftion,' y/hether bifhops ought to be prefent in capital
cafes. He was about the fame time elefted to ferve in
parliament for Wilton, in the county of Wilts. He
was knighted November 14th, 1662 ; and upon Sir
Richard Fanfhaw’s going in a public charafter to the
court of Madrid, he was appointed to fucceed him as
mafter of requefts. He lived afterwards in credit and
efteem, and received various favours from the court,,
which, however, drew upon him fome very fevere at¬
tacks from thdfe who oppofed the court. Mr Wood
has treated him with great feverity; but his memory
has been tranfmitted vrith honour to pofterity by others,
particularly by Dryden, Langbaine, and Winftanly.
He died in Weftminfter, December 4th, 1679; and
was interred in St Martin’s in the Fields.
BIRKENFIELD, a town of Germany, capital of
a county of the fame name in the circle of the Upper
Rhine. It is feated near the river Nave, in E. Long.
7.9. N. Lat. 49. 35.
BIRMINGHAM, a very large town of Warwick-
(hire in England, fituated in W. Long. 1. 35. N.
Lat. 52. 30. It is no corporation, being only go¬
verned by two conftables and two bailiffs; and it is
therefore free for any perfon to come and fettle there;,
which has contributed greatly not only to the increafe
of the buildings, but alfo of the trade, which is the
mod flourifhing of any in England for all forts of iron
work befides many other curious manufaftures. The
town (lands on the fide of a hill, nearly in the form of
a half-moon. The lower part is filled with the work-
(hops and warehoufes of the manufafturers, and con-
fifts chiefly of old buildings. The upper part of the
town contains a number of new and regular ftreets, and
a handfome fquare elegantly built. It has two churches,,
one in the lower part of the town, which is an ancient
building with a very tall fpire : the other is a very
grand modern ftrufture, having a fquare (tone tower
with a cupola and turret above it. The houfes in this
town amount to between 6oop and 7000, and their
number is continually increafing.
BIRON (Armand de Gontault, lord of), marftial
of France, and a celebrated general in the xb'1* cen¬
tury, fignalized himfelf by his valour and cbnduft in.
feveral lieges and battles. He was made grand mafter
of the artillery in 1569, and no body dared to affault
him at the maffacre of St Bartholomew. He was the firft
who declared for Henry IV. He brought a part of Nor--
many under his fubjeftion, and diffuadedhim from re¬
tiring to England or Rochelle. But he was killed by
a cannon-ball, at the fiege of Eperuay, on the 26th of
Birota
If
Bifa.
B I S
July, 1592. He was a very unlverfal fcholar : and ufed
to carry a pocket-hook, in which he wrote down every
thing that appeared remarkable ; which gave rife to a
proverb very much ufed at court: When a perfon hap¬
pened to fay any thing uncommon, they told him. You
have found that in Biron’s pocket-book.
BIROTA, or Birotum, in Roman antiquity, a
kind of vehicle, fo denominated from its moving upon
two wheels. It carried about 200 pound weight, and
was drawn by three mules.
BIRRUS, in Roman antiquity, a cloak, made of
woollen cloth, worn by the foldiers. Alfo a robe an¬
ciently worn by the priefts or bifhops.
BIRTH, in midwifery, fignilies the fame with de¬
livery. See Midwifery.
Birth, or Berth, the ftation in which a fliip rides
at anchor, either alone or in a fleet; or the di-
liance between the fhip and any adjacent objeft; com¬
prehending the extent of the fpace in which (he ranges
at the length of her cables: as, Jhe lies in a good birth,
1. e. in a convenient fituation, or at a proper diftance
from the fliore and other veflels; and where there is
good anchoring-ground, and flicker from the violence
of the wind and fea.
Birth alfo fignifies the room or apartment where
any particular number of the officers or fliip’s company
ufually mefs and refide. In a fliip of war there is com¬
monly one of thefe between every two guns.
Birth-Z)^, the anniverfary return of the day where¬
on a perfon was born. The ancients placed a good
deal of religion in the celebration of birth-days, and
took omens from thence of the felicity of the coming
year. The manner of celebrating birth-days was by
a fplendid drefs ; wearing a fort of rings peculiar to
that day ; offering facrifices, the men to their genius,
of wine, frankincenfe ; the women to Juno ; giving
fuppers, and treating their friends and clients ; who,
in return, made them prefents, wrote and fung their
panegyrics, and offered vows and good wiflies for the
frequent happy returns of the fame day. The birth¬
days of emperors were alfo celebrated with public fports,
feafts, vows, and medals ftruck on the occafion.—But
the ancients, it is to be obferved, had other forts of
birth-days befides the days on which they were born.
The day of their adoption was always reputed as a
birth-day, and celebrated accordingly. The emperor
Adrian, we are told, obferved three birth-days ; viz.
the day of his nativity, of his adoption, and of his inau¬
guration. In thofe times it was held, that men were
■not born only on thofe days when they firfl: came into
the world, but on thofe alfo when they arrived at the
chief honours and commands in the commonwealth,
e. gr. the confulate. Hence that of Cicero in his ora¬
tion ad Quirites, after his return from exile : si paren-
tibus, id quod necejfe erat, parvus fumprocreatus ; a vobis
natus fum confularis.
Birth-w'ort, in botany. See Aristolochia.
BIRVIESCA, a town of Old Caftile in Spain, and
capital of a fmall territory called Bureva. W. Long.
2. 15. N. Lat. 56. 35.
BIRZA, a town of Poland in the province of Sa-
mogitia. E. Long..25. 5. N. Lat. 56. 35.
BlSA, or Biza, a coin of Pegu, which is current
there for half a ducat. It is alfo a weight ufed in that
kingdom.
B I S
BISACCIA, a fmall handfome town of Italy, in
the Ulterior Principato, and in the kingdom of Na¬
ples, with a bifliop’s fee. E. Long. 15. 35. N. Lat.
4i- 3-
BISCARA, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of
Algiers, feated in the eaftern or Levantine government,
in E. Long. 5. 50. N. Lat. 35. 10. This city be¬
longed to the province of Zeb in Numidia, which lies
fouth of the kingdom of Labez ; but the Algerines,
in their annual inroads to carry off flaves, made them-
felves makers of Bifcara, in order to facilitate their en¬
trance into the fouthern provinces. It retains ftill fome
remains of the ancient city that gave name to this ter¬
ritory ; and hath a garrifon to keep the inhabitants in
awe, and “who ufually bring lions, tigers, and other
wild beafts for fale to ftrangers. The city of Algiers
is never without a great number of Bifcarans, who are
employed in the hardefl: and lowefl: offices, as cleanfing
of ftreets, emptying of vaults, fweeping chimneys, &c.;
and when they have got about 10 or 12 crowns by this
drudgery, they return to their country, where they are
refpedted as worthy men on account of their money,
the inhabitants of this province being almoft entirely
deftitute of coin, and reckoned the moft miferable of
all the Arabian tribes.
BISCAY, a province of Spain, bounded on the
north by the fea called the Bay of Bifcay, on the fouth
by Old Caftile, on the weft by Afturias of Santilana,
and on the eaft by the territories of Alava and Gui-
pufeoa. It is in length about feventy-four miles ; but
the breadth is much lefs, and very unequal. This
country in general is mountainous and barren ; but in
fome places it produces corn, and every where a great
quantity of aples, oranges, and citrons. They make
cyder with the apples, which is their common drink.
Befides this, they have wine called chacolim, which is
pleafant, but will not keep long, and therefore is ufed
inftead of fmall-beer. Their valleys produce a little
flax, and their hills a great deal of timber for ftiips.
The fea affords them excellent fifli of all forts. The
wool that is exported here comes from Old Caftile;
but their greateft riches are produced by their mines of
iron, which metal is extremely good, and is tranfported
to all parts. They have likewife artificers that work in
iron, and are, in particular, famous for working fwords
and knives The natives of this province, who are of
Celtic extraft, ftill retain their old laws, cuftoms, and
language. They are a&ive, induftrious, brave, hardy,
choleric, and make the bell foldiers and failors in all
Spain. Some fay their language has no analogy with
any now fpoken in Europe. The chief towns in it are
Bilboa, Ordunna, Durango, Fontarabia, St Sebaftian,
Tolofa, and Victoria. *
Biscay (New), a province of North America, in
the audience of Guadalajara. It has New Mexico on
the north, Culiacan on the weft, Zacatecas on the
fouth, and Panuca, with Florida, on the eaft. It is
about 300 miles from eaft to weft, and 360 from north
to fouth. In general it is well watered, fruitful, mo¬
derately temperate, and abounds in all forts of provi-
fions, except the mountains of Topia, which are bar¬
ren. The original inhabitants are not all brought un¬
der fubje&ion, they having four large towns in the mo-
raffes, that are of difficult accefs ; for this reafon the
Spaniards have built three fmall fortified towns, which
are
[ Il62 ]
1
E 1 S [ r
are well inhabited, for the defence of their filver mines.
The latitude is from 25 to 28 degrees.
BISCHOFISHEIM, a town of Germany, in the
- archbifhoprick of Mentz, and circle of the Lower
Rhine, feated on the river Tauber, near the frontiers
of Franconia, E. Long. 9. 37. N. Lat. 49. 40.
BISCHOFF-zell, a town of Swiflerland, belong¬
ing to the bifhop of Conftance. There is a caftle
wherein the bifhop’s bailiff refides, who receives half
the fines; but he has nothing to do with the town, nor
is there any appeal from the council of the town. It is
feated on the Thur, at the place where the Sitter falls
into this river, almoft half way between Conftance and
St Gall. E. Long. 9. 23. N. Lat. 47. 33.
BISCHWELLER, a fortrefs of Alface, feated in
E. Long. 7. o. N. Lat. 48. 40.
BISCHROMA, in mufic, the fame as our triple
.quaver. See Chroma.
BISCUTELLA, buckler-mustard, or Bajlard
Mithridate-mujlard; a genus of the tetradynamia
order, belonging to the filiculofa clafs of plants. Of
this there are three fpecies; the auriculata, with fmall
pods joined to the ftyle; the didyma, with a double
orbicular pod diverging from the ftyle; and the apula,
with flowers growing in fpikes and a fhorter ftyle.
They are natives of France, Italy, and Germany.
BISEGLIA, a populous town of Italy, in the
kingdom of Naples and Terra de Bari, with a bifhop’s
fee, feated near the Gulf of Venice, in E. Long. 16.
49. N. Lat. 41. 18.
BISERRULA, a genus of the decandria order,
belonging to the diadelphia clafs of plants, for which
there is no Englifh name. Of this genus there is only
one fpecies known, viz. the pelecinus, an annual plant
with purple flowers, growing in Italy, Sicily, Spain,
and the fouth of France.
BISERTA, a town of the kingdom of Tunis in
Africa, feated on a gulf of the fame name, in E. Long.
10. 40. N. Lat. 37. 20. The gulf is a very large one,
and the Sinus Hipponenfis of the ancients. It is formed
by the Capes Blanco and Ziebeb ; and has a beautiful
fandy inlet near four leagues wide, which once admitted
the largeft veflels, but through the negligence of the
Turks can now admit only thofe of the fmalleft fize,
and is in danger in a fhort time of being totally choaked
up. Some remains of the great pier of Hippo are ftill
extant; by which it appears to have run out into the
fea fo as to break the north-eaft wind, and make this
one of the fafeft and moft beautiful havens in thefe
parts. On the fouth, this gulf hath a communication
' with a lake of the fame name, fo as to form a kind of
canal between it and the Mediterranean fea. Through
this canal a conftant ftream is obferved alternately dif-
charging itfelf from the fea to the lake, and from the
lake to the fea, in thefame manner as the Atlantic ocean
is obferved to do in the Mediterranean, and back again ;
fo that what the lake lofes by exhalations is foon re¬
cruited by the fea, which in hot feafons runs into it
with a very brilk current to keep up the equilibrium.
The town was formerly very confiderable ; and, though
not above a mile in circuit, is faid to have contained
6000 houfes; whereas both it and the villages under it
now fcarce contain that number of inhabitants. It
has ftill, however, fome ftrong caftles and batteries to
defend it, efpecially towards the fea. There are. alfo
63 ] BIS
two very capacious prifons for flaves, a large magazine Biferta,
or ware-houfe for merchandize, and two towers with Biftop.
fome other outworks to defend the entrance of the ha-
ven. The city, though fo near the fea, is well fupplied
with frefh water from fpringsthat furround it on every
fide towards the land. It is likewife well furniihed with
variety of fifh from the adjacent lake. Moft of the in¬
habitants of Biferta, as well as of the adjacent coun¬
try on both fides of the canal, are employed in thefifh-
ing trade, which begins about the end of Oftober, and
ends in the beginning of May; for the rains them
fweetening- the waters, make the fifli come into it in
vaft quantities during that feafon ; but afterwards they
either difappear, or grow lean, dry, and unfit to eat.
The people here are extremely poor; yet very proud,
ill natured, and faithlefs ; infomuch that Muley Hafun
Bey, one of their fovereigns, ufed to fay, that none of
his fubje&s deferved his refentment fo much as they,
fince neither fear nor love could keep them faithful.—
Biferta hath about eight villages under its government;
a large plain called Matter or Mater ; and the terri¬
tory of Chores, the Clypea or Corobis of the ancients.
This is a trad of great extent, and would be very fer¬
tile were it not for the frequent incurfions of the Arabs-
The people are very poor, live meanly, and go worfe
clad. Their choiceft dainty is their coufcou, a kind
of cake made of flour, eggs, and fait, which they
dry and keep all the year round. Their drefs is no¬
thing elfe than a piece of coarfe cloth wrapped round
their bodies, and another round their heads by way of
a turban ; and moft of them go barefooted and bare-
legged. The poorer fort have nothing but a few fleins
laid on the floor to fleep upon ; but the rich have narrow
couches fixed againft the wall, about five or fix feet high,
to which they mount by a ladder. They are very expert
horfemen, as moft in thefe countries are, and ride with¬
out faddle or bridle ; nor do they everfhoe their horfes.
They are ftill more miferable from the neighbourhood of
the Arabs, who living altogether by plunder, robbery,
and murder, opprefs the poor inhabitants with their fre¬
quent inroads and cruel exadlions. The Bifertines,.
both of the city and country, are the moft fuperftitious
people in Barbary, fcarce going any where without
hanging a quantity of amulets about their own, or, if
they ride, their horfes neck alfo. Thefe amulets are
only ferapes of parchment or paper with fome ftrange
chara&ers written upon them, which they few up in a
piece of leather, filk, &c. and imagine when worn
about them to be a prefervative againft all accidents.
BISHOP, (in Greek’E’T'vkot©', Overfeer, or Super-
intendant), is the higheft ecclefiaftical dignitary, the
chief officer in the hierarchy or oeconomy of church-
government. The apoftles, after our Saviour’s afeen-
iion, went forth preaching the gofpel in the particular
provinces allotted to them ; and appointed the firlt con¬
verts of every place through which they palled, or, as
Clemens Romanus exprefles it, the firji fruits of their
Tniniftry, to be the bilhops and deacons of. the churches
planted by them. Thus Tertullian fays, Clemens was
ordained bilhop of Rome by St Peter, and Polycarp
bilhop of Smyrna by St John.
There appears to have been but one bilhop in a
church ; the titles of which fupreme officer are reckoned
up by Cyprian, and are, Bijhop, Prefident, Pafor,
Governor, Superintendant, and Prieji. And, as there
was.
a
BIS [ 1164 ] BIS
was but one bidiop to a churcb, fo there was but one
church to a biftiop; as appears from hence, that the
ancient diocefes are never faid to contain churches in the
plural, but only ?l church \x\ \\\<z lingular: 5or authors
fpeak of the church of Corinth, the church of Smyrna,
the church of Philadelphia, the church of Antioch, &c.
The word diocefe, by which a bilhop’s flock is now
ufually expreffed, is never ufed in that fenfe by the
■writers of the three firft centuries: but the bilhop’s
cure is frequently denoted by the word xapruu, parijh ;
as appears from the fynodical epiftle of Irenseus to pope
Victor, and from numberlefs places of Eufebius’s Ec-
clefiaftical Hiftory, which fpeaks of the bilhops of the
parifh of Alexahdria, of the parilh of Ephefus, of the
parilh of Corinth, of the parifli of Athens, of the
parifh of Carthage, &c. denoting the very fame thing,
which we now mean by the word parijh ; viz. a com¬
petent number of Chriftians, dwelling near together,
having one bilhop, or pajior, fet over them.
The peculiar a&s of the epifcopal fundlion were,
preaching the word, praying with his people, admini-
itring the two facraments of baptifm and the eucha-
rift, taking care of the poor, ordaining of minifters,
governing his flock, excommunicating offenders, ab-
folving of penitents. To the conftant difcharge of
thefe offices the primitive bilhops feduloufly applied
themfelves; to which purpofe they refided conftantly
on their cures : indeed, refidence on their parilhes was
deemed fo neceffary, that Cyprian, enumerating the
fins which brought the wrath of God on the church
in the bloody perfecution of Decius, mentions the non-
refidence of the bilhops as one.—If we inquire into
the peculiar powers and privileges of the ancient bi¬
lhops, we lhall find, firft, that they had a liberty of
framing their own liturgies, only keeping to the ana¬
logy of faith and found do&rine; to exprefs the fame
creed in different forms ; and to appoint days of faffing
in their particular churches. They were allowed to fit
and judge in fecular caufes, when appealed to as arbi¬
trators of mens differences ; and Conftantine made a
law to confirm all fuch decifions of bilhops in their
confiftories. There are two laws, of Arcadius and
Honorius, to the fame purpofe; but with thefe two
limitations, viz. that they Ihould only have power to
judge when both parties agreed by confent to refer
their caufes to their approbation; and that they Ihould
not be allowed to judge in criminal caufes, wherelife and
death might be concerned. To thefe privileges we
may add that of difpofing of the revenues of the church.
There are feveral canons to this purpofe. The apofto-
lical conftitution fpeak of this power ; and Cyprian
obferves, that all, who received maintenance from the
church, had it, Epifcopo difpenfante, by order and ap¬
pointment of the bilhop. For this purpofe he had his
ccconomus, or Jienvard, which fome canons order to be
one of the clergy of every church. Such was the ttate
of epifcopacy in the primitive Chriftian church; which
did not long continue fuch : for diocefes, m after times,
became enlarged, and comprehended feveral xugonuui,
or parijhes ; the bilhops degenerated from their origi¬
nal and apoftolical fimplicity ; and wealth, power, and
grandeur, began to diftinguilh the epifcopate from the
inferior orders of the hierarchy.
A bilhop, or an archbilhop (fee Archbishop), is
elefted by the chapter of his cathedral church, by vir¬
tue of a licenfe from the crown. Eledtion was, in very ;
early times, the ufual mode of elevation to the epifco- t'f“*
pal chair throughout all Chriftendom ; and this was j
promifcuoully performed by the laity as well as the cler- jH
gy: till at length, it becoming tumultuous, the cm- i
perors and other fovereigns of the refpedlive kingdoms Jl
of Europe took the appointment in fome degree into «
their own hands ; by referving to themfelves the right fl
of confirming thefe ele&ions, and of granting invelti- i
ture of the temporalities, which now began almoft uni-
verfally to be annexed to this fpiritual dignity; without 1
which confirmation and inveftiture, the eledted bilhop ,
,could neither be confecrated nor receive any fecular 1
profits. This right was acknowledged in the emperor ]
Charlemagne, A. D. 773, by pope Hadrian I. and ]
the council of Lateran, and univerfally exercifed by 11
other Chriftian princes : but the policy of the court of I
Rome at the fame time began by degrees to exclude \
the laity from any lhare in thefe eledtions, and to con¬
fine them wholly to the clergy, which at length was
completely effedted; the mere form of eledrion appearing 11
to the people to be a thing of little confequence, while (
the crown was in poffeffion of an abfolute negative,
which was almoft equivalent to a diredt right of nomi¬
nation. Hence the right of appointing to bilhoprics
is faid to have been in the crown of England (as well
as other kingdoms in Europe) even in the Saxon
times ; becaufe the rights of confirmation and invefti- |]l
ture were in effedt (though not in form) a right of com¬
plete donation. But when, by length of time, the
cuftom of making eledtions by the clergy only was fully II
eftablilhed, the popes began to except to the ufual me- . I
thod of granting thefe inveftitures, which was per an-
nulumet baculum, by the prince’s delivering to the pre¬
late a ring and paftoral ftaff or crofier; pretending, |
that this was an encroachment on the church’s autho¬
rity, and an attempt by thefe fymbols to confer a fpi¬
ritual jurifdidlion: and pope Gregory VII. towards
the clofe of the eleventh century, publiftied a bulle of
excommunication againft all princes who (hould dare to
confer inveftitures, and all prelates who {hould venture ;
to receive them. This was a bold ftep towards effedt- ]
ing the plan then adopted by the Roman fee, of ren¬
dering the clergy entirely independent of the civil autho¬
rity : and long and eager were the contefts occafioned
by this papal claim. But at length, when the emperor
Henry V. agreed to remove all fufpicion of encroach¬
ment on the fpiritual charadter, by conferring invefti¬
tures for the future per fceptrum, and not per annulum et
laculum ; and when the kings of England and France
confented alfo to alter the form in their kingdoms, and
receive only homage from the bilhops for their tempo-
ralties, inftead of invefting them by the ring and cro- I
fier; the court of Rome found it prudent to fufpend i[|
for a while its other pretenfions.
This conceflion was obtained from king Henry I. in
England, by means of that obftinate and arrogant pre- I]
late archbilhop Anfelm: but king John (about a cen¬
tury afterwards) in order to obtain the protedrion of ;H
the pope againff his difcontented barons, was alfo pre- |]
vailed upon to give up by a charter, to all the mona-
fteries and cathedrals in the kingdom, the free right of
eledting their prelates, whether abbots or bilhops: re¬
ferving only to the crown the cuftody of the tempora¬
lities during the vacancy ; the form of granting a li- I
cenfe fl
BIS [ n
P- cence to cleft, (which is the original of our conge cP
ejlire), on refufal whereof the eleftors might proceed
p* without it; arid the right of approbation afterwards,
which was not to be denied without a reafonable and
lawful caufe. This grant was exprefsly recognized and
confirmed in king John’s magna carta, and was again
eftablifhed by ftatute 25 Edw. Ill, ft. 6. $ 3.
But by ftatute 25 Hen. VIII. c. 20. the ancient
right of nomination was, in effeft, reftored to the
crown : it being enafted, that, at every future avoidance
of a biihopric, the king may fend the dean and chapter
^0KC<S his ufual licence to proceed to eleftion ; which is always
iftent. to be accompanied with a letter miflive from the king,
iJl.377. containing the name of the perfon whom he would
have them deft : and, if the dean and chapter delay
their eleftion above twelve days, the nomination fttall
devolve to the king, who may by letters patent appoint
II fuch perfon as he pleafes. This eleftion or nomination,
if it be of a biihop, muft be fignified by the king’s
letters patent to the archbifttop of the province ; if it
J be of an archbifltop, to the other archbiftiop and two
bifttops, or to four biftiops ; requiring them to confirm,
inveft, and confecrate the perfon fo elefted: which they
are bound to perform immediately, without any appli¬
cation to the fe . of Rome. After wdiich the biihop
deft (hall fue to the king for his temporalities, {hall
1 make oath to the king and none other, and (hall take
reftitution of his fecular pofleffions out of the king’s
I hands only. And if fuch dean and chapter do noteleft
in the manner by this aft appointed, or if fuch arch-
biftiop or bifhop do refufe to confirm, inveft, and con-
I fecrate fuch biftiop deft, they {hall incur all the penal¬
ties of a pramunirc.
The dean and chapter having made their eleftion,
the archbilhop, by the king’s direftion, confirms the
biftiop, and afterwards confecrates him, by impofition
1 of hands, according to the form laid down in the
Common-Prayer book. Hence we fee that a biftiop
I differs from an archbiftiop in this, that an archbiftiop
with biftiops confecrates a biftiop, as a biftiop with
ppefts confecrates aprieft : other diftinftions are, that
1 an archbifliop vifits a province, as a biftiop a diocefe ;
that an archbifliop convocates a provincial fynod, as a
biftiop does a diocefan one ; and that the archbifliop
has canonical authority over all the biftiops of his pro-
f vince, as a bifliop has over the priefts of his diocefe.
The power and authority of a biftiop, befides the
1 adminiftration of certain holy ordinances peculiar to
that facred order, confift principally in infpefting the
manners of the people and clergy, and puniftiing them
w in order to reformation, by ecclefiaftical cenfures. To
this purpofe he has feveral courts under him, and may
vifit at pleafure every part of his diocefe. His chan-
H . cellor is appointed to hold his courts for him, and to
aflift him in matters of ecclefiaftical law ; who, as well
as all other ecclefiaftical officers, if lay or married,
Hi muft be a doctor of the civil law, fo created in fome
univerfity. It is alfo the bufinefs of a bifiiop to infti-
tute, and to direft indu&ion, to all ecclefiaftical livings
in his diocefe.
Archbiftioprics and biftioprics may become void by
H death, deprivation for any very grofs and notorious
crime, and alfo by refignation. All refignations muft
be made to fome fuperior. Therefore a bifhop muft
refign to his metropolitan ; but the archbiftiop can re-
VOL. II.
65 ] B I S
fign to none but the king himfelf. Htfliop. ^
All biftiops of England are peers of the realm, ex¬
cept the biftiop of Man ; and, as fuch, fit and vote in the
Houfe of Lords: 'they are barons in a threefold man¬
ner, viz. feudal, in regard to the temporalities annexed
to their bifhoprics ; by writ, as being fummoned by
writ to parliament; and laftly, by patent and creation :
accordingly they have the precedence- of all other ba¬
rons, and vote as barons and biftiops; and claim all the
privileges enjoyed by the. temporal lords, excepting
that they cannot be tried by their peers, becaufe, in
cafes of blood, they themfelves cannot pafs upon the
trial, for they are prohibited by the canons of the
church (as already obferved) to be judges of life and
death. They have the title of Lords and Ri?bt Reve¬
rend Fathers in God. There are 24 biftiops in England;
befides that of Sodor and Man, who has no feat in the
Houfe of Peers. The bifhops of London, Durham,
and Winchefter, take place from the other biftiops, who-
are to rank after them according to their feniority of
confecration.
Bishop’s Court, an ecclefiaftical court, held in the
cathedral of each diocefe, the judge whereof is the bi-
{hop’s chancellor, who judges by the civil and canon
law ; and if the diocefe be large, he has his commiffa-
ries in remote parts, who hold what they call conjiftory
courts, for matters limited to them by their cqmmiffion.
Bishop and his Clerks, fome little iflands and rocks
on the coaft of Pembrokeftiire near St David’s in Wales,
which are very dangerous to mariners.
Bis hop’s-a town of Shropftiire in England,
feated near the river Clun. It, is a corporation, fends
two members to parliament, and its market is much
frequented by the Welch. W. Long. 2. 55. N. Lat.
52. 30.
HisHov’s-Stortford, a town of Hertfordftiire in Eng¬
land, feated on the fide of a hill, in E. Long. o. 25.
N. Lat. 51. 50. It has feveral good inns, but the
ftreets are not paved. It has a large church, one Pref-
byterian, and one Quaker meeting. Here was for¬
merly a caftle called Weymore cajlie, wherein a garrifon
was kept, but no remains of it are now left.
BISHOPING, a term among horfe dealers, to
denote the fophiftications ufed to make an old horfe ap¬
pear young, a bad one good, &c.
BISHOPRIC, the diftrid over which a bilhop’s
jurifdi&ion extends, otherwife called a diocefe f. f See
In England there are 24 biftioprics, befides that of
Sodor and Man ; in Scotland, none at all; in Ireland,
eighteen.
BISIGNANO, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of
Naples, and in the hither Calabria. It hath a ftrong
fort, a bifnop’s fee, and the title of a principality. It
is feated on a mountain near the river Boccona, in E.
Long. 16. 40. N. Lat. 39. 37.
BISKET, a kind of bread prepared by the confec¬
tioners, of fine flour, eggs, and fugar, and rofe or o-
range water ; or of flour, eggs, and fugar, with ani-
feeds and citron-peel, baked again and again in the
oven, in tin or paper moulds. There are divers forts
of bifkets ; as feed-bifket, fruit-bilket, long-bilket,
round-biftcet, Naples-bifl<et, fpunge-bilket, &c.
Aftf-BisKET, is a fort of bread much dried by palling
the oven twice, to make it keep for fea-fervice. For
long voyages they bake it four times, and prepare it
7 H fix
BIS [ 1166 ] BIS
B'.lrmllah fix months before the embarkation. It will hold good
II a Whole year.
Blfr'agar‘ To preferve fea-biflcet from infe&s, Mr Hales advifes
to make the fumes of burning brimftone pafs through
the callis full of bread. Bificet may be likewife preferred
along time, by keeping it in calks well calked, and lined
with tin.
The ancients had their bifket prepared after the
like manner, and for the like ufe, as the moderns. The
Greeks called it aplov q. d, bread put twice to
the fire. The Romans gave it the name of pants nau-
ticusy or capta. Pliny denominates it vetus aut nauti-
cus pants tufas atque itenirn coflus. By which it ap¬
pears, that, after the firit baking, they ground or
pounded it down again for a fecond. In fome middle-
age writers, it is called paxirnasy paximus, and pants
paximatus. Among the Romans, we alfo meet with
a kind of land-bilket for the camp-fervice, called buc-
cellatum, fometimes expeditionalis annona, which was
baked much, both to make it lighter for carriage, and
Jefs liable to corrupt, the coition being continued till
the bread was reduced one- fourth of its former weight.
BISMILLAH, a folemn form ufed by the Maho¬
metans at the beginning of all their books and other
writings, fignifying, In the name of the mofi merciful
God.
Bismillah is alfo ufed among the Arabs as a word
of invitation to eat. An Arab prince will frequently
fit dowm to eat in the ftreet before his own door, and
call to all that pafs, even beggars, in this word, who
do not fail to come and fit down to eat with him ; for
the Arabs are great levellers, and fet every body upon
a footing with them.
BISMUTH, called alfo tin-glafs, a ponderous brittle
femi-metal, refembling zinc and the regulus of anti¬
mony, but differing greatly from them in quality.—
Bifmuth is fometimes found native, in fmall compaft
maffes, of a pale lead-colour on the outfide, but a fil-
very white within. It is very common in Germany, and
not unfrequently found in the tin-mines of Cornwall,
* See fur- though little known, or at leaf!; regarded, there #.
tber, Chew.- BISNAGAR, formerly a very large and powerful
Jtry, n°io8, kJngdom 0f Afia, comprehending the kingdoms of
447‘ Kanara, MeffowT, Travankor, Madura, Marava, and
Tanjour. It was called Bifnagar from its capital city,
and took the name of Narftnga from one of its rajahs
or kings. We know nothing certain concerning this
kingdom before the year i $20, when Khrifna Rajah,
king of Bifnagar, made war with Adel Khan king of
Vifiapur, from whom he refolved to take the city of
Radiol, fituated in the ifiand of Salfette near Goa,
which he faid had belonged to his anceftors. The
king of Bifnagar’s army confifted of 733,000 foot,
35,000 horfe, 586elephants with towers on their backs,
each of which had four men in it; befides thefe were
12,000 water-carriers, and the army was followed by
20,000 common women. The city, however, refifted
this formidable army for three months; at the end of
which, Adel Khan came to its relief with an army of
120,000 foot, 18,000 horfe, 150 elephants, and many
heavy cannon. In the engagement the king of Bif¬
nagar proved vidtorioiis, and almofl: entirely deftroyed
the army of Adel Khan, taking from him 4000 horfes,
100 elephants, 400 cannon, &c. Soon after, he took
the city by afiault; but confented to reftore the booty
taken in the former battle, provided Adel Khan corj- Bifr
fented to come and kifs his foot as the fovereign lord
of Kanara. This bafe condition was accepted, but
accidentally prevented from being put in execution.
From this time we hear of nothing remarkable till the
year 1558, when a Portuguefe of the city of Meliapur
or St Thomasy on the coaft of Coromandel, perfuaded
Rama Rajah, then king of Bifnagar, to march againft
that place, telling him the plunder would be worth
2,000,000, and that the deftru&ion of Meliapur would
be of great fervice to the images in the Pagods which
were thrown down by the Chriftians. The king fet out
accordingly with an army of 500,000 men ; but the in¬
habitants, inftead of preparing for their defence, fent
him a prefent of 4000 ducats. This fomewhat ap-
peafed him: however, he would not enter the city, but
ordered the inhabitants of both fexes, with all their
valuable effedts, to be brought into his prefence; which
being done, he found that the value of their whole fub-
ftance did not exceed 80,000 ducats. On this he or¬
dered the informer to be thrown to the elephants, who
tore him in pieces; after which he difmiifed the citi¬
zens, and reitored all their goods fo punctually, that
only a filver fpoon happening to be miffing, it was
fought for, and returned to the owner. In 1565, the
happy date of this kingdom excited the envy of the
kings of Dekau; who, having railed an army of 500,000
foot and 50,000 horfe, defeated and killed the king of
Bifnagar, though at the head of an army almoft twice as
numerous, and took the royal city itfelf. They are faid
to have fpent five months in plundering it, although
the inhabitants had before carried off 1550 elephants
loaded with money and jewels to the amount of upwards-
of 100,000,000 of gold ; befides the royal chair for
ftate days, whofe price could not be eflimated. The
vigors, however, found a diamond of the fize of an
ordinary egg, befides another of a fize fomewhat in¬
ferior, and feveral other jewels of immenfe value. Af¬
terwards, however, they were forced to abandon the
kingdom, as being too large for them to keep in their
hands. From this time the kingdom of Bifnagar re¬
mained pretty much unmolefted till about the year 1627,
when it was fubdued by Aurengzebe, fecond fon to
Shah Jehan; and hath ever fince remained fubjedf to
the Great Mogul. In fome places of this kingdom it
is faid the roads have great forefts of bamboes on each
fide, which are fo thick that it is impoffible for a man
to pafs. Thefe foreils are full of monkeys ; and what
is fingular, thofe on the one fide feem to be enemies to
thofe on the other; for if a bafket of rice is fet down
on the road with a parcel of fmall flicks about it, the
monkeys on each fide will come out, and fall a-fighting
with the (licks till one of the parties retreats. This,
it is faid, is often done by travellers for diverfion. They
catch the wild elephants here in pitfalls, and then tame
them by means of others already tamed: the latter
feldom fail of beating the wild ones into a good beha¬
viour. The town of Bifnagar is fituated in E. Long.
78. o. N. Lat. 13. 20.
BISNOW, or Bischnou, a fedl of the Banians in
the Eaft Indies; they call their god Ram-ram, and
give him a wife : They adorn his image with golden
chains, necklaces of pearls, and all forts of precious
(tones. They fing hymns in honour of their god, mix¬
ing-their devotion with dances and the found of drums,
flagelets.
BIS [ 1167 ] BIS
am flagelet.6, brazen bafons, and other inftrutnents. This wearing only bracelets of different kinds on their arms BiiTio
I® fedt lives wholly upon herbs and pulfe, butter and milk, and legs. If they are of high quality, their bodies are II
x BISOMUM, or Disomum, in Roman antiquity, marked or painted with a variety of hideous forms of Bl cn?ou.:..
a tomb for two dead bodies, or the aflies of two. The fnakes and other figures, which, as their colour is jet-
ancients frequently buried tw'o, three, or four bodies black, gives their fkins fomewhat the appearance of
in the fame fepulchre, difpofed afide of each other; flowered fattin. Even the princefs royal herfelf, the
for it was held an impiety to lay one a-top of another, eldelh daughter of the emperor, is only diliinguiflied
Hence the fepulchres of the primitive Chriftians had from other women by the elegance of thofe paintings
the words bifomi, trifomi, quadrifomi, &c. infcribed on and the richnefs of her bracelets. One very extraor-
them, to indicate the number of bodies depofited in dinary ornament ufed in this country is a large iron
them. ring, with a flat round furface on the outfide inflead
BISON, in zoology, the trivial name of a fpecies of a ftone, upon which the ring changes with a bit of
of bos. See Bos. iron, in fuch a manner as to converfe with the greateft
IBISQUET, or Bisket. See Bisket. facility by means of the different founds produced ;
BISSAGOS, a clutter of illands on the coaft of but this kind of language is ufed only among the po-
Negroeland in Africa, fituated between the mouth of lite and the great. All the Biffoans are idolaters,
the river Gambia and Rio Grande. Their names are nor has commerce introduced the fmalleft change in
Bui am, Cajfuabac, La Gallinci, Gaze gut, Calacha, their manners, but their ideas of religion are exceed-
and Oranguana, with fome other fmall illands ; but ingly confufed. Their chief idol is a little image cal-
the only one which merits a particular defcription is led China, of which the worlhippers give very abfurd
lam. (hat of Bulam *. Each of thele illands is governed by accounts; but, befides this, every man invents a god for
a king of its own ; and as all thofe petty monarchs are himfelf: trees are held facred ; and if not adored as
quite independent, they frequently make war with gods, are worlhipped as the refidence of fome divinity,
each other, yet they always unite againft the inhabi- The government is defpotic, the will of the emperor
tants of Biafara, who are their common enemies. They being a law to his people. Of this we have an in-
have canoes that carry from 25 to 40 men with their ftance in Biffao, not to be matched in any other coun-
provifions and arms, which are fabres, and bows, and ar- try whatever. This is no other than a prefent which
rows. The inhabitants are negroes; who are tall,ftrong, one fubjeft may make of the houfe and eftate of his
and healthy, though they live only on filh, nuts, and neighbour to the emperor ; and as it is moft commonly
palm-oil; chufing rather to fell the rice, mullet, and o- his majefty’s pleafure to accept of fuch prefents, the
ther grain produced in their country, to the Europeans, proprietor dares not refift, but immediately fets about
than not to gratify their paflion for trinkets and orna- building another houfe, though even this he cannot do
merits. In general, they are idolaters; cruel andfavage without the prince’s leave'; and if this fliould not be
in their difpofition, not only to ftrangers but to one readily granted, he mutt, live with his family in the
another, when they happen to quarrel, as they fre- open air till permifiion to build a new houfe can be
quently do about trifles; and if they happen to be dif- obtained.
appointed of their revenge, they frequently drown or BISSAT (Peter), profeffor of canon law in the
ftab themfelves. univerfity of Bononia in Italy, was defcended from the
BISSAO, an ifland on the coaft of Africa, a few earls of-Eife in Scotland, and born in that county in
leagues to the fouth-eaft of the river Gambia, and fe- the reign of James V. He was educated at St An-
parated from the continent only by the channel of the drews: from thence he removed to Paris; and, having
river Geves. In this ifland the French have a fadtory, fpent fome time in that univerfity, proceeded to Bo-
and there is alfo a fort belonging to the Portuguefe, nonia, where he commenced dodlor of laws, and was
at both of which a great trade is carried on. The afterwards appointed profeffor of canon law. He con-
ifland is about 35 or 40 miles in circumference, ha- tinned in that honourable employment feveral years
ving an agreeable profpedt to the fea, from which it with great reputation, and died in the year 1568. He
riles by a gentle afcent on every fide to an eminence is faid to have been not only a learned civilian, but an
in the centre of the ifland. There are however a great excellent poet, orator, and philofopher. Patrici^Bif-
many hills inferior in height to that in the middle, and farti opera omnia, viz. poemata, orationes, leClones
feparated by beautiful and fertile valleys divided by fsriales, <bc. Lib. de irregularitate, he. were publilhed
little rivulets, which at the fame time augment the rich- at Venice in 1565, 410.
nefs and elegance of the feene. So rich is the foil of BISSENPOUR, a imall diftridl of the kingdom of
Biffao, that wheat and maize fpring up to the fize-of Bengal, in the Eaft Indies, which has all along pre-
Indian corn, or rather refemble a field covered over ferved its independence*. It has been governed time
! with reeds or bamboos. The cattle alfo are of an ex- immemorial by a Bramin family of the tribe of Rajah-
traordinary fize, and feem to keep pace with the ex- puts. Here the purity and equity of the ancient po-
travagant growth of the corn. Milk and wine are in litical fyftem of the Indians is found unadulterated,
the greateft abundance ; but the ifland affords neither This Angular government, the fineft and moft ftriking
hogs nor horfes. The former are forbid by the natives monument in the world, has till now been beheld with
to be imported; and fomething in the foil or climate too much indifference,. We have no remains of ancient
1 renders it unfit for the increafe of the latter, which nations but brafe and marble, which fpeak only to
never thrive here. The drefs of the men of all ranks imagination and conjefture, thofe uncertain interpreters
in Biffao is only a Ikin fixed to the girdle before and of manners and cuftoms that no longer exift. Were a
i behind. The drefs of the married women confifts of philofopher tranfported to Biffenpour, he would imme-
a cotton petticoat; but virgins go entirely naked, diately be a witnefs of the life led by the firft inhabi-
7 H 2 tants
BIS [ i
Bifienpour tants of India many thoufand years ago ; he would
BPft. converfe with them; he would trace the progrefs of
1 '' this nation, celebrated as it were from its very infancy;
he would fee the rife of a government which, being
founded in happy prejudices, in a limplicity and purity
of manners, in the mild temper of the people, and the in¬
tegrity of the chieftains, has furvived thofe innumerable
fyftems of legiflation, which have made only a tranfitory
appearance in the ftage of the world with the genera¬
tions they were defigned to torment. More folid and
durable than thofe political ftruftures, which, raifed by
impofture and enthufiafm, are the fcourges of human
hind, and are doomed to perilh with the foolifh opi¬
nions that gave them birth, the government of Biffen-
pbmy the offspring of a juft attention to order and the
laws of nature, has been eftablifhed and maintained
upon unchangeable principles, and has undergone no
more alteration than thofe principles themfelves. The
Angular fituation of this country has preferred to the
inhabitants their primitive happinefs and the gentlenefs
of their chara&er, by fecuring them from the danger
of being conquered, or of imbruing their hands in the
blood of their fellow-creatures. Nature has furrounded
them with water ; and they need only open the fluices
of their rivers to overflow the whole country. The
armies fent to fubdue them have fo frequently been
drowned, that the plan of enflaving them has been laid
afide ; and the proje&ors of it have thought proper to
content themfelves with an appearance of fubmiflion.
Liberty and property are facred in Biffenpour.
Robbery, either public or private, is never heard of.
As foon as any ftranger enters the territory, he comes
under the prote&ion of the laws, which provide for
his fecurity. He is furniflied with guides at free coft,
who conduft him from place to place, and areanfwer-
able for his perfon and effedls. When-he changes his
condu&ors, the new ones deliver to thofe they relieve
an atteftation of their condudl, which is regifteredand
afterwards fent to the Raja. All the time he remains
in the country, he is maintained and conveyed with his
merchandife at the expence of the ftate, unlefs he
defires leave to ftay longer than three days in the fame
place. In that cafe, he is obliged to defray his own
expences; unlefs he is detained by any difordcr, or o-
ther unavoidable accident. This beneficence to ftran-
gers is the confequenee of the warmth with which the
citizens enter into each others interefts. They are fo
far from being guilty of an injury to each other, that
whoever finds a purfe, or other thing of value, hangs
it upon the firft tree he meets with, and informs the
neareft guard, who give notice of it to the public by
beat of drum. Thefe maxims of probity are fo ge¬
nerally received, that they diredt even the operations
of government. Out of about 350,0001. on an ave¬
rage it annually receives, without injury to agriculture
or trade, what is not wanted to fupply the unavoidable
expences of the ftate, is laid out in improvements.
The Raja is enabled to engage in thefe humane em¬
ployments, as he pays the Moguls only what tribute
and at what times he thinks proper.
„ BISSEXTILE, in chronology, a year confiding
366 days, being the fame with our leap-year *.
no BISTI, in commerce, a fmall coin of Perfia : Some
fay that it is among the current filver coins of Perfia,
and worth only a little above three farthings of our
168 ] BIT
money ; others fpeak of it again as a money of account. Bii
BISTONIS, (anc. geog.), a lake of Thrace near ^
Abdera, on which dwelt the Biftones: hence Bijionius
Tyranmif is by Lucan ufed to denote Diomedes king
of Thrace, who fed his horfes with human flelh; and 'j
Biflonius turbo, a wind blowing from Thrace.
BISTORT, or Knotgrass, in botany, the trivial j
name of a fpecies of polygonum. See Polygonum.
BISTOURY, in furgery, an inftrument for mak- i
ing incifions; of which there are different kinds, fome j
being of the form of a lancet, others ftraight and fixed ;]
in the handle like a knife, and others crooked with the \
lharp edge on the infide.
BISTRE, among painters, fignifies the burnt oil a
extracted from the foot of wood.
If is of a brown tranfparent colour, having much j
the fame effect in water-painting, where alone it is j
ufed, as brown pink in oil. Though this colour is \
extremely ferviceable in water-colours, and much va- 1
lued by thofe who know and can procure it; yet it is |
not in general ufe here, perhaps on account of its not 1
being eafily procured of a perfect kind ; hardly any of |
it being good, except that imported from France. |
Perhaps the principal reafon for this is, that dry beech- |
wood affords the beft foot for making it: and it is not 1
eafy to procure fuch here without mixture of the foot of j|
green wood, or other combuftibles that deprave it for a
this purpofe : or it is poffible that they who have pre- \
tended to prepare it, have been ignorant of the pro- >
per means ; there not being any recipe or diredlions in j
books that treat of thefe matters, from whence they i
could learn the proper procefs.
Biftre may, however, be prepared with great eafe
in the following manner.—Take any quantity of foot
of dry wood, but let it be of beech wherever that can |
be procured. Put it into water in the proportion of !
two pounds to a gallon ; and boil them half an hour; ]
then after the fluid has flood fome little time to fettle, j
but while yet hot, pour off the clearer part from the
earthy fediment at the bottom ; and if on Handing |
longer it forms another earthy fediment, repeat the j
fame method, but this fhould be done only while the !|
fluid remains hot: evaporate then the fluid to drynefs1
and what remains will be good biftre, if the foot was
of a proper kind.—The goodnefs of biftre may be per- j
ceived by its warm deep brown colour, and tranfparen- ;
cy when moiftened with water.
BISTRICZ, a handfome ftrong town of Tranfil- \
vania, feated on a river of the fame name, in E. Long, j
25. 3. N. Lat. 47. 33.
BIT, or Bitt, an effential part of a bridle. Its j
kinds are various. I. The mufrol, fnaffie, or water- |
ing-bit. 2. The canon-mouth, jointed in the middle, i
3. The canon with a faft mouth, all of a piece, only
kneed in the middle, to form a liberty orfpace for the !
tongue ; fit for horfes too fenfible, or ticklifh, and j
liable to be continually bearing on the hand. 4. The j
canon-mouth, with the liberty in form of a pigeon’s
neck; proper where a horfe has too large a tongue.
5. The canon with a port mouth, and an upfet or :
mounting liberty; where a horfe has a good mouth, ;
but large tongue. 6. The fcatch-mouth, with an up- jj
fet; ruder but more fecure than a canon mouth. -1
7. The canon mouth with a liberty; proper for a ‘ I
horfe with a large tongue, and round bars. 8. The * I
mafti- I
BIT [ 1169 ] B L A
mafticadour, or flavering bit, See. The feveral parts
of a fnaffle, or curb-bit, are the mouth piece, the
cheeks and eyes, guard of the cheek, head of the
cheeks, the port, the welts, the campanel or curb and
hook, the boffes, the bolfters and rabbets, the water-
chains, the fide-bolts, and rings, kirbles of the bit or
curb, trench, top-rol, flap and jieve. The importa¬
tion of bits for bridles is now prohibited.
Bit, or B/Y/s, in fliip-building, the name of two
great timbers, ufually placed abaft the manger, in the
fhip’s loof, through which the crofs-piece goes : The
ufe of it is to belay the cable thereto, while the (hip
is at anchor1.
BITBURG, a town of the Netherlands, in the du¬
chy of Luxemburg. E. Long. 6. 43. N. Lat. 50. o.
BITCH, the female of the dog kind. See Can is.
BITCHE, a town of Lorrain, capital of a terri¬
tory of the1 fame name, and feated at the foot of the
mountains near the river Swolbe. E, Long. 7. 44.
N. Lat. 49. 5.
BITETO, a town of Italy, In the kingdom of Na¬
ples, and in the Terra di Bari. E. Long. 16. 56.
N. Lat. 41. 8.
BITHYNIA, an ancient kingdom of Afia formerly
known by the names of Myfia, Mygdonia, Babryicia,
Mariandynia, and Bithynia. It was bounded on the
weft by the Bofporus Thracius and part of the Pro¬
pontis, on the fouth by the river Rhyndacus and mount
Olympus, on the north by the Euxine fea, and on
the eaft by the river Parthenius. The chief cities were
Tvlyrlea, Nicomedia, Chalcedon, Heraclea, and Prufa:
See thefe articles. As to its hiftory, we find nothing
of moment recorded ; except the infamous condudf of
Prufias, one of its kings, in delivering up to the Romans
Hannibal, the great Carthaginian general, who fled to
him for protection. His great grandfon Nicomedes IV.
bequeathed the kingdom to the Romans. From them
it was taken by the Turks, to whom it (till remains
fubjedt, but has no modern name.
BITONTO, an epifcopaltown of Italy, in the king¬
dom of Naples and Terra di Bari. It is feated in a
plain eight miles fouth of the gulph of Venice, in E.
Long. 16. 52. N. Lat. 41. 13.
BITTACLE. SeeBiNACLE.
BITTER, an epithet given to all bodies of an op-
pofite tafte to fweetnefs. For the medical virtues of
bitters, fee Materia Medica, n° 51.
Bitter, a fea-term, fignifying any turn of the ca¬
ble about the bits, fo as that the cable may be let out
by little and little. And when a Chip is flopped by a
cable, flie is faid to be brought up by a bitter. Alfo that
end of the cable which is wound about the bits is called
the bitter end of the cable.
Bitter-Apple, in botany. See Colocynthis.
Bitter-iW/. See Epsom-,SW/.
BiTTER-Saueef, in botany. See Solanum.
BITTERN, in ornithology. See Ardea.
Bittern, in the falt-works, the brine remaining af¬
ter the fait is concreted : this they-ladle off, that the
fait may be taken out of the pan, and afterwards put
in again ; when, being farther boiled, it yields more
fait. See Salt.
BITUMENS, in natural hiftory, are oily matters,
Cbemi- a ftrong fme^> and of different conffftencies, which
n° so3. are found in many places within the earth *.
BITUMEN judaicum. See Asphaltum.
BIVALVES, a term fometimes ufed for fuch {hells
as confift of two pieces.—It is alfo an appellation given
by botanifts to fuch pods, or capfules, as confift; of two
valves inclofing the feeds.
BIVENTER, in anatomy, called alfo digaftric, or
two-bellied, a mufcle of the lower jaw *.
BIUMBRES, in geography, an appellation given ‘
to the inhabitants of the torrid zone, by reafon, at 1
two different feafons of the year, their {hadows are
projected two different ways. The biumbres are the
fame with thofe otherwife denominated ampbifeii.
BIXA, annotta, or Roucou ; a genus of the mo-
nogynia order, belonging to the polyandria clafs of
plants. Of this genns^here is but one fpecies known,
viz. the orellana, a native of the warm parts of Ame¬
rica. This rifes with an upright ftem to the height
of eight or ten feet, fending out many branches at the
top forming a regular head, garniftied with heart-fliaped
leaves ending in a point, and having long footftalks.
The flowers are produced in loofe panicles at the end
of the branches : thefe are of a pale peach-colour, ha¬
ving large petals, and a great number of briftly {lami¬
na of the fame colour in the centre. After the flower
is paft, the germen becomes a heart-fliaped, or rather
a mitre-lhaped, veffel, covered on the outfide with
briftles opening with two valves, and filled with angular
feeds. Thefe feeds are covered with a red pulp or
pafte, from which the colour called Anotto is prepared,
according to the procefs deferibed under that article.
This plant muft be propagated by feeds procured from
America. They are to be fown in pots in the fpring,
and plunged in a bed of tanners bark : the plants muft
afterwards be removed into feparate pots, and always
kept in the ftove.
BIZARRO, in the Italian mufic, denotes a fanciful
kind of compofition, fometimes fall, flow, foft, ftrong,
&c. according to the fancy of the compofer.
BIZOCHI, or Bisochi, in church-hiftory, certain
heretical monks, faid to have affumed the religious ha¬
bit contrary to the canons, reje&ed the facraments, and
maintained other errors.
BLACK, a well known colour, fuppofed to be ow¬
ing to the abfence of light, moft of the rays falling
upon black fubftances being not refle&ed but abforbed
by them. Concerning the peculiar ftru&ure of fuch
bodies as fits them for appearing of this or that parti¬
cular colour, fee the article Colour.
Concerning black colours in general, we have the
following remarks by Dr Lewis.
“ 1. Of black, as of other colours, there are many
{hades or varieties ; different bodies, truly and Amply
black, or which have no fenfible admixture of any of
the reft of the colours, as black velvet, fine black
cloth, the feathers of the raven, &c. appearing, when
placed together, of teints very fenfibly different.
“ 2. One and the fame body alfo affumes different
degrees of blacknefe, according to the difpolition of
the fenfible parts of its furface ; and in this refpeft,
'there is not, perhaps, any other colour, which is fo
much affe&ed by an apparent mechanifm. Thus black
velvet, when the pile is raifed, appears intenfely black,
much more fo than the filk it was made from ; but on
prefiing the pile fmooth, it looks pale, and it! certain
pofitions {hews fomewhat even of a whitiih caft.
« 3. This
Bitumen
II
Black.
1 See Ar.ato-
ny. Table of
he Mufcles.
Philo tbph.
of arts, ^
p. 317.
Black.
B L A [ 1170 ] B L A
__ 3. This obiervatton is agreeable to the phyfical
theory, which afcribes the blacknefs of bodies to the
luminous rays, that fall upon them, being in great
part abforbed or ftifled in their pores. When the fur-
face is compofed of a multitude of loofe filaments, or
fmall points, with the extremities turned towards the
eye, much of the light is ftifled in the interftices be¬
tween them, and the body appears dark : when the fi¬
laments are prefled clofe, or the furface fmoothed and
polilhed, more of the light is reflected from it, and the
intenfity of the blacknefs is diminiftied; though the
beauty may be improved by the gloffinefs which refults
from the fmoothing.
“ 4. There is one cafe, however, in which a high
polifti may, on the fame principle, produce blacknefs,
in bodies otherwife even white. We find that fpecula
of white metal, or of quickfilvered glafs, which refledl
the rays of light to one point or in one direftion, look
always dark, unlefs when the eye is dire&ly oppofed
to the reflefted rays.
“ 5. As the abforption of the luminous rays, except
in the cafe juft mentioned, makes the phyfical caufe of
blacknefs ; it is concluded that black bodies receive
heat more freely than others. Black marble or tiles,
expofed to the fun, become fenfibly hotter than white
ones. Black paper is kindled by a burning glafs much
fooner than white, and the difference is ftrongly marked:
a burning-glafs, too weak to have any vifible effe& at all
upon white paper, lhall readily kindle the famepaperrub-
bed over with ink. Hence black clothes, when wetted,
are faid to dry fafter j black habits, and rooms hung
with black, to be warmer ; black mould to be a hotter
foil for vegetables ; and garden walls, painted black, to
anfwer better for the ripening of wall fruit than thofe
of lighter colours.
“ 6. It is not, however, to be affirmed that the like
differences obtain in the impreffions made by common
fire. Black paper, held to the fire, does not feem to
be affe&ed fooner, or in a greater degree, than fuch as
is white. It may be proper to obferve alfo, that the
combuftibility of the paper may be increafed, by im¬
pregnating it with fubftances of themfelves not com-
buftible, and which give no colour to it. This is the
foundation of one of the fympathetic inks, as they are
called, made of a ftrong folution of fal ammoniac in
water, which, though colourlefs when written with on
paper, becomes very legible on expofing the paper to
the fire ; that is, it occafions the parts moiftened with
it to fcorch or burn, before the reft of the paper is
hurt, to a brown or black. All the falts I have tried
produced this effedt in a greater or Jefs degree ; ni¬
tre, alum, tartar, very weakly; fea-falt more ftrong¬
ly; fixed alcaline falts ftill more fo; fal ammoniac the
moft ftrongly of all. Metallic folutions, made in acids,
and diluted fo as not to corrode the paper, adfed in the
fame manner.
“ 7. Befides the Ample blacks, there are a multi¬
tude of compound ones, inclining more or lefsto other
colours. Thus the painters have blue-blacks, brown-
blacks, &c. which may be made by mixing pigments
of the refpe&ive colours with fimple black ones, in
greater or lefs quantity, according to the fliade required.
The dyers alfo have different blacks, and often darken
other -colours by (lightly paffing them through the
•black dying liquor ; but the term brovm-black is in
this bufinefs unknown, brown and black being here
looked upon as oppofite to one another. In effedt,
the colour called brosun-black is no other than that
which ill-dyed black clothes change to in wearing: no
wonder then that it is excluded from the catalogue of
the dyers colours.
“ 8. The true or fimple blacks, mixed with white,
form different fhades of grey, lighter or darker accord¬
ing as the white or black ingredients prevails in the
mixt. The black pigments, fpread thin upon a white
ground, have a like effedf.
“ 9. Hence the painter, with one true black pig¬
ment, can produce on white paper, or on other white
bodies, all the (hades of grey and black, from the (lighteft
difcoloration of the paper, up to a full black : and the
dyer produces the fame effedt on white wool, filk, or
cloth, by continuing the fubjedfs fora (horteror longer
time in the black bath, or making the bath itfelf weaker
or ftfonger.
“ 10. Hence alfo the dilution of black pigments
with white, or the fpreading of them thin upon a white
f round, affords a ready method of judging ofthequa-
ty or fpecies of the colour ; which, if it be a true
black, will in this diluted (late look of a pure or fimple
grey ; but if it has a tendency to any other colour, that
colour will now betray itfelf.
“ 11. All the colours, in a very deep or concentra ¬
ted (late, approach to blacknefs. Thus the red liquor
prepared by boiling or infufing madder-root in water,
and the yellow decodf ion or infufion of liquorice-root,
evaporated in a gentle heat till they become thick, look
of a dark black colour, or of a colour approaching to
blacknefs; and thefe thick maffes, drawn out into (len¬
der ftrings, or diluted with water, or rubbed on paper,
exhibit again the red and yellow colours, which the li¬
quors had at firft. Nature affords many black objedts,
whofe blacknefs depends upon the fame principle, being
truly a concentration of fome of the other colours.
Thus in black-berries, currants, elderberries, &c. what
feems to be black is no other than an opaque deep red :
their juice appears black when its furface is looked down
upon in an opaque veffel, but red when diluted or fpread
thin. The black flint, as it is called, of the ifland of
Afcenfion, held in thin pieces between the eye and the
light, appears greenifh ; and one of the deep black
(tones called black agate, viewed in the fame manner, dif-
covers its true colour to be a deep red.”
The moft remarkable black colours in the mineral
kingdom are, Black Chalk., Pitcoal, Black Sands,
and Black Lead ; (fee thefe articles.)—The only na¬
tive vegetable black is the juice of the anacardium o-
rientale, which poffibly may be the tree that produces
the excellent black varnifti of China and Japan; (fee
Varnish).—The juices of moft aftringent vegetables
produce a black with iron, and for ):his purpofe fome of
them are ufed in dyeing and callico-printing ; (fee the
article Dyeing).—There are alfo a number of black
colours artificially prepared for the ufe of painters, fuch
as lamp-black, ivory-black, German-black, &c. for an
account of the preparation and qualities of which, fee
the article Colour-making.
Black-Bird, in ornithology. See Turdus.
^LACK-Book of the Exchequer. See Exchequer.
^lack-Books, a name given to thofe which treat of
necromancy, or, as fome call it, nigromancy. The
black-
B L A [ i
black-book of the Englifh monafterles was a detail of
the fcandalous enormities pradtifed in religious houfes,
compiled by order of the vifitors under King Henry
VIII. to blacken, and thus haften their diffolution.
VthA.CK.-Cap, in ornithology. See Motacilla.
VhACK-Cock. SeeTETRAO.
VhACK-Eagle. See Falco.
VhACK-Eunucfrs, in the cuftoms of eaftern nations,
are Ethiopians caftrated, to whom their princes com¬
monly commit the care of their women.
VhACK-ForeJi, a foreft of Germany, in Suabia, run¬
ning from north to fouth between Ortnau, Brifgaw,
part of the duchy of Wirtemberg, the principality of
Fuftemburg towards the fource of the Danube, as far
as the Rhine above Bafil. It is part of the ancient
Hyrcanian foreft.
VhACK-Friers, a name given to the dominican or¬
der ; called alfo predicants and preaching fryers ; in
France, jacobins.
VhACK-Lead. See Lead.
VhACK-leather is that which has palled the curriers
hands, where, from the ruffet as it was left by the tan¬
ners, it is become black, by having been fcored and
rubbed three times on the grain-fide with copperas-
water.
VhACK-Mail, a link of mail, or fmall pieces of me¬
tal or money. In the counties of Northumberland,
Cumberland, Weftmoreland, and feveral parts of Scot¬
land, it was formerly taken for a certain rent of mo¬
ney, corn, cattle, or other confideration, paid by
poor people near the borders, to perfons of note and
power, allied with fome mofs-troopers, or known rob¬
bers, in order to proteA them from pillage.
VhACK-Rod. See Rod.
BLACK-iSVa. See Euxine Sea.
VhACK-Water, the name of two rivers in Ireland ;
one of which runs through the counties of Cork and
Waterford, and falls in Youghal bay ; and the other,
after watering the county of Armagh, falls into Lough-
Neah.
BLACKBANK, a town of Ireland, in the county of
Armagh and province of Ulfler, feated in W. Long.
6. 55. N. Lat. 54. 12.
BLACKBERRY, in botany. See Rubus.
BLACKBURN, a town of Lancafhire in England,
feated near the river Derwent. It takes its name from
the brook Blackwater which runs thro’ it. W. Long.
■1. 15. N. Lat. 53. 40.
BLACK ALL (Dr Offspring), bifhop of Exeter
in the beginning of the 18th century, was born at
London 1654, and educated at Catherine-Hall; Cam¬
bridge. For two years he refufed to take the oath of
allegiance- to king William 'and queen Mary, but at
laft fubmitted to the government, though he feemed to
condemn the Revolution, and all that had been done
purfuant to it. He was a man of great piety, had
much primitive fimplicity and integrity, and a conftant
cvennefs of mind. In a fermon before the Houfe of
Commons, Jan. 30th, 1699, he animadverted on To-
land’s affertion in his Life of Milton, that Charles I.
was not the writer of the Icon Bafilike, and for fome
inlinuations againft the authenticity of the Holy Scrip¬
tures ; which produced a controverfy between him and
that author. In 1700, he preached a conrfe of fer-
mons in St Paul’s at Boyle’s lefture, which were af-
171 ] B L A
terwards publiffied ; and was confecrated biftiop of Ex¬
eter in 1707. He died at Exeter in 1716, and was
interred in the cathedral there.
BLACKMORE (Sir Richard), a phyfician, and
voluminous writer, of theological, poetical, and phy-
fical works. Having declared himfelf early in favour
of the Revolution, king William, in 1697, chofe him
one of his phyficians in ordinary, and conferred the
honour of knighthood on him. On queen Anne’s ac-
ceflion, Sir Richard was alfo appointed one of her
phyficians, and continued fo for fome time. Dryden
and Pope treated the poetical performances of Black-
more with great contempt; and in a note to the men¬
tion made of him in the Dunciad, we are informed that
his “ indefatigable mufe produced no lefs than fix
epic poems : Prince and King Arthur, 20 books ; E/i-
za, ro ; Alfred, 12; The Redeemer, fix ; belide fob,
in folio; the whole book of Pfalms; The Creation,
feven books ; Nature of Man, three books; and many
more.” But notwithftanding Blackmore was much
ridiculed by the wits, he is not without merit; and
Addifon has, in the Speftator, beftowed fome liberal
commendations on his poem on the Creation. It muft
be mentioned too in honour of Sir Richard, that he
was a chafte writer, and a warm advocate for virtue,
at a time when an almoft univerfal degeneracy prevailed.
He had been very free in his cenfures on the libertine
writers of his age ; and it was owing to fome liberty he
had taken of this kind, that he drew upon him the re-
fentment of Mr Dryden. He had likewife given of¬
fence to Mr Pope ; for having been informed by Mr
Curl that he was the author of a traveftie on the fir ft
Pfalm, he took occafion to reprehend him for it in his
effay on polite learning. Beiides what are above men¬
tioned, Sir Richard wrote fome theological tradts, and
feveral treat!fes on the plague, fmall pox, confumptions,
the fpleen, gout, dropfy, &c. and many other poetical
pieces. He died Odiober 9. 1729.
BLACKS* in phyfiology. See Negroes..
BLADDER (Urinary), in anatomy. See Ana¬
tomy, n® 364. — See alfo Comparative Anatomy,
n° 26, 28, 95, 122, 149.
^//•-Bladder. See Comparative Anatomy, n°
,47*
G«//-Bladder. See Anatomy, n° 358.
BtADDER-M/d. See Staphyl^a.
Vladder.-Senna. See Colutjea.
BLADEN’ (Martin), a tranflator and dramatic au¬
thor, was formerly an officer in the army, bearing the
commiffion of a lieutenant-colonel in queen Anne’s
reign, under the great duke of Marlborough, to whom
he dedicated a tranflation of Caffar’s Commentaries^
which he had completed, and which is to this day a
book held in good eftimation. In 1714, he was made
one of the Lords Commiffioners of Trade and Planta¬
tions ; and in 1717 was appointed envoy extraordinary
to the court of Spain, in the room of Brett. Efq;
but declined it, chufing rather to keep the poll he al -
ready had, which was worth L. 1000 per annum, and
which he never parted with till his death, which was
in May 1746. He was alfo many years member of
parliament for the town of Portfmouth. He wrote
two dramatic pieces; both of which (for the one is only
a mafque introduced in the third adi of the other) were
printed in the year 1705, without the author’s confent.
Their
Blackmore
Bladen.
B I. A [ 1172 ] B L A
Their names are, 1. Orpheus and Euridice, a Mafque. Blair (James), an eminent divine, was born and Bln?
2. Solon, a Tragic Comedy. bred in Scotland, where he had at length a benefice in Si
BLAEU (William), a famous printer of Amfler- the epifcopal church ; but meeting with fomc difcou 
dam, a difciple and friend of Tycho Brahe’s : his ragements, he came to England, in the latter end of "
Atlas, his Treatife of the Globes, Aftronomical Infti- the reign of king Charles II. and was fent by Dr
tutions, &c. and his fine impreffions, have fecured his Compton as a miffionary to Virginia, and was after- J
memory. He died in 1638. wards, by the fame bifhop, made com miffary for that a
BLAFART, in commerce, a fmall coin, current at colony, the higheft office in the church there. He
Cologn, worth fomething more than a farthing of our diftinguifhed himfelf by his exemplary condudf and
money. . unwearied labours in the work of the miniftry; and
BLAGRAVE (John), the fecond fon of John Bla- finding that the want of proper feminaries for the ad-
grave, of Bulmarfh-court near Sunning in Berkfhire, vancement of religion and learning was a great damp
defcended of an ancient family in that country. From upon all attempts for the propagation of the gofpel,
a grammar-fchool at Reading he was fent to St John’s he formed a defign of eredting and endowing a college
college in Oxford, where he applied himfelf chiefly to at Williamfburgh, in Virginia, for profeffors and ftu-
the ftudy of mathematics, and, without taking any dents in academical learning. He therefore not only
degree, afterwards retired to his patrimonial feat of fet on foot a voluntary fubfcription; but, in 1693, came •
Southcole-lodge near Reading, where he fpent the re- to England to folicit the affair at court: when queen
mainder' of his life. In this manfion he died in the Mary was fo well pleafed with the noble defign, that
year 1611; and was buried in the church of St Law- fhe efpoufed it with particular zeal; and king William
rence, where a fumptuous monument was eredled to his readily concurring with her majefty, a patent was paf-
memory. Having never married, he bequeathed to all fed for eredfing and endowing a college by the name
the pofterity of his three brothers, the fum of 50 /. each of the William and Mary college, of which Mr Blair
payable at the age of 26 ; and he calculated his dona- was appointed prefident, and enjoyed that office near
tion fo well; that near fourfcore of his nephews and 50 years. He was alfo redtor of 'Williamfburgh, and
their defcendants have reaped the benefit of it. He prefident of the council in that colony. He wrote, Our
alfo fettled certain lands at Swallowfield in the fame Saviour’s divine Sermon on the Mount explained in fe-
county, as a provifion for the poor for ever. Among veral fermons, 4 vols, odfavo; and died in 1743.
other charities, he left ten pounds to be annually dif- Blair of Athol, a caftle belonging to the duke
pofed of in the following manner : On Good-Friday, of Athol, feated in the county of Athol in Scotland,
the church-wardens of each of the three parifhes of 28 miles north-weft of Perth. W. Long. 3, 30. N. Lat.
Reading fend to the town-hall one virtuous maid, who 56. 46.
has lived five years with her majler: there, in the pre- BLAISOIS, a province of France, bounded on
fence of the magiftrates, thefe three virtuous maids the north by Beauce, ontheeaft by the Orleannois, on
throw dice for the ten pounds. The two lofers are re- the fouth by Berry, and on the weft by Touraine. Blois
turned with a frefh one the year following, and again is the capital town.
the third year, till each has had three chances. He BLAKE (Robert), a famous Englifh admiral, born
is faid to have been not more remarkable for hismathe- Auguft 1589, at Bridgwater, in Somerfetfhire, where
matical knowledge, than for his candour and genero- he was educated at the grammar-fchool. He went from
fity to his acquaintance. His works are, 1. A mathe- thence to Oxford in 1615, where he was entered at St
matical jewel. Lond. 1585, fol. 2. Of the making and Alban’s hall. From thence he removed to Wadham
ufe of the familiar faff. Lond. 1590, 4to. 3. Afro- college; and on the 10th of February 1617, he took
labium uranicum gcneralc. Lond. 1596, 410. 4. The the degree of bachelor of arts. In 1623, he wrote a .
art of dialing. Lond. 1609, 410. copy of verfes on the death of Mr Camden, and foon
BLAIN, among farriers, a diftemper incident to after left the univerfity. He was tinflured pretty early
beafts, being a certain bladder growing on the root with republican principles; and difliking that feverity
of the tongue, againft the wind-pipe, which fwells to with which Dr Laud,' then bilhop of Bath and Wells,
fuch a pitch as to flop the breath. It comes by great preffed uniformity in his diocefe, he began to fall into
chaffing and heating of the ftomach, and is perceived the puritanical opinions. His natural bluntnefs caufing
by the beaft’s gaping and holding out his tongue, and his principles to be well known, the puritan party re¬
foaming at the mouth. To cure it, caft the bead, take turned him member for Bridgwater in 1640; and he
forth his tongue, and then, flitting tiie bladder, wafh ferved in the parliament army with great courage du-
it gently with vinegar and a little fait. ring the civil war: but when the king was brought to
BLAIR (John), a Scottifh author, was cotempo- trial, he highly difapproved the meafure as illegal, and
rary with, and the companion, fome fay the chaplain, was frequently heard to fay, he would as freely venture
of Sir William Wallace. He attended that great hero his life to fave the king, as ever he did to ferve the
in almoft all his exploits ; and, after his death, which parliament. But this is thought to have been chiefly
left fo great a ftain on the character of Edward I. of owing to the humanity of his temper, fince after the
England, he wrote his memoirs in Latin. The injury death of the king he fell in wholly with the republican
of time has deftroyed this work, which might have party, and, next to Cromwell, was the ableft officer the
thrown the greateft light on the hiftory of a very bufy parliament had.
and remarkable period. An inaccurate fragment of it In 1648-9, he was appointed, in conju&ion with co-
only bas defcended to us, from which little can be lonel Deane and colonel Popham, to command the fleet;
learned, and which was publiflted, with a commentary, and foon after blocked up prince Maurice and prince
by Sir Robert Sibbald. Rupert in Kinfale harbour. But thefe getting out,
Blake
BLA BLA
t e- Blake followed them from port to port: and at laft at- after a fhort confultation with his officers, bbre into the
■"j"" tacked them in that of Malaga, burnt and deftroyed bay of Porto Ferino with his great (hips and their fe-
l his whole fleet, two fhips only excepted, the Reforma- conds ; and, coming within mufquet-fhot of the caflle
tion in which prince Rupert himfelf was, and the Swal- and the line, fired on both fo warmly, that in two hours
low commanded by his brother prince Maurice. In time the caftle wss rendered defencelefs, and the guns
1652, he was conltituted foie admiral; when he de- on the works along the fnorewere difmounted, though
featedthe Dutch fleet commanded by Van Trump, Ruy- 60 of them played at a time on the Englifli. Blake
ter, and De Wit, in three feveral engagements, in which found nine fhips in the road, and ordered every captain
« the Dutch loft ix men of war, 30 merchant-lhips, toman his long-boat with choice men, to enter the
i and, according to their own accounts, had 15,000 men harbour and fire the Tunifeens ;' which they happily ef-
flain. Soon after, Blake and his colleagues, with a fe&ed, with the lofs of 25 men killed, and 48 wounded,
grand fleet of 100 fail, flood over to the Dutch coaft; while he and his men covered them from the caftle by
and forced their fleet to fly for (helter into the Texel, playing continually on them with their great guns,
where they were kept for fome time by Monk and Dean, This daring a&ion fpread the terror of his name thro’
while Blake failed northward. At laft, however, Trump Africa and Afia. From Tunis he failed to Tripoli,
j got out, and drew together a fleet of 120 men of war; caufed the Englifli flaves to be fet at liberty, and con-
and, on the 3d of June, the generals Dean and Monk eluded a peace with that government. Thence return-
came to an engagement with the enemy off the North ing to T#nis, the Tunifeens implored his mercy, and
Foreland, with indifferent fuccefs: but the next day begged him to grant them peace, which he did upon
Blake coming to their affiltance with 18 fhips, gained terms highly advantageous to England. He next failed
a complete vi&ory; fo that if the Dutch had not faved to Malta, and obliged the knights to reftore the effefts
themfelves on Calais fands, their whole fleet had been taken by their privateers from the Englifh; and by
funk or taken. thefe great exploits, fo railed the glory of the Englifh
In April 1653, Cromwell turned out the parliament, name, that moft of the princes and ftates in Italythought
1 and fhortly after affumed the fupreme power. The fit to pay their compliments to the protector, by fend-
! ftates hoped great advantages from this; but were dif- ing folemn embaffies to him.
appointed. Blake faid on this occafion to his officers. He palled the next winter either in lying before Ca-
“ It is not for us to mind ftate-affairs, but to keep fo- diz, or in cruifing up and down the Streights ; and was
reigners from fooling us.”—In November, 1654, Crom- at his old ftation, at the mouth of that harbour, when
| well fent him with a ftrong fleet into the Mediterra- he received information that the Spanifti plate fleet had
nean, with orders to fupport the honour of the Englifh put into the bay of San&a Cruz, in the ifland of Te-
flag, and to procure fatisfaftion for the injuries that neriffe: upon this he weighed anchor, with 25 men of
might have been done to our merchants. In the begin- war, on the 13th of April 1657; and, on the 20th, rode
ning of December, Blake came into the road of Cadiz, with his fhips off the bay of Sancla Cruz, where he
where he was treated with all imaginable refpeft : a faw 16 Spanifh fhips lying in the form of a half-moon.
Dutch admiral would not hoift his flag while he was Near the mouth of the haven flood a caftle, furnifhed
there; and his name was now grown fo formidable, with great ordnance ; befides which there were feven
that a French fquadron having flopped one of his ten- forts round the bay, with fix, four, and three guns on
I ders, which had been feparated from Blake in a ftorm, each, joined to each other by a line of communication
the admiral, as foon as he knew to whom it belonged, manned with mufqueteers. To make all fafe, Don
fent for the captain on board, and drank Blake’s health Diego Diagues, general of the Spanifh fleet, caufed all
before him with great ceremony, under a difeharge of the fmaller fhips to be moored clofe along the fhore;
five guns, and then difmified him. The Algerines wrere and the fix large galleons flood farther out at anchor,
fo much afraid of him, that, flopping the Sallee rovers, with their broadfides towards the fea. Blake having
th-ey obliged them to deliver up what Englifh prifoners prepared for the fight, a fquadron of fhips was drawn
they had on board, and then lent them freely to Blake, out to make the firft onfet, commanded by captain Stay-
in order to purchafe his favour. This, however, did ner in the Speaker frigate : who no fooner received or-
not prevent his coming on the 10th of March before ders, than he failed into the bay, and fell upon the Spa-
Algiers, and fending an officer on fhore to the dey to nifh fleet, without the leaft regard to the forts, which
demand fatisfa&ion for the piracies committed on the fpent their fhot prodigally upon them. No fooner were
Englifh, and the releafe of all the Englifh captives, thefe entered into the bay, but Blake, following after.
The dey, in his anfwer, alleged, that the fhips and cap- placed feveral fhips to pour broadfides into the caftle
lives belonged to private men, and therefore he could and forts; and thefe played their part fo well, that,
not reftore them without offending all his fubjefts, but after fome time, the Spaniards found their forts too hot
that he might eafily redeem them ; and if hq thought to be held. In the mean time, Blake ftruck in with
I good, they would conclude a peace with him, and for Stayner, and bravely fought the Spanifh fhips, out of
the future offer no a6ls of hoftility to the Englifh : and which the enemy were beaten by two o’clock in the af-
having accompanied this anfwer with a large prefent of ternoon; when Blake, finding it impoffible to carry them
frefh provifions, Blake left Algiers, and failed on the away, ordered his men to fet them on fire; which was
I fame errand to Tunis; the dey of which place not only done fo effeftually, that they were all reduced to afhes,
refufed to comply with his requeft, but denied him the except two, which funk downright, nothing remaining
liberty of taking in frefh water. “ Here,” faid he, above the water but part of the mafts. The Englifh
“ are our caftles of Goletto and Porto Ferino; do your having now obtained'a complete victory, were reduced
“ worfl.” Blake, at hearing this, began, as his cuftom to another difficulty by the wind, which blew fo ftrong
was when highly provoked, to curl his whifkers ; and, into the bay, that they defpaired of getting out. They
Vou II. 7 I lay
* See law,
Part lit.
a0 clxv. 3.
B L A [ 11
lay under the fire of the caftles and of all the forts,
which muft in a little time have torn them to pieces.
But the wind fuddenly drifting, carried them out of the
bay ; where they left the Spaniards in aftonifhment at
the happy temerity of their audacious viftors. This
is allowed to have been one of the moft remarkable ac¬
tions that ever happened at fea. “ It was fo miracu¬
lous (fays the earl of Clarendon), that all'men who knew
the place, wondered that any. fober man, with what
courage foever endued, would ever have undertaken it;
and they could hardly perfuade themfelves to believe
what they had done ; whilft the Spaniards comforted
themfelves with the belief, that they were devils and
not men, who had deftroyed them in fuch a manner.”
This was the la ft and greateft atftion of the gallant
Blake. He was confumed with a dropfy and fcurvy;
and haftened home, that he might yield up his laft
breath in his native country, which he had fo much
adorned by his valour. As he came within fight of
land, he expired.—Never man, fo zealous for a faftion,
was fo much refpefted and efteemed even by the oppo-
fite fa&ions. Difinterefted, generous, liberal; ambi¬
tious only of true glory, dreadful only to his avowed
enemies; he forms one of the moft perfedt charadters of
that age, and the leaft ftained with thofe errors and vio¬
lences which were then fo predominant. The protec¬
tor ordered him a pompous funeral at the public charge:
but the tears of his countrymen were the moft honour¬
able panegyric on his memory. The lord Clarendon
obferves, “ that he was the firft man who brought fhips
to contemn caftles on ftiore, which had ever been thought
very formidable, and Wre difcovered by him to make
a noife only, and to fright thofe who could be rarely
hurt by them. He was the firft that infufed that de¬
gree of coitrage into feamen, by making them fee by
experience what mighty things they could do, if they
were refolved; and the firft that taught them to fight
in fire as well as in water.”
BLAMONT, a town of Lorrain in France, feated
on a little river called Vefouze. E. Long. 6. 51. N.
Lat. 48. 35.
BLANC. See Blank.
Blanc, a town of Berry in France, feated on the
river Creufe, by which it is divided into two parts. The
land about it is barren, and full of trees, heath, and
lakes. E. Long. 1. 13. N. Lat. 46. 38.
BLANCH-holding, in law, a tenure, by which the
vaflal is only bound to pay an elufory yearly dir.y to
his fuperior merely as an acknowledgment of his right*.
BLANCHARD (James), an excellent painter, was
born at Paris, and learnt the rudiments of his profeffion
under Nicholas Bolleri his uncle; but left him at zo
years of age, and travelled into Italy. He ftaid two
years at Rome, and from thence went to Venice, where
he was fo charmed with the works of Titian, Tintoret,
and Paul Veronefe, that he refolved to follow their man¬
ner; and in this he fucceeded fo far, that at his return
to Paris, he foon became generally efteemed for the no¬
velty, beauty, and force of his pencil. He painted two
galleries at Paris, one belonging to Perault, the firft
prefident, and the other to Bullion, fuperintendant of
the finances; but his capital piece is a pi&ure of the
defcent of the Holy Ghoft in the church of Notre
Dame. He was feized, in the flower of his age, with
a fever and impofthume in the lungs, of which he died
74 ] B L A
in 1683. Of all the French painters Blanchard was
efteemed the beft colourift, he having carefully ftudied
this part of painting in the Venetian fchool.
Car/e-BLANCHE. See Carte.
BLANCHING, the art or manner of making any
thing white. See Bleaching.
Blanching of Iron-plates, is performed with aqua¬
fortis and tin.
Blanching of Woollen Stuffs, is done with foap, or
with chalk, or with fulphur or biTmftone.
Blanching of Silk, is performed with foap and
brimftone.
Blanching of Wax, is by expofing it to the fun and
dew. See Wax.
Blanching See Chemistry, n°38i.
Blanching, in coinage, the operation performed on
the planchets or pieces of filver, to give them the re-
quifite luftre and brightnefs. They alfo blanch pieces
of plate, when they would have them continue white,
or have only fame parts of them burnilhed.—Blanch¬
ing, as it is now praftifed, is performed by heating the
pieces on a kind of peel with a wood fire, in the man¬
ner of a reverberatory; fo that the flame pafles over
the peel. The pieces being fufficiently heated and
cooled again, are put fucceflively to boil in two pans,
which are of copper: in thefe they put water, common
fait, and tartar of Montpelier. When they have been
well drained of this water in a copper fieve, they throw
fand and frefh water over them ; and when dry, they
are well rubbed with towels.
Blanching, among'gardeners, an operation whereby
certain fallets, roots, &c. are rendered whiter than they
would otherwife be.— It is thus: After pruning off the
tops and roots of the plants to be blanched, they plant
them in trenches about ten inches wide, and as many
deep, more or lefs, as is judged neceffary; as they grow
up, care is taken to cover them with earth, within
four or five inches of their tops: this is repeated from
time to time, for five or fix weeks; in which time they
will be fit for ufe, and of a whitifh colour where co¬
vered by the earth.
Blanching' alfo denotes the operation of covering
iron plates with a thin coat dr cruft of tin.
BLANCO, a cape or promontory of Africa, in the
Atlantic Ocean. W. Long. 18. 30. N. Lat. 20. o.
Blanco, a promontory of Peru in South America,
in the South Sea. W. Long. S'!. 10. N. Lat. 11. 50.
BLANDA, (anc. geog.), a Roman city in the ter¬
ritory of Barcino in Hifpania Citeriorpnow Blanes, a
fea-port town of Catalonia, fituated near the river Tor-
dara. E. Long. 3. 40. N. Lat. 41. 30.
BLANDFORD, a town of Dorfetfhire in England.
It is pleafantly feated on the river Store near the Downs,
but has been fubjedt to feveral dreadful fires, particu¬
larly in 173x, when almoft the whole town was burnt
down ; but it has fince been rebuilt finer than before.
It has the title of a marquifate, and lies in W. Long.
2. 15. N. Lat. 50. 50.
BLANDONONA, (anc. geog.), a fmall city of Li¬
guria in Italy; now Bran, or Br6ni. See that article.
BLANES. See Blanda.
BLANK, or Blanc, properly fignifies white *. «
Blank, in commerce, a void or unwritten place
which merchants fometimes leave in their day-books or
journals.
Blank-
B L A [ n
'2>h\KVL-Verfe, in the modern poetry, that compofed
of a certain number of fyllables, without the affiftance
_ of rhime. See Poetry.
Blank. See Voikt-Blank.
BLANKENBERG, a town of Germany, in the
circle of Weftphalia and duchy of Berg. E. Long. 7.
18. N. Lat. 50.. 54.
BLANKENBURG, a town of Germany, in the cir¬
cle of Lower Saxony, and capital of the county of the
fame name, fubjedt to the duke of Brunfwic-Wolfem-
buttle. The caftle or palace is a modern building, and
is the relidence of the princefs dowager. E. Long. 11.
20. N. Lat. 51. 50.
BLANKENHEIM, a fmall territory of Germany
with the title of a county, which is part of that of Eyf-
fel, near the archbifhopric of Cologn and duchy of Ju-
liers.
BLANKET, a coverlet for a bed. A fluff com¬
monly made of white wool, and wrought in a loom like
cloth ; with this difference, that they are croffed like
ferges.
When they come from the loom, they are fent to the
fuller; and after they have been fulled and well cleaned,
they are napped with a fuller’s thiftle.
There are blankets made with the hair of feveral ani¬
mals ; as that of dogs, goats, and others.
BLANQUILLE, in commerce, a fmall filver coin
current in the kingdom of Morocco, and all that part
.of the coaft of Barbary ; it is worth about three-half¬
pence of our money.
BLARE, in commerce, a fmall copper coifi of Bern,
nearly of the fame value with the ratz.
BLAREGNIES, a town of the Auftrian Nether¬
lands, in the province of Hainault, feated in E. Long.
3. 35. N. Lat. 50. 30. Near this place the Englilh
and their allies under the duke of Marlborough obtained
a very bloody viftory over the French in 1709. This
* is moft commonly called the battle of Malplaquet*.
BLASE, bilhop of Sebafta in Cappadocia, in the
fecond and third centuries, fuffered death under Dio-
clefian by decapitation, after being whipped and ha¬
ving his flefli torn with iron combs. He is a perfon
of great note among the vulgar, who in their procef-
fions relative to the woollen trade, always carry a
reprefentation of him as the inventor or patron of
the art of wool-combing; though that art muft have
been known long before his time. It is difficult to fay
how the invention came to be attributed to him ; but
it had probably no better origin than the circumftance
of his being tortured by inftruments ufed in combing
of wool.
BLASIA, leather-cup, a genus of the order of
algae, belonging to the cryptogamia clafs of plants.
Of this genus there is but one fpecies known, which
grows naturally on the banks of ditches and rivulets,
in a gravelly or fandy foil, both in England and Scot¬
land. It grows flat upon the ground in a circle or
patch, compofed of numerous thin, green, pellucid,
leaves, marked with a few whitiffi veins near the bafe,
divided and fubdivided into oblufe fegments obfcurely
crenated on the edges. The margins of the leaves are
a little elevated, but the interior parts adhere clofe to
the ground by a fine down which anfwers the purpofe
of roots. The feeds are fo final! as to be almoft im¬
perceptible.
75 ] ^ B I, A
BLASPHEMY, an indignity or injury offered to Blafphemy
the Almighty, by denying what is his due and of II
right belonging to him ; or by attributing to the crea-  —
ture that which is due only to the Creator.
The primitive church diftinguiffied blafphemy into
three forts. I. The blafpheming of apoftates, whom
the heathen profecutors obliged not only to deny, but
to curfe, Chrift. Thefe blafphemers were punillied with
the higheft degree of ecclefiaffical cenfure. 2. The
blafphemy of heretics, and other profane Chriflians.
In this fenfe, they included not only thofe who main¬
tained impious dodlrines, but thofe who uttered profane
or blafphemous words, derogatory to the majelly and
honour of God. The fame puniftiment that was in-
fli&ed upon heretics and facrilegious perfons, was con-
fequently the lot of thisTort of blafphemers. 3. The
blafphemy againft the Holy Ghoft, concerning which
the opinions of the ancients varied. Some apply it to
the fin of lapfing into idolatry and apoftacy, and de¬
nying Chrift in time of perfecution. Others made it
to confiftin denying Chrift to be God : others, in de¬
nying the divinity of the Holy Ghoft ; and others
place it in a perverfe and malicious afcribing the ope¬
rations of the Holy Spirit to the power of the devil,
and that againft exprefs knowledge and convidtion of
confcience.
Blafphemy, among the Jews, was punilhed by Ho¬
ning the offender to death. Tn England, it is puniftiable
at common law, by fine and pillory. And by a ftar
tute of William III. if any perfon ffiall, by writing
or fpeaking, deny any of the perfons in the Tri¬
nity, he ffiall be incapable of any office ; and for the
fecond offence, be difabled to fue in any adlions, to be
an executor, &c. According to the law of Scotland,
the puniffiment of blafphemy is death *. PaSrte^IW,
BLAST, in a general fenfe, denotes any violent noc]xxxvi.
explofion of air, whether occafioned by gun-powder, 7.
or by the adlion of a pair or bellows.
Blasts, among miners, the fame with damps*. *SccDam/>s.
Blast, or Blight, in huffiandry. See Blight.
BLASTING, a term ufed by miners for the tear¬
ing up rocks which lie' in their way, by the force of
gun-powder.
BLATTA, or Cockroach, a genus ofinfedts be¬
longing to the order of hemiptera, or fuch as have four
femicruftaceous incumbent wings. The head of the
blatta is infledled towards the breaft ; the antennae, or
feele’rs, are hard like bridles ; the elytra and wings are
plain, and refemble parchment; the breaft is fmooth,
roundiffi, and is terminated by an edge or margin ; the
feet are fitted for running ; and there are two fmall
horns above the tail. This infedl refembles the beetle;
and there are 10 fpecies, viz. 1. The gigantea is of
livid colour, and has fquare browniffi marks on the
breaft. It is found in Alia and America, and is about
the fize of a hen’s egg. 2. The alba is red, and the
margin of the breaft is white. It is found in Egypt.
3. The furinamenfis is livid, and the breaft edged
with white. It is a native of Surinam. 4. Theame-
ricana is of an iron colour, and the hind part of the
breaft is white. The wings and elytra are longer than
its body. It is found in America and the fouth of
France. 5. The pivea is white, with yellow feelers.
It is a native of America. 6. The africana is affi-co-
loured, and has fome hairs on its breaft. It is fopnd
7 I 2 ' ia
1176
Blatta
Blivet.
BLEACHING.
in Africa. 7. The orientalis is of a duflcyafti colour,
has fhort elytra, with an oblong furrow in them. This
fpecies is frequent in America. They get into chefts,
&c. and do much hurt to cloaths ; they infeft peoples
beds in the night, bite like bugs, and leave a very un-
favoury fmell behind them. They avoid the light,
and feldom appear but in the night time. The female
refembles a kind of caterpillar, as it has no wings ;
fhe lays an egg of about one half the bulk of her
belly. They eat bread, raw or dreffed meat, linen,-
books, filk-worms and their bags, &c. Sir Hans
Sloane fays, that the Indians mix their allies with fu-
gar, and apply them to ulcers in order to promote the
fuppuration. 8. The germanica, is livid and yellow-
ifh, with two black parallel lines on the breaft. It is
found in Denmark. 9. The laponica, is yellow, and
the elytra are fpotted with black. It is found in Lap-
land ; and feeds upon cheefe, filhes, &c. 10. The
oblongata is of an oblong figure; the colour is livid
and fhining ; and it has two black fpots on the breaft.
The feelers are red and clavated ; and the feet are very
hairy. It is a native of America.
BLATTA RLE, (from Blatta, a moth or little
worm), the title of Scopoli^s 12th natural clafs, in his
Flora Carniolica. It is taken from the Blattaria,
which was Tournefort’s generic name for the verbaf-
cum of Linnaeus. See Verbascum.
BLAUBEUREN, a town of Germany in the cir¬
cle of Suabia, and duchy of Wirtemberg. E. Long.
9. 57. N. Lat. 48. 22.
BLAVET, a fea-port town of Brittany in France,
fituated at the mouth of a river of the fame name. It
is one of the Rations of the royal navy of France, and
is fotaetimes called Pur/W. Lone. «. e. N. Bit
Lat. 47. 40.
BLAVIA, or Blavium, (anc. geog.), a town of 
Aquitain, on the north bank of the Garonne, below
its confluence with the Dordone: Now Blaye ; which
fee.
BLAYE, an ancient and ftrong town of France, in
Guienne. It is fituated on the river Garonne, has a
harbour much frequented by foreigners, and the flops
which fail to Bourdeaux are obliged to leave their guns
here. The river is 3800 yards broad at Blaye; for
which reafon a battery was built upon an ifland in 1689, ‘l|
to command the veffels that fail up. The city is built ||
on a rock, and has a citadel with four baftions, which
is called the Upper Town. The lower town is feparated ;
from the upper by a fmall river ; and in the lower town |
the merchants refide with their magazines. The neigh- |
bourhood produces a great deal of corn, which they a|
fend abroad when the exportation of it is allowed. W.
Long. 1. 23. N. Lat. 45. 6.
BLAZE, a white fpot in a horfe’s face.
BLAZONING, or Blazonry, in heraldry, the 1
decypbering the arms of noble families. The word o- I
riginally fignified the blowing or winding of a horn ; 1
and was introduced into heraldry as a term denoting the i
defcription of things borne in arms, with their proper I
fignifications and intendments, from an ancient cuftom j
the heralds, who were judges, had of winding an horn \
at jufts and tournament, when they explained and re- |
corded the atchivements of knights *. * Sees*
BLEA, in the anatomy of plants, the inner rind or ^ |
dry bark. See Plants.
BLEACHING
IS the art of whitening linen cloth, thread, &c.;
which is conduced in the following manner by the
bleachers of this country.
After the cloth has been forted into parcels of an e-
cjual finenefs, as near as can be judged, they are latched,
linked, and then fteeped. Steeping is the firft operation
which the cloth undergoes, and is performed in this
manner. The linens are folded up, each piece diftinft,
and laid in a large wooden veffel; into which is thrown,
blood-warm, a fufficient quantity of water, or equal
parts of water and lye, which has been ufed to white
cloth only, or water with rye-meal or bran mixed with
it, till the whole is thoroughly wet, and the liquor rifes
over all. Then a cover of wood is laid over the cloth,
and that cover is fecured with a poll betwixt the boards
and the joifting, to prevent the cloth from rifing during
the fermentation wrhich enfues. About fix hours after
the cloth has been fteeped in warm water, and about
twelve in cold, bubbles of air arife, a pellicle is formed
on the furface of the liquor, and the cloth fwells when it
is not preffed down. This inteftine motion continues
from 36 to 48 hours, according to the warmth of the
weather; about which time the pellicle or feum begins
to fall to the bottom. Before this precipitation hap¬
pens, the cloth muft be taken out; and the proper time
for taking it out, is when no more air-bubbles arife.
This is allowed to be the jufteft guide by the moft ex¬
perienced bleachers.
The cloth is then taken out, well rinfed, difpofed
regularly by the felvage, and wafhed in the put-mill to
carry off the loofe dull. After this it is fpread on the
field to dry : When thoroughly dried, it is ready for
bucking ; which is the fecond operation.
Bucking, or the application of falts, is performed in
this manner. The firft, or mother-lye, is made in a
copper, which we fliall fuppofe, fer example, when full,
holds 170 Scots gallons of water. The copper is filled
three fourths full of water, which is brought to boil :
juft when it begins, the following proportion of afhes
is put into it, viz. 30 lb. of blue, and as much white
pearl-aflies; 200 lb. of Marcoft afhes, (or, if they have
not thefe, about 300 lb. of Cafhub) ; 300 lb. of Muf-
covy, or blanch afhes ; the three laft ought to be well
pounded. This liquor is allowed to boil for a quarter
of an hour, ftirring the afhes from the bottom very often;
after which the fire is taken away. The liquor muft
ftand till it has fettled, which takes at leaf! fix hours,
and then it is fit for ufe.
Out of their firft, or mother-lye, the fecond, or that
ufed in bucking, is made in this manner. Into another
copper, holding, for example, 40 Scots gallons, are
put 38 gallons of water, 2 lb. foft foap, and 2 gallons
of mother-lye ; or, for cheapnefs, in place of the foap,
when they have lye which has been ufed to w^hite linen,
called white-linen lye, they take 14 gallons of it, leaving
out an eqbal quantity of water. This is called huck-
ing~
II77
BLEACHING.
linens are taken up from the field dry, they
are fet in the vat or cave, as their large vefiel is called,
in rows, endwife, that they may be equally wet by the
lye; which, made blood warm, is now thrown on them,
and the cloth is afterwards fqueezed down by a man
with wooden ihoes. Each row undergoes the fame o-
peration, until the veil'd is full, or all the cloth in it. At
firft the lye is put on milk-warm, and, after {landing
a little time on the cloth, it is again let off by a cock
into the bucking-copper, heated to a greater degree,
and then put on the cloth again. This courfe is re¬
peated for fix or feven hours, and the degree of heat
gradually increafed, till it is, at the laft turn or two,
thrown on boiling hot. The cloth remains after this
for three or four hours in the lye ; after which the lye
is let off, thrown away, or ufed in the firft buckings,
and the cloth goes on to another operation.
It is then carried out, generally early in the morning,
fpread on the grafs, pinned, corded down, expofed to
the fun and air, and watered for the firft fix hours, fo
often, that it never is allowed to dry. Afterwards it is
allowed to lie till dry fpots appear before it is watered.
After feven at night it gets no more water, unlefs it be
a very drying night. Next day, in the morning and
forenoon, it is watered twice or thrice if the day be very
dry; but if the weather be not drying, it gets no wa¬
ter : After which it is taken up dry if the green be
clean ; if not, it is rinfed, mill-waihed, and laid out to
dry again, to become fit for bucking.
This alternate eourfe of bucking and watering, is
performed for the moft part, from ten to fixteen times*
or more, before the linen is fit for fouring ; gradually
increafing the ftrength of the lye from the firft to the
middle bucking, and from that gradually decreafing it
till the fouring begins. The lyes in the middle buck¬
ings are generally about a third ftronger than the firft
and laft.
Souring, or the application of acids to cloth, is the
fourth operation. It is difficult to fay when this ope¬
ration ihould commence, and depends moftly on the ikill
and experience of the bleacher. When the cloth has an
equal colour, and is moftly freed from the fprat, or outer
bark of the lint, it is then thought fit for fouring ;
which is performed in the following manner. Into a
large vat or veffel is poured fuch a quantity of butter¬
milk, crTouff milk, as will fufficiently wet the firft row
of cloth ; which is tied up in loofe folds, and preffed
down by two or three men bare-footed. If the milk is
thick, about an eighth of water is added to it; if thin,
no water. Sours made with bran, or rye-meal and wa¬
ter, are often ufed inftead of milk, and ufed milk-warm.
Over tire firft row of cloth a quantity of milk and wa¬
ter is thrown, to be imbibed by the fecond; and fo it
is continued till the linen to be foured is fufficiently wet,
and the liquor rifes over the whole. The cloth is then
kept down by covers filled with holes, and fecured with
a poll fixed to the joift, that it may not rife. Some
hours after the cloth has been in the four, air-bubbles
arife, a white feum is found on the furfaee, and an in-
teftine motion goes on in the liquor. In warm weather
it appears fooner, is ftronger, and ends fooner, than
in cold weather. Juft before this fermentation, which
lafts five or fix days, is finiihed, at which time the fcum
falls down, the cloth ihould be taken out, rinfed, mill-
ing-lye.
After the
wafhed, and delivered to the women to be wafited with
foap and water.
Waihing with foap and water, is the fifth operation^
and is performed thus. Two women are placed oppo-
fite at each tub, which is made of very thick ftaves, fo
that the edges, which flope inwards, are about four in¬
ches in thicknefs. A fmall veffel full of warm water is
placed in each tub. The cloth is folded fo that the fel-
vage may be firft rubbed with foap and warm water
lengthways, till it is fufficiently impregnated with it.
In this manner all the parcel is rubbed with foap, and
afterwards carried to be bucked.
The lye now ufed has no foap in it, except what it
gets from the cloth : and is equal in ftrength to the
ftrongeft formerly ufed, or rather ftronger, becaufe the
cloth is now put in wet. From the former operation
thefe lyes are gradually made ftronger, till the cloth
feems of an uniform white, nor any darknefs or brown
colour appears in its ground. After this the lye is more
fpeedily weakened than it was increafed; fo that the laft
which the cloth gets, is weaker than any it got before.
But the management of fours is different; for they
are ufed ftrongeft at firft, and decreafed fo in ftrength,
that the laft four, confidering the cloth is then always
taken up wet, may be reckoned to contain three fourths
of water.
From the bucking it goes to the watering, as for¬
merly, obferving only to overlap the felvages, and tie
it down with cords, that it may not tear; then it re¬
turns to the four, milling, waihtng, bucking, and wa¬
tering again. Theft operations fucceed one another al¬
ternately till the cloth is whitened; at which time it is
blued, ftarched, and dried.
This is the method ufed in the whitening fine cloths.
The following is the method ufed in the whitening of
coarfe cloths.
Having forted the cloths, according to their quality,
they are fteeped in the fame manner as the fine, rinfed,.
wafhed in the mill, and dried before boiling.
In this procefs, boiling fupplies the place of bucking,
as it takes lefs time, and confequently is thought cheap-
eft. It is done in the following manner : 200 lb. Ca-
fhub-aihes, 100 lb. white Mufcovy, and 30 lb. pearl-
afhes, boiled in 105 Scots gallons of water for a quarter
of an hour, as in the procefs for the fine cloth, makes-
the mother or firft lye. The cloth-boiler is then to be
filled two thirds full with water and mother-lye, about
nine parts of the former to one of the latter; fo that
the lye ufed for boiling the coarfe cloth, is about a
third weaker than that ufed in bucking the fine. Such
a quantity of cloth is put into the foregoing quantity
of lye, when cold, as can be w^ell covered by it. The
lye is brought gradually to the boil, and kept boiling
for two hours; the cloth being fixed down all the time,
that it does not rife above the liquor. The cloth is then
taken out, fpread on the field, and watered, as men¬
tioned before in the fine cloth.
As the falls of the lye are not exhaufted by this boil¬
ing, the fame is continued to be ufed all that day, add¬
ing, at each boiling, fo much of the mother-lye as will
bring it to the fame ftrength as at firft. The lye by
boiling lofes in quantity fomewhat betwixt a third and
a fourth ; and they reckon that in ftrength it lofes a-
bout a half, becaufe they find in pra&ice, that adding
to it half its former ftrength in freih lye, has the fame
effea
B L E A C
effe& on cloth. Therefore fome frefh lye, containing a
fourth part of the water, and the half of the ftrength '
of the firft lye, makes the fecond boiler equal in ftrength
to the firft. To the third boiler they add fomewhat
more than the former proportion, and go on ftill in-
creafing gradually to the fourth and fifth, which is as
much as can be done in a day. The boiler is then cleaned,
and next day they begin with fre/h lye. Thefe addi¬
tions of freih lye ought always to be made by the ma-
fter-bleacher, as it requires judgment to bring fucceed-
ing 1-yes to the fame ftrength as the firft.
When the cloth comes to get the fecond boiling, the
lye ftiould be a little ftronger, about a thirtieth part,
andthedeficiencies mademp in thefame proportion. For
fix or feven boilings, or fewer, if the cloth be thin, the
lye is increafed in this way, and then gradually dimi-
niftied till the cloth is fit for fouring. The whiteft cloth
ought always to be boiled firft, that it may not be hurt
by what goes before.
In this procefs, if the cloth cannot be got dry for
boiling, bufinefs does not ftop as in the fine ; for after
the coarfe has dreeped on racks made for the purpofe,
it is boiled, making the lye ftrong in proportion to the
water in the cloth.
The common method of fouring coarfe linen is, to
mix fome warm water and bran in the vat, then put a
layer of cloth, then more bran, water, and cloth ; and
fo on, till the cave is full. The whole is tramped with
mens feet, and fixed as in the former procefs. A thou-
fand yards of cloth, yard-broad, require betwixt four
and fix pecks of bran. The cloth generally lies about
three nights and two days in the four. Others prepare
their four twenty-four hours before, by mixing the bran
with warm water in a feparate veffel; and before pouring
it on the cloth, they dilute it with a fufficient quantity
of water. After the cloth is taken from the four, it
ought to be well walked and rinfed again. It is then
given to men to be well foaped on a table, and after¬
wards rubbed betwixt the rubbing-boards. When it
comes from them, it (hould be well milled, and warm
water poured on it all the time, if conveniency will al¬
low of it. Two or three of thefe rubbings are fufficient,
and the cloth very feldom requires more.
The lye, after the fouring begins, is decreafed in
ftrength by degrees ; and three boilings after that are
commonly fufficient to finifh the cloth. Afterwards it is
ftarched, blued, dried, and bittled in a machine'made
for that purpofe, which fupplies the place of a calender,
and is preferred by many to it.
This method ufed in the bleaching of our coarfe cloths,
is very like that pradtifed in Ireland for both fine and
coarfe. The only material difference is, that there the
bleachers ufe no other^fhes but the kelp or cafhub. A
lye is drawn from the former by cold water, which dif-
folves the falls, and not the fulphureous particles of the
kelp-afhes. This lye is ufed till the cloth is half whi¬
tened, and then they lay afide the kelp-lye for one made
of caffiub-alhes.
In the preceding hiftory of bleaching we may ob-
ferve, that it naturally divides itfelf into feveral different
branches or parts, all tending to give linen the degree
of whitenefs required. How they effedluate that, comes
next to be confidered.
The general procefs of bleaching divides itfelf into
thefe different parts, x. Steeping and milling. 2. Buck-
H I N G.
ing and boiling. 3. Alternate watering and drying.
4. Souring. 5. Rubbing with foap and warm water,
ftarching, and bluing. We lhall treat of thefe different
parts in their order.
STEEPING.
Green linen, in the different changes which it has
undergone before it arrives atthatftate, contradls 4 great
foulnefs. This is chiefly communicated to it by the
dreffing compofed of tallow and fowen, which is a kind
of flummery made of bran, flower, or oat-meal feeds.
The firft thing to be done in the bleachfield is to take
off all that filth which is foreign to the flax, .would
blunt the future adtion of the falls, and might, in un-
Ikilful hands, be fixed in the cloth. This is the defign
of fteeping.
To accomplifh this end, the cloth is laid to fteep in
blood-warm water. A fmaller degree of heat would not
diffolve the dreffing fo foon ; and the greater might co¬
agulate and fix, in the body of the linen, thofe particles
which we defign to carry off. In a few hours the dref¬
fing made ufe in weaving is diffolved, mixed with the
water; and, as it had acquired fome degree of acidity,
before application, it becomes a fpecies of ferment.
Each ferment promotes its own particular fpecies of
fermentation, or inteftiqe motion ; the putrid ferment
fets in motion the putrefactive fermentation } the vinous
ferment gives rife to the vinous fermentation ; and the
acid ferment to the acetous fermentation. That there
is a real fermentation going on in fteeping, one mull
be foon convinced, who attends to the air-bubbles
which immediately begin to arife, to the fcum which
gathers on the furface, and to the inteftine motion and
fwelling of the whole liquor. That it muft be the a-
cetous fermentation, appears from this, that the, ve¬
getable particles, already in part foured, muft firft un¬
dergo this procefs.
The effeCt of all fermentations is to fet the liquor in
motion ; to raife in it a degree of heat; and to emit
air-bubbles, which, by carrying up fome of the light
oleaginous particles along with them, produce a fcum.
But as the dreffing is in fmall quantity in proportion to
the water, thefe effefts are gentle and flow. The acid
falls are no fooner feparated, by the acetous fermenta¬
tion, from the abforbent earth, which made them not
perceptible to the tongue in their former ftate, than
they are united to the oily particles of the tallow, which
likewife adhere fuperficially, diffolve them, and render
them, in fome degree, miffible with water. In this ftate
they are foon walked off by the inteftine motion of the
liquor. The confequence of this operation is, that the
cloth comes out freed in a great meafure from itsfuper-
ficial dirt; and more pliant and foft than what it was.
Whenever this inteftine motion is pretty much aba¬
ted, and before the fcum fubfides, bleachers take out
their cloth. The fcum, when no more air-bubbles rife
to fupport it, feparates and falls down; and would again
communicate to the cloth great part of the filth. But
a longer ftay would be attended with a much greater
difadvantage. The putrid follows clofe upon the ace¬
tous fermentation: when the latter ends, the former be¬
gins. Were this to take place in any confiderable de¬
gree, it would render the cloth black and tender.
Bleachers cannot be too careful in this article.
The firft queftion that arifes to be determined on
thefe
BLEACHING.
tl efe principles is, What is the propereft liquor for
sfi fteeping cloth ? thofe ufed by bleachers are plain water;
w white-linen lye and water, equal parts; and rye-meal
to | or bran mixed with water. They always make ufe of
[1 lye when they have it.
After fteeping, the cloth is carried to the putftock-
n ■ mill, to be freed of all its loofe foulnefs. There can be
I nothing contrived fo^ffeftual to anfwer the purpofe as
-fa this mill. Its motion is eafy, regular, and fafe. While
fi it prefles gently, it turns the cloth ; which is continu-
e ally wafhed with a ftream of water. Care muft be taken
ft that no water be detained in the folds of the linen, o-
:t therwife that part may be damaged.
BUCKING and BOILING.
I This is the moft important operation of the whole
procefs, and deferves a thorough examination. Its de-
fign is to loofen, and carry off, by the help of alkaline
lixives or lyes, that particular fubftance in cloth, which
it is the caufe of its brown colour.
All afhes ufed in lye, the pearl excepted, ought to be
r: well pounded, before they are put into the copper; for
1 the Marcoft and Cafhub are very hard, and with fome
difficulty yield their fait. As thefe two laft contain a
I very confiderable proportion of a real fulphureous mat-
j ter, which muft in fome degree tinge white cloth; and
I as this is diffolved much more by boiling, than by the
inferior degrees of heat, while the falls may be as well
extra&ed by the latter ; the water fhould never be
j brought to boil, and fhould'be continued for fome time
longer under that degree of heat. The pearl-afhes
fhould never be put in till near the end, as they are ea-
fily diffolved in water.
If the falts were always of an equal ftrength, the fame
quantities would make a lye equally ftrong; but they
are not. Salts^of the fame name differ very much from
one afiother. The Mufcovy afhes are turning weaker
every day, as every bleacher muft have obferved, till at
laft they turn quite effete. A decodlion from them
when new, muft differ very much from one when they
have been long kept. Hence a neceffity of fome exaft
criterion to difcover when lyes are of an equal ftrength.
The tafte cannot ferve, as that is fo variable, cannot be
defcribed to another, and is blunted by repeated trials.
The pi-oof-ball will ferve the purpofe of the bleachfield
fufficiently ; and, by difcovering the fpecific gravity,
will fhow the quantity of alkaline falts diffolved. - But
it cannot fhow the dangerous qualities of thefe falts ;
for the lefs cauftic and lefs heavy this liquor is, the more
dangerous and corrofive it may be for the cloth.
The third lye, which they draw from thefe materials
by an infufion of cold water, in which the tafte of lime
[ is difcoverable, appears plainly to^ie more dangerous
than the firft. The fecond lye, which they extradl from
the fame afhes, and which is reckoned about a third in
ftrength, when compared to the firft, muft be of the fame
! nature; nor fhould it be ufed without an addition of
pearl-afhes, which will corre& it.
It is taken for a general rule, ^hat the folution of
' any body in its menftfuum is equally diffufed through
the whole liquor. The bleachers depending on this,
ufe equal quantities of the top and bottom of tlieir lye,
; when once clear and fettled ; taking it for granted, that
there is an equal quantity of falts in equal quantities of
the lye. But if there is not, the miftake may be of
fatal confequence, as the lye may be in fome places
ftronger than what the cloth can with fafety bear.
That general law of folution muft have taken its rife
from particular experiments, and not from reafoning.
Whether a fufficient number of experiments have been
tried to afcertain this point, and to eftablifh an un¬
doubted general rule, may be called in queftion.
“ But, fays Dr Home, when I had difcovered that
lime makes part of the diffolved fubftance, and re-
fledled how long its groffer parts will continue fu-
fpended in water, there appeared ftronger reafons for
fufpe&ing that this rule, tho’ it may be pretty general,
does not take place here ; at leaft it is worth the pur-
fuit of experiment.
“ I weighed at the tdeachfield a piece of glafs in
fome cold lye, after it had been boiled, flood for two
days, and about the fourth part of it had been ufed.
The glafs weighed 3 drachms i± grains in the lye, aiid
3 drachms grains in river-water. The fame 'glafs
weighed in the fame lye, when almoft all ufed, 2 grains
lefs than it had done before. This Ihows, that the laft
of the lye contained a third more of the diffolved body ;
and, confequently, was a third ftronger than the firft
of the lye.
“ As this might, perhaps, be owing to a continua¬
tion of the folution of the falts, I repeated the experi¬
ment in a different way.
I took from the furface fome of the lye, after the
falts were diffolved, and the liquor was become clear..
At the fame time I immerfed a bottle, fixed to a long
flick, fo near the bottom, as not to raife the allies
there, and, by pulling out the cork by a firing,
filled the bottle full of the lye near the bottom. The
glafs weighed in river-water 3 drachms 384- grains ;
in the lye taken from the furface 3 drachms 34^ grains;
and in the lye taken from the bottom 3 drachms 314-
rains. This experiment Ihows, that the lye at the
ottom was, in this cafe, ^ ftronger than the lye at the
furface.
“ At other times when I tried the fame experiment,
I found no difference in the fpecific gravity ; and there¬
fore, I leave it as a queftion yet doubtful, though de-
ferving to be afeertained by thofe who have an oppor¬
tunity of doing it. As the lye Hands continually on
the alhes, there can be no doubt bqt what is ufed laft
muft be ftronger than the firft. I would, therefore, re¬
commend, to general practice, the method ufed by
Mr John Chriftie, who draws off the lye, after it has
fettled, into a fecond receptacle, and leaves the alhes
behind. By this means it never can turn ftronger ;
and he has it in his power to mix the top and bottom,.,
which cannot be done fo long as it Hands on the afhes.”
Having confidered the lye, let us next inquire how-
it a£ls. On this inquiry depends ahnoft the whole
theory of bleaching, as its aClion on cloth is, at leaft
in this country, abfolutely neceffary. It is found by-
experiment, that one effeift they have on cloth is the
diminilhing of its weight; and that their whitening
power is, generally, in proportion to their weakening
power. Hence arifes a probability, that thefe lyes
a£t by removing fomewhat from the cloth, and that
the lofs of this fubftance is the caufe of whitenefs.
This appears yet plainer, when the bucking, which
lafts from Saturday night to Monday morning, is at¬
tended to.
Thers
1180 B X E A C
There are various and different opinions with regard
to the operations of thefe falls : that they aft by alter¬
ing the external texture of the cloth, or by feparating
the mucilaginous parts from the reft, or by extrafting
the oil which is laid up in the cells of the plant. The
laft is the general opinion, or rather conjedure, for
none of them deferves any better name) but we may
venture to affirm, that it is fo without any better title
to pre-eminence, than what the others have. Alkaline
falls diffolve oils, therefore thefe falls dfffolve the cellu¬
lar oil of the cloth, is all the foundation which this
theory has to reft on ; too flight, when unfupported
by experiment, to be relied on.
Dr Home endeavours to fettle this queftion by the
following experiments and obfervations.
“ Wax, fays he, is whitened by being expofed to the
influence of the fun, air, and moifture. A difcovery of
the change made on it by bleaching, may throw a light
upon the queftion.
“ Six drachms of wax were fliced down, expofed on
a fouth window, September to. and watered. That
day being clear and warm, bleached the wax more
than all the following. It feemed to me to whiten
quicker when it had no water thrown on it, than when
it had. September 15. it was very white, and I drachm
3 grains lighter. 3^ dracjims of this bleached wax,
and as much of unbleached, taken from the fame piece,
were made into two candles of the fame length and
thicknefs, having cotton wicks of the fame kind. The
- bleached candle burnt 1 hour 33 minutes; the un¬
bleached 3 minutes longer. The former run down four
times, the latter never. The former had an obfcure
light and dull flame; the latter had a clear pleafant one,
of a blue colour at the bottom. The former when
burning, feemed to have its wick thicker, and its flame
nearer the wax, than the latter. The former was
brittle, the latter not. It plainly appears from thefe
fa&s, that the unbleached wax was more inflammable
than the bleached ; and that the latter had loft fo much
of an inflammable fubftance, as it had loft in weight;
and confequently the fubftance loft in bleaching of wax
is the oily part.
“ As I had not an opportunity of repeating the
former experiment, I do not look on it as entirely
conclufive ; for it is poffible that fome of the duft, fly¬
ing about in the air, might have mixed with the
bleached wax, and fo have rendered -it lefs inflammable.
Nor do I think the analogical reafoning from wax to_
linen without obje&ions. Let us try then if we can¬
not procure the fubftance extrafted from the cloth,
ftiow it to the eye, and examine its different proper¬
ties. The proper place to find it, is in a lye already
ufed, and fully impregnated with thefe colouring par¬
ticles. .
“ I got in the bleachfield fome lye, which had been
ufed all that day for boiling coarfe linen, which was to-
lolerably white, and had been twice boiled before.
There could be no dreffing remaining in thefe webs.
No foap had ever touched that parcel; nor do they
mix foap with the lye ufed for coarfe cloth. Some of
this impregnated lye was evaporated, and left a dark
coloured matter behind. This fubftance felt oily betwixt
the fingers, but would not lather in water as foap does.
It deflagrated with nitre in fufion, and afforded a tinc¬
ture to fpirit of wine. By this experiment the falls
: H I N G.
feem to have an oily inflammable fubftance joined with
them.
“ Could we feparate this colouring fubftance from
thefe falls, and exhibit it by itfelf, fo that it might be¬
come the objedt of experiment, the queftion would be
foon decided. Here chemiftry lends us its affiftance.
Whatever has a ftronger affinity or attraftion to. the
falls with which it is joined, than this fubftance has,
muft fet it at liberty, and make it vifible. Acids at-
tra& alkaline fait from all other bodies ; and therefore
will ferve our purpofe.
“ Into a quantity of the impregnated lye men¬
tioned in the former experiment, I poured in oil of
vitriol. Some bubbles of air arofe, an inteftine mo¬
tion was to be perceived, and the liquor changed its co¬
lour from a dark to a turbid white. It curdled like a
folution of foap, and a fcum foon gathered on the fur-
face, about half an inch in thicknefs, the deepnefs of
the liquor not being above fix inches. What was be¬
low was now pretty clear. A great deal of the fame
matter lay in the bottom; and I obferved, that the
fubftance on the furface was precipitated, and ftiowed
itfelf heavier than water, when the particles of air, at¬
tached to it in great plenty, were difpelled by heat.
This fubftance was in colour darker than the cloth
which had been boiled in it.
“ I procured a confiderable quantity of it by fltim-
ming it off. When I tried to mix it with water, it al¬
ways fell to the bottom. When dried by the air, it
diminiftied very much in its fize, and turned as black
as a coal. In this ftate it deflagrated ftrongly with
nitre in fufion ; gave a ftrong tindlure to fpirit of wine;
and when put on a red-hot iron, burnt very flowly, as
if it contained a heavy ponderous oil; and left fome
earth behind.
“ From the inflammability of this fubftance, its re-
je&ing of water, and diffolving in fpirit of wine, we
difcover its oleaginous nature ; but from its great fpe-
cific gravity we fee that it differs very much from the
expreffed or cellular oil of vegetables ; and yet more
from their mucilage. That it diflblves in fpirit of
wine, is not a certain argument of its differing from
expreffed oils ; becaufe thefe, when joined to alkaline
falls, and recovered again by acids, become foluble in
fpirit of wine. The quantity of earthy powder left
behind after burning, (hows that it contains many of
the folid particles of the flax. The fubftance extradled
from cloth by alkaline lyes appears then to be a com-
pofition of a heavy oil, and the folid earthy particles
of the flax.
“ In what manner thefe falls adt fo as to diffolve the
oils, and detach the folid particles, is uncertain; but we
fee evidently how much cloth muft be weakened by an
improper ufe of them, as we find the folid particles them-
felves are feparated.”
It is neceffary that cloth fhould be dry before buck¬
ing, that the falls may enter into the body of the cloth
along with the water; for they will not enter in fuch
quantity, if it be wet; and by adling too powerfully
on the external threads, may endanger them.
The degree of heat is a very material circumftance
in this operation. As the adiion of the falls is al¬
ways in proportion to the heat, it would appear more
proper to begin with a boiling heat, by which a
great deal of time and labour might be faved. The
reafon
BLEACHING. 118?
reafon wliy this method is not followed, appears to be
this. If any vegetable or vegetable fubftance is to be
foftened, and to have its juices extradted, it is found
more proper to give it gentle degrees of heat at firft, and
to advance gradually, than to plunge it all at once in
boiling water. This laft degree of heat is fo ftrong,
that when applied at once to a vegetable, it hardens,
i inttead of foftening its texture. Dried vegetables are
I*® immediately put into boiling water by cooks, that thefe
fubilances may preferve their green colour, which is
only to be done by hindering them from turning too
foft. Boiling water has the fame effedt on animal fub-
flances ; for if fait beef is put into it, the water is kept
from getting at the falts, from the outfide of the beef
being hardened.
But when we confider how much of an oily fub-
| fiance there is in the cloth, efpecially at firft, which
r will for fome time keep off the water, and how the
t twilling of the threads, and clofenefs of the texture,
hinders the water from penetrating, we lhall find, that
if boiling water were put on it at once, the cloth might
f be liable, in feveral parts, to a dry heat, which would
be much worfe than a wet one. That the lyes have not
I accefs to all parts of the cloth, at firft, appears plainly
from this, that when it has lain, after the firft bucking,
till all the lyes are walhed out, it is as black, in fome
parts, as when it was fteeped. This mull be owing
to the difcharge of the colouring particles from thofe
places to which the lye has accefs, and to their re¬
maining where it has not. It would feem advifeable,
then, in the firft bucking or two, when the cloth is
foul, to ufe the lye confiderably below the boiling
point; that by this foaking or maceration, thefoulnefs
may be entirely difcharged, and the cloth quite-opened
for the fpeedy reception of the boiling lye in the buck¬
ings which follow.
The lyes fhould likewife be weakeft in the firft buck¬
ings, becaufe then they adl only on the more external
parts; whereas, when the cloth is more opened, and
the field of adlion is increafed, the adlive powers ought
to be fo too. For this reafon they are at the ftrongeft
after fome fourings.
The only thing that now remains to be confidered,
is, the management of the coarfe cloth, where boil¬
ing is fubftituted in place of bucking. This fpecies of
linen cannot afford the time and labour neceffary for
the latter operation ; and therefore they muff undergo
a fhorter and more adlive method. As the heat con¬
tinues longer at the degree of boiling, the lyes ufed
to the coarfe cloth muft be weaker than thofe ufed to
the fine. There is not fo much danger from heat in
the coarfe as in the fine cloth, becaufe the former is of
a more open texture, and will allow the lye to pene-
^ trate more fpeedily. In the clofer kinds, however,
the firft application of the falts fhould be made without
i a boiling heat.
ALTERNATE WATERING and DRYING.
After the cloth has been bucked, it is carried out
| to the field, and frequently watered for the firft fix
j hours. For if, during that time, when it is itrongly
j impregnated with falts, it is allowed to dry, the falts ap¬
proaching clofer together, and, affifted by a greater
degree of heat, increafing always in proportion to the
drynefs of the aloath, adl with greater force, and de-
Vol. II.
ftroy its very texture. After this time, dry fpots are
allowed to appear before it gets any water. In this
(late it profits moll, as the latter part of the evaporation
comes from the more internal parts of the cloth, and
will carry away moft from thofe parts. The bleaching
of the wax, in a preceding experiment, helps to confirm
this; for it feemed to whiten moft when the laft particles
of water were going off.
This continual evaporation from the furface of the
cloth fhows, that the defign of the operation is to carry
off fomewhat remaining after the former procefs of
bucking. This appears likewife from a fadl known to
all bleachers, that the upper fide of cloth, where the
evaporation is ftrongeft, attains to a greater degree of
whitenefs than the under fide. But it is placed beyond
all doubt by experiment, which Ihews, that cloth turns
much lighter by being expofed to the influence of the
fun, air, and winds, even tho’ the falts have been walhed
out of it.
What, then, is this fubftance ? As we have difco-
vered in the former fedlion, that the whitening, in the
operation of bucking, depends on the extradling or
loofening the heavy oil, and folid particles of the flax;
it appears highly probable, that the effedls of water¬
ing, and expofition to the fun, air, and winds, are
produced by the evaporation of the fame fubftance,
joined to the falts, with which compofite body the
cloth is impregnated when expofed on the field. That
thefe falts are in a great meafure carried off or deftroyed,
appears from the cloth’s being allowed to dry with¬
out any danger, after the evaporation has gone on for
fome time. “ If we can ftiow (fays Dr Home) that
oils and falts, when joined together, are capable of be¬
ing exhaled, in this manner, by the heat of the atmo-
fphere, we (hall reduce this queftion to a very great de¬
gree of certainty.
“ September i o. I expofed in a fouth-weft window,
half an oz. of Caftile foap, diced down and v/atered.
September 14. when well dried, it weighed but 3 dr.
6 gr. September 22. it weighed 2 dr. 2 gr. Sep¬
tember 24. it weighed 1 dr. 50 gr. It then feemed a
very little whiter; but was much more mucilaginous in
its tafte, and had no degree of faltnefs, which it had
before.
“ It appears from this experiment, that foap is fo
volatile, when watered, and expofed to air not very
warm, that it lofes above half its weight in 14 days.
The fame muft happen to the faponaceous fubftance,
formed from the conjundlion of the alkaline falts, heavy
oil, and earthy particles of the flax. The whole defign,
then, of this operation, which, by way of pre-eminence,
gets the name of bleaching, is to carry off, by the eva¬
poration of water, whatever has been loofened by the
former procefs of bucking.
“ Againft this dodlrine there may be brought two
objedtions, feemingly of great weight. It is a gene¬
ral opinion amongft bleachers, that linen whitens quicker
in March and April, than in any other months : but as
the evaporation cannot be fo great at that time, as
when the fun has a greater heat; hence the whitening
of cloth is not in proportion to the degree of evapora¬
tion ; and therefore the former cannot be owing to the
latter. This objedlion vanifhes, w-hen we confider, that
the cloth which comes firft into the bleachfield, in the
fpring, is clofely attended, having no other to interfere
7 K with
I 182
BLEACHING.
with it for foitje time; and, as it is the whiteft, gets, in
the after-buckings, the firft of the lye ; while the fe-
cond parcel is often bucked with what has been ufed to
the firft. Were the fatft true, on which the obje&ion is
founded, this would be a fufficient anfwer to the ob-
jcftion. But it appears not to be true, from an ob-
fervation of Mr John Chriftie, That cloth laid down
in the beginning of June, and finiftied in September,
takes generally lefs work, and undergoes fewer ope¬
rations, than what is laid down in March, and finifhed
in June.
“ The other objection is, That cloth dries much
fafter in windy weather than in calm funfhine; but it
does not bleach fo fall. This would feem to ftiow, that
the fun has fome particular influence independent on e-
vaporation. In anfwer to this objeftion, let it be con-
fidered, that it is not the evaporation from the furface,
but from the more internal parts, that is of benefit to
the cloth. Now, this latter evaporation muft be much
ftronger in funfhine than in windy weather, on account
of the heat of the fun, which will make the cloth more
open ; while the coldnefs of windy weather muft fhut it
up, fo that the evaporation will all be from the furface.
Clear fun-fhine, with a very little wind, is obferved to
be the teft weather for bleaching ; a convincing proof
that this reafoning is juft.
“ It would feem to follow as a corollary from this
reafoning, that the number of waterings fhould in ge¬
neral be in proportion to the ftrength of the lye ; for
the ftronger the lye is, the more there is to be evapo¬
rated ; and the greater the danger, in cafe the cloth
fhonld be allowed to dry. But there is an exception
to this general rule, arifing from the confideration of
another circumftance. It is obferved, that cloth when
brown, dries fooner than when it becomes whiter, a-
rifing from the clofenefs and oilinefs which it then has
not allowing the water a free pafiage. Perhaps that
colour may retain a greater degree of heat, and in that
way affift a very little. Cloth therefore, after the firft
buckings, muft be more carefully watered than after
the laft.
“ It follows likewife from this reafoning, that the
foil of the bleach-field ftiould be gravelly or fandy,
that the water may pafs quickly through it, and that
the heat may be increafed by the refledtion of the foil,
for the fuccefs of this operation depends on the mutual
action of heat and evaporation. It is likewife necef-
fary that the water (hould be light, foft, and free from
mud or dirt, which not being able to rife along with
the water, muft remain behind. When there is much
of this, it becomes neceflary to rinfe the cloth in wa¬
ter, and then give it a milling, t<J take out the dirt;
elfe it would be fixed in the cloth by the following
bucking, as it is not foluble by the lye.
“ This operation has more attributed to it by bleach¬
ers than it can juftly claim. The cloth appears, even
to the eye, to whiten under thefe alternate waterings
and dryings ; and thefe naturally get the honour of it,
when it more properly belongs to the former operation.
Here lies the fallacy. Alcaline falts give a very high
colour to the decoftions or infufion of vegetables.
This is probably owing to the folution of the oleagi¬
nous colouring particles of the plant; which particles,
being opened andfeparated by the falts, occupy a greater
fpace, and give a dedp colour to the liquor. The cloth
participates of the liquor and colour. Hence bleachers
always judge of the goodnefs of the bucking by the
decpnefs of its colour. The rule, in general, is good.
I obferve that in thofe buckings which continue from
the Saturday night to the Monday morning, the cloth
has always the deepeft colour. When that cloth has
been expofed fome hours to the influence of the air,
thefe colouring particles which are but loofely attached
to it, are evaporated, and the linen appears of a brighter
colour. This operation does no more than complete
what the former had almoft finiftied. If its own merit
were thoroughly known, there would be no occafion to
attribute that of another operation to it. Thread, and
open cloths, fuch as diaper, may be reduced to a great
degree of whitenefs, after one bucking, by it alone.
No cloth, as would appear, can attain to a bright
whitenefs without it.
“ Since the only advantage of watering is the re¬
moval of the falts, and what they have difiblved, might
we not effeftuate this by fome cheaper and more cer¬
tain method ? For it occupies many hands ; and muft
depend altogether on the uncertainty of the weather ;
fo that in the beginning of the feafon, the bleacher is
often obliged to repeat his buckings without bleaching.
We might take out the alkaline falts by acids; but
then the other fubftance would be left alone in the cloth,
nor would any wafliing be able to remove it. Mill-
waftiing appears a more probable method of taking out
both falts and oils: and it would feem that this might
in a great meafure, fupply the place of watering ; but
upon trial it does not fucceed. Two parcels of linen
were managed equally in every other refpeS, except in
this, that one was watered, and expofed to the influence
of the air, and the other was only mill-wafhed. This
method was followed until they were fit for fouring.
The cloth which had been mill-wa(hed had a remark¬
able green colour, and did not recover the bright co¬
lour of the pieces managed in the common way, until
it had been treated like them for a fortnight. The
green colour was certainly owing to a precipitation of
the fulphureous particles, with which the lye is im¬
pregnated, upon the furface of the cloth ; owing to
the falts being walked off more fpeedily than the ful-
phur, to which they are united in the lye. The attach¬
ment betwixt thefe two bodies we know is very loofe,
and the feparation eafily made. Evaporation then alone
is fufficient to carry oflF thefe fulphureous particJes.,,
SOURING.
It is well known to all chymifts, that alkaline falts
are convertible, by different methods, into abforbent
earths. Frequent folution in water, and evaporation
of it again, is one of thefe. This tranfmutation then
of thefe falts, which are not volatilifed or walked away,
muft be continually going on in the cloth und^- thefe
alternate waterings and dryings of the former procefs i
not much indeed after the firft two or three buckings;
becaufe the falts, not having entered deep into the
cloth, are eafily waftied off, or evaporated. But when
they penetrate into the very compofition of the laft and
minuteft fibres, of which the firft veffels are made,
they find greater difficulty of efcaping again, and muft;
be more fubjeft to this tranfmutation. But if we con-
fider the bleaching alhes as a compofition of lime and
alkaline falts, we muft difcover a frelh-fundfor the de-
pofition
1183
BLEACHING.
pofition of this abforbent earth. The common cauftic,
a compofition of this very kind, foon converts itfelf, if
expofed to the open air, into a harmlefs earthy powder.
Frequent buckings and bleachings load the cloth
with this fubllance. It becomes then neceflafy to take
it opt. No wafhing can do that, becaufe earth is
not foluble in water. Nothing but acids can remove
it. Thefe are attrafted by the abforbent earth,
join themfelves to it, and compofe a kind of neutral
imperfeft fait, which is foluble in water, and there¬
fore eafily wafhed out of the cloth. The acid li¬
quors commonly ufed are butter-milk, which is rec¬
koned the beft, four-milk, infufion of bran, rye-meal,
&c. kept for fome days till they four. Sour whey is
thought to give the cloth a yellow colour.
The linen ought to be dried before it is put in the
four, that the acid particles may penetrate, along with
the watery, through the whole. A few hours after it
has been there, air-bubles arife, the liquor fwells, and
a thick fcum is formed ; manifeft figns of a fermenta¬
tion. The following experiment, fays Dr Home,
ftiews the degree of heat which attends it.
“ May 25. I put a thermometer of Fahrenheit’s in¬
to fome butter-milk, of which the bleachers were
compofing their fours, and which Hood in a vat adjoin¬
ing to another, where the milk was the fame, and the
fouring procefs had been going on for two days. After
the thermometer had been 20 minutes in the butter¬
milk, the mercury ftood at 64 degrees. In the four¬
ing vat it rofe to 68 degrees. An increafeof four de¬
grees (hows a pretty brilk inteftine motion.
“ To what are all thefe effe&s owing ? To the ace¬
tous fermentation going on in thofe vegetable liquors,
whofe acids, extricating themfelves, produce heat, in¬
teftine motion, and air-bubbles. As the change is flow,
the procefs takes five or fix days before it is finiftied.
During this time the acid particles are continually uni¬
ting themfelves to the abforbent earth in the cloth.
That this fermentation goes on in the liquor alone, ap¬
pears from this confideration, that the fame effe&s, viz.
air-bubbles, and fcum, are to be feen in the butter¬
milk alone. ' The only effeft then it has is, by the fmall
degree of heat, and inteftine motion, which attend it,
to aflift the junction of the acid and abforbent particles.
We (hall prefently fee that this procefs may be carried
on to as great advantage, without any fermentation ;
and therefore it appears not abfolutely neceffary.
“ When thefe abforbent particles are fully faturated,
the remaining acids may unite with, and have fome
fmall effefl in extra&ing, the colouring particles. This
appears from the two following experiments.
“ Sept. 20. Apiece of cloth which had been fteeped,
weighing 41^ gr. was put into a half-pound of butter¬
milk, v.’higged, and well foured, by a mixture of wa¬
ter, and by boiling. Sept. 24. When taken out, and
wafhed in water, it appeared a very little whiter. The
mineral acids, as will appear afterwards, whiten cloth,
even though they are very much diluted.
“ Juft before the acetous fermentation ‘is finifhed,
the cloth (hould be taken out; otherwife the fcum will
fqll down and lodge in the cloth, and the putrefaction
which then begins will weaken it. This appears from
the following experiment.
“ Sept. 16. A piece of cloth weighing 42 gr. was
laid in buttey-milk unwhigged. Novem. 15. The
milk had a putrified fmell. The cloth was a little
whiter, but very tender; and weighed, when well
wafhed in warm water and dried, 40 gr.”
All the fours made of bran, rye-meal, &c. ought to
be prepared before ufe ; for by this means fo much
time will be faved. Befides, when the water is poured
upon the cloth and bran, as is done in the management
of coarfe cloth, the linen is not in a better iituation
than if it had been taken up wet from the field; and
by thismeansthe acid particles cannot penetrate fo deep.
Again, this method of mixing the bran with the cloth,
may be attended with yet worfe confequences. All
vegetable fubftances, wrhen much preffed, fall into the
putrefeent, and not the acetous fermentation. This
often happens to the bran prefled betwixt the different
layers on the linen, which muft weaken the cloth.
Hence, all fours (hould be prepared before the cloth is
fteeped in them; and none of the bran or meal ihotild
be mixed with the cloth.
The fours are ufed ftrongeft at firft, and gradually
weakened till the cloth has attained to its whitenefs.
In the firft fourings, there is more of the earthy mat¬
ter in the cloth, from the many buckings it has under¬
gone, than what there can be afterwards. As the quan¬
tity of this matter decreafes, fo (hould the ftrength of
the four. There is not, however, the leaft danger, at
any time, from too ftrong a four.
What is moft wanted in this operation is a more ex¬
peditious and cheaper method of obtaining the fame
end. As it takes five or fix days, it retards the whiten¬
ing of the cloth confiderably ; and as bleachers are ob¬
liged to fend for milk to a great diftance, it becomes
very dear. This laft confideration makes them keep it
fo long, that, when ufed, it can have no good effeft ;
perhaps it may have a bad one.
There is one confideration that may lead us to (hor-
ten the time. It is obferved, that the fouring procefs
is fooner finiftied in warm than in cold weather. Heat
quickens the fermentation, by aiding the inteftine mo¬
tion. The vats therefore ftiould not be buried in the
ground, as they always are, which muft keep them
cold; there ftiould rather be pipes along the walls of
the room, to give it that degree of heat which, oh
trial, may be found to anfwer beft. There are few
days in fummer fo hot as is neceffary; and the begin¬
ning and end of the feafon is by much too cold. That
this is no ideal fcheme, the following faft is a fufficient
proof. There are too vats in Salton bleachfield, ad¬
joining to a partition-wall, at the back of which there
is a kitchen-fire. In thefe vats the fouring procefs is
finiftied in three days, whereas it lafts five or fix days in
the other placed round the fame room.
This improvement,' tho’ it (hortens the time of four¬
ing a very little, yet is no remedy againft the fcarcity
and dearnefs of milk fours. Such a liquor as would
ferve our purpofe, muft be found either among the ve¬
getable acids, which have no further fermentation to
undergo, or among the mineral acids. The former are
a large clafs, and contain within themfelves many dif¬
ferent fpecies ; fuch as the acid juice of feveral plants,
vinegars made of fermented liquors, and acid falls,
called tartars. But there is one obje&ion againft thefe
vegetable acids: they all contain, along with the acid,
a great quantity of oily particles, which would not
fail to difeolour the cloth. Befides, the demand of
7 K 2 the
1184
B L E A C
the bleachfields would ralfe their price too high.
The mineral acids have neither- of thefe objections.
They are exceedingly cheap, and contain no oil. “ I
will freely own, fays Dr Home, that at firft I had no
great opinion of fuccefs from the -mineral, from two
reafons; their want of all fermentation, which I then
looked on as necefiary ; and their extreme corrofivenefs.
But the experience of two different fummers, in two
different bleachfields, has convinced me, that they will
anfwer all the purpofes of the milk and bran fours;
nay, in feveral refpe&s, be much preferable to them.
I have feen many pieces of fine cloth, which had no
other fours but thofe of vitriol, and were as white and
ftrong as thofe bleached in the common way. I have
cut feveral webs through the middle, and bleached one
half with milk, and the other with vitriol; gave both
the fame number of operations, and the latter were as
white and ftrong as the former.”
The method in which it has been hitherto ufed is
this. The proportion of the oil of vitriol to the water,
with which it is diluted, is half an ounce, or at moft
three quarters, to a gallon of water. As the milk-
fours are diminifhed in ftrengt.h, fo ought the vitriol-
fours. The whole quantity of the oil of vitriol to be
ufed, may be firft mixed with a fmall quantity of wa¬
ter, then added to the whole quantity of water, and
well mixed together. The water ftiould be milk-warm;
by which means the acid particles will penetrate fur¬
ther, and operate fooner. The cloth fliould then be
put dry into the liquor.
It is obferved, that this four performs its ta/k much
fooner than thofe of milk and bran ; fo that Mr John
Chryftie, in making the trial, ufed to lay the milk-
fours 24 hours before the vitriol. Five hours will do as
much with this four, as five days with the common
fort. But the cloth can receive no harm in allowing it
to remain for fome days in the four ; but rather, on the
contrary, an advantage. The cloth is then taken out,
well rinfed, and mill-waftied in the ordinary way.
The liquor, while the cloth lies in this four, is lefs
acid the fecond day than the firft, lefs the third than
the fecond, and fo diminifhes by degrees. At firft it
is clear, but by degrees a mucilaginous fubftance is ob¬
ferved to float in it, when put into a glafs. This foul-
nefs increafes every day. This fubftance, extracted by
the acid, is the fame with what is extrafted by the al¬
kaline falts; and blunts the acidity of the former, as it
does the alkalefcency of the latter. Hence the liquor
lofes by degrees its acidity. But as the acid falts do
not unite fo equally with oily fubftance as the alkaline
do, the liquor is not fo uniformly tinged in the former
as in the latter cafe, and the mucous fubftance prefents
itfelf floating in it.
It is obferved, that, in the firft fouring, which is the
ftrongeft, the liquor, which was a pretty ftrong acid
before the cloth was put in, immediately afterwards be¬
comes quite vapid ; a proof how very foon it performs
its talk. But in the following operations, as the linen
advances in whitenefs, the acidity continues much long¬
er ; fo that in the laft operations the liquor lofes very
little of its acidity. This happens although the firft
buckings, afterthe firftfourings, arc increafedin ftrength,
while the fours are diminiihed. There are two caufes
to which this is owing. The texture of the cloth is now
fo opened, that although the lyes are ftrong, the alka¬
li I N G.
line falts and abforbent earth are eafily walhed out; and
the oily particles are, in a great meafure, removed
which help to blunt the acidity of the liquor.
Two objeftions are made againft the ufe of vitriol-
fours. One is, that the procefs of fouring with milk
is performed by a fermentation ; and, as there is no
fermentation in the vitriol-fours, they cannot ferve the
purpofe fo well: the other, that they may hurt the tex¬
ture of the cloth. The anfwer to the former obje&ion
is very ftiort; that the vitriol-fours operate fuccefsfully
without a fermentation, as experience fhows; and there¬
fore in them a fermentation is not neceffary.
As to the latter obje&ion, that oil of vitriol, being
a very corrofive body, may hurt the cloth ; that will
vanifti likewife, when it is conlidered how much the
vitriol is diluted with water, that the liquor is not
ftronger than vinegar, and that it may be fafely taken
into the human body.
That it may be ufed with fafety, much ftronger than
what is neceffary in the bleachfield, appears from the
following experiment with regard to the ftamping of
linen. After the linen is boiled in a lye of allies, it is
bleached for fome time. After this, in order to make
it receive the colour, it is fteeped in a four of water and
oil of vitriol, about 15 times ftronger than that made
ufe of in the bleachfield ; for, to too gallons of water
are added two and a half of oil of vitriol. Into this
quantity of liquor, made fo warm as the hand can juft
be held in it, is put feven pieces of 28 yards each. The
linen remains in it about two hours, and comes out re¬
markably whiter. The fine cloth often undergoes this
operation twice. Nor is there any danger if the oil of vi¬
triol is well mixed with the water. But if the two are
not well mixed together, and the oil of vitriol remains
in fome parts undiluted, the cloth is corroded into holes.
Let us now take a view of the advantages which the
vitriol-fours muft have over the milk. The latter is full
of oily particles, fome of which muft be left in the
cloth : but the cafe is worfe when the fcum is allowed
to precipitate upon the cloth. The former is liable to<
neither of thefe obje&ions.
The common fours haften very faft to corruption ;
and if, from want of proper care, they ever arrive at
that ftate, muft damage the cloth very much. As the
milk is kept very long, it is often corrupted before it is
ufed ; and, without afting as a four, has all the bad
effe&s of putrefa&ion. The vitriol-fours are not fub-
je£I to putrefaftion.
The milk takes five days to perform its talk; but the
vitriol-fours do it in as many hours ; nay, perhaps as ma¬
ny minutes. Their jundtion with the abforbent particles
in the cloth muft he immediate, whenever thefe acid
particles enter with the water. An unanfwerable proof
that the fadl is fo, arifes from the circumftanees which
happen when the cloth is firft fteeped in the vitriol-
four ; the cloth has no fooner imbibed the acid liquor,
than it lofes all acidity, and becomes immediately va¬
pid. This effedt of vitriol-fours muft be of great ad¬
vantage in the bleachfield, as the bleachers are at pre-
fent hindered from enjoying the feafon by the tediouf-
nefs of the fouring procefs. The whole round of ope¬
rations takes feven days; to anfwer which they muft
have feven parcels, which are often mixing together,
and caufing miftakes. As three days, at moft, will be
fufficient for all the operations when vitriol-fours are
BLEACHING.
ofed, there will be no more than three parcels. The through the boards.
cloth will be kept a fhorter time in the bleachfield, and This mill was invented in Ireland about thirty years
arrive fooner at market. ago. The Irilh bleachers ufe it for their fine, as well
The milk-fours are very dear, and often difficult to as coarfe cloth. Thefe rubbing-boards were difcharged,
be got; but the vitriol are cheap, may be eafily pro- feme years ago, in Ireland, by the truftees for the ma-
cured, and at any time. nufadlures of that country, convinced from long ex -
There is yet another advantage in the ufe of vitriol, perience of their bad effedts. But as proper care was
and that is its power of whitening cloth. Even in not taken to inftrudl the bleachers by degrees in a fafer
this diluted ftate, its whitening power is very confide- method, they continued in the old, made a party, and
rable. We-have already feen, that it removes the fame kept poffeffion of the rubbing-boards. There were con-
colouring particles, which the alkaline lyes do. What fiderable improvements made in them in this country ;
of it then remains, after the alkaline and abforbent par- fuch as the addition of the ledges, to keep the cloth
ticks are neutralized in the cloth, muft adt on thefe moift ; and of the rollers, which pull the cloth more
colouring particles, and help to whiten the cloth. That
this is really the cafe, appears from the following fad!.
Mr Chryftie being obliged to chufe 20 of the whiteft
pieces out of 100, five of the twenty were taken out of
feven pieces which were bleached with vitriol.
From both experience and reafon, it appears, that
it would be for the advantage of our linen-manufadture
to ufe vitriol in place of milk-fours.
Hand-rubbing 'with Soap and Warm Water, Rub¬
bing-boards, Starching, and Bluing.
After the cloth comes from the fouring, it fhould
be well walked in the w.alhing-mill, to take olf all the
acid particles which adhere to its furface. All acids
decompofe foap, by feparating the alkaline falls and
oily parts from one another. Were this to happen on
the furface of the cloth, the oil would remain ; nor
would the walking-mill afterwards be able to carry it off.
From the walhing-mill the fine cloth is carried to be
rubbed by womens hands, with foap and water. As
the liquors, which are generally employed for fouring,
are impregnated with oily particles, many of thefe muft
lodge in the cloth, and remain, notwithftanding the
preceding milling. It is probable, that all the heavy
oils are not evaporated by bleaching. Hence it be¬
comes neceffary to apply foap and warm water, which
unite with, diffolvej and carry them off. It is obferved,
that if the cloth, when it is pretty white, gets too
much foap, the following bleaching is apt to make it
yellow; on that account they often wring out the foap.
It is a matter worth inquiring into, whether hard or
foft foap is beft for cloth. Moft bleachers agree, that
hard foap is apt to leave a yellownefs in the cloth. It
is faid, that the ufe of hard foap is difcharged in Hol¬
land. As there muft be a confiderable quantity of fea-
falt in this kind, which is not in the foft, and as this
fait appears prejudicial to cloth, the foft foap ought to
be preferred.
The management of the coarfe cloth is very different,
in this operation, from fine. Inftead of being rubbed
with hands, which would be too expenfive, it is laid
on a table, run over with foap, and then put betwixt
the rubbing-boards, which have ridges and grooves
from one fide to another, like teeth. Thefe boards
have fmall ledges to keep in the foap and water, which
faves the cloth. They are moved by hands, or a water¬
wheel, which is more equal and cheaper. The cloth
is drawn, by degrees, through the boards, by men who
attend ; or, which is more equal and cheaper, the fame
water-wheel moves two rollers, with ridge and groove,
fo that the former enters the latter, and, by a gentle
motion round their own axis, pull the cloth gradually
radually that mens hands. Thefe improvements were
rft made in Salton bleachfield.
The objeftions againft thefe rubbing-boards, are
unanfwerable. By rubbing on fuch an unequal fur¬
face, the folid fibrous part of the cloth is wore; -by
which means it is much thinned, and in a great meafure
weakened before it comes to the market. As a proof
of this, if the water which comes from the cloth in the
rubbing-boards be examined, it will be found full of
cottony fibrous matter. Thefe boards give the cloth a
cottony furface, fo that it does not keep long clean.
Again, they flatten the threads, and take away all
that roundnefs and firmnefs, which is the diftinguilhing
property of cloth bleached in the Dutch method.
For thefe reafons they muft be very prejudicial to
fine cloth, and Ihould never be ufed in bleaching it.
As they feem to be, in fome meafure, neceffary to lef-
fen the expence of bleaching coarfe linen, they ought
never to be ufed above twice, or thrice at moft. They
might be rendered much more fafe, by lining their in-
fides with fome foft elaftic fubftance, that will not wear
the cloth fo much as the wooden teeth do. Mr Chry¬
ftie at Perth has lined his boards with Ihort hair for
fome years paft, and-finds that it anfwers very well.
After the coarfe linen has undergone a rubbing, it
Ihould be immediately milled for an hour, and warm
water poured now and then on it to make it lather.
This milling has very good effects ; for it ^cleans the
cloth of all the dirt and filth which the rubbing-boards
have loofened, and which, at the next boiling, would
difcolour the cloth. Befides, it is obferved, that it
makes the cloth lefs cottony, and more firm, than when
whitened by rubbing alone.
The laft operation is that of ftarehing and bluing. It
often happens, that the cloth, when expofed to the
weather to be dried after this operation, gets rain :
which undoes all again, and forces the bleacher to a
new expence. To remedy this inconvenience, Mr Chry¬
ftie, fome years ago, invented the dry-houfe, where the
cloth may be dried, after this operation, in any weather.
This invention meets with univerfal approbation.
A METHOD of BLEACHING safely with
LIME.
Dr Home has found by repeated trials, that alkaline
falls added to lime, diminilh its power of weakening
and corroding cloth ; and that in proportion to the
quantity of thefe falls added to the lime. This com-
pofition, as it is not fo dangerous as lime alone, fo it
is not fo expeditious in whitening. When equal parts,
of each are ufed, the whitening power is ftrong, and
the weakening power not very confiderable; fo that
they
i85
BLEACHING.
they might be ufed with fafety to bleach cloth, in the
proportion of one part of lime to four of pure alkaline
ialts. This fully accounts for an obfervation made by
all bleachers, That the bleaching falls, when mixed
together, operate fafer and better than when ufed fe-
parately. For the corrofive power of the Mufcovy,
Marcoft, and Cafhub allies is corrected by the pearl
alhes, and the whitening quality of the latter is in-
creafed by that of the former.
There is not a more corroding fubllance, with regard
to animals, than alkaline falts and lime joined together,
efpecially when fufed in the fire. This is the compoli-
tion of the common eaultic. But lime, and lime-wa¬
ter alone, preferve animal fubftances in a found entire
ftate. It appears then furprifing, that falts and lime
Ihould be found fo little deftru&ive of cloth, when lime,
or lime-water alone, deftroys it fo remarkably. But
that this is a faft, is made evident by many experiments,
and has been pra&ifed both with fuccefs and fafety, by
a bleacher who gives the following account of his me¬
thod of bleaching with lime.
“ Firft (fays he) I deep the cloth in warm water for
24 hours ; then clean it in a walhing-mill, of all the
dreffing, or fowen, as the vulgar term it. Afterwards
I buck cloth with cow-dung and water, and bleach it
with this for three days ; then clean it again, and boil
it with a lye made of Cafhub afhes. A pound to each
piece of 18 or 20 yards long is fufficient. This Ido
twice, as no lime ought to be given to cloth before it
is a full third whitened; as it by no means advancea
the whitening of the cloth, but, on the contrary, pro-
trafts it: For, inftead of loofening the oil and dirt in
the cloth, when brown, it rather fixes them ; juft as
when fine cloth is bucked with over-warm lyes in the
firft buckings. Lime is by no means fit for difcharging
the oil in the cloth, but for cleaning it of the dead part,
commonly called fprat. The cloth, being cleaned, is
laid upon a dreeper. It muft not be drier before buck¬
ing with lime, otherwife it will take in more than can
be got out again before the next application : for as I
have obferved already, that lime is only fit for difchar¬
ging the dead part, bucking thus wet makes it reft on
the outfide of the cloth. I take a lippy of the fineft
and richeft powdered lime that can be got, of the
brighteft white colour, as poor lime does more hurt
than good, to thirty pieces of the above length; and
make a cold lye of it, by ftirring and pouring water
off the lime, until all be difolved, but the drofs, which
is thrown away : then I add a little foap, which makes
the lye have the neareft refemblance to milk that breaks
in boiling, of any thing I can think of: for this foap
blunts the hotnefs of the lime. Then I take the cloth,
and dip it in the lime-lye, and that moment out again,
and lay it on a dreeper until it be bucked; then put it
on the field, watering it carefully ; for if allowed to
dry, it is much damaged. This is done always in the
morning ; as it cannot be done at, night in regard of
B L E "TT"
BLEAK, in ornithology. See Cyprinus.
BLECHINGLY, a town of Surry in England,
which fends two members to parliament, and the bailiff
-who returns the members, is chofen annually at the lord
-of the manor’s court. The town ftands on a hill, and has
a fine profpeft as far as the South Downs in Suffex.
the hot quality of the lime, which foon heats the cloth,
and tenders it. If a hot fun-fhine follows, it has great
effeft ; for lime is juft like all other materials for bleach¬
ing, that have more or lefs effeft according as the wea¬
ther is good or bad. I take it up the fecond day after
bucking, and give it a little milling, or hand-rubb¬
ing, or bittling, commonly called knocking; and lay it
on the field again, watering it carefully as before. The
effe£t is more vifible the fecond than the firft day. As
all cloth when limed fhould have a great deal of work,
otherwife more than half the effeft is loft ; and not on¬
ly that, but a great deal of labour and pains is requi-
fite to take the lime out of the cloth again ; it muft
never be expofed on the Sabbath day, but carefully
kept wet always while ufed in this way. Thus buck¬
ing for three or four times at moft, is fufficient for any
cloth, except that made of flax pulled either over-green,
or which grows in a droughty feafon, or perhaps not
fo well heckled as it fhould be. This fort occafions
great trouble and expence to the bleacher. But the
moft effe£tual and expeditious way I ever found for this
kind, was, after boiling, to take a little of the warm
lye, and mix a very fmall quantity of lime with it, and
draw the cloth through that as hot as poffible, and put
it on the field diredtly, watering it carefully. This
will clean it of the fprat furprifingly. Then I boil it
with pearl afhes, and give it the laft boil with foap.
“ There are innumerable miftakes in the ufe of lime
committed by the vulgar, who are ignorant of its qua¬
lity and effedfs. They know only this in general, that
it is a thing which whitens cloth cheap, and is eafy
purcbafed ; therefore they will ufe it. Some of them
begin whitening of their cloth with it, which I have
already obferved to be wrong, and given reafons for it,
and continue it until the cloth is bleached j give it a
boil or two at moft, and then wafh it up while the grofs
body of the lime is in the fubftance of the cloth. This
makes limed cloth eafily diftinguifhable from unlimed,
as the former has a yellowifh colour, and is full of a
powder. Befides, as lime is of a very hot corroding
nature, it muft by degrees weaken the cloth. The
bad effeds of this fubftance do not end here. When the
cloth is put on board, it contra£ts a dampnefs, which
not only makes it yellow, and lofe any thing of colour
it has, but diredriy rots it. And although it fhould
efcapethis, which it is poffible it may, by a quick and
fpeedy paffage; yet whenever it is put in any ware-
houfe, it will meet with moifture there, efpecially if
the winter-feafon fhould come on before it is difpofed
or made u£e of. Tbefe I take to be the principal rea¬
fons for fo much complaint in bleaching with this ma¬
terial.”
The whole art and fafety in ufmg the lime, accord¬
ing to this method, depends on the junction of the
alkaline falts, during the bucking, to the particles of
lime which were on the furface of the cloth.
B L E
W. Long. o. 15. N. Lat. 51. 20.
BLEEDING, in therapeutics; fee the Index fub-
joined to Medicine. As a chirurgical operation, fee
Surgery, chap. i.
Bleeding at theNofet called EpiJIaxis. See the In¬
dex fubjoined to Medicine.
Bleed-
B L E
Bleeding, in Farriery. See there, $ ii. i.
' Bleeding, is alfo ufed for a hasmorrhage or flux of
LLL blood from a wound, rupture of a veffel, or other ac-
i1:' cident. See Hemorrhage.
Bleeding of a Corpfe, is a phsenomenon faid to
!p| have frequently happened in the bodies of perfons mur-
ifj dered, which, on the touch, or even the approach, of
the murderer, began to bleed at the nofe, ears, and o-
ther parts; fo as formerly to be admitted in England,
and ftill allowed in feme other parts, as a fort of de-
t teftion of the criminal, and proof of thefadf. Nume-
I rous inttances of thefe pofthumous haemorrhages are
given by writers. But this kind of evidence ought
( to be of fmall weight: for it is to be obferved, that
this bleeding does not ordinarily happen, even in the
prefence of the murderer; yet fometimes in that even
! of the neareft friends, or perfons moil innocent; and
| fometimes without the prefence of any, either friend or
| foe. In effedt, where is the impoffibility that a body,
| efpecially if full of blood, upon the approach of exter-
| nal heat, having been conliderably itirred or moved,
' and a putrefadfion coming on, fame of the blood-vef-
ly£ fels (hould burft, as it is certain they all will in time *?
I Bleeding is alfo ufed for the drawing out the fap of
I plants, otherwife called tapping. See Tapping.
BLEKING, a territory in the fouth part of Swe¬
den, having the Baltic Sea on the fouth, Smaland on
1 the north, and the province of Schonen on the weft.
I Its principal towns are Chriftianftadt, Elleholm, A-
huys, Roterby, and Chriftianople, which laft is the ca-
pital.
BLEMYES, or Blemmyes, a fabulous people of
j Ethiopia, faid to have had no heads; their eyes,
I- mouth, &e. being fituated in their breafts f.
BLENCH, or Blanch. See Blanch.
BLEND, or Blende, a mineral fubftance refem-
I bling lead-ore, but containing very little of that metal.
HhESD-IVater, called alfo nwrebough, a diftemper in-
[ cident to black cattle, comes either from the blood,
from the yellows, or from the change of ground.—In
| order to cure it, take bole armoniac, and as much char¬
coal daft as will fill an egg-fhell, a good quantity of
the inner bark of an oak, dried and pounded together
to a powder, and give it to the bead in a quart of new
milk and a pint of earning,
BLENHEIM, a village of Germany, in the circle
of Suabia, fituated in E. Long. 2. 30. N. Lat. 48. 40.
! This village is remarkable for the defeat of the French
and Bavarians in 1704, by the Englifh and their con¬
federates under prince Eugene and the duke of Marl¬
borough. In this engagement the French army con-
fifted of 8 2 battalions and 160 fquadrons, while that of
the confederates did not exceed 64 battalions and 152
fquadrons. The right wing of the French army was
commanded by Monf. Tallard; the eleftor, and count
Marfin, were on the left. Tallard was efteemed an ac¬
tive, penetrating officer, and a man of genius; Mar-
fin’s merit confifted rather in his experience and appli¬
cation, than in his refources from the efforts of genius.
In the village of Blenheim were pofted 20 battalions
and 12 fquadrons, from a prefumption that there the
confederates would make their chief attack. Accord¬
ingly, at noon, the village was furioufly attacked by a
body of Englifh fupported by another of Heffians; but
the French behaved with fuch bravery, that they re-
B L E
pulfed their enemies in three fucceffive attempts. Part hlenhcim,
of the centre and right wing of the confederates then B|ennius.
advanced; but were fo vigoroufly oppofed by the French
horfe, and fo miferably galled in the flank by the troops
pofted in the village of Blenheim, that they vyere obli¬
ged to retreat with precipitation: but in the mean time
the French cavalry, being attacked by the left wing of
the confederates, were forced to retreat in their turn,
though commanded by Tallard in perfon, who rallied
them three times. The infantry were difordcred by
the falling back of the cavalry; and being unfupported,
gave way to the vigorous efforts of their enemies. Marl¬
borough pufhed between the battalions placed in Blen¬
heim and the wing of the army commanded by Tal¬
lard ; and thus the army was feparated and almoft fur-
rounded ; for prince Eugene had fucceeded in his
fourth attempt, and driven the French and Bavarians
out of the village. All was now in confufion'; and Tal¬
lard, being fhort-fighted, miftook a fquadron of the
enemy for his own, and was taken prifoner. The troops
who had been pofted in the village being driven out by
prince Eugene, and then finding it impoffible to efcape,
being hemmed in on the other fide by the duke of Marl¬
borough, were forced to furrender prifoners of war, while
the reft of the army fled in the utmoft confufion and
confternation. Vaft numbers threw themfelves into the
Danube, infomuch that in that river the greater part
of 30 fquadrons perifhed. Ten thoufand were left dead
on the field; 13,000 made prifoners; too pieces of
cannon, 22 mortars, and upwards of 100 pair of co¬
lours, were taken ; befides near 200 ftandards, 17 pair
of kettle-drums, upwards of 3000 tents, 34 coaches,
300 loaded mules, two bridges of boats, and all the
French baggage, with their military cheft. This was
the moft terrible defeat the French had for a long time
fuftained: Monf. Tallard was blamed for detaching fo
many troops to Blenheim, in confeqiience of which
Marlborough pierced the centre, and divided the army
in two; alfo for fuffering the confederates to pafs a ri¬
vulet, and form quietly on the other fide. Thefe accu-
fations, however, feembut weakly founded; and the vic¬
tory is undoubtedly to be aferibed to the fuperior va¬
lour of the confederate troops and genius of their com¬
manders, rather than to any material blunders of the
French generals.
BiEHHEiM-flott/e, a noble and priacely houfe ereft-
ed in honour of the duke of Marlborough at Wood-
ftock near Oxford, which with the manor of Wood-
ftock is fettled on the duke and his heirs, in conlide-
ration of the eminent fervices by him performed for
the public; and for building of which houfe the fum
of L. 500,000 was granted by parliament, See.
BLENNIUS, in ichthyology, a genus of fifties be¬
longing to the Order of jugulares; the chara&ers of
which are thefe : The head Hants or declines to one
-fide ; there are fix rays in the membrane of the gills ;
the body tapers towards the tail; the belly-fins have
only two blunt bones; and the tail-fin is diftindt. The
fpecies are 13, viz. 1. The galeria, with a tranfverfe
membranous creft upon the head. It is found in the
European feas. 2. The criftatus, with a longitudinal
briftly creft betwixt the eyes. 3. The cornutus, with
a fimple ray above the eyes, and a Angle back-fin. The
above two are natives of the Indies. 4. The ocellaris^
with a furrow betwixt the eyes, and a large fpot on the
back-
[ "87 1
B L E [ 1188 ] B L I
back-tin. 5. The gattorugine, with fmall palmated
] fins about the eye-brows and neck. It is about feven
’ or eight inches long. Thtfe two laft are found in the
European feas. 6. The fuperciliofus, with fmall fins
about the eye-brows, and a curved lateral line. It is
a native of India. 7. The phycis, with a kind of
erefted noftriis, a cirrus or beard on the under lip, and
a double fin on the back. It has feven rays in the gill-
membrane ; the anus is furrounded with a black ring ;
and the tail is rouudifh. 8. The pholis has a fmooth
head, a curve line .upon the fides, and the upper jaw is
larger than the under one. The two laft are found in
the Mediterranean fea. 9. The gunellus has 1 o black
fpots on the back-fin. It is found in the Atlantic ocean.
10. The muftelaris has three rays on the fore-part of
the back-fin. It is a native of India. ] 1. The vivi-
parus has two tentacula at the mouth. Schonevelde
firft difcovered this fpecies ; Sir Robert Sibbald after¬
wards found it on the Scotch coaft. They bring forth
two or three hundred young at a time. Their feafon
of parturition is a little after the depth of winter. Be¬
fore midfummer, they quit the bays and ftiores; and re¬
tire into the deep, where they are commonly taken.
They are a very coarfe fifh, and eaten only by the poor.
They are common in the mouth of the river Efk, at
Whitby, Yorkfhire ; where they are taken frequently
from off the bridge. They fometimes grow to the
length of a foot. Their form is fiender, and the back¬
bone is green, as that of a fea-needle. 12. The lum-
penus has feveral dufky-coloured areolse running acrofs
its body. The two laft are found in the European feas.
13. The raninus, with fix divifions in the belly-fins,
is found in the lakes of Sweden. It is remarkable,
that when this fifh appears in the lake, all the other
fifties retire ; and what is worfe, it is not fit for eating.
BLENNY. See the above article.
BLIGHT, in hufbandry, a difeafe incident to plants,
which affe£s them varioufly, the whole plant fome¬
times periftiing by it, and fometimes only the leaves
and bloffoms, which will be fcorched and fhrivelled up,
the reft remaining green and flourifhing.
Some have fuppofed that blights are ufually pro¬
duced by an eafterly wind, which brings vaft quantities
of infe&s eggs along with it, from fome diftant place,
that, being lodged upon the furface of the leaves and
flowers of fruit trees, caufe them to fhrivel up and
perifti.
To cure this diftemper, they advife the burning of
wet litter on the windward fide of the plants, that the
fmoke thereof may be carried to them by the wind,
which they fuppofe will ftifle and deftroy the infefts,
and thereby cure the diftemper.
Others direft the ufe of tobacco-duft, or to wafh the
trees with water wherein tobacco-ftalks have been in-
fufed for 12 hours ; which they fay will deftroy thofe
infedts, and recover the plants.
Pepper-duft fcattered over the bloffoms of fruit-trees,
&c. has been recommended as very ufeful in this cafe ;
and there are fome that advife the pulling off the leaves
that are diftempered.
The true caufe of blights feem to be continued dry
eafterly winds for feveral days together, without the in¬
tervention of fhowers, or any morning dew, by which
the perfpiration in the tender bloffom is flopped ; and
if it fo happens, that there is a long continuance of the
fame weather, it equally affedls the tender leaves, Bill,
whereby their colour is changed, and they wither and !'i
decay. ~
The beft remedy for this diftemper, is gently to wafh i
and fprinkle over the tree, &c. from time to time with 1
common water; and if the young fhoots feem to be I
much infe&ed, let them be wafhed with a woollen cloth, J
fo as to clear them, if pofiible, from this glutinous i
matter, that their refpiration and perfpiration may not fll
be obftru&ed. This operation ought to be performed J
early in the day, that the moifture may be exhaled be- 1
fore the cold of the night comes on: nor fhould it be |
done when the fun fhines very hot.
Another caufe of blights in the fpring, is (harp |
hoary frofts, which are often fucceeded by hot funfhine i
in the day-time: this is the moft fudden and certain i
deftroyer of the fruits that is known.
Blighted-CW-». See Smut.
BLIND, an epithet applied to a perfon or fenfitive B',-n|
creature deprived of the ufe of his eyes ; or, in other WH‘
words, to one from whom light, colours, and all the J
glorious variety of the vifible creation, are intercepted |
by fome natural or accidental difeafe. Such is the li- J|
teral acceptation of the term: but it is likewife ufed 1
in a metaphorical fenfe, to fignify mental or intellec- q i
tual darknefs; and frequently implies, at the fame time, J
fome moral or fpiritual depravity in the foul thus Eitlli
blinded, which is either the efficient or continuing caufe rali
of this internal malady. Yet, even in metaphor, the PM ,
epithet of blind is fometimes applied to a kind of ig¬
norance, which neither involves the ideas of real guilt, |
nor of voluntary e-rror. It is, however, our prefent in- J
tention to confider the word, not in its figurative, but | (
in its natural and primary fenfe. Nor do we mean in I
this place to regard it as a fubjeft of medical fpecula- j
tion, or to explore its caufes and enumerate its cures. 1
Thefe are in the department of another fcience f. It is t ®e:f|
rather our defign to confider. By what means this in-
expreffible misfortune may be compenfated or alleviated
to thofe who fuftain it; what advantages and confola-
tions they may derive from it; of what acquifitions f
they may be fufceptible; what are the proper means of I
their improvement; or by what culture they may be-
come ufeful to themfelves, and important members of |
fociety.
There is not, perhaps, any fenfe or faculty of the Ho4 .
corporeal frame, which affords fo many refources of u- blioj
tility and entertainment, as the power of vifion; nor is
there any lofs or privation which can be productive of
difadvantages or calamities fo multiform, fo various, and or ai
fo bitter, as the want of fight. By no avenue of cor- cap4
poreal perception is knowledge in her full extent, and . I
in all her forms, fo acceffible to the rational and inqui- 1
ring foul, as by the glorious and delightful medium of |
light. For this not only reveals external things in all I
their beauties, in all their changes, and in all their va- ' |
rieties; but gives body, form, and colour, to intellec- la
tual ideas and abftraft effences; fo that the whole ma- I
terial and intelligent creation lie in open profpecff, and I
the majeftic frame of nature in its whole extent, is, if I
we may fpeak fo, perceived at a fingle glance. To the Did |
blind, on the contrary, the vifible univerfe is totally tagesl
annihilated ; he is perfeftly confcious of no fpace but
that in which he (lands, or to which his extremities can
reach. Sound, indeed, gives him fome ideas of diftant
objects; ;
B L I [1189] B L I
objeAs ; but thofe ideas are extremely obfcure and in- the native tone of the nervous fyftem, which alone is Tdind.
diftin£l. They are obfcure, becaufe they confift alone compatible with health and pleafure, deftroyed by in- ~~
of the objefts whofe ofcillations vibrate on his ear, and a&ivity, exafperates and embitters every difagreeable
do not neceflarily fuppofe any other bodies with which impreffion. Natural evils, however, are always fup-
the intermediate fpace may be occupied, except that portable; they not only arife from blind and undefign-
which gives the found alone: they are indiftinft, be- ing caufes, but are either mild in their attacks, or fhort
:aufe founds themfelves are frequently ambiguous, and in their duration: it is the miferies which are inflidted
do not uniformly and exclufively indicate their real by confcious and refledting agents alone, that can de-
^aufes. And though by them the idea of diftance in ferve the name of evils. Thefe excruciate the foul with
general, or even of fome particular diftances, may be ineffable poignancy, as expreflive of indifference or ma-
obtained ; yet they never till the mind with thofe vaft lignity in thofe by whom Inch bitter potions are cruelly
and exalting ideas of extenfion which are infpired by adminiftered. The negligence or wantonnefs, there-
ocular perception. For though a clap of thunder, or fore, with which the blind are too frequently treated, is
an explofion of ordnance, may be dillindfly heard after an enormity which God alone has juftice to feel or
they have traverfed an immenfe region of fpace; yet, power to punifh.
when the diftance is uncommonly great, it ceafes to be Thofe amongft them who have had fenfibility to feel, The fitua-
indicated by found ; and therefore the ideas, acquired and capacity to exprefs, the effefts of their misfor- li«n of ‘he
by auricular experiment of extenfion and interval, are tunes, have defcribed them in a manner capable of pe- j^jbed b"
extremely confufed and inadequate. The living and netrating the moft callous heart. The venerable father po«s. ^
comprehenfive eye darts its inftantaneous view over ex- of epic poetry, who in the perfon of Demodocus the F
panfive valleys, lofty mountains, protra&ed rivers, jlli- Phseatian bard is faid to have defcribed his own fitua-
mitable oceans. It meafures, in an indivifible point of tion, proceeds thus: 6
time, the mighty fpace from earth to heaven, or from
one ftar to another. By the afliftance of telefcopes, its
horizon is almoft indefinitely extended, its objefts pro-
digioufly multiplied, and the fphere of its obfervation
nobly enlarged. By thefe means, the imagination, in¬
ured to vaft imprelfions of diftance, can not only recal
them in their greateft extent with as much rapidity as
they were at firft imbibed; but can multiply them, and
To, jTEpi Mvo-’ tsriXntrf, JiJw J’ayotSov te, xaxov te I
OtpQa\f/.av fi.iv ufitgo’e, Sifv nf&ccv aoiStiv. OD YS. 0.
Dear to the mufe, who gave his days to flow
With mighty blefllngs mix’d with mighty wo,
In clouds and darknefs quench’d his vifual ray.
Yet gave him power to raife the lofty Jay. Pope.
Milton, in his'addrefs to light, after a fublime deferip-
tion of his arduous and gloomy journey from the re¬
add one to another, till all particular boundaries and gions of primeval darknefs to this our vifible diurnal
diftances be loft in immenfity. Thus nature, by pro- fphere, thus continues to apoftrophife the celeftial
fufely irradiating the face of things, and clothing ob- beam :
• n . *  ..r j:  fL.-  i.. • -n....
jefts in a robe of diverfified fplendour, not only invites
the underftanding to expatiate on a theatre fo exten-
five, fo diverfified, and fo attraftive; but entertains and
inflames the imagination with every poffible exhibition
of the fublime or beautiful. The man of light and co¬
lours beholds the obje&s of his attention and curiofity
from far. Taught by experience, he meafures their re¬
lative diftances ; diftinguifties their qualities; deter¬
mines the fituations, pofitions, and attitudes; prefages
what thefe tokens may import; felefts his favourites ;
traverfes in fecurity the fpace which divides them from
him; flops at the point where they are placed; and ei¬
ther obtains them with eafe, or immediately perceives
the means by which the obftacles that intercept his
paffage to them may be furmounted. The blind not
only may be, but really are, during a cpnfiderable pe¬
riod, apprehenfive of danger in every motion towards
any place from whence their contradled powers of per¬
ception can give them no intelligence. All the various
inodes of delicate proportion, all the beautiful varieties
of light and colours, whethenexhibited in the works of
nature or art, are to them irretrievably loft. Depen¬
dent for every thing, but mere fubfiftence, on the good
offices of others; obnoxious to injury from every point,
Taught by the heav’nly mufe to venture down
The dark defeent, and up to reafeend,
Though hard and rare ; thee I revifit fife.
And feel thy fov’reign vital lamp: hut thou
Revifit’ft not thefe eyes, that roll in vain
To find thy piercing ray, and find no dawn;
So thick a drop ferene hath quench’d their orbs.
Or dim fufiufion veil’d. Yet not the more
Ceafe I to wander, where the mnfes haunt
Clear fpring, or fhady grove, or funny hill,
Smit with the love of (acred long: but chief
Thee, Sion, and the flow’ry brooks beneath.
That wafh thy hallow’d feet, and warbling flow,
Nightly I vifit; nor fometimes forget
Thofe other two equall’d with me in fate.
So were I cquali’d with them in renown,
Blind Thamyris, and blind Mseonides,
And Tirefras and Phineus prophets old:
Then feed on thoughts, that voluntary move
Harmonious numbers; as the wakeful bird
Sings darkling, and in (hadieft covert hid
Tunes her nofhirnal note. Thus with the year
Seafons return; but not to me returns
Day, or the fweet approach of ev’n or morn.
Or fight of vernal bloom, or fummer’s rofe,
Or flocks, or herds, or human face divine;
But cloud inftead, and ever-during dark.
Surrounds me, from the cheerful ways of men
Cut off, and for the book of knowledge fair
Prefented with a univerfal blank,
Of nature’s works to me expung’d and ras’d.
And wifdom at one entrance quite (hut out.
Par. Dost, Book Ilf.
which they are neither capacitated to perceive, nor qua¬
lified to refill; they are, during the prefent Hate of be¬
ing, rather to be conlidered as prifoners at large, than
citizens of nature. The fedentary life, to which by The fame inimitable author, in his tragedy of Sampfoti
privation of fight they are deftined, telaxes'their frame, Agoniftes, and in the perfon of his hero, deplores the
and fiibje&s them to all the difagreeable fenfations misfortune of blindnefs with a pathos and energy fuf-
which arife from dejeftion of fpirits. Hence the moll ficient to extort the deepeft fighs from the moll unfeel-
feeble exertions create laffitude and uneafinefs. Hence ing hearts :
Vol. II. 7 L But
B L I
 — But chief of all,
O lofs of fight, of thee I muft: complain!
Blind among enemies, O worfe than chains,
Dungeon, or beggary, decrepid age.
Light, the prime work of God, to me is extinff.
And all her various objefts of delight
Annull’d, which might in part my grief have eas’d,
Inferior to the vileft now become
Of man or worm. The vileft here excel me:
They creep, yet fee; I dark in light expos’d
To daily fraud, contempt, abufe, and wrong.
Within doors, or without, Bill as a fool,
In power of others, never in my own;
Scarce half I 'eem to live, dead more than half.
O dark, dark, dark, amid the blaze of noon,
Irrecoverably dark, total eciipfe
Without all hope of day !
O firft-created Beam, and. thou great Word,
Let there be light, and light was over all;
Why am I thus bereav’d thy primp decree?
The fun to me is dark,
And filent, as the moon
When (he defects the night,
Hid in her vacant interlunar cave.
Since light fo neceffary is to life,
And almoft life itfelf, if it be true
That light is in the foul,
She all in every part; why was the fight
To fuch a tender ball as th’ eye confin’d ?
So obvious, and fo eafy to be quench’d ?
And not, as feeling, throughout all parts diffus’d,
That fhe might look at will through ev’ry pore?
Then had I not been thus exil’d from light,
As in the land of darknefs, yet in light
To live a life half dead, a living death;
And bury’d; but yet more miferable!
Myfelf the fepulchre, a moving grave;
Bury’d, yet not exempt
By privilege of death and burial
From worft of other evils, pains and wrongs,
But made hereby obnoxious more
To all the miferies of life.
1190 ] B L I
the traveller Ihrinks in the midft of his journey.’r illi|
Thus dependent on every creature, and paffive to e- ;
very accident, can the world, the uncharitable world, The if
be furprifed to obferve moments when the blind are at tion X'
variance with themfelves and everything elfe around ingbl|
them ? With the fame inftin&s of felf-prefervation, n^s_3|
the fame irafcible paffions which are common to the
fpecies, and exafperated by a fenfe of debility either
for retaliation or defence ; can the blind be real objects
of refentment or contempt, even when they feem peevilh
or vindidb’ve ? This, however, is not always their cha-
rafter. Their behaviour is often highly expreffive, not fl
only of refignation, but even of cheerfulnefs ; and tho’ 9
they are often coldly, and even inhumanly, treated by lljj
men, yet are they rarely, if ever, forfaken of heaven. ||
The common Parent of nature, whofe benignity is per- , ®
manent as his exiftence and boundlefs as his empire, . 'tm
has neither left his affli&ed creatures without confola- ,|
tion nor refource. Even from their lofs, however op- Someffl
preffive and irretriveable, they derive advantages ; not va|!taffi
indeed adequate to recompenfe, but fufficient to alle-c"™^
viate, their mifery. The attention of the foul, con¬
fined to thefe avenues of perception which (he can com¬
mand, is neither diffipated nor confounded by the im-
menfe multiplicity nor the rapid fucceffion of furround¬
ing objefts. Hence her contemplations are more uni¬
formly fixed upon herfelf, and the revolutions of her
own internal frame. Hence her perceptions of fuch
external things as are contiguous and obvious to her
obfervation become more lively and exquifite. Hence
even her inftruments of corporeal fenfation are more af-
fiduoufly cultivated and improved, fo that from them
fhe derives fuch notices and prefages of approaching
pleafure or impending danger as entirely efcape the
Oflian, the Caledonian bard, who lived before the attention of thofe who depend for fecurity on the reports
authenticated hiftory of his nation dates its origin, who of their eyes. A blind man, when walking fwiftly,
in his old age participated^ the fame calamity, has in or running, is kindly and effe&ually checked by nature
moreThan one paffage of his works deferibed his fitua- from rudely encountering fuch hard and extended objedts
tion in a manner fo delicate, yet fo pathetic, that it as might hurt or bruife him. When he approaches
pierces the inmoft recefles and excites the fineft feelings bodies of this kind, he feels the atmofphere more
of the heart. Of thefe pafiages, take the following : fenfibly refill his progrefs ; and in proportion as
1 O thou that rolleft above, round as the fhield of his motion is accelerated, or his diflance from the ob-
my fathers! whence are thy beams, O fun ! whence jedl diminifhed, the rtfifiance is increafed. He di~
thy everlafting light ? Thou comeft forth in thy awful llinguifhes the approach of his friend from far by the
utai
K:,r
1
beauty, and the liars hide themfelves in the Iky; the found of his Heps, by his manner of breathing, and
moon, cold and pale, finks in the weftern wave. But almoll by every audible token which he ean exhibit,
thou thyfelf movell alone : who can be a companion Prepared for the dangers which he may encounter from
of thy courfe ? The oaks of the mountains fall; the the furface of the ground upon which he walks, his
mountains themfelves decay with years ; the ocean Hep is habitually firm and cautious. Hence he not
fhrinks and grows again ; the moon herfelf is loll in only avoids thofe falls which might be occafioned by
in heaven : but thou art for ever the fame ; rejoicing its lefs formidable inequalities, but from its general
in the brightnefs of thy courfe. When the world is bias he colledls fome ideas how far bis fafety is imme-
dark with tempells ; when thunder rolls and lightning diately concerned; and though thefe conjedlures may
glances through the heavens; thou lookell in thy beauty be fometimes fallacious, yet they are generally fo true,
from the clouds, and laughell at the llorm. But to as to preferve him from fuch accidents as are not in-
Offian thou-lookell in vain : for he beholds thy beams curred by his own temerity. The rapid torrent and
no more; whether thy yellow hair flows on the eallern the deep cafcade not only warn him to keep a proper
clouds, or thou tremblell at the gates of the well. But diflance, but inform him in what diredlion he moves,
thou art, perhaps, like me, fora feafon ; and thy years and are a kind of audible fynofurestoregulate his courfe.
will have an end : thou (halt deep in thy clouds, care- In places to which he has been accultomed, he as it
lefs of the voice of the morning.—Exult then, O fun, were recognifes his latitude and longitude from every
in theftrength of thy youth! age is dark and unlovely; breath of varied fragrance that tinges the gale, front
it is like the glimmering light of the moon, when it every afeent or declivity in the road, from every natural
fhines through broken clouds, and the mill is on the or artificial found that llrikes his ear; if thefe indica-
hillsjL the howling blall of the north is oa the plain, tions be llationary, and confined to particular places.
Regu-
B L I [ ii
Regulated by thefe figns, the blind have not only been
known to perform long journeys themfelves, but to
conduct others through dangerous paths at the dark
and filent hour of midnight, with the utmoft fecurity
and exa&nefs (a).
It were endlefs to recapitulate the various me¬
chanical operations of which they are capable, by
their nicety and accuracy of touch. In fome the tac¬
tile powers are faid to have been fo highly improved,
as to perceive that texture and difpofition of co¬
loured furfaces by which fome rays of light are re-
flefted and others abforbed, and in this manner to di-
ftinguifh colours. But the teftimonies for this fa& ftill
appear to us too vague and general to deferve public
credit. We have known a perfon who loft the ufe of
his light at an early period of infancy, who in the vi¬
vacity or delicacy of his fenfations was not perhaps in¬
ferior to any one, and who had often heard of others
in his own frtuation capable of diftinguilhing colours by
touch with the utmoft exa&nefs and promptitude. Sti¬
mulated, therefore, partly by curiofity to acquire a new
train of ideas, if that acquifition were poffible; but ftill
more by incredulity with refpett to the fafts related;
he tried repeated experiments by touching the furfaces
of different bodies, and examining whether any fuch
diverfities could be found in them as might enable him
to diftinguilh colours ; but no fuch diverfity could he
ever afeertain. Sometimes, indeed, he imagined that
obje&s which had no colour, or (in other words) fuch
as were black, were fomewhat different and peculiar in
their furfaces; but this experiment did not always nor
univerfally hold. His fcepticifm therefore ftill conti-
»ues to prevail (b). That their acouftic perceptions
are diftindf and accurate, we may fairly conclude from
the rapidity with which they afeertain the acutenefs or
gravity of different tones, as relative one to another;
and from their exa& difeernment of the various kinds
and modifications of found, and of fonorous obje&s, if
the founds themfelves be in any degree fignificant of
their caufes. From this vivacity and accuracy of ex¬
ternal fenfation, and from the affiduous and vigorous
applications of a comprehenfive and attentive mind, a-
lone, we are able to account for the rapid and aftonifh-
ing progrefs which fome of them have made, not only
in thofe departments of literature which were moft ob¬
vious to their fenfes and acceffible to their underftand-
ings, but even in the abftra&eft, and (if we may be
s allowed the expreffion) in the moft occult, fciences.
they What, for inftance, can be more remote from the con-
j?11' ceptions of a blind man than the abftrad relations and
am- properties of fpace and quantity ? yet the incompre-
henfible attainments of Mr Saunderfon in all the
; branches of mathematics are now fully known and
firmly believed by the whole literary world, both from
the teftimony of his pupils and the publication of his
works. But ftrould the faft be ftill uncertain, it might
be fufficiently verified by a living prodigy (c) of this
kind, with which our country is at prefent honoured.
The gentleman of whom we now fpeak, /though blind
from his infancy, by the ardour and affiduity of his ap-
9i ] B L I
plication, and by the force of a genius to which nothing Blind,
is impenetrable, has not only made incredible advances
in mechanical operations, in mufic, and in the lan¬
guages ; but is likewife profoundly /killed in geometry,
in optics, in algebra, in aftronomy, in chemiftry, and
in all the other branches of natural philofophy as taught
by Newton and received by an admiring world. We
are forry that neither the modefty of this amiable phi-
lofopher, nor the limits of this article, will permit us
to delineate his chara&er in its full proportions. All
we can do is to exhibit his example, that by it the vul¬
gar prejudice, which prefumes to think blindnefs and
learning incompatible, may be dilfipated ; and that an
inftance of fuccefs fo noble and recent may inflame the
emulation and encourage the efforts of fuch as have ge¬
nius and opportunity to purfue the fame laudable path.
If thefe glorious attempts (hould neither be perceived
nor rewarded by an unfeeling world, if human nature
(hould forget to recognize its own excellence fo nobly
difplayed in inftances of this.kind ; yet, befides the en¬
joyments refulting from a fublime and comprehenfive
underftanding, befides the immortal and inexhauftible
fources of delight which are the peculiar portion of a
felf-approving mind, thefe happy pupils and favourites
of nature are, as it were, indulged with her perfonal
intercourfe. They become more intimately acquainted
with her laws, till, by exploring the beneficence of her
ceconomy, the fublimity of her ends, the regularity of her
procedure, and the beauties of her frame, they imbibe
the fpirit, and feel the prefence, of her glorious Author:
By fwift degrees the love of nature works.
And warms the bofom; till at laft, fublitn’d
To rapture and enthufiaftic heat.
We feel the prefent deity, and tafle
The joys of God to fee a happy world. Thomson. j^
Much labour has been beftowed to inveftigate, both Accmuiuof
from reafon a priori, and from experiment, what might thi ^htfsof
be the primary effefts of light and luminous objects j.cc‘,vt''e!l
upon fuch as have been born blind, or early deprived thofe who
of fight, if at a maturer period they (hould inftantane- have bem
oufly recover their vifual powers. But upon this topic born bl.ind»
there is much reafon to fear, that nothing fatisfadlory uncertain*
has yet been faid. The fallacy of hypothefis and con-
jefture, when formed a priori with refpeft to any or¬
gan of corporeal fenfation and its proper objeft, is too
obvious to demand illuftration. But from the nature
of the eye, and the mediums of its perception, to at¬
tempt an inveftigation of the various and multiform phe¬
nomena of vifion, or even of the varieties of which every
particular phenomenon is fufceptible according as the
circumftances of its appearance are diverfified, would
be a projeft worthy of philofophy in a delirium. Nay,
even the difeoveries which are faid to accrue from ex¬
periment, may ftill be held as extremely doubtful and
fufpicious ; becaufe, in thefe experiments, it does not
appear to have been afeertained, that the organs to
which vifible objefts were prefented immediately after
chirurgical operations, could be in a proper ftate to
perceive them. Yet, after all, it is extremely probable,
that figure, diftance, and magnitude, are not immediate
obje&s of ocular fenfation, but acquired and adjufted
7 L 2 by
(a) We have read, in authors of good credit, of a very furprifing blind guide who ufed to conduit the mer
chants through the fands and defarts of Arabia. Vide Leo Afric. Defer. Afr. lib. vi. p. 246. and Cafaub. Treat, of
Enthuf. c. ii. p. 45.
(b) See, however, the extraordinary cafe fubjoined to this article.
(c) Mr Henry Moyes, at prefent refiding near Kirkaldy.
B L I
[ 1192 ]
B L I
by long and reiterated experience (d). There are,
~ however, many defiderata, which the perceptions of a
man born blind might confiderably illuftrate, if his
inftruments of vifion were in a right (late, and af-
fifted by a proper medium. Such a perfon might per¬
haps give a clearer account, why objedts, whofe pic¬
tures are inverted upon the retina of the eye, ihould
appear to the mind in their real pofitions; or why,
though each particular objedt is painted upon the re¬
tina of both our eyes, it fhould only be perceived as
of colour, however accurately he may fpeak of coloured
iingle. Perhaps, too, this new fpe&ator of vifible na-
1) 1 derot':
Works,
Vol. II.
ture might equally amufe our curiofity and improve our
theory, by attempting to defcribe his earlidt fenfations
of colour, and its original effefts upon his organ and
his fancy. But, as we have already hinted, it is far
from being certain, that trials of this kind have ever
been fairly made. Such readers as may wifh to fee a
more minute detail-of thefe queftions, may confult Mr
Diderot’s Lettre fur les aveugles, a I’ufage de ceux qui
voyent: “ A letter concerning the blind for the ufe of
thofe who fee.” To thefe may be added, Mr Chefel-
den's Anatomy, and Locke s ejfay on the human under-
Jianding.
When we ruminate on the numberlefs advantages
derived from the ufe of fight, and its immenfe import¬
ance, in extending the human capacity, or in improving
and cultivating every faculty and every fun&ion of the
mind, we might be ftrongly tempted to doubt the fi¬
delity of thofe reports which we have heard, concern¬
ing fuch perfons as, without the afilftance of light,
have arrived at high degrees of eminence even in thofe
fciences which appear abfolutely unattainable but by
the interpofition of external mediums. It has, how¬
ever, been defnonllrated by a late ingenious author,
that blind men, by proper inftruftion, are fufceptible
almoft of every idea and of every truth which can be
imprefied on the mind by the mediation of light and
f See T)r colours, except the ferifatjoris of light and colours them-
XfidlS Inqui- {gives ^
ry into the
Human
Mind,
chap, vi
How the
Yet there is one phenomenon of this kind which
feems to have efcaped the attention of that great philo-
fopher, and for which no author either of this or any for¬
mer period has been able to offer any tolerable account.
Still, however, it feems to merit the attention of a phi-
lofopher. For though we fhould admit, that the blind
thintl tfTfi Can uri^er^anc^ w*t^1 great perfpicacity all the pheno-
afminfpired mena ar‘d colours; though it were allowed,
by vifnal that in thefe fubje&s they might extend their fpecula-
percep- tions beyond their inltruitions, and inveftigate the me-
tions, a pa- chanical principles of optics by the mere force of genius
ratios. anj application, from the data which they had already
obtained ; yet it will be difficult, if not impoffible, to
affign any reafon why thefe objedls fhould be more in-
terefting to a blind man, than any other abftradf truths
whatever. It is poffible for the blind, by a retentive
memory, to tell you. That the fky is an azure; that
the fun, moon, and liars, are bright; that the rofe is
red, the lily white or yellow, and the tulip variegated.
By continually hearing thefe fubflantives and adjedlives
joined, he may be mechanically taught to join them in
the fame manner: but, as he never had any fenfation
, , , d Bliif
objedts, his language mull be like that of a parrot; 
without meaning, or without ideas. Homer, Milton,
and Offian, had been long acquainted with the vifible ■
world before they were furrounded with clouds and
ever-during darknefs. They might, therefore, {fill |
retain the warm and pleafing impreffions of what they j
had feen. Their defcriptions might be animated with |
all the rapture and enthufiafm which originally fired ' i
their bofoms when the grand or delightful objedls which |
they delineated were immediately beheld. Nay, that |
enthufiafm might ftill be heightened by a bitter fenfe |
of their lofs, and by that regret which a fituation fo 1
difmal might naturally infpire. But how fhall we ac- |
count for the fame energy, the fame tranfport of de- |
fcription, exhibited by thofe on whofe minds vifible 1
obje&s were either never impreffed, or have been en- i
tirely obliterated. Yet, however unaccountable this 1
faft may appear, it is no lefs certain than extraordinary. |
But delicacy and other particular circumftances forbid |
us to enter into this difquifition with that minutenefs !
and precifion which it requires. We only mention the ’ j
faff; as one amongfl the few refources for entertainment,
and avenues to reputation, which are ftill referved for j
the blind. Whoever thinks the fubjedl of fufficient con- 1
fequence to merit a nicer fcrutiny, may confult the 1
Preface to B lac block's Poems, written by G. G. Efq. j
and printed at Edinburgh 1754 ; or the account of his
life and writings by the Revd Mr Spence, prefixed to
a quarto edition of his poems publiihed at London in
1756.
It is hoped, however, that we ftiall not be fufpefted
of partiality for inferting a chara&er of the fame author
by one who was a foreigner, a ftranger to his perfon,
and prepoffefled in his favour by his works alone.
“ Blacklock will appear to pofterity a fabulous cha-
ra&er : even now he is a prodigy. It will be thought
a fidtion and a paradox, that a man quite blind fince he
was three years old (e), befides having made hipafelf
fo good a mafter of various languages, of Greek, Latin,
Italian, and French, (liould alfo be a great poet in his
own; and, without hardly ever having feen the light, -f Can:
ihould be fo remarkably happy in defcription j\” W’l I
It is impoffible to enter into a detail of particulars leraim |
with refpedt to the education of the blinch Thefe muft chap,
be left to be determined by the genius, the capacity, S
the circumftances, of thofe to whom the general rules Of th|
which may be given ihould be applied. Much there- cation )
fore muft depend on their fortunes, much on their tem-
per and genius ; for, unlefs thefe particulars were
known, every anfwer which could be given to queftions
of this kind muft be extremely general, and of confe-
quence extremely fuperficial. Befides, the talk is fp
much more arduous, becaufe whoever attempts it can
expedl to derive no affiftance from thofe who have writ¬
ten on education before him : And though the blind
have excelled in more than one fcience; yet, except in
the cafe of Saunderfon, profeifor of mathematics in the
univerfity of Cambridge, concerning whom we ihall
afterwards have occafion to fpeak, it does not appear,
that any of them have been condu&ed to that degree
of
(d) The gentleman couched by Mr CheiTelden, had no idea of diftance; but thought that all the objects he faw,
touched his eyes, as what he felt did his Ikin. It was alfo a confiderable time before he could remember which was
the cat, and which the dog, though often informed, without firft feeling them.
(e) The author is here miftaken: Dr Blacklock only faw the light for five months.
i
B L I [ n
of eminence, at which they arrived, upon a premedi¬
tated plan. One ftiould rather imagine, that they have
been led through the general courfe and ordinary forms
of difcipline ; and that, if any circumftances were fa¬
vourable to their genius, they rather proceeded from
accident than defign.
This fa£t, if not fupported by irrefragable evidence,
fhouldj for the honour of human nature, have been
fupprefied. When contemplated by a man of bene¬
volence and underftanding, it is not eafy to guefs whe¬
ther his mortification or aftonifhment would be moft fen-
fibly felt. If a heart that glows with real philanthropy
mult feel for the whole vital creation, and become, in
•fome meafure, the fenforium of every fuffering infeft or
reptile ; how muft our fympathy increafe in tendernefs
and force, when the diftrefied individuals of our own
fpecies become its objefts ? Nor do the blind bear fo
fmall a proportion to the whole community, as, even
in a political view, to be negle&ed. But in this, as in
every other political crime, the punifiiment returns upon
the fociety in which it is committed. Thofe abandoned
and unimproved beings, who, under the influence of
proper culture and difcipline, might have fuccefsfully
concurred in producing and augmenting the general
welfare, become the nuifances and burdens of thole very
focieties who have neglefted them.
There is perhaps no rank of beings in the fenfible
univerfe, who have fuffered from nature or accident,
more meritorious of public compafikn, or better qua¬
lified to repay its generous exertions, than the blind.
They are meritorious of compaffion ; for their fphere
of action and obfervation is infinitely more limited than
that of the deaf, the lame, or of thofe who labour un¬
der any other corporeal infirmity confident with health.
They are better qualified to repay any friendly inter-
pofition for their happinefs; becaufe, free from the di-
itratlion which attends that multiplicity of obje&s and
purfuits that are continually obvious to the fight,
they are more attentive to their own internal ceconomy,
to the particular notices of good and evil imprefled on
their hearts, and to that peculiar province in which
they are circumfcribed by the nature and cultivation of
their powers.
It will eafily occur to the reader, that, if the pupil
fliould not be placed in eafy circumftances, mufic is his
readieft and moft probable refource. Civil and eccle-
fiaftical employments have either fomething in their
own nature, or in the invincible prejudices of mankind,
which renders them almoft entirely inacceffible to thofe
who have loft the ufe of fight. No liberal and culti¬
vated mind can entertain the leaft hefitation in conclu¬
ding, that there is nothing, either in the nature of
things, or even in the pofitive inflitutions of genuine
religion, repugnant to the idea of a blind clergyman.
But the novelty of the phenomenon, while it aftonifhes
vulgar and contra&ed underftandings, inflames their
zeal to rage and madnefs. Befides, the adventitious
trappings and ceremonies alfumed by fome churches as
the drapery of religion, would, according to thefe fy-
ftems, render the lacerdotal office painful, if not im-
pra&icable, to the blind.
We have, fome years ago, read of a blind gentleman*,
defcended from the fame family with the celebrated lord
Verulam, who, in the city of Bruffeis, was with high
approbation created doftor of laws; fince that period
93 ] B L I
we have been honoured with his correfpondence. He Blind.
was deprived of fight at nine years of age by an arrow  
from a crofs-bow whilft he was attempting to flioot it.
When he had recovered his health, which had fuffered
by the (hock, he purfued the fame plan of education in
which he had been engaged; and having heard that
one Nicafius de Vourde, born blind, who lived towards
the end of the 15th century, after having diftinguiihed
himfelf by his ftudies in the univerfity of Lovain, took
his degree as doflorof divinity in the univerfity of Co¬
logne; this motive prevailed with him to make the
fame attempt. But the public, curfed with prejudices
for which the meaneft fenfitive nature might blufh, pre¬
judices equally beneath the brutality and ignorance of
the loweft animal-inftimft, treated his intention with ri¬
dicule : even the profeffors were not far from being of
that fentiment ; and they admitted him into their
fchools, rather from an impreffion that it might amufe
him, than become of any ufe to him. He had the good
fortune, however, contrary to their expeftations, to
obtain the firft places amongft his condifciples. It was
then faid, that fuch rapid advances might be made in
the preliminary branches of his education; but would
foon be effe&ually checked by ftudies of a more pro¬
found and abftrafted nature. This, it feems, was re¬
peated from fchool to fchool, through the whole climax
of his purfuits; and when, in the courfe of academical
learning, it became neceffary toftudy poetry, it wtis the
general voice that all was over, and that at length he.
had reached his ne plus ultra. But here he likewife
confronted their prepoffeffions, and taught them the im-
menfe difference between blindnefs of body and bliod-
nefs of foul. After continuing his ftudies in learning
and philofophy for two years more, he applied himfelf
to law, took his degree in thftjcience, commenced
pleading counfelld£ or.atfyo^tft'in the council of Bra¬
bant, and has hafMihe pleafure of terminating almoft
every fuit in which he has been engaged to the fatis •
faftion of his clients. ,g
Had it not been for a fa<ft fo ftriking and fo well Law diffi-
authenticated, though there could have been no doubt cuh,though
that a blind man might difcharge the office of acham- bfe, fcntbe"
ber-counfel with fuccefs; yet, as a barrifter, his dif- blind.
Acuities muft have appeared more formidable, if not
abfolutely infuperable. For he fhould remember all
the fources, whether in natural equity or pofitive infti-
tutions, whether in common or ftatutory law, from
whence his argument ought to be drawn. He muft be
able to fpecify, and to arrange in their proper order,
all the material objections of his antagonifts : thefe he
muft likewife anfwer as they were propofed, extempore.
When, therefore, it is confidered how difficult it is
to temper the natural affociations of memory with the
artificial arrangements ofjudgment, the defultory flights
of imagination with the calm and regular deductions
of reafon, the energy and perturbation of paffion with
the coolnefs and tranquillity of deliberation, fome idea
may be formed of the arduous talk which every blind
man muft atchieve, who undertakes to purfue the law
as a profeffion. Perhaps affiftances might be drawn
from Cicero’s treatife on Topics and on Invention ;
which, if happily applied and improved, might leffen
the difparity of a blind man to others, but could fcarcely
place him on an equal footing with his brethren- And
it ought to be fixed as an inviolable maxim, that no>
Kind.
B L I
Blind. l>Knd man ought ever to engage in any province in
I9 which it is not in his power to excel. This may at firft
The blind, fight appear paradoxical; but it is eafily explained. For
naturally the confcioufnefs of the obvious advantages pofleffed
to by others, habitually pVedifpofes a blind man to defpon-
cy,Pfhould' dency : and if he ever gives way to defpair (which he
be fthnuia- will be too apt to do when purfuing any acquifition
ted by the where others have a better chance of fuccefs than him-
P^°fPe^ of felf), adieu, for ever adieu, to all proficiency. His
excellence fin^s filto irretrievable depreffion ; his abortive at¬
tempts inceffantly prey upon his fpirit; and he not
only lofes that vigour and elafticity of mind which are
necefiary to carry him through life, but that patience
ao and ferenity which alone can qualify him to enjoy it.
Phyfic per- In this recapitulation of the learned profeffions, we
haps im- jiave intentionally omitted phyfic ; becaufe the ob-
to the blind ftacles which a blind man mull encounter, whether in
the theory or pra&ice of that art, will be more eafily
conceived by our readers than defcribed in detail. From
this, therefore, let us pafs to more general fubje&s.
It has been formerly hinted, that the blind were
obje&s of compaffion, becaufe their fpheres of a&ion
and obfervation were Jimited: and this is certainly true.
For what is human exiftence, in its prefent ftate, if
you deprive it of action and contemplation ? Nothing
then remains but the diftinftion which we derive from
form or from fenfitive and loco-motive powers. But
for thefe, unlefs diredled to happier ends by fuperior
faculties, few rational beings would, in our opinion, be
grateful. The moft important view, therefore, which
we can entertain in the education of a perfon deprived
of fight, is to redrefs as effeftually as pofiible the na-
turaldifadvantages with which he is encumbered ; or,
in other words, to enlarge as far as poffible the fphere
of his knowledge and adlivity. This can only be done
by the improvement of his intelledlual, imaginative, or
fnechanical, powers ; and which of thefe ought to be
at moft affiduoufly cultivated, the genius of every indivi-
Too much gua] alone can determine. Were men to judge of things
fedfronuhe ^7 their intrinfic natures, lefs would be expedled from
blind. tlie blind than others. But, by forae pernicious and
unaccountable prejudice, people generally hope to find
them either poffeffed of preternatural talents, or more
attentive to thofe which they have than others : For it
was not Rochefter’s opinion alone,
That if one (enfe fhould be fupprefs’d.
It but retires into the reft.
Hence it unluckily happens, that blind men, who
in Common life are too often regarded as rareefhows,
when they do not gratify the extravagant expedlations
of their fpe&ators, too frequently fink in the general o-
pinion, and appear much lefs confiderable and merito¬
rious than they really are. This general diffidence of
their powers at once deprives them both of opportunity
and fpirit to exert themfelves; and they defcend, at
laft, to that degree of infignificance in which the pub¬
lic eftimate has fixed them. From the original dawn¬
ing, therefore, of reafon and fpirit, the parents and
tutors of the blind ought to inculcate this maxim, That
The ele- it is their indifpenfable duty to excel, and that it is ab-
ments of e- folutely in their power to attain a high degree of emi-
ducation for nence. To imprefs this notion on their minds, the firft
fhould nei- °bje<^s prefented to their obfervation, and the firft me-
ther be too thods of improvement applied to their underftanding,
difficult nor ought, with no great difficulty, to be comprehenfible
too cafy.
1194 ] B L I
by thofe internal powers and external fenfes which they Wli:
poflefs. Not that improvement ffiould be rendered ’
quite eafy to them, if fuch a plan were poffible. For I
all difficulties, which are not really or apparently in- J|
fuperable, heighten the charms and enhance the value a
of thofe acquifitions which they feem to retard. But, ,1 J
care fhould be taken that thefe difficulties be not mag- 1
nified or exaggerated by imagination ; for it has be- f
fore been mentioned, that the blind have a painful fenfe i
of their own incapacity, and confequently a ftrong 1
propenfity to defpair continually awfake in their minds. II
For this reafon, parents and relations ought never to Tf6 Pfj
be too ready in offering their affiftance to the blind in of^i
any office which they can perform, or in any acquifi- thebli
tion which they can procure for themfelves, whether fhouldl
they are prompted by amufement or neceffity. Let a befup|
blind boy be permitted to walk through the neighbour- j
hood without a guide, not only though he ffiould run .1
fome hazard, but even though he ffiould fuffer fome pain. 1
If he has a mechanical turn, let him not be denied i
the ufe of edge-tools ; for it is better that he ffiould ;'9
lofe a little blood, or even break a bone, than be per- j
petually confined to the fame place, debilitated in his 1
frame, and depreffed in his mind. Such a being can
have no employment but to feel his own wcaknefs, and |
become his own tormentor ; or to transfer to others I
all the malignity and peeviffinefs arifing from the na- I
tural, adventitious, or imaginary, evils which he feels.
Scars, fradftures, and difiocations, in his body, are trivial J
misfortunes compared with imbecility, timidity, or fret- |
fulnefs of mind. Befides the fenfible and dreadful ef- |
fefts which inadlivity muft have in relaxing the nerves joj
and confequently in depreffing the fpirits, nothing can |
be more productive of jealoufy, envy, peeviffinefs, and j
every paffion that corrodes the foul to agony, than a
painful impreffion of dependence on others, and of our f
infufficiency for our own happinefs. This impreffion,
which, even in his moft improved ftate, will be too |
deeply felt by every blind man, is redoubled by that |
utter incapacity of adtion which muft refult from the |
officious humanity of thofe who would anticipate or fl
fupply all his wants, who would prevent all his motions, I
who would do or procure every thing for him without |
his own interpofition. It is the courfe of nature, that ]
blind people, as well as others, ffiould furvive their pa- -
rents ; or it may happen that they ffiould likewife fur- J
vive thofe who, by the ties of blood and nature, are j
more immediately interefted in their happinefs than the J
reft of mankind. When, therefore, they fall into the 1
hands of the world in general, fuch exigences as they u
themfelves cannot redrefs will be but coldly and lan- i
uidly fupplied by others. Their expeditions will be •
igh and frequent, their difapointments many and fen- ;
fible ; their petitions will often be refufed, felclom fully I
gratified ; and, even when granted, the conceffion will J
be fo ungraceful, as to render its want infinitely more J
tolerable than its fruition. For all thefe reafons, we
repeat it once more (becaufe it can never be too fre¬
quently reiterated), that, in the formation of a blind
man, it is infinitely better to diredl than fuperfede his
own exertions. From the time that he can move and |j
feel, let him be taught to fupply his own exigences ; to j
drefs and feed himfelf; to run from place to place, ei- :
ther for exercife, or in purfuit of his own toys or ne-
ceffaries.
I*
r
B L I [ n
In thefe excurfions, however, it will be highly pro-
*~per for his parent or tutor to fuperintend his motions
at a diftance, without feeming to watch over him. A
vigilance too apparent, may imprefs him with a notion
that malignity or fome other felfilh motive may have
produced it. When dangers are obvious and great,
fuch as we incur by rivers, precipices, &c» thofe who
are entrufted with the blind will find it neither neceflary
nor expedient to make their vigilance a fecret. They
ought then to acquaint their pupil, that they are pre-
fent with him; and to interpofe for his prefervation,
whenever his temerity renders it necefiary. But ob¬
jects of a nature lefs noxious, which may give him fome
pain without any permanent injury or mutilation, may
with defign be thrown in his way, providing, how¬
ever, that this defign be always induftrioufly concealed.
For his own experience of their bad effe&s will be an
infinitely more eloquent and fenfible monitor, than
the abftraft and frigid counfels of any advifer whatever.
When the volatile feafon of puerile amufement is
expired, and the impetuous hurry of animal-fpirits
fubfides, through the wdiole demeanour of his pupil the
tutor will probably obferve a more fenfible degree of
timidity and precaution, and his a&ivity will then re-
. quire to be ftimulated more than reftrained. In this
crifis, exercife will be found requifite, rather to pre-
referve health, and facilitate the vital fun&ions, than
merely for recreation. Of all the different kinds of
exercife, riding, not in a machine, but on horfeback,
is by far the moft eligible, and moll produffive of its
end. On thefe occafions, however, care muft be ta¬
ken that the horfes employed may neither be capricious
nor unmanagable ; for on the manfuetude of the crea¬
ture which he rides, not only his fafety, but his con¬
fidence, will entirely depend. In thefe expeditions,
whether long or fhort, his companion or attendant ought
conftantly to be with him ; and the horfe fhould always
either be taught implicitly to follow its guide, or be
condufted by a leading rein befides the bridle which
he himfelf holds. Next to this mode of exercife, is
n walking. Iftheconftitution of the blind boy be tolerably
[s robuft, let him be taught to endure every viciffitude of
weather which the human fpecies can bearwith impunity.
For if he has been bred with too much delicacy, particular
accidents may fuperfede all his former fcruples, and fub-
je6l him to the neceffity of fuffering what will not only be
fevere in its immediate fenfation, but dangerous in its
future confequences. Yet, when the cold is fo intenfe,
or the elements fo tempeftubus, as to render air and
'exercife abroad impracticable, there are methods of
domeftic exercife, which, though not equally falutary,
may (till be eligible ; fuch as dumb-bells, or the bath-
chair. The firll of thefe are made of lead, confifting
>• of a cylinder, the middle of wdiich may either be recti¬
lineal or arcuated for the conveniency of holding, and
terminates at each end in a femiglobular mafs. Their
weight fhould be conformed to the ftrength and age of
the perfon who ufes them. The method of employing
them is to take one in each hand, and fwing them
backwards and forwards over his head, defcribing a
■figure fomewhat like a parabola. This not only firength-
ens the arms, and opens the cheft, but promotes the cir¬
culation of the fluids. The bath-chair is a deal of 12
. feet in.length, as free from knots and as elallic as
poffible, fupported by a fulcrum at each end, upon
95 1 B L I
which may be placed two rolling cylinders to give it Blind.
greater play ; when feated upon this, by alternately  
depreffing it with his own weight, and fuffering it to
return to its natural fituation, he gives himfelf a motion
though not equal in its energy, yet fomewhat refem-
bling the trot of a horfe. There are other elaftic feats'
of the fame kind conftruCled with fteel fprings, but
one of this Ample fabrication may anfwer the purpofe.
His meals fhould be temperate, his diet light and sj
of eafy digeftion. If the tone of his ftomach be vi- Dto.
gorous, vegetables fhould be preferred to animal-food,
particularly thofe vegetables which are moft: farinaceous
and leaft acefcent. Fermented liquors and ardent fpi-
rits fhould never be given him but to gratify the real
demands of exhaufted nature. For though they exhi¬
larate. the fpirits, they at the fame time corrode the
veflels and relax the nerves, a misfortune doubly per¬
nicious to fedentary life. , The fafeft and moft whole- *
fome beverages are milk and water. If he fhould be
tired with thefe, he may be indulged with the variety
of chocolate, balm, fage, or ground-ivy. Coffee may
fometimes be taken with impunity: but tea fhould be
interdi&ed with inflexible feverity ; for no vegetable
juice undeV heaven is more noxious to fedentary peo¬
ple *. Let him alfo, for fimilar reafons, be prohibi- * See the at-
tecf the ufe of tobacco in all its forms. In the obfer- tIcie
vations of diet and exercife, let him neither be mecha¬
nically regular, nor entirely excentric. In the one cafe,
he will be a Have to habit, which may create fome in¬
convenience ; in the other, he will form no habits at
all, which may ftill be-productive of greater.
The natural curiofity of children renders them ex- NatlIja] cu_
tremely and indefatigably inquifitive. This difpofition riofity to be
is often peculiarly prevalent in the blind. Parents and gratified,
tutors, therefore, fhould gratify it whenever their an- wlieu P0^*
fwers can be intelligible to the pupil; when it is other- othirwift"*
wife, let them candidly cqnfefs the impofllbility orim- reafon to be
propriety of anfwering his queftions. At this period, given,
if their hearts be tender and their powers inventive,
they may render his amufements the vehicles, and his
toys the inftruments, of improvement: why, forin-
ftance, may not the centrifugal and centripetal forces
be illuftrated from the motion of a top, or the nature
and power of elafticity by the rebound of a ball. Thefe
hints may lead to others, which, if happily improved
and applied, may wonderfully facilitate the progrefs of
knowledge. Nor will the violence of exercife, and
the tumult of play, be productive of fuch perils and
accidents as may be apprehended.
For the encouragement of fuch parents as chufe
to take thefe advices with regard to exercife, let us
inform them, that though, till the age of twenty,
fome blind perfons were on mott occafions permit¬
ted to walk, to run, to play at large, they, have
yet efcaped without any corporeal injury from thefc
excurfions.
Parents of middle, or of higher rank, who are The blind
fo unfortunate as to have blind children, ought, by ail no.t to hein-
poffible means, to keep them out of vulgar company,
The herd of mankind have a wanton malignity, which 0us coin.-
eternally impels them to impofe upon the blind, andpany.
to enjoy the painful fituations in which theie impo-
fitions place them. This is a ftri&ure upon the hu¬
manity of our fpecies, which nothing but the love of
truth and the dictates of benevolence could have extort¬
ed
R L I [ 1196 ] B L I
Miiind. from u3. But we ( f) have known feme who have fuf-
fered fo much from this diabolical mirth in their own
perfons, that it is natural for us, by all the means in
our power, to prevent others from becoming its vi&ims.
Blind people have infinitely more to fear from the
levity and ignorance, than from the felfiihnefs and ill?
nature, of mankind. In ferious and important nego-
ciations, pride and compaffion fufpend the efforts of
knavery or fpleen ; and that very infirmity, which fo
frequently renders the blind defencelefs to the arts of
the infidious, or to the attempts of malice, is a power¬
ful incentive to pity, which is capable of difarming
fury itfelf. Villany, which frequently piques itfelf
more upon the arts by which it prevails, than upon the
advantages which it obtains, may often writh contempt
rejed the blind, as fubje&s beneath the dignity of its
operation ; but the ill-natured buffoon confiders the
moft malicious effedls of his merriment as a mere jeft,
without reflefting on the fhamc or indignation which
they infpire when inflidled on a fenfible temper.
They nwft But vulgar credulity and ignorance are no lefs dan-
not be per- gerous to thofe who want fight, than the falfe and me-
heannar- chanical wit fo juniverfally pradlifed in common life,
vellous and We know, we fympathetically feel, the ftrong propen-
frightful fity of every illiterate mind, to relate or to believe what-
tales. ever ;s marvellous and dreadful. Thefe imprefiions,
when early imbibed, can fcarcely be eradicated by all
35 the confpiring efforts of mature reafon, and confirmed
The aflbeia-experience. Thofe philofophers who have attempted
tweeiTdark t0 ^rea^ t^ie ah‘ance between darknefs and fpedtres,
nefs and were certainly infpired by laudable motives. But they
fpedtres muft give us leave to affert, that there is a natural and
founded in effential connedtion betwixt night and orcus. Were
Mature. we en(juec] with fenfes to advertife us of every noxious
objedf before its contiguity could render it formidable,
our panics would probably be lefs frequent and fenfible
than we really feel them. Darknefs and filence, there¬
fore, have fomething dreadful in them, becaufe they
fuperfede the vigilance of thofe fenfes which give us
the earlieft notices of things. If you talk to a blind
boy of invifible beings, let benevolence be an infepa-
rable ingredient in their charadfer. You may, if you
pleafe, tell him of departed fpirits, anxious for the wel¬
fare of their furviving friends ; of miniilering angels,
who defeend with pleafure from heaven to execute the
purpofes of their Maker’s benignity ; you may even
regale his imagination with the fportive gambols and
innocent frolics of fairies; but let him hear as feldom
as poffible, even in ftories which he knows to be fabu¬
lous, of plaintive ghofts, vindidlive fiends, or aven¬
ging furies. They feize and pre-occupy every avenue
of terror which is open in the foul ; nor are they eafily
difpolfefied. Sooner Ihould we hope to exorcife a ghoft,
or appeafe a fury, than to obliterate their images in a
warm and fufceptible imagination, where they have
34 been habitually impreifed, and where thefe feelings
The method cannot be dilfipated by external phenomena. If hor-
yf diflipat- rors cf t}j;s Ihould agitate the heart of a blind
©"fheblbT (which may happen notwithftanding the meft
’ Itrenuous endeavours to prevent it), the ftories which
he has heard will be moft effedhially diferedited by ri- ;
dicule. This, however, muft be cautioufly applied, "i
by gentle and delicate gradations. If he is infpired i
with terror by effedts upon his fenfes, the caufes of j
which he cannot inveftigate, indefatigable pains muft;
be taken to explain thefe phenomena, and to confirm •
that explication, whenever it can be done, by the tefti- 1
mony of his own fenfes and his own experience. The 1
exertion of his locomotive and mechanical powers (the 1
rights of which we have formeily endeavoured to affert) j
will fenfibly contribute to difpel thefe terrors.
His inventive faculties ought likewife to be indulged Tfj
with the fame freedom. The data which they explore *'5?
may be prefented in jfuch a manner, as to render dif- he'
coveries eafy ; but ft’ill let invention be allowed to co- hut
operate. The internal triumph and exultation which anti
the mind feels from the attainment and convidlion of m’J
new truths, heightens their charms, impreffes them deep e *
on the memory, and gives them an influence in pradtice i
of which they could not otherwife have boafted.
There are a fort of people in the world, whofe views j
and education have been ftridlly confined to one pro- *
vince, and whofe converfation is of confequence limited !
and technical. Thefe,'in literary intercourfe, or fafli-
ionable life, are treated with univerfal contempt, and i
branded with the odious name of mere men of bufmefs. 'S
Nor is it any wonder, that the converfation of fuch
fhould prove naufeous and difgufting. It would be arro- !
gance in them to expedf, that indifferent perfons fhould
either enter into their private interefts, or the peculia¬
rities of their craft, with a warmth equal to their '
own. We have known the intrufion of iuch a perfon
involve a numerous company in gloom, and terminate :
the freedom and vivacity of agreeable difeourfe in lazy
yawning and difeontented filence. Of all innocent cha-
ra&ers, this ought to be avoided by the blind ; be¬
caufe, of all others, it is the chara&er which they run
the greateft hazard of adopting. The limitation of i
their powers naturally contra&s their views and pur-
fuits, and, as it were, concentres their whole intellec- |
tual faculties in one, or at heft in few obje&s. Care J
fhould therefore be taken to afford the mind a theatre
for its exertions, as extenfive as poffible, without di¬
verting it from one great end, which, in order to ex¬
cel, it ought for ever to have in profpedf.
There are few fciences in which the blind have notTN
diftinguifhed themfelves: even thofe whofe acquifition
feemed effentially to depend upon vifion, have at laft "11,1
yielded to genius and indultry, tho’ deprived of that
advantage. Mr Sanderfon, whom we formerly men- !
tioned, has left behind him the moft ftriking evidences
of aftonifhing proficiency in thofe retired and abftraft i
branches of mathematics which appeared Jeaft accef-
fible to perfons of his infirmity. Sculpture (g) and
pairfting are not, perhaps, the moft practicable arts for
a blind man ; yet is he not excluded from the pleafing
creation and extenfive regions of fancy. However
unaccountable it may appear to theabftraCt philofopher,
yet nothing is more certain in fad, than that a blind
man may, by the infpiraticn of the mufes, or, to ftrip
the f
(f) The author of thefe obfervations, though he chufes to exprefs himfelf in this manner, is blind.
(g) Yet there are inftances of perfons who have been enabled to take the figure and idea of a face by the touch,
and mould it in wax with the utmoft exaCtnefs ; as was the cafe of the blind fculptor mentioned by De Piles, who thus
took the likenefs of the duke de Bracciano in a dark cellar, and made a marble ftatue of king Charles I. with great
elegance and juftnefs. Vid. Defiles Cours de Peint. p. 3*9. and Wolf. Pfychol. Rat. § 162.
Blind.
B t I
[ i>
the figure of its mythological drefs, may, by the ef¬
forts of a cultivated genius, exhibit in poetry the moil
natural images and animated defcriptions, even of vifible
objefts, without either incurring or deferving the im¬
putation of plagiarifm.
In the iifter art of mufic, there are, at prefent, living
and noble inftances how far the blind may proceed.
If we look into former periods, we ihall find illuf-
trious and pregnant examples, how amply nature has
capacitated the blind to excel both in the fcientific and
pra&ical departments of mufic. In the 16th century,
when the progrefs of improvement both in melody and
harmony was rapid and confpicuous, Francifcus Sali¬
nas was eminently diftinguiihed. He was born A. D.
1513, at Burgos in Spain ; and was fon to the treafurer
of that city. Tho’ afflifted with incurable blindnefs,
he was profoundly {killed both in the theory and prac¬
tice of mufic. As a performer, he is celebrated by his
cotemporaries with the higheft encomiums. As a theo-
rift, his book, if we may believe Sir John Hawkins, is
equal in value to any now extant in any language. Tho’
he was deprived of fight in his earlieft infancy, he does
not content himfelf to delineate the various phenomena
in mufic, but the principles from whence they refult,
the relations of found, the nature of arithmetical,
geometrical, and harmonical ratios, which at that pe¬
riod were elteemed eflential to the theory of mufic,
with a degree of intelligence which would have de-
fetved admiration tho’ he had been in full pofieffion of
every fenfe requifite for thefe difquifitions. He was
taken to Rome in the retinue of Petrus Sarmentus
archbiftiop of Compaftella ; and having palled twenty
years in Italy, he returned to Salamanca, where he ob¬
tained the profeflbrlhip of mufic, an office at that time
equally refpe&able and lucrative. Having difcharged
it with reputation and fuccefs for fome time, he died
at the venerable age of 77.
In the fame period flourilhed Cafpar Krumbhorn,
blind from the third year of his age : yet he compo-
fed feveral pieces in many parts with fo much fuccefs,
and performed both upon the flute and violin fo exqui-
fitely, that he was diftinguifhed by Auguftus eledlor
of Saxony. But preferring his native Silefia to every
other country, he returned thither, and was appointed
organiit of the church of St Peter and Paul in the city
of Lignitz, where he likewife had often the dire£tion
of the mufical college, and died June 1 Ith 1621.
To thefe might be added Martini Pefenti of Venice,
a compofer of vocal and inftrumental mufic almoll of
all kinds, tho’ blind from his nativity ; with other ex¬
amples equally worthy of public attention. But if
vulgar prejudice is capable of blulhing at its own con¬
temptible charafter, or of yielding to conviftion, thofe
already quoted are more than fufficient to Ihew the
mufical jugglers of our time, who are generally as
abfolute ftrangers to learning and tafte as to virtue,
that their art is no monopoly with which thofe alone
who fee are inverted by the irreverfible decree of heaven.
For Sanderfon’s method of calculation, both in a-
rithmetic and algebra, fee the account prefixed to his
own treatifeon that fubjeft. But there is a much ful¬
ler and more circumftantial detail both of its nature
and its various ufes, given by Mr Diderot in his “ Let-
“ ter uoncerning the Blind, for the ufe of thofe who
“ fee,” which we fhall here tranflate,
Vol. II.
97 ] » LI
“ It is much eafier (fays that author) to ufe fign*
already invented, than to become their inventor; as ^ ‘
one is forced to do, when engaged in circumfiances Sander-
for which he is not provided. Of what advantage fon,s .Planof
might not this be to Sanderfon to find a palpable arith- nt>talK>u-
metic already prepared for him at five years of age,
which he might otherwife have felt the neceffity of in¬
venting for himfelf at the advanced period of twenty-
five ? This Sanderfon, Madam, is an author deprived
of fight, with whom it may not be foreign to our pur-
pofe to amufe you. They relate prodigies of him ;
and of thefe prodigies there is not one, which his pro¬
grefs in the belles lettres, and his mathematical at¬
tainments, do not render credible.
“ The fame inftrument ferved him for algebraical
calculations, and for the conftruftion of reftilineal fi¬
gures. You would not, perhaps, be forry that I ihould
give you an explication of it, if you thought your
mind previoufly qualified to underftand it: and you
ffiall foon perceive that it prefuppofes no intellec¬
tual preparations of which you are not already mif-
trefs ; and that it would be extremely ufeful to you if
you ffiould ever be feized with the inclination of making
long calculations by touch.
“ Imagine to yourfelf a fquare, fuch as you fee,
fig. 1. n° 1. divided into four equal parts by perpen- Plate LVI.
dicular lines at the fides, in fuch a manner, that it may
prefent you the nine points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9.
Suppofe this fquare pierced with nine holes capable of
receiving pins of two kinds, all of equal length and
thicknefs, but fome with heads a little larger than the
others.
“ The pins with large heads are never placed any
where elfe but in the centre of the fquare ; thofe with
fmaller heads never but at the fides, except in one Angle
cafe, which is that of making the figure 1, where none
are placed at the fides. The fign of nothing is made
by placing a pin with a large head in the centre of the
little fquare, without putting any other pin at the fides*. *See F’g-1*
The number 1 is reprefented by a pin with a fmall n° a*
head placed in the centre of the fquare, without put¬
ting any other pin at the fides: the number 2 by a pin
with a large head placed in the centre of the fquare,
and by a pin with a fmall head placed on one of
the fides at the point 1 : the number 3 by a pin with
a large head placed in the centre of the fquare, and
by a pin with a fmall head placed on one of the fides
at the point 2 : the number 4 by a pin with a large
head placed in the centre of the fquare, and by a pin with
a fmall head placed on one of the fides at the point 3 :
the number 5 by a pin with a large head placed in the .
centre of the fquare, and by a pin with a fmall head
placed on one of the fides at the point 4: the number 6
by a pin with a large head placed in the centre of the
fquare, and by a pin with a fmall head placed on one
of the fides at the point 5 : the number 7. by a pin
with a large head placed in the centre of the fquare,
and by a pin with a fmall head placed on one of the
fides at the point 6 : the number 8 by a pin with a
large head placed in the centre of the fquare, and by
a pin with a fmall head placed on one of the fides at
the point 7. The number 9 by a pin with a large ’■4'
head placed in the centre of the fquare, and by a pin
with a fmall head placed on one of the fides at the
point 8.
7 M « Here
B L I
[
B L X
Blind. “ Here are plainly ten different expreflions obvious
to the touch, of which every one anfwers to one of
our ten arithmetical characters. Imagine now a ta¬
ble as large as you pleafe, divided into fmall fquares,
horizontally ranged, and feparated one from the other
at fimilar diltances, as you fee it in N° 3. Thus you
38 will have the inftrument of Sanderfon.
This nota- « You may eafily conceive that there is not any
cal opera- by confequence, no arithmetical operation which one
lions. cannot execute upon it.
“ Let it be propofed, for inftance, to find the fum,
or to work the addition, of the nine numbers following.
1 2 3 4 5
2 3 4 5 6
3 4 5 6 7
45678
5 6 7 8 9
67890
78901
89012
90123
“ I exprefs them on the table in the order as they
are dictated to me ; the firft figure at the left of the
firft number, upon the firft fquare to the left of the
firft line ; the fecond figure, to the left of the firft
number, upon the fecond fquare to the left of the fame
line ; and fo of the reft.
“ I place the fecond number upon the fecond row
of fquares, units beneath units, and tens beneath tens,
&c.
“ I place the third number upon the third row of
fquares, and fo of the reft. Then with my fingers
running over each of the rows vertically from the bot¬
tom to the top, beginning with that which is neareft to
my right, I work the addition of the numbers which
are expreffed, and mark the furplus of the tens at the
foot of that column. I then pafs to the fecond co¬
lumn, advancing towards the left; upon which I ope¬
rate in the fame manner; from thence to the third;
and thus in fuccefiion I finiih my addition.
The fame “ We (hall now fee how the fame table ferved him
inftrument f0r demonftrating the properties of reCtilineal figures,
the cont0 '^'et US ^uPP°^e t*1'3 propofition to be demonftrated,
ftruftion of That parallelograms which have the fame bafis and the
rectilineal fame height are equal in their furfaces. He placed his
figures. pins as may be feen fig. 1. N° 4. He gave names to
the angular points, and finifhed his demonftration with
his fingers.
“ If we fuppofe that Sanderfon only employed pins
with large heads, to mark the limits of his figures,
around thefe he might arrange his pins with fmall heads
in nine different manners, all of which were familiar
to him. Thus he fcarcely found any embarraffment
but in thofe cafes where the great number of angular
points which he was under a neceffity of naming in his
demonftration obliged him to recur to the letters of the
alphabet. We are not informed how he employed
them.
“ We only know, that his fingers ran over the
board with aftonifhing agility; that he undertook
with fuccefs the longeft calculations; that he could in¬
terrupt the feries, and difeover his miftakes ; that he
proved them with the greateft eafe; and that his la¬
bours required infinitely lefs time than one could have
98 ]
imagined, by the exa&nefs and promptitude with I
which he prepared his inftruments and difpofed his
table.
“ This preparation confifted in placing pins with Prel
large heads in the centres of all the fquares: having
done this, no more remained to him but to fix their
values by pins of fmaller heads, except in cafes
where it was neceffary to mark an unit; then he pla¬
ced in the centre of a fquare a pin with a fmall head,
in the place of a pin with a large head with which it
had been occupied.
“ Sometimes, inftead of forming an entire line with
thefe pins, he contented himfelf with placing fome
of them at all the angular points, or points of inter-
feftion ; around which he tied filk threads, which
finiftied the formation of the limits of his figures
It may be added by way of improvement, that for
the divifion of one feries of numbers from another, a
thin piece of timber in the form of a ruler with which
lines are drawn, having a pin at each end for the holes
in the fqnares, might be interpofed between the two
feries to be diftinguifhed.
This geometrician left other inftruments behind him;
but as we do not know their ufes, we need not add
their deferiptions.
In the higher parts of mathematics, fuch as conic
fe&ions, the fame folid figures which are mediums of
perception to thofe who fee, may perform the fame
ufeful office to the blind. But, for the ftru&ure ofA n<
ftrui
matter might be found, foft enough to be eafily fufeep* pr0p0|
tible of impreffions, yet hard enough to retain them
till effaced by an equal preffure. Suppofe, for inftance,
a table were formed, four feet broad and eight in length;
for the figures, that they may be the more fenfible to
the touch, ought to be larger than ordinary. Suppofe
this table had brims, or a moulding round it, rifing
an inch above the furface : let the whole expanfe, then,
be filled with bee’s-wax, and the furface above preffed
extremely even with a poliftied board, formed exa&ly
to fit the fpace within the mouldings. This board
will always be neceffary to efface the figures employed
in former propofitions, and prepare the furface for new
ones. We think we have pondered the minuteft in¬
convenience that can arife from this method of deli¬
neating and conceiving geometrical truths; and, after
all, the table appears to us the bed and the leaft trou- 4
blefome apparatus which 3 blind man can ufe. We
can fee no reafon, why general ideas of geography or
topography might not be conveyed to him in the fame pofed
manner, by fpheres compofed of or covered with the hli
fame impreffible matter. The knowledge of aftronomy
might likewife be of infinite ufe, both by enlarging Th
his ideas of the univerfe, and by giving him higher and
more confirmed impreffions of that energy by which
the ftars are moved, and of that defign by which their
motions are regulated. But thefe objefts are.too vaft;
their diftances, their magnitudes, their periods of re¬
volution, are too complex to be comprehended in the
mind, or impreffed on the memory, without fenfible
mediums. For this purpofe, an orrery, or fome ma¬
chine of a fimilar conftru&ion, will be indifpenfibly
requifite. 4
Thefcience of caufes and effe&s might likewife yield Of n>
him the moft fublime and rational entertainment ofPhlloj
which
B L I
1 J, which an intelligent being, in hisprefent ftate, is fuf-
"f — ceptible. By this he might enter into the laws, the
viciffitudes, the oeconomy, of nature. Nor is it ab-
fplutely neceflary that he fliould be an ocular wknefs
of the experiments by which thefe laws are dete&ed
and explained. He may fafely take them for granted ;
and if, at any time, a particular experiment ihould
prove faithlefs, he may, from general principles, be
| able to difcover its fallacy, whether in the nature of the
fubjeft, the inaptitude of the inftruments, or the pro-
cefs of the execution. The laws of motion, the va¬
rious ratios or proportions of forces whether Ample or
compound, he may calculate and afcertain by the fame
means, and in the fame method, fo happily ufed by
Sanderfon.
al Moral and theological knowledge he may eafily ob-
P1^ tain, either from books, or inftrudions delivered viva
voce. The laft, if communicated by one who under-
ftands and feels the fubje6t, with a proper degree of
perfpicuity and fenfibility, are infinitely the mod eli¬
gible. By morals, we would not merely be underftood
to mean a regular and inculpable feries of aftion, but
the proper exertion and habitual arrangement of the
I - whole internal ceconomy, of which external adions are
no more than mere expreffions, and from which the
higheft andmoft permanenthappinefs alone can proceed.
By theology, we do not mean that fyftematicor fcholiaftic
jargon, which too frequently ufurps its venerable name ;
but thofe fublime and liberal ideas of the nature and go¬
vernment of a Supreme Being, whether difcoverable by
nature, or revealed in fcripture, which inforce every moral
obligation, which teach us what is the ultimate good of
our nature, which determine our efforts, and animate our
hopes in purfuing this moft important of all objefts.
What Cicero fays of the arts and fciencesmay, with great
propriety, be applied to religion : Nam ccetera neque
temporum funt, neque at at urn omnium, neque locorum;
et hxc Jiudia adolefcentiam alunt, fenettutem oblettant,
fecundas res ornant, adverjis perfugium ac folatium pra-
bent: delettant domi, non impediunt foris; permilant
nohifcum, perigrinantur, rujiicantur. Tran dated thus :
‘ For other {Indies are not fuited to every time, to e-
‘ very age, and to every place : but thefe give ftrength
‘ in youth, and joy in old age ; adorn profperity, and
‘ are the fupport and confolation ofadverfity ; at home
‘ they are delightful, and abroad they are eafy; at
‘ night they are company to us ; when we travel, they
* attend us ; and in our rural retirements, they do not
4 forfake us.’
To this may be added, that the joys of religion are
forever adequate to the largeft capacity of a finite and
progreifive intelligence ; and as they are boundlefs in
extent, fa they are endlefs in duration. We have al¬
ready, more than once, obferved, that the foul of a
blind man is extremely obnoxious to melancholy aud
deje&ion. Where, therefore, can he find a more co¬
pious, intimate, permanent, and efficacious fource of
comfort than in religion ? Let this then be inculcated
with the utmoft care and affiduity. Let the whole force
of the foul be exerted in {hewing him that it is reafon-
able. Let all the nobleft affe&ions of the heart be em¬
ployed in recommending it as amiable; for we will
venture to affert, that the votary of religion alone is
the man,—
B L I
g>uem, ft fra&ui illabatur orbis, I'lind.
Impavidum ferient rui/ue.
Thus tranflated;
Whom, though with nature’s wreck opprefsM,
Unmanly fears could ne’er infeft.
When the fituation of the blind, and its natural ef¬
fects upon their charafters, are confidered ; when we
refledl how exquifite their diftreifes, how pungent their
difappointments, how fenfible their regrets, how te¬
dious and gloomy their periods of folitude ; we mud
be wretches indeed, if we can grudge either labour or
expenfe in procuring them every fource of entertain¬
ment, which, when procured, remains in their own
power, and yields what may be in fome meafure termed
felf-derived enjoyment. Thefe amufements are prolific
of numberlefs advantages : they afford us at once en¬
tertainment and exertion: they teach us to explore a
thoufand refourbes for prefervation and improvement,
which would otherwifehave efcaped our attention: they
render us awake and fenfible to a thoufand notices both
of external and intelleftual obje&s, which would other-
wife have pafied unobferved.
Thus far have we proceeded without mentioning phi ¬
lological learning; though we know it to be attain¬
able by the blind in a high degree, and though we
are confcious of its importance both to their ufe and
ornament. But as it is not indifpenfable, and as its
acquifition is tedious and operofe, we thought it lefs
neceflary to be early and minutely fpecified. We can¬
not doubt, that learning different languages adds to the
treafure of our ideas, and renders thofe which we pof-
fefs more clear and definite. It muft be acknowledged,
that the pofleffion of other languages elucidates our
own. The technical terms of almofl every fcience are
exotic ; and without clearly underftanding thofe, we
cannot properly poflefs the ideas of which they are the
vehicles. But thefe motives are common to every can¬
didate for philological improvement with the blind.
The paths of grammar, however, are dry and rug- Of gram-
ged ; and it will be neceffary for the pedagogue, who- mar.
ever he is, to take all the opportunities that offer of en¬
lightening the darknefs and polifliing the afperities of
the road. When, therefore, the intelleft of the pupil
begins to open and exert its penetration, it will be pro¬
per to Ihew him how the nature, the forms, and ar¬
rangements, of words, flow from our ideas and their
relations. Every fubfiance muft naturally be in fome
ftate; it muft either a<ft, or be a£led upon. The ac¬
tions which it performs or fuffers muft be performed or
fuffered in fome definite manner or degree. It muft like-
wife have fome qualities, whether temporary and acci¬
dental, or natural and permanent. Thefe qualities muft
likewife be fufceptible of degrees. When different fub-
ftances are confidered in the fame ftate, its common par¬
ticipation forms a connexion : when regarded in diffe¬
rent ftates, that difference forms an oppofttion. Thecon-
ftant repetition of the names of fubftances and qualities
produces a difagreeable monotony in language. They
muft therefore be implied in other words, which like¬
wife in fome cafes ferve to conned! the parts of a fen-
tence. There is a difference between fuch words as
imply the connexion of fentences, and fuch as imply
the connexion of ftates or circumftances. Adb'ons to
be performed or fuffered .may be either pofitively affirmed
7 M 2 of
[ Ji99 1
B L I [ 1200 3 B L I
of any fubftance, or merely attributed to them. Living tion and powers of a&ion become more and more ma-
Bli&J!
The blind
fufceptible
and percipient fubftances have immediate fenfations of ture, '•difcoveries more abftraA and retired, talks more
pain or pleafure, which likewife are produ&ive of de- arduous and difficult, may be affigned him. He Ihould
lire and averiion. To thefe fentiments particular founds be taught the names and gradations of the diatonic
are adapted, whether immediately infpired by nature, fcale, the nature and ufe of time, the diverfity of its
or refulting from aflbciation and tacit convention. modes whether Ample or mixed. He Ihould be taught
Thus we have a foundation for all the different parts the quantity or value of notes, not only with refpe£t
of fpeech ; and from their natures and offices their to their pitch, but to their duration. Yet, let him be
forms and arrangements may be deduced, according to inftrufted not to confider thefe durations as abfolutely
the analogy of every language. fixed* but variable according tp the velocity of the
The art of reafoning, the knowledge of hiftory, and movements in which they are placed. Thus we reckon
of loglc^hi- a tafte f°r tlie belles lettres, are ealily attainable by the a femibreve equal to 4 vibrations of a pendulum; a mi-
ftory, and blind; and as they are copious funds of entertainment, nim to 2 ; a crotchet to 1, &c. But, if the number
the belles they Ihould be inculcated, tho* at the expenfe of care of aliquot parts, into which a femibreye is divided, be
lettres. antj iabour. great, and confequently the value of each particular
48 The relations of perfons fubje&ed to this misfor- part fmall, the minim, crotchet, quaver, &c. will in-
A compa- tuiiej jf in eafy circumftances, will find it highly con- creafe in their intrinfic durations, though they muft al-
bemiitedto ducive to the improvement of their charge, to feleft ways preferve the fame proportions relatively one to
the blind fome one among his coevals, of a found underftanding, another. He Ihould never be habituated to take a
by more a fweet and patient temper, a docile mind, a warm piece of mufic, either from the found of a voice or an
than the ties heart, and a communicative difpofition. Thefe two inftrument. His companion ought to read the mufic
fendconve- d1011^ be taught to find their intereft and happinefs in by the names and values of its chara&ers, with the
niency. their connexion one with another. Their bed, their fame exa&nefs as the words in any other language.
board, their walks, their entertainments, their lef- When he becomes a confiderable adept in the art, tan-
fons, ffiould be common. Thefe are the beft eyes gible figns may be invented, by which he may not only
with which art can endow a blind man ; and, if pro- be enabled to read, but even to fet, mufic for him-
perly fele&ed, they will on fome occafions yield very felf. Such exercifes will render him infinitely more ac-
little, in utility and perfection, to thofe of nature; nay, curate, both in his principles and pradtice, than he would
4!) at fome junctures they may be preferable. otherwife be.
Mufic one If the blind muft depend upon the exercife of their There is a hint of fuch tangible figns given inTan-
of the moft own p0Wers for bread, we have already pointed out fure’s mufical grammar, p. 93. and which, tho’ (like
proper em- mupic as tbe;r eafieft and moft obvious province; but the reft of the book) obfcure and indigefted, may be
- ^• let it at the fame time be remembered, that mediocrity improved and applied with advantage.
in this art may prove the bittereft and moft effectual For the fake of thofe in whofe hands it may not be, Schema
curfe which a parent can infliCt upon his offspring, as we quote the paffage at length. mufical1
it fubjeCts them to every vitious impreffion or habit “ As it is the pleafure of the Almighty, that fome ta!
which may be imbibed or contracted from the loweft perfons are deftitute of eye-fight; in like manner it is
and moft abandoned of mankind. If your pupil, there- his infinite goodnefs to make them a double amends an-
fore, be not endowed with-natural talents exquifitely other way, by giving them a greater fhare of memory,
proper both for the theory and praCtice of this art, fuf- &c. whereby they become very dexterous in playing
fer him by no means to be initiated in it. If his na- on mufical inftruments, mathematics. Sec. as we may
tural genius favours your attempts, the fpinet, harp, or obferve by Dr Stanley, organift of St Andrews, Hol-
organ, are the moft proper inftruments for him to be- burn, in London ; and the blind profeflbr of mathe-
gin ; becaufe, by thefe inftruments, he may be made matics in the univeriity of Cambridge; and many o-
more eafily acquainted with the extent of mufical feales, thers, too tedious here to mention, who were born
with the powers of harmony, with the relations of blind, and never faw the leaft glance of light; yet God
which it is conftituted, and of courfe with the theory gave them fuch a light in knowledge, that they became
of his art. It would be not only unnecelfary, but im- the wonder of all fuch as had the benefit of feeing, &c.
practicable, to carry him deep into the theory, before “ And as blind perfons, at firft, cannot poffiblyhave
he has attained fome facility in the praCtice. Let, fo clear an idea of notes, and mufical char otters, as they
therefore, his head and his hands, (if we may ufe the that fee them, until they are taught by a matter or tu-
expreffion), be taught to go pari pajfu. Let the one tor; I have (for the good-will I bear to fuch unfortu-
be inftruCted in the fimpleft elements,- and the others nate perfons) contrived the following table; that, by
condufted in the eafieft operations, firft: contemplation feeling, they may underftand notes, and learn any tune
and exercife will produce light in the one and promp- that fhall be fet them, in their mailer's abfence.
titude in the other. But, as his capacity of fpecula-
for the
blind, n
diocrity,
A New
13 L I
t 1201 ] B L I
A New Musi c-T able for fuch as are Blind.
A |—o—o—o—o—o—o—o—o—o-
Gjoooooooo.o
F '—o—o—o—o—o—o—o—o—o-
o o o o
Explanation.
“ Let A—B be a fmooth board, 3 or 4 feet long,
f inch thick, and 9 inches wide, with 5 fquare ledges
glued thereon, each being half an inch afunder, half an
/inch wide, and half an inch high; which rifing ledges
reprefent our 5 lines of mulic,. and their fpaces : and
the two outward lines, being made a little lower, may
ferve as leger lines, on occafion. The cyphers repre¬
fent fo many holes bored into every line and fpace, half
an inch afunder ; wherein peggs of different fhapes are
to be fet, to reprefent the feveral forts of notes and
charafters of the tune : which peggs the blind perfon
may know by feeling, as well as he does his keys of
the organ or harpfichord : fo that, by keeping his fin¬
gers on the 5'lines, he feels the feveral peggs as they
come on, and are fet to reprefent the feveral forts of
notes, on both line and fpace; whilft his right hand
llrikes the refpeftive key, &c. he firfl knowing the
names of all his keys, his lines, fpaces, and the mark
of every pegg. Let each pegg be about half an inch
high, when fet in very faft.
“ N. B. The blind perfon muft firft be taught the
names of the above lines and fpaces in both the treble
and bafs cliffs; and that he muft feel his treble with
his right hand, and his bafs with the left hand ; each
being contrary, as you may fee by the letters of the
above table, A and B; and muft learn each part fe-
parate.
Of Peggs for Notes, &c.
“ Of peggs, he muft have a great number of every
fort, to fet his tune with, which he may mark as fol¬
lows :
For a Semibrieve, 4 top-notches.
Minim, 2 top-notches.
Crotchet, 1 top-notch.
Quaver, one corner cut off.
Semiquaver, 2 corners cut off.
Demifemiquaver, all 4 corners cut off.
Pefts, a notch in the corner.
A Flat, 1 notch on the fide.
Sharp, 2 notches on the fide.
Point, 3 notches on the fide.
Bar, a fiat thin top.
Repeat, a fharp-pointed top, &c. &c. &c.
“ But it is beft for every performer to make and
mark his own peggs ; and deliver them one by one as
they are called for by the perfon that fets his tune.”
Thus far our author. It is certain, that when play¬
ing concerto’s, or, if you pleafe, when performing in
fcore, the blind muft depend upon memory, and upon
memory alone : but happily their retentive powers are
remarkably ftrong; and there are few pieces in mufic
which will be found either too intricate to be acquired,
or too long to be remembered, by a perfon deprived of
fight. Mr Stanley, the gentleman formerly mentioned
by Tanfure, performs what is ftill more aftonifhing.
If our information, which we cannot doubt, be true,
he accompanies any leffon with a thorough bafs, tho*
he never has heard it before. We have never yet heard
of any perfon, though bleffed with the full ufe of fight,
and with all the advantages accruing from it, who
could thus anticipate harmony before the chords were
founded, and accompany it in a manner fuitable to its
nature.
When he becomes a more profound theorift, if he
has adopted the notion that mufic and geometry are
congenial and infeparable, (which, however, in our
judgment is frivolous), he may perufe Malcolm’s eflay
on mufic, and Treydell’s theory and pra&ice of mufic..
But, if he chufes to hear the fame principles delivered
without that unnecefiary parade and oftentation of pro¬
fundity, let him be inftruded by D’ Alembert, (fee the
article Music, in this Di&ionary) ; by Rameau, in his
principles of compofition ; and by Roufleau's mufical
dictionary, (the fubftance of which is engrofled in the
prefent Work, either under the refpe&ive detached ar¬
ticles, or in the notes added to the article Music). It
is true, that the forms and proportions of iuftruments,
the thicknefs, length, and tenfion of mufical firings,
may be mathematically adjufted ; their relations one to
another may be determined by the coincidence of their
vibrations, or by the number and velocity of thefe vi ¬
brations when dilfonant; but experience and a good
ear are amply fufficient for thefe purpofes. Yet, if the
necefiity of geometry in mufic fliould ftill remain an
indelible article in his creed, he may perufe Dr Smith’s
philofophical principles of harmony. There has alfo
lately been publilhed an explication of Tartini’s theory,
entitled, The principles and power of harmony ; which,
after he has made confiderable progrefs, may be read to
him with fenfible improvement. Sl
Thus we have endeavoured to form an eftimate of the Apoftropf*?
inconveniences fuffered, and the advantages poflefled,to tlie pe-
by the blind; we have attempted to (how, of what
kind of culture their remaining faculties are fufceptible,
and what appeared tons the eafieft and propereft means
of their improvement. We have illuftrated not only
its poffibility, but its certainty, by inconteftable fatts,
which.
B L I [ 1202 ] B L I
Blind, -wrhiclu demonflrate, even in the eyes of fcepticifm and
incredulity, to what degrees of eminence, both in the
mechanical and liberal arts, the blind may be carried.
It now remains to demand a categorical anfwer from
fociety, whether it is more humane and eligible, that
fucli unhappy perfons fhould be fuffered to languilh out
their lives in torpid and miferable obfcurity, wretched
in themfelves and burdenfome to others ; or to cultivate
and improve their powers in fuch a manner, as that
they may be qualified for internal enjoyment and pu¬
blic utility ? Surely there is not a human being, who
does not difgrace the works of God, that can be at
any lofs in anfwering this queftion. Have we not then
a right to call the world to an account ? have we not
a right to demand, why rational beings fufceptible of
felicity in themfelves, and capable of transfufing hap-
pinefs through the focieties with whom they are con-
nefted, Ihpuld be abandoned to a ftate of infignificance
?nd mifery ? Is it poflible that men who are every mo¬
ment fubjefted to the fame contingencies with which
they behold their fellow-creatures afilidted, Ihould not
with all their fouls endeavour to alleviate the misfor¬
tunes of their buffering brethren ? Is the native and he¬
reditary port'PH of human wo fo light and fupportable
in itfelf, that we Ihould neglecl and defpife thofe to
whom it is embittered by accidental circ'umftances of
horror and diftrefs ? You who are parents, who feel
the ftrong and powerful pleadings of nature, do not,
by a brutal negligence and infenfibility, render the ex¬
igence which you have given a curfe to its poffeffors.
Do not give them reafon to upbraid your memory ;
and to anfwer thofe who alk what patrimony you have
left them, that their foie inheritance was ignorance, in¬
capacity, and indigence. You men of wealth and emi¬
nence, you whom Providence has rendered confpicuous
on the theatre of nature, to whom it has given the no-
bleft opportunities of participating the divine beatitude
by the exercife of univerfal benevolence and genuine
patriotifm, yours is the glorious province of bringing
uegledted merit from oblcurity, of healing the wounds
inflifted by adverfe fortune, and of cultivating thefe
talents which may be exerted for your own advantage
and the honour of your fpecies. Thus you lhall rife
in the heraldry of heaven, and your names diffufe a
a luftre through the extent of fpace and the archives of
eternity. Otherwife the temporary glare and parade
of your fituation can produce nothing elfe but a def-
picable mimicry of real and intrinfic greatnefs, and are
no more than a fplendid mafic to cover what in itfelf
is infamous or detefiable.
By way of appendix to the preceding article, we
{hall add one or two very fingular hiftories, with which
it is hoped our readers wifi not be difpleafed.
An account of fome remarkable particulars that hap¬
pened to a lady after having had the confluent kind of
fmall-pox.~\ “ In the courfe of this difeafe, during
which the lady was attended by the late Sir Hans
Sloane, feveral threatening fymptoms appeared, which
however were at length overcome ; and the patient
being thought out of danger, took feverel dofes of fuch
purgative medicines as are ufually adminifiered in the
decline of the difeafe, without any bad confequence.
“ But in the evening of the day on which /he had
taken the laft dofe that was intended to be given her
on that occafion, flie was fuddenly feized with pains
and convnlfions in the bowels; the pain and other fymp¬
toms became gradually lefs violent as the force of the
medicine abated, and by fuch remedies as were thought
beft adapted to the cafe they ,feemed at length to be
entirely fubdued.
“ They were, however, fubdued only in appearance;
for at eleven o’clock in the forenoon of the next day
they returned with great violence, and continued fome
hours: when they went off, they left the mufcles of
the lower jaw fo much relaxed, that it fell down, and
the chin was fupported on the breait. The ftrength of
the patient was fo much exhaufted during this pa-
roxyfm, that (he lay near two hours with no other figns
of life than a very feeble refpiration, which was often fo
difficult to be difcemed, that thofe about her concluded
fhe was dead.
“ From this time the fits returned periodically every
day, at about the fame hour. At firff they feemed to
affeft her nearly in the fame degree ; but at length all
the fymptoms were aggravated, the convulfions became
more general, and her arms were fometimes convulfed
alternately ; it alfo frequently happened, that the arm
which was laft convulfed remained extended and inflex¬
ible fome hours after the ftruggles were over. Her
neck was often twitted with fuch violence, that the face
looked dire&ly backwards, and the back part of the
head was over the breaft; the mufcles of the counte¬
nance were alfo fo contracted and writhed by the fpafins,
that the features were totally changed, and it was im-
poffible to find any refemblance of her natural afpeft
by which (he could be known. Her feet were not lefs
diftorted than her head ; for they were twifted almoft
tq diflocation at the inftep, fo that ftie could not walk
but upon her ancles.
“ To remove or mitigate thefe deplorable fymp¬
toms, many remedies were tried ; and, among others,
the cold bath : but either by the natural effeft of the
bath, or by fome mifmanagement ip the bathing, the
unhappy patient firft became blind, and foon after¬
wards deaf and dumb. It is not eafy to conceive what
could increafe the mifery of deafnefs, dumbnefs, blind-
nefs, and frequent paroxyfms of excruciating pain: yet
a very confiderable aggravation was added ; for the lofs
of her fight, her hearing, and her fpeech, was followed
by fuch a ftrifture of the mufcles of her throat, that
{he could not fwallow any kind of aliment either folid
or liquid. It might reafonably be fuppofed that this
circumftance, though it added to the degree of her
mifery, would have fhortened its duration : yet in this
condition {he continued near three quarters of a year;
and during that time was fupported in a very uncom¬
mon manner, by chewing her Food only; which having
turned often, and kept long in her mouth, fire was ob-_
liged at laft to fpit out. Liquors were likewife gar¬
gled about in her mouth for fome time; and then re¬
turned in the fame manner, no part of them having
paffed the throat by an aft of deglutition : fo that
whatever was conveyed into the ftomacb, either of the
juices of the folid food, or of liquids, was either gra¬
dually imbibed by the fponginefs of the parts, which
they moiftened, or trickled down in a very fmall quan¬
tity along the fides of the veffels.
“ But there were other peculiarities in the cafe of
this lady, yet more extraordinary. During the priva¬
tion
B L I [ 1203 ] B L I
tion of her fight and hearing, her touch and her fniell
became fo exquifite, that fhe could diftinguilh the dif¬
ferent colours of filk and flowers, and was fenflble when
any ftranger was in the room with her.
“ After fhe became blind, and deaf, and dumb, it
was not eafy to contrive any method by which a que-
ftion could be aflted her, and an anfwer received. This
however was at lad effe&ed, by talking with the fin¬
gers, at which fhe was uncommonly ready. But thofe
who converfed with her in this manner, were obliged
to exprefs themfelves by touching her hand and fingers
inftead of their own.
“ A lady who was nearly related to her, having an
apron on, that was embroidered with filk of different
colours, afked her, in the manner which has been de-
fcribed, if fhe could tell what colour it was ? and after
applying her fingers attentively to the figures of the
embroidery, fhe replied, that it was red, and blue, and
green ; which was true. The fame lady having a pink
coloured ribbon on her head, and being willing it ill fur¬
ther to fatisfy her curiofity and her doubts, afked what
colour that was ? her coufin, after feeling fome time, an-
fwered that it was pink colour : this anfwer was yet
more aftonifhing, becaufe it fhewed not only a power
of dillinguifhing different colours, but different kinds
of the fame colour; the ribbon was not only difcovered
to be red, but the red was difcovered to be of the pale
kind called a pink.
“ This unhappy lady, confcious of her own uncom¬
mon infirmities, was extremely unwilling to be feen by
ftrangtrs, and therefore generally retired to her cham¬
ber, where none but thofe of the family were likely to
come. The fame relation, who had by the experiment
of the apron and ribbon difcovered the exquifite fenfi-
bility of her touch, was foon after convinced by an ac¬
cident, that her power of /welling was acute and refined
in the fame aftonifhing degree.
“ Being one day vifiting the family, fhe went up to
her coulin’s chamber, and after making herfelf known,
fhe intreated her to go down, and fit with her among
the reft of the family, affuring her, that there was no
other perfon prefent: to this fhe at length confented,
and went down to the parlour door; but the moment
the door was opened, fhe turned back, and retired to
her own chamber much difpleafed; alleging, that there
were ftrangers in the room, and that an attempt had
been made to deceive her: it happened indeed that there
were ftrangers in the room; but they had come in while
the lady was above ftairs, fo that fbe did not know
they were there. When fhe had fatisfied her coufin of
this particular, fhe was pacified ; and being afterwards
afked how fhe knew there were ftrangers in the room,
fhe anfwered, by the fmell.
“ But though fhe could by this fenfe diftinguifh in
general between perfons with whom fhe was well ac¬
quainted, and ftrangers, yet fhe could not fo eafily di¬
ftinguifh one of her acquaintance from another without
other afliftance. She generally diftinguifhed her friends
by feeling their hands; and when they came in, they
ufed to prefent their hands to her, as a mean of making
themfelves known : the make and warmth of the hand
produced in general the differences that file diftin-
guifhed ; but fometimes fhe ufed to fpan the wrift, and
meafure the fingers. A lady, with whom fhe was very
well acquainted, coming in one very hot day, after
having walked a mile, prefented her hand, as ufual ;
fhe felt it longer than ordinary, and feemed to doubt
whofe it was; but after fpanning the wrift, and mea-
furing the fingers, fhe faid, ‘ It is Mrs M. but fhe is
‘ warmer to-day than ever I felt her before.’
“ To amufe herfelf in the mournful and perpetual
folitude and darknefs to which her diforder had reduced
her, fhe ufed to work much at her needle ; and it is re¬
markable, that her needle-work was uncommonly neat
and exadt: among many other pieces of her work that
are preferved in the family, is a pin-cufhion, which can
fcarce be equalled. She ufed alfo fometimes to write;
and her writing was yet more extraordinary than her
needle-work : it was executed with the fame regularity
andexaftnefs; the character was very pretty, the lines
were all even, and the letters placed at equal diftances
from each other : but the moft aftonifhing particular
of all, with refpedf to her writing, is, that fhe could
by fome means difcover when a letter had by fome mi-
ftake been omitted, and would place it over that part
of the word where it fhould have been inferted, with a
caret under it. It was her cuftom to fit up in bed at
any hour of the night, either to write or to work, when
her pain or any other caufe kept her awake.
“ Thefe circumftances were fo very extraordinary,
that it was long doubted whether fhe had not fome faint
remains both of hearing and fight, and many experi¬
ments were made to afcertain the matter ; fome of thefe
experiments fhe accidentally difcovered, and the difco-
very always threw her into violent convulfions. The
thought of being fufpe&ed of infincerity, or fuppofed
capable of afting fo wicked a part as to feign infirmi¬
ties that were not infli&ed, wasan addition to her mifery
which fhe could not bear, and which never failed to pro¬
duce an agony of mind not lefs vifible than thofe of her
body. A clergyman who found her one evening at work
by a table with a candle upon it, put his hat between
her eyes and the candle, in fuch a manner that it was
impoffible fhe could receive any benefit from the light
of it if fhe had not been blind. She continued ftill at
her work, with great tranquillity ; till, putting up her
hand fuddenly to rub her forehead, fhe ftruck it againft
the hat, and difcovered what was doing ; upon which
fhe was thrown into violent convulfions, and was not
without great difficulty recovered. The family were,
by thefe experiments, and by feveral accidental circum¬
ftances, fully convinced that fhe w'as totally deaf and
blind ; particularly by fitting unconcerned at her work,
during a dreadful ftorm of thunder and lightening,
though fhe was then facing the window, and always
ufed to be much terrified in fuch circumftances. But
Sir Hans Sloane, her phyfician, being ftill doubtful
of the truth of facts which were fcarce lefs than mira¬
culous, he was permitted to fatisfy himfelf by fuch expe¬
riments and obfervations as he thought proper; the
iflue of which was, that he pronounced her to be ab-
folutely deaf and blind.
“ She was at length fent to Bath, where fhe was in
fome meafure relieved; her convulfions being lefs fre¬
quent, and her pains lefs acute r but fhe never reco¬
vered her fpeech, her fight, or her hearing in the leaft
degree.
“ Many of the letters dated at Bath, in fome of
which there are inftances of interlineations with a caret,
the writer of this narrative hath fe^n, and they arc now
in
Blind.
B L I
[ 1204 ]
B L I
In the cuftody of the widow of one of her brothers,
- who, with many other perfons, can fupport the fafts
here related, however wonderful, with fuch evidence
as it would not only be injuftice, but folly, to difbe-
lieve.”
An account of a French lady. Hind from her infancy.
From this account, however, it would appear, that
except reading and writing, the French lady has no¬
thing to boaft of in which {he is not excelled by Mr
Stanley already mentioned, if we may credit all that
is reported of him. The works peculiar to her fex ,
are gained mechanically ; but the dijlinguijbing colourt, ;
who can read, write, and play at cards, &c.] “A young telling the precife time by a watch, naming the notes
■f Annual Re’
gijier for
1761,.
gentlewoman of a good family in France, now in her
18th yearf, loft her fight when only two years old, her
mother having been advifed to lay fome pigeons blood his friends ceafe to think them extraordinary. Attain-
in mufic, and many other things depending upon the '
ear and touch, are faid to be fo familiar to him, that
on her eyes, to preferve them in the fmall-pox; whereas,
fo far from anfwering the end, it eat into them. Nature,
however, may be faid to have compenfated for the un-
happy miftake, by beauty of perfon, fweetnefs of tem¬
per, vivacity of genius, quicknefs of conception, and
many talents which certainly much alleviate her mif-
fortune.
“ She plays at cards with the fame readinefs as o-
thers of the party. She firft prepares the packs allotted
to her, by pricking them in feveral parts; yet fo imper¬
ceptibly, that the clofeft infpe&ion can fcarce difeern
her indexes. She forts the fuits, and arranges the cards
in their proper fequence, with the fame precifion, and
nearly the fame facility, as they who have their fight.
All ftie requires of thofe who play with her, is to name
every card as it is played ; and thefe {he retains fo ex¬
actly, that {he frequently performs fome notable ftrokes
fuch as {hew a great combination and ftrong memory.
“ The moft wonderful circumftance is, that file
{hould have leartmd to read and write; but even this
is readily believed on knowing her method. In writing
to her, no ink is ufed, but the letters are pricked down
ments ftill more wonderful are aferibed to him; as, the fl
naming the number of perfons in a room on entering it; -||
the direfting his voice to each perfon in particular, d
even to ftrangers when they have once fpoken; the 51
miffing any perfon abfent, and telling who that per- I
fon is; and laftly, his being able to form juft conceptions M
of youth, beauty, fymmetry, and ffiape.
Pcre-BniND, or Pur-blind. A perfon who is very |
Ihort-fighted is faid to be pur-blind.
JVIoon-'St^im), denotes horfes that lofe their fight at J|
certain times of the moon *.
BLiND'/Fom. See Anguis. xT. t
BLINDS, or Blindes, in the art of war, a fort
of defence commonly made of oziers, or branches in- 1
terwoven, and laid acrofs between two rows of ftakes, I
about the height of a man, and four or five feet afun- i
der, ufed particularly at the heads of trenches, when 1
they are extended in front towards the glacis ; ferving J
to Ihelter the workmen, and prevent their being over- 1
looked by the enemy.
BLINDNESS, a total privation of fight, arifing
from an obftrudiion of the funftions of the organs of
on the paper; and by the delicacy of her touch, feeling fight, or from an entire deprivation of them f.
each letter {he follows them fucceffively, and reads e-
very word with her fingers ends. She herfelf in 1
f Sed
Indeji
BLISTER, in medicine, a thin bladder containing j0jned
a watery humour, whether occafioned by burns, and Mem
ting makes ufe of a pencil, as ftie could not know when the like accidents, or by veficatories applied to diffe-
her pen was dry; her guide on the paper is a fmall
thin ruler and of the breadth of her writing. On fi-
rent parts of the body for that purpofe *.—Cantha-
rides, or Spanifli flies, applied in the form of a plafter, Jn<
nilhing a letter, {he wets it, fo as to fix the traces of are chiefly ufed with this intention. See Cantharides.
her pencil, that they are not obfeured or effaced ; then
proceeds to fold and feal it, and write the diredtion :
ELITE, in botany. See Blitum.
BLITH, a town of Nottinghamftiire, in England,
, Inded
■m
all by her own addrefs, and without the affiftance of feated in W. Long. o. 55. N. Lat. 53. 25.
any other perfon. Her writing is very ftraight, well cut,
and the fpelling no lefs corredt. To reach this Angular
mechanifm, the indefatigable cares of her affedlionate
mother were long employed, who accuftomed her
daughter to feel letters cut in cards or pafte-board,
brought her to diftinguifti an A from a B, and thus
the whole alphabet, and afterwards to fpell words;
then, by the remembrance of the ffiape of the letters, to
delineate them on paper; and, laftly, to arrange them
fo as to form words and fentences.
“ She has learned to play on the guittar, and has
even contrived a way of pricking down the tunes as an
affiftance to her memory. So delicate are her organs,
that in finging a tune, though new to her, Ihe is able
to name the notes.
“ In figured dances flie acquits herfelf extremely
well, and in a minuet with inimitable eafe and grace-
fulnefs. As for the works of her fex, {he has a maf-
terly hand ; ftie fews and hems perfe&ly well; and in
in all her works ftie threads the needles for herfelf how¬
ever fmall.
“ By the watch her touch never fails telling her
exaftly the hour and minute.”
BLITUM, Elite, or Strawberry Spinach ; a ge- 1
nus of the digynia order, belonging to the monandria 1
clafs of plants.
Species. 1. The capitatum, with flowers in clu- 1
ftered heads at the joints and crown of the ftaiks, is a 'I
native of Spain and Portugal, but has been long preferv- 1
ed in the Britifti gardens on account of the beauty of its J
fruit. It is an annual plant, with leaves fomewhat like f
thofe of fpipach ; the ftalk rifes two feet and an half 1
high ; the upper part of the ftalk hath flowers coming 1
out in fmall heads at every joint, and is terminated by |
a little duller of the fame: after the flowers are paft, 1
the heads fwell to the fize of wood ftrawberries, and -1
when ripe have the fame appearance, but are not eat- 4,
able: they are full of a purple juice, which ftains the j
hands of thofe wherbruife them of a deep purple colour. I
2. The virgatum, with fmall heads growing from the |
fides of the ftaiks, is a native of the fouth of France I
and Italy. This feldom grows more than a foot high: J
the leaves are fmaller than the firft, but of the fame I
{hape: the flowers are produced at the wings of the 1
leaves, ahnoft the length of the ftalk ; they are fmaller I
and not fo deeply coloured as the fiift. 3. The tarta-
ricum, |
B L O [ 1205 ]
Irieum, triangular, acutely indented leaves, is a native
of the country from which it takes its name. Mr Mil¬
ler received the feeds from Peterfburg. It rifes to very
near three feet high; the flowers come out from the
fides of the (talks, but are fmallerthan thofepf the flrfl,
as is alfo the fruit.
Culture. All thefe plants, being annuals, mud be
propagated by feeds; and, as they are very hardy, will
fucceed in the common borders, if fown in March or
April, covering the feed about half an i.nch deep with
earth, and leaving .the plants five pr fix inches afunder.
When they come up, each muft be fupported with a
fmall flick, or they will be borne down by the weight
of the berries.
BLOATING, among phyficians. See Emphy-
BLOCK, a large mafs of wood, ferving to work or
cut things on.
Mounting Block, an eminence ufually pf (lone, cut
in fteps or notches, ferving as a help to mount on
horfeback. Thefe were much in ufe among the an¬
cients, who were unacquainted with ftifrups. The Ro¬
mans eredted them at proper ftations along all their
great roads.
BLOCKADE, in the art of war, the blocking up
a place, by polling troops at all the avenues leading to
it, to keep fupplies of men and provifions from getting
into it; and by thefe means propofingto ftarve it out,
without making any regular attacks.
To raifs a blockade, is to force the troops that keep
the place blocked up from their polls.
BLOCZIL, a fortrefs of Over-yflel in the United
Provinces, feated on the river Aa, at the place where
it falls into the ZuiderZee. It has a port fufficient to
contain 200 veffels, and ferves to defend thofe Ihips
that crofs this fea. It has fix good ballions, and fe-
veral other regular fortifications. E. Long. 6. o. N.
Lat. 52. 44.
BLOEMART (Abraham), a celebrated painter,
born at Gorcum in Holland in 1567. We are not in¬
formed what particular means of improvement he had;
but it is certain he defigned in a more elegant tafte
than any of his countrymen. His figures are often
graceful; excepting only that he gives them fome-
times an affected twill, which is Hill more confpicuous
in the fingers. The refurredlion of Lazarus is one of
Bloemart’s mailer-pieces ; in which are many faults,
and many beauties ; both very charadteriftic. There
have been a great number of prints engraved after his
works. He died in 1647 ; and left three fons : two
of them, Henry and Adrian, were painters ; and the
youngell, Cornelius, was an excellent engraver’.
BLOIS, a town of France, the capital of Blaifois,
in Orleanois, is feated on the banks of the river Loire,
partly on a plain, and partly on an eminence, in the
midft of one of the moll agreeable countries of France.
The caftle is the ornament of this city. At the firft
view, it feems to be two diftindt buildings; but it is
joined by a paffage cut out of the rock. Joining to
this, on the wdl-fide, is the tower of Chateau-Reg-
naud, fo called becaufe that lordfhip may be difcovered
from hence, though 20 miles diftant. At the eall-end
of this is another fmall tower, which is partly ancient
and partly modern. That part of the caftle which
was built bv the duke of Orleans, in the room of that
Vox,. II.
which he demolilhed in 1632, is a fuperb edifice, but
unfinilhed. The court before it, where the church of
St Saviour is built, is very large, and was formerly
ufed for tournaments. The moll remarkable thing in
this callle is a fine long gallery, adorned with many
curious and uncommon pieces ; it is in the midft of
two gardens, one of which is full of fruit-trees, and
the other of parterres, fountains, cafcades, and mar¬
ble ftatue.s brought from Italy. Beyond thefe, there
is a large park, where there is game in abundance. On
all the gates of the pity there is the image of the Vir¬
gin Mary, who they believe freed them from the
plague in 1631. There are feveral parilh-churches,
chapters, and religious ho ufe s for both fexes. The
church of St Solenne is the cathedral, and is the hand-
fomeft in the city. The front of the Jefuits church
is decorated with three orders of architedlure, the
Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian ; but there is only the
Doric on the infide. The town-houfe is a tolerable
building, and (lands in a ftreet which terminates at the
quay, where there is a public walk that has a fine
profpecl on the Loire, over which there is a bridge
that leads to the fuburbs of Vienna. There are a few
houfes on the bridge, and a tower at each end to guard
the entrance. About three quarters of a mile from
the city, the water runs down the clefts of a rock into
a large aquedudl, by which it is conveyed to a refervoir
near the walls, and from hence diftributed by leaden
pipes to the feveral parts of the city. The country a-
bout Blois produces corn, wine, cattle, and game of
every kind, and the waters a great quantity of filh.
The meadows are fo rich and fertile, that the cows
yield excellent milk, good in confumptive cafes, and
which affords the bed cream in the kingdom. About
a league from Blois, there are mineral fprings, which
have the fame virtues as thofe of Forges. The trade of
Blois is chiefly in wine and brandy; but they'alfo
make fome ferges and fluffs at this place. Several kings
have kept their courts at Blois, for which reafon they
fpeak the French language in perfedlion, and the in¬
habitants are accounted witty and polite. E. Long.
1. 30. N. Lat. 47. 35.
BLOMARY, or Bloomary, in metallurgy, the firft
forge through which iron paffes, after it is melted out
of the ore.
BLON (James Chriftopher le), an artift who in¬
vented a method of producing paintings by printing.
He was a Frenchman of furprifing vivacity and volubi¬
lity ; and Mr Walpole, who knew him, fays, he had a
head admirably mechanic, but was an univerfal pro-
jedlor. His method of printing paintings was per¬
formed by feveral mezzotinto plates for one piece, each
exprefling different (hades and parts of the piece in dif¬
ferent colours. In this manner he perfedled many
large pictures that were very tolerable copies of the belt
mailers. He diftributed thofe by a kind of lottery,
but the fubferibers did not find their prizes much va¬
lued. However, fome heads coloured progreflively, ac¬
cording to their feveral gradations, bear witnefs to the
.fuccefs and beauty of his invention. He had another
merit to the public, with which few inventors begin ;
for he communicated his fecret in a thin quarto, enti¬
tled Coloritto, or “ The harmony of colouring in paint¬
ing, reduced to mechanical praftice, under eafy pre¬
cepts and infallible rules.” In 1732, he alfo publilhed,
7 N in
B L O [ 1206 ] B L O
Blohdcl in French, a Treatife on ideal Beauty, which has been
II fince tranflated into Englith ; he afterwards fet up a
00 ‘ project for copying the cartoons in tapeftry, and made
fome very fine drawings for that purpofe, but did not
meet with the fuccefs he expe&ed. The affair therefore
was dropped, and he d;fappeared.
BLONDEL (David), a proteftant minifter in the
17th century, diftinguifhed by his (kill in ecclefiaftical
and civil hiftory, was born at Chalons fur Marne; and
was admitted minifter at a fynod of the ifle of France,
in 1614. He wrote, 1. A defence of the reformed
churches of France. 2. A work againft t he decretal
epiftles. 3. De Epifcopis & Prejbyteris ; and other
pieces. Bayle informs us that he had a very fingular
way of ftudying ; he lay on the ground, and had round
about him the books which he wanted for the work he
was about. He died in 1655, aged 64.
Blondel (Francis), regius profeflbr of mathematics
and archite£ture, was employed in feveral negotiations,
arrived at the dignity of marfhal de camp and coun-
fellor of ftate, and had the honour of being chofen to
teach the dauphin the mathematics ; he was alfo made
member of the Academy of Sciences at Paris, and di-
re&or of the Academy of Architetture. He died at
Paris in 1688, aged 68. He wrote, 1. Notes on the
archite&ure of Savot. 2. A courfe of archite&ure
and mathematics. 3. The art of throwing bombs.
4. A new manner of fortifying places. 5. A com-
parifon between Pindar and Horace ; and other works.
BLONDUS (Flavius), an hiftorian born at Forli,
in Italy, in 1388, was fecretary to Eugenius IV. and
other popes. He compofed a great many books ; and,
among others, a Hiftory from the year 400 to 1440.
He died in 1463.
BLONIEZ, a town of Poland, in the province of
Warfovia. E. Long. 20. 35. N. Lat. 52. o.
BLOOD, a red liquor circulating through the vef-
fels of the human body and the bodies of the larger a-
nimals, which appears immediately and eflentially ne-
ceffary to the prefervation of life.
No animal Though there is no living creature as yet known,
without whofe life doth not immediately depend upon the cir-
fome liquid cu]ation of fome kind of fluid through its veffels, yet
to blood11 l,n^e^s *s a re^ col°ur> ^ doth not obtain
the name of blood; and therefore fuch creatures as have
a colourlefs or milky liquor circulating through their
veflels, are called exfanguious animals.
a The blood has a very different degree of thicknefs or
different^ vifcidity in different animals, and even in the fame ani-
thicknefs in mal at different times. Though it- is in all cafes en-
different a- dowed with a conliderable degree of tenacity, yet in
nimals. ftrong animals that tenacity is remarkably greater than
3 in weak ones ; and hence the blood of bulls was made
That of ufe Gf by the ancients as a poifon, its extreme vifcidity
^'ntl^ufed rer,dering it totally indigeftible by the powers of the
asa*poifon. human ftomach. It is well known alfo by phyficians,
that there are fome ftates of the human body in which
* See the tbe blood becomes vaftly tenacious, fo as in a great
Index fob- meafure to refufe any intimate connexion with water;
joined to and others, in which its crafts is almoft totally diffolved,
Mediant. y0 ag tQ appear> when drawn out of the body, like a
4 fluid and half putrid mafs *.
Appearance 'pbe common appearance of the blood when drawn
vfherfdrawn ^rom a veIn in the human body is well known.\ It firft
from a vein! ^eems an homogeneous red liquor ; then it confolidates
into one uniform mafs; in a little time, a yellowifh wa- Bloc*
tery liquor begins to feparate from it, which is more ’ ”
or lefs in quantity according to the ftate in which the a
blood happens to be; the red mafs, in the mean time, a
contra&s greatly in its dimenfions, and increafes in fo- 9
lidity. But this increafe of folidity is likewife pro- inflj
portional to the flate of the blood at the time : in ftrong |H
people, if attacked with a violent inflammatory difeafe,
the folid part is exceedingly tough, infomuch that Dr ||
Huxham fays he has fometimes found it almoft like a m
piece of flelh itfelf; whereas, in other difeafes, the folid ■
part is. very foft and tender, breaking in pieces with 1
the flighteft touch. The fpontaneous feparation of the i
blood into craffamentum, ferum, and coagulable lymph, JJf|]
hath been already taken notice of under Anatomy, 9
n° 389. _ _ S']
The attention of phyfiologifts hath been very much Bl?0(1|r
engaged by inquiries into the nature and compofition ^CTlj8
of the blood, and accordingly it hath been examined |
in all poffible ways. By a chemical analyfis, it dif- I
covers the fame principles with other animal fubftances; l
giving over in diftillation a great quantity of phlegm, '|H
a volatile fpirit, with much fetid oil ; after which, |
there remains a charred matter, that, burnt in an open |
fire, leaves a white earth fimilar to calcined hartfhorn. 6
Some eminent chemifts, Mr Homberg particularly, have Conuw
afferted that blood contains an acid as well as an alkali,an ,^4
but that the former doth not arife till towards the end fomeci
of the diftillation : but what is very Angular, and in- milh.
deed muft throw no fmall fufpicion on the whole account, i|
is, that the acid and alkali, notwithftanding their great
tendency on all other occafions to unite with each other, 1
do here remain feparate, fo that the liquor may be even ^1
rediftilled without their forming any neutral compound. ||
An experiment in confirmation of this is recorded in the Experi-
memoirs of the Royal Academy for 1712. Six pounds mcnLi|
of human blood diftilled to drynefs with a gentle heat,
were reduced to a pound and an half; after which, the j
mafs was urged with a graduated fire, till the retort at ]
laft became red hot. The produce was 17 ounces of i
liquor ; 12 of which were a red and very empyreumatic |
volatile fpirit, the other five were oil. The caput I
mortuum was a light coal weighing four ounces and a ^
half. On rectifying the volatile fpirit in a fmall retort, I
about an ounce of a red fetid liquor remained, which j
had a very acid fmell, and turned the juice of turnfole '$1
red. Mr Homberg now imagined, that the acid con- \
tained in the blood of animals could not difengage it- ;l
felf perfectly by thefe diftillations without addition. He
therefore determined to diftil human blood with an ad- M
mixture of fome other fubftance ; but as earths contain
a fait, which might render the operation uncertain, he j
determined to ufe only the caput mortuum of a former 1
diftillation of the fame fubftance. For this purpofe, four J
pounds of the ccmgulum of human blood being well ’
mixed with a large quantity of this refiduum, and the j
whole dried in the fun, it was put into a retort, and
diftilled with a fire raifed, towards the end of the ope¬
ration, to the utmoft violence. The oil being fepa-
rated from the volatile fpirit, the latter was rectified ; M
and the confequence was, that there came over four
pounds of a red acid liquor, that turned the tinCture of
turnfole very red. All the diftillations of the aqueous
liquors already mentioned, obtained by fimilar proceffes,
being mixed together, and feparated from their yet re- ,
maining
B L O [ 1207 ] B L O
manning oil, by careful dilution with water and filtra¬
tion, they were at length diftilled together the liquor
that came over was clear as water, and its firlt quan¬
tities contained a great deal of volatile fait, but the
laft two ounces were found to be as four as diftilled vi¬
negar.—The fame produdts were obtained from the
blood of carnivorous animals, as well as from that of
animals feeding folely upon vegetables.
In Dr Lewis’s notes on Newman’s Chemiftry we
have the following account of the blood, and the parts
into which it may be refolved. “ Recent blood is e-
qually fluid, and in tafte fomewhat faline. Viewed by
a microfcope, it appears compofed of numerous red
globules fwimming in a tranfparent fluid. On Handing
for a little time, it feparates into a thick craflamentum,
and fluid ferum. By agitation, it continues fluid : A
confiftent polypous matter adheres to the ftirrer, which,
by repeated ablution writh water, becomes white.—
Received from the vein in warm water, it depofits a
quantity of tranfparent filamentous matter, the red por¬
tion continuing diflblved in the water. On evaporating
the fluid, a red powdery fubftance is left.— It congeals
by froft, and becomes fluid again by warmth ; after
liquefaction, it quickly putrefies.—Fluid and florid
blood expofed to a temperate air, putrefies fooner than
fuch as is more denfe. Infpifiated to drynefs, it leaves a
dark-coloured mafs, amounting, at a medium, to about
one fourth of the weight of the blood, of a bitter fa-
line tafte, eafily inflammable, burning with a bluilh
flame. The exficcated blood is not foluble in acid or
alcaline liquors ; but gives fome tinCture to water and
to fpirit of wine, and is more powerfully afted upon by
dulcified fpirit of nitre. Recent blood is coagulated
by the mineral acids, and by molt of the combinations
of them with earthy and metallic bodies. With ve¬
getable acids, and with folutions of neutral falts, it
mingles equably without coagulation. Alcalis, both
fixed and volatile, render it more fluid, and preferve it
from coagulating.
“ The ferum of blood is more faline than the craf-
famentum, and does not fo fpeedily putrefy. It freezes
fomewhat more difficultly than pure water; and its a-
queous part evaporates, by a gentle warmth, fomewhat
more readily, leaving about one twelfth of the weight
of the ferum of a folid yellowifti pellucid matter. Ex¬
pofed to heat a little greater than that of the human
body, it coagulates into a folid mafs, without any con-
fiderable evaporation. Both this coagulum and the
infpifiated ferum are readily inflammable in the fire,
not difibluble in water, or in fpirit of wine, in acid or
in alcaline liquors.”
But the texture of the blood difcoverable by a mi¬
crofcope, hath bngaged the attention of the learned
much more than the chemical analyfis ever did. Lew-
enhoeck was the firft who difcovered, or fancied he dif-
covered, that the blood, as it exifts in the body of an
animal, confifts of a quantity of red globular particles
fwimming in a large quantity of tranfparent liquor. Each
of thefe globules, he imagined, was compofed of fix
fmaller ones packed together. While the fix continued
to adhere, their colour was red ; but when feparated,
they became yellow, and thus formed what is called
the ferutn. He even pretended to have difcovered that
each of the ferous globules confifted of fix fmaller ones,
and that thefe when broken down conftituted fome
more fubtile and penetrating liquor than the ferum, &c. Blood.
This was for a long time received almoft univerfally as
an undoubted fadt; and many theories were built upon
it, and elaborate calculations made, of which (we hope)
no account needs now be given, as the falfity of thefe jo
pretended difeoveries is generally allowed. Father de According
Torre, with microfcopes which he pretended were ca- ^
pable of magnifying to an incredible degree, found 10rr ’
that the red particles of the blood were of an annular
figure, with a perforation in the middle; and that the
ring itfelf was formed of feveral joints. Some of thefe
extraordinary magnifiers, however, being fent over to
England, thofe who were appointed by the Royal So¬
ciety to make trial of them found them totally ufelefs,
fo that the credit of Father de Torre’s difeoveries muft ,,
have refted principally on his own evidence. The fal- According
fity of his hypothefis, as well as that of Lewenhoeck,to Mr Hew-
was detefted by the late Mr Hewfon, whofe micro- fon"
fcopical experiments on the blood being the lateft that
have appeared, we fhall tranferibe the following par¬
ticular account of them given by himfelf in a letter
to Dr Haygarth phyfician in Chefter. “ The red
particles of the blood, improperly called globules, are
flat in all animals, and of very different fizes in different
animals. In man they are fmall, as flat as a {hilling,
and appear to have a dark fpot in the middle. In order
to fee them diftin&ly, I dilute the blood with frefli fe¬
rum. My predeceffors, not having thought of this,
could not fee them diftinftly. And Lewenhoeck in
particular, imagining a round figure fitteft for motion,
concluded they muft be round in the human body;
though he and others allowed that in frogs, &c. where
they viewed them diftinftly from the blood being thin¬
ner, they were flat. Now I prove that they are flat in
all animals. In the human blood, where thefe particles
are fmall, it is difficult to determine what that black fpot
is which appears in the centre of each. Some have
concluded that it was a perforation : but in a frog,
where it is fix times as large as in a man, it is eafy to
{how that it is not a perforation, but on the contrary
is a little folid, which is contained in the middle of a
veficle. Inftead, therefore, of calling this part of the
blood red globules, I ftiould call it red vejicles ; for each
particle is a flat veficle, with a little folid fphere in its
centre.
“ I find that the blood of all animals contains vefi-
cles of this fort. In human blood there are millions of
them; and they give it the red colour. But in infers
they are white, and lefs numerous in proportion than
in man and quadrupeds. As they are flat in all ani¬
mals, I fufpeft that (hape is a circumftance of import-
tance, but can be altered by a mixture with different
fluids. And I find that it is by a determinate quantity
of neutral fait contained in the ferum, that this fluid is
adapted to preferring thefe veficles in their flat {hape:
for, if they be mixed with water, they become round,
and diffolve perfe&ly; but add a little of any neutral
fait to the water, and they remain in it, without any
alteration in their (hape, and without diffolving.
“ Now, when it is confidered, that the blood of all
animals is filled with thefe particles, we muft believe
that they ferve fome very important purpofe in the ani¬
mal ceconomy; and fince they are fo complicated in
their ftrudlure, it is improbable they fliould be made
by mechanical agitation in the lungs or blood-veffels,
7 N 2 as
B L O [ 1208 ] B L O
as has been fufpefted, but probably have fome organs and a half without obferving his health to be in the
fet apart for their formation. This I {hall endeavour leaft impaired. From this fome have concluded the "
to prove, when I have explained their ftrudture a little fpleen .to be an ufelefs weight; which is abfurd, when
more particularly, and mentioned the manner in which we confider that all animals with red blood have it.
I exhibit it. I take the blood of a toad or frog, in Therefore it is more confident with what we know of
which they are very large; I mi* it with the ferum of the animal oecOnomy, to conclude, that iince an animal
human blood to dilate it; 1 find them appear all fiat; can do well without it, there is probably fome part of
fo they do in the blood-vefiels of this animal, as I have the body that can fupply its place,
diftinftly feen in the web between its toes, whilft the “ Infefts have veiicles conftrufted in a fimilar way
animal'was alive and fixed in the microfcope. Their to ours, but differing in colour. But infefts have nei-
appearance in thefe animals is not unlike flices of cu- ther fpleen, thymus, nor lymphatic glands; andthere-
cumber. I next mix a little of the blood with Water, fore in them probably thefe veficles are entirely fabri-
which immediately makes them all round, and then be- cated in the lymphatic veffels. But to us, and other of
gins to diffolve them whilft they are round. I iricline the more perfect animals, befides the lymphatic veffels,
the ftage of the microfcope, fo as to make them roll nature has given thofe glands, that a proper quantity
down it; and then I can diftinftly fee the folid in the of thofe important veficles might be the better fecured
middle fall from fide to fide like a pea in a bladder. A to us; juft as flie has given us two-ears, the better to
neutral fait added to them at this time brings them fecure us hearing through life, though we can hear per-
back to their flat fiiape: but if the fait be not added, fe&ly well with one.”
the water gradually dijTolves away the veficle; and then This letter, we apprehend, contains the ftrength of
the little fphere is left .naked. Such is the compofition Mr Hewfon’s evidence for his hypothefis; on which we "
of thefe particles. I have exhibited thefe experiments fiiall only remark, that if the red globules are prepared P
to a cohiiderable number of my acquaintance, who dll in the manner above mentioned, and the lymphatic vef-
agree in their being fittisfatSlory. fels are excretories of thofe glands where the red par-
“ The microfcope I ufe is a Angle lens, and there- tides me formed; then if there is any veffel where all
fore as little likely to deceive us as a pair of fpe&acles, thefe excretories unite, as mentioned Anatomy, n°37o,
which, as is allowed by all ivho ufe them, do not dif- in that veffd the lymph ought to appear very red, on
figure obje&s, but only reprefent them larger. account of the accumulated quantity of red veiicles
“ From farther experiments, I am convinced, that brought thither from all parts of the body. But no
the ufe of the thymus and lymphatic glands is to make fiich redflefs feCms ever to have been taken notice of by
the middle folid pieces: and I can prove it in as fatis- any anatomift: this therefore tnuft be an objection to
faftory a manner as you can do the ufe of afiy vifcus in Mr Hewfon’s hypothefis; and fuch an one, perhaps, as
the human body; that is, bp Opening thefe glands, and will not he ealily removed.
examining the fluid contained in their cells, which I Many other hypothefes have been invented concern-
find to be full of tbefe little folids. I moreover find, that ing the formation of the red blood, and various opi-
the lymphatic veffels take them up from thofe glands, nions delivered concerning its red Colour. In a ledture
and convey them into the blood-veffels which carry them delivered at NewCaftlc in 1773, by Dr Wilfon of that C
to the fpleen, in whofe cells they have the Veficles laid place, he afferts “ that it is felf-evidently the office of the 1
over them ; fo that the thymus and lymphatic glands “ veins to elaborate the fluids into that form and com-
make the central particles, and the fpleen makes the “ pofition which we know by the name of red blood."
veficles that furround them. That this is the ufe of the The felf-evidcnce here, however, is by no means appa-
fpleen appears from examining the lymph which is re- rent to us; nor doth he at all point it out in an intel-
turnedfromit by its lymphatic veffels; for that lymph, ligible manner.—Dr Cullen, in his phyfiological part c
contrary to what is obferved in other parts of the body, of The Inftitutions of Medicine, acknowledges that I
is extremely red. we know but little of the formation of any of the ani-
“ But befides having thefe glands fet aphrt for ma- mal fluids; and concerning the microfcopical obferva-
kingthe red veficles of the blood, I find that they are tions, &c. on the blood gives his opinion in thefollow-
alfo made in the lymphatic veffels in different parts of ing words, § cciiv. “ The red globules have been con-
the body, whofe coats have blood-veffels properly con- fidered as an oily matter, and from thence their diftindt
ftrufled for this fecretion. So that the thymus and and globular appearance has been accounted for: but
lymphatic glands are no more than appendages of the there is no direct proof of their oily nature; and their
lymphatic fyftem, for making the middle particles; and ready union with, and diffufibility in, water, renders
the fpleen an appendage to the lymphatic veffels, for it very improbable. As being microfcopical objeds
making the veficles which contain thefe middle par- only, they have been reprefented by different perfons
tides. very differently. Some have thought them fpherical
“ I conjefture that it is the coagulable lymph which bodies, but divifible into fix parts, each of which in their
is converted into this red part of the blood, from a cu- fepafate ftate were alfo fpherical; but other perfons
rious fad that has long been known; namely, that the have not obferved them to be thus divifible. To many
blood in the fplenic vein does not coagulate when ex- obfervers they have appeared as perfectly fpherical;
pofed to the air, as the blood of other veins does; fo while others judge them to be oblate fpheroids, or
that it feems to be robbed of its coagulable lymph in lenticular. To fome they have appeared as annular,
palling through the fpleen. and to others as containing a hollow veficle. All this,
“ It is very remarkable, that the fpleen can be cut with feveral other circumftances relating to them, very
ont of an animal, and the animal do well Vvithout it. I varioufly reprefented, {hew fome uncertainty in micro-
made the experiment on a dog, and kept him a year fcopical obfervations; and it leaves me, who am not
B L O
[ 1209 ]
B I, O
converfant in fuch obfervations, altogether uncertain with
-refpedt to the precife nature of this part of the blood.
The chemical hiftory of it is equally precarious; and
therefore what has been hitherto faid of the produc¬
tion and changes happening to thefe red globules, we
ts chufe to leave untouched.—We fuppofe that the red
globules, when viewed iingly, have very little colour;
, and that it is only when a certain number of them are
r laid upon one another, that the colour appears of a
the liver of the hen, he injected the teflicle of the cock;
which had come in contaft with the liver, and adhered '
to it. He alleges, that, in the nature of things, there
is not a more intimate confle&ion between life and a
folid, than between life and a fluid. For, although we
are more accuftomed to connetft it with the one than
the other, yet the only real difierence which can be
Ihewn between a folid and a fluid is, that the particles
of the one are lefs moveable among themfelves than
bright red: but this alfo hath its limits; fo that when- thofe of the other. Betides, we often fee the fame body
. the number of globules laid on one another is confide-
I ' rable, the colour becomes of a darker red. Upon this
1 fuppofition, the Colour of the mafs of blood will be
I brighter or darker as the colouring part is more or lefs
1 diffufed among the other parts of the mafs; and we
| think this appears to be truly the cafe from every cir-
fluid in one cafe, and folid in another. 2. The blood
becomes vafcular like other living parts. Mr Hunter
affirms, that, after amputations, the coagula in the ex¬
tremities of arteries may be injefted by injecting thefe
arteries; and he has a preparation in which he thinks
he can demonftrate veflels rifing from the centre of
cumftance that attends the changes which have been at what had been a coagulum of blood, and opening into
4
any time obferved in the colour of the blood.
Concerning the uncertainty of microfcopical, as well
as chemical experiments, we fhalf not difpute; though
the conclufion agaiuft them feems carried too far.^ But
with regard to the colour of the blood, we apprehend
it hath been known, almoft, if not altogether, fince the
difcovery of the circulation, that the florid or dark co¬
lour depends on the prefence or abfence of air, and not
upon any number of globules.—Thus the blood re¬
turning from the veins is of a dark colour. Though di¬
luted with the frefh chyle from the fubclavian vein, it
continues of the fame dark colour till it pafl’es thro’ the
lungs, upon which it inllantly alfumes a Very florid
red ; but it can never be proved that the globules in
the pulmonary vein are at all lefs numerous than in the
pulmonary artery.—That this change of colour may be
effe&ed by the air through membranes much thicker
than we can fuppofe the veffels of the lungs to be, hath
been demonftrated by Dr Prieftley’s experiments men¬
tioned under the article Air, n® 47, 48. but whether
the change is occafioned by the mere reparation of
phlogifton from the blood, or by the abforption of
fome other principle in its ftead, is not yet determi-
quired into, as far as we have heard,
o confidtr the ufes to which the blood
e animal eeconomy, and the changes
n refpiration. The ufes of this fluid
are fo various, and of fiich an important nature, that
the ftream of the circulating blood. 3. Blood taken
from the arm in the moft intenfe cold which the human
body can bear, raifes the thermometer to the fame
height as blood taken in the molt fultry heat. This he
confiders as a ftrong proof of the blood’s being alive;
as living bodies alone have the power of refilling great
degrees both of heat and cold, and of maintaining in
almoft every lunation, while in health, that tempera¬
ture which we diftrnguilh by the name of animal heat.
4. Blood is capable of being a&ed upon by a ftimulus.
In proof of this, he obferves, that it coagulates from ex-
pofure, as certainly as the cavities of the abdomen and
thorax inflame from the fame caufe. The more it is
alive, that is, the more the animal is in health, it coa¬
gulates the fooner on expofure; and the more it has loft
of its living principle, as in the cafe of violent inflam¬
mations, the lefs is it fenfible to the ftimulus produced
from its being expofed, and it coagulates the later.
5. The blood preferves life in different parts of the
body. When the nerves going to a part are tied or
cut, the part becorrtes paralytic, and lofes all power of
motion; but it does not mortify. If the artery be cut,
the part dies, and mortification enfues. What keeps it
alive in the firft cafe? Mr Blunter believes it is the li¬
ving principle which alone can keep it alive ; and he
thinks that this phenomenon is inexplicable on any other
fuppofition, than that life is fupported by the blood.
6. Another argument he draws from a cafe of a frac¬
tured os humeri he had occafion to obferve. A man
i#!e f°ine have not fcrupled to affirm the blood to be aclu- .......x.. ..x   —   — x. ......
(J[t by ally poftefled of a living principle, and that the life of was brought into St George’s hofpital for a fimple frac
re- the whole body is derived from it. This opinion was ture of the os humeri, and died about a month after
the firft broached by the celebrated Harvey, the difcoverer the accident. As the bones had not united, Mr Huu-
of the circulation: but in this he was never much fol- ter injecled the arm after death. He found that theca-
lowed ; and the hypothefis itfelf, indeed, has been vity between the extremities of the bones was filled up
pretty much laid afide and negle&ed, till of late that with blood which had coagulated. This blood was be-
( it was revived by Dr J. Hunter, profeftbr of anatomy come vafcular. In fome places it was very much fo.
r 5 in London. This gentleman fupports his opinion by
0fthe following arguments: 1. The blood unites living
parts, in fome circumftances, as certainly as the yet re¬
cent juices of the branch of one tree unite it with that
of another. Were either of thefe fluids to be confi-
dered as extraneous or dead matters, he thinks they
would a£t as ftirtmli, and no union would take place in
the animal or vegetable kingdom. This -argument, Mr
Hunter imagines, is ftill farther eftablifhed by the fol¬
lowing experiment. Having taking off the tefticle
He does not maintain that ail coagulated blood be¬
comes vafcular: and indeed the reafon is obvious ; for
it is often thrown out and coagulated in parts where its
becoming vafcular could anfwer no end in the fyftem;
as, for example, in the cavities of aneurifmal facs. If
it be fuppofed, that, in fuch cafes as that juft now men¬
tioned, the veffels are not formed in the coagulum, but
come from the neighbouring arteries, he thinks it e-
qually an argument that the blood is alive; for the fub-
ftance into which veffels fhoot muff be fo. The very
from a living cock, he introduced it into the belly of a idea, that fuch a quantity of dead matter as the whole
a living hen. Many weeks afterwards, upon injedling mafs of blood, circulates in a living body, appears to
hiia
BloorJ,4
B L O
Blood. him abfurd.
12X0 ] B L O
bryo animals, is neceflarily equivalent to the blood which Blood.
Nervous
fyftem alone
thought by
1'ome.to con¬
tain the vi¬
tal prin¬
ciple.
The fyftem which at prefent (lands oppofed to that of nouriflies the bodies of adult ones ; and confequently,
Dr Hunter, confiders the brain and nervous fyftem as the as foon as the blood became the only nutritious juice of
fountain of life; and that, fo far from receiving its life
from the blood, the nervous fyftem is capable of inftan-
taneoufly changing the crafts of.the blood, or any other
animal fluid; and though the nervous fyftem cannot
continue its adlions for any length of time if the a&ion
the body, at that fame time the vital or nervous fluid
took up its refidence there, and from the blood diffufed
itfelf along the nerves, where it was regulated exaftly
according to the model originally formed in the em¬
bryo. Perhaps it may be faid, that the vital power.
of the blood-veflels is fufpended, yet the heart and when once it hath taken pofteflion of the human or any
blood-veflels cannot adl for a Angle moment without other body, requires no addition or fupply, but conti-
the influence of the nervous fluid. Hence, fay they, it nues there in the fame quantity from firft to laft. If
is plain we muft fuppofe the nervous fyftem, and not
the blood, to contain properly the life of the animal,
we fuppofe the nervous power to be immaterial, this
will indeed be the cafe, and there is an end of reafon-
and confequently to be the principal vital organ. The ing upon the fubjed; but if we call this power a vola-
fecretion of the vital fluid from the blood by means of -'tile and elaftic fluid, it is plain that there will be more
the brain, is, by the fupporters of this hypothefis, de- occafion for recruits to fuch a power than to any other
nied. They fay, that any fluid fecreted from the blood
muft be aqueous, inelaftic, and inactive; whereas the
nervous fluid is full of vigour, elaftic, and volatile in
the higheft degree. The great necefiity for the circu¬
lation of the blood through all parts of the body, not-
withftanding the prefence of the nervous fluid in the
fame parts, they fay, is, becaufe fome degree of tenfion
is neceffary to be given to the fibres, in order to fit them
for the influx of the nervous fluid; and this tenfion they
receive from the repletion of the blood-veflels, which
are every where difperfed along with the nerves.
To follow this difpute through every argument that
bath been, or that may be, ufed by both parties, would
prove tedious, and to us appears in a great meafure
unneceffary, as the following fliort confiderations feem
Dec! five
gumcnts in
favour of
Dr Hunter’
•pinion.
fluid of the body, as its volatility and elafticity will
promote its efcape in great quantities through every
part of the body. It may alfo be objefted, that it is
abfurd to fuppofe any fluid, or mechanical caufe, capa¬
ble of putting matter in fuch a form as to direft its
own motions in a particular way: but even of this we
have a pofitive proof in the cafe of the eledlric fluid.
For if any quantity of this matter hath a tendency to
go from one place to another where it meets with dif¬
ficulty, thro’ the air, for inftance, it will throw fmall
conducing fubftances before it, in order to facilitate
its progrefs. Alfo, if a number of fmall and light con¬
ducing fubftances are laid between two metallic bo¬
dies, fo as to form a circle, for example; a (hock of
eleCricity will deftroy that circle, and place the fmall
to decide the matter abfolutely againft the patrons of conduCing fubftances nearer to a ftraight line between
the nervous fyftem. In the firft place, then, if we can the two metals, as if the fluid knew there was a fhorter
prove the life of the human body to have exifted in, or paflage, and refolved to take that, if it fliould have oc-
to have been communicated from a fluid to the nervous . cafion to return *. Laftly, it is univerfally allowed, * See Eicc-
fyftem, the analogical argument will be very ftrongly that the brain is a fecretory organ, made up of an in- tricty.
in favours of the fuppofition that the cafe is fo ftill. finite number of fmall glands, which have no other ex-
Now, that the cafe once was fo, is moft evident; for cretories than the medullary fibres and nerves. As a
confiderablequantityof blood is carried to the brain, and
the minute arteries end in thefe fmall glands, it follows,
that the fluid, whatever it is, muft come from the blood.
Now, there is no gland whatever, in the human, or any
other body, but will difeharge the fluid it is appointed
to fecrete, in very confiderable quantity, if its excre¬
tory is cut. Upon the cutting of a nerve, therefore,
the fluid fecreted by the brain ought to be difeharged;
but no fuch difeharge is vifible. This makes it plain,
even to demonftration, that the fluid fecreted in the
brain is invijible in its nature; arfd as we know the ner-
formed. At the original formation of man, and other vous fluid hath its refidence in the brain, it is very pro¬
animals, therefore, the nutritious matter was the fub- bable, to ufe no ftronger expreffion, that it is the pe-
ilratum of the whole body confiding of mufcles, nerves culiar province of the brain to fecrete this fluid from
blood-veflels, &c. nay more, it was the immediate effi- the blood, and confequently that the blood originally
cient caufe of the nervous power itfelf. Why (hould it contains the vital principle.
not be fo now, as well as then? Again, in the forma- ' After it is allowed that the blood contains the vital
tion of the .embryo, we fee a vital principle exifting as principle, it becomes another queftion not very eafily ^
it were at large, and forming to itfelf a kind of regu- folved, Whence is this vital principle derived ?—For Vivifying
lator to its own motions, or a habitation in which it this we can only difeover two fources; namely, the chyle Spirit fup-
choofes to refide, rather than to aft at random in the or aliment from which the blood is prepared, and re- lje
fluid. This habitation, or regulator, was undoubtedly fpiration. The latter hath been commonly held as the from riie
the nervous fyftem, and continues fo to this moment; principal fource of the vital principle ; and, for a long air.
but at the fame time, it is no lefs evident that a nutri- time, it was generally thought that there was a kind of
tious fluid was the immediate origin of thefe fame nerves, vivifying fpirit in the air, which being abforbed by the
and of that very nervous fluid. Now we know, that the blood at each infpiration, communicated to that fluid
fluid which in the womb nourifhes the bodies of all em- the quality neceffary for preferving animal life. As a
proof
the human body, as well as the body of every other li¬
ving creature, in its firft ftate, is w’ell known to be a
gelatinous mafs, without mufcles, nerves, or blood-vef-
iels. . Neverthelefs, this gelatinous matter, even at that
time, contained the nervous fluid. Of this there can
be no doubt, becaufe the nerves were formed out of it,
and had their power originally from it; and what is re¬
markable, the brain is obferved to be that part of the
animal which is firft formed. Of this gelatinous fluid
we can give no other account, than that it was the nu¬
tritious matter from which the whole body appears to be
This doc¬
trine now
generally
denied.
Dr Hales’s
experiment
againft a
vivifying
fpirit.
Statical Ef-
fays, Vol. I.
J>- iSS-
BLO [ i
proof of this it was urged, that life cannot be fupported
without refpiratiob, and that air which hath been often
breathed ceafes to be capable of fupporting life; be-
caufe when once it has been totally deprived of its vi¬
vifying fpirit, it can communicate none to the blood in
any fubfequent refpirations.—This do&rine, however,
hath been denied, and, as is generally thought, ex¬
ploded by modern difcoverers. Dr Hales brings feveral
experiments againft it; of which the following may
ferve for a fpecimen, and which we (hall give in his
own words.
“ I tied a middle-fized dog alive on a table, and,
having laid bare his wind-pipe, I cut it afunder juft
below the larynx, and fixed fall to it the fmall end of
a common foffet: the other end of the foflet had a large
bladder tied to it, which contained 162 cubic inches;
and to the other end of the bladder was tied the great
end of another foflet whofe orifice was covered with a
valve which opened inwards, fo as to admit any air that
was blown into the bladder, but none could return that
way ; yet, for further fecurity, that paflage was alfo
ftopped by a fpigot.
“ As foon as the firft foflet was tied fall to the wind¬
pipe, the bladder was blown full of air through the o-
ther foflet: when the dog had breathed the air in the
bladder to and fro for a minute or two, he then breathed
very faft, and fhewed great uneafinefs, as being almoft
fuffocated.
“ Then with my hand I preffed the bladder hard,
fo as to drive the air into his lungs with fome force ;
and thereby make his abdomen rife by the preffure of
the diaphragm, as in natural breathings ; then taking
alternately my hand off the bladder, the lungs with the
abdomen fubfided: I continued in this manner to make
the dog breathe for an hour; during which time, I was
obliged to blow frefh air into the bladder every five mi¬
nutes, three parts in four of that air being either ab-
forbed by the vapours of the lungs, or efcaping through
the ligatures upon my preffing hard on the bladder.
“ During this hour, the dog was frequently near
expiring, whenever I preffed the air but weakly into
his lungs; as I found by his pulfe, which was very plain
to be felt in the great crural artery near the groin,
which place an afliftant held his finger on moft part of
the time: but the languid pulfe was accelerated fo as to
beat faft, foon after I dilated the lungs much by pref-
fing hard upon the bladder; efpecially when the mo¬
tion of the lungs was promoted by preffing alternately
the abdomen and the bladder, whereby both the con-
traftion and dilatation of the lungs was increafed.
“ And I could by this means roufe the languid pulfe
whenever I pleafed, not only at the end of every five
minutes, when more air was blown into the bladder
from a man’s lungs, but alfo towards the end of the five
minutes, when the air was fulleft of fumes.
“ At the end of the hour, I intended to try whe¬
ther I could have by the fame means kept the dog a-
live fome time longer, when the bladder was filled with
the fumes of burning brimftone; but being obliged to
ceafe for a little time from prefling the air into his
lungs, while matters were preparing for this additional
experiment, in the mean time the dog died, which
might otherwife have lived longer if I had continued
to force the air into the lunge.
“ Now, though this experiment was fo frequently
211 ] BLO
difturbed, by being obliged to blow more air into the Blood,
bladder 12 times during the hour; yet fince he was al-
moft fuffocated in lefs than two minutes, by breathing
of himfelf to and fro the firft air in the bladder, he
would have died in lefs than two minutes when one
fourth of the old air remained in the bladder, immedi¬
ately to taint the new air admitted from a man’s lungs;
fo that his continuing to live through the whole hour,,
muft be owing to the forcible dilatation of the lungs
by comprefling the bladder, and not to the vivifying
fpirit of the air.”
Dr Prieftley, who hath carried his difcoveries to a Dr PrieS-
much greater length than any of his predeceffors, con- *ey’s 0P‘*
eludes from his own obfervations, and no doubt very n'on’
juftly, that air which hath been often breathed becomes
pernicious by its accumulated phlogifton, which ftimu-
lates the lungs, and makes the animal fall into convul-
fions. Refpiration therefore, he thinks, indeed we may
fay he demonftrates, to be a phlogiftic procefs, in
which the blood parts with its fuperfluous phlogifton.
He doth not fay, that the blood receives nothing in
exchange; he rather thinks that it may receive fome
nitrous principle, which gives it the red colour: but as
to a vivifying-fpirit, he doth not appear to have the leaft
idea of any fuch thing being received at that time.
Nay, in his firft volume, p. 277. he exprefsly adopts
the other hypothelis, namely, that the vital principle
is received from the chyle. “ My conjeilure (fays he)
is, that animals have a power of converting phlogifton,
from the ftate in which they receive it in their nutri¬
ment, into that ftate in which it is called the eleftrical
fluid 1 that the brain, befides its other proper ufes, is
the great laboratory and repofitory for this purpofe ;.
that by means of the nerves this great principle, thus
exalted, is direiffed into the mufcles, and forces them
to aft in the fame manner as they are forced into aftion
when the eleftric fluid is thrown into them ab extra” ^6
With regard to the experiment made by Dr Hales, Dr Hales’s
that the want of elafticity, or preffure, is the reafon why ^oTclufiv--
phlogifticated air cannot fupport animal-life, we are c u lv
of opinion that it is totally inconclufive, becaufe it doth
not at all appear that phlogifticated air wants elafti¬
city ; on the contrary, from Dr Prieftley’s experiments
it appears to be moreelaftic than common air: befides,
we know that the elafticity of every fluid muft always
be in proportion to the preffure upon it, as reaftion is
always equal to aftion. Suppoling therefore the ela¬
fticity of any portion of air to be deftroyed, the pref¬
fure of the fuperincumbent atmofphere will reduce it
into a proportionably lefs bulk, and then it is equally
elaftic with the reft ; for if it was not, it behoved ftill
to yield under the preffure. Hence we may fee, that
as the bladder made ufe of in Dr Hales’s experiment
was by no means fufficient to keep off the preffure of
the external atmofphere, the death of the dog could
not be fairly aferibed to want of elafticity in the tainted
air. When he applied more force than the natural ela¬
fticity of the air, he kept the dog alive, as he calls it,
for an hour; but we can by no means allow a mecha¬
nical circulation of the blood to be life, any more than
we can allow a dead body to be alive on account of the
motion of its arm or any other member by mechanical
means. The experiment, however, is valuable, becaufe
it (hews that refpiration is one of the immediate me¬
chanical agents by which the circulation of the blood is
carried
B L O
[
121
carried on ; but in order to prove that the dog was
really kept alive by this means, he ought to have re¬
covered from the effe&s of the experiment. Had Dr
Hales tried a fimilar experiment on himfelf, by taking
the foffet in his mouth, clofing his noftrils, and cau-
fing another perfon comprefs the bladder, we have not
the lead doubt, that he would then have felt fuch a
method of breathing not to be a way of preferving
life, but of deftroying it.
As to any conclufions which may be derived from
Dr Prieftley’s experiments, we are forry to obferve, that
very many philofophers, fometimes indeed Dr Prieftley
himfelf, feem to attend but to one half of the confe-
quences of their own experiments. In the prefent cafe
this is exceedingly remarkable. Dr Prieftley finds,
the dimtim- admitting phlogifton to air, it is eonfiderably
by phfogi- diminifhed in quantity. _ But by what means is it fo ?
Certainly the mere accelfion of any material fubftance
can never diminiih, but muft increafe, its bulk. The
diminution therefore, on the acceffion of phlogifton, is
an evident proof that fome part of the air is actually
taken away. That the phlogifton received is not in¬
corporated with the air is likewife evident, as well as
that it takes up fpace in the tainted air, becaufe, by
agitation in water, tire phlogiftic matter feparates
from the, air, and enters into the water. The confe-
quence of this is, that the air is ftill farther diminiftied
in bulk; and what remains is pure air, fit for fupport-
ing animal-life, and of being farther diminiflied by
phlogifton as before. It is alfo certain, that phlpgifton
is not endowed with any inherent power by which it
can expand itfelf; otherwife it would fly off in vacuo,
which it never is known to do. Another circumftance
we muft alfo attend to is, that the a&ion of phlogifton
feems to be entirely confined to a particular part of the
atmofphere ; namely, that which is now fo well known
by the name oi fixed air. This it entirely deprives of
its elaftic principle, fo that it is a&ually no longer air,
but becomes a folid fubftance, making a part, and that
no inconfiderable one, of innumerable terreftrial fub-
ftances, as chalk, brimftone, &c.
That the juftnefs of the conclufion which we are now
about to draw from Dr Prieftley’s experiments may
be more apparent, we {hall briefly fum up the pheno¬
mena from whence it is drawn, in the two following
propofitions. X. Phlogifton cannot aft by itfelf with¬
out the afiiftance of air. 2. The emiflion of phlogifton
is attended with the total deftruftion of the elafticity
of a certain quantity of fixed air, which then ceafes to
, be fluid. Hence we affirm, that it is not the phlogiftic
fybftanee which afts upon the air, but the elaftic prin-
partswUh ciple in the fixed air contained in the common atmo-
L phlogi- fphere that afts on the phlogiftic fubftance. This ela-
fton. ftic principle, entering the phlogiftic body, difplaces a
quantity of phlogifton equivalent to its own quantity,
and takes its place; and hence proceeds the firft dimi¬
nution of the air, not from an acceffion of phlogifton,
but from an efcape of the elaftic principle belonging to
fixed air. The phlogifton and fixed particles of the air
now hang loofe like fmoke or vapour, and are ready
Proof of a to be attrafted by any thing capable of imbibing them ;
reception of and hence proceeds the fecond diminution by agitation
the vivify- jn water.
ing. prm- Now, to apply this veafoniqg to the point in queftion.
The blood is found to emit phlogifton from the lungs
Why a
2 ] B X, O
at every exfpiration ; therefore we affirm it hath recei¬
ved a proportional quantity of elaftic vapour which it'
had not before. Again; The air expelled from the
lungs is found to contain much of the fixable part
floating loofe, and capable of being attrafted by lime-
water, &c.; therefore we fay, this elaftic principle hath
come from that part of the atmofphere. But, to put
the matter beyond doubt, the very infpeftion of arte¬
rial and venous blood will fliew, that the firft hath a
quantity of daftic matter in it which the laft wants:
and as the brain as well as all other parts of the body
are fupplied with arterial blood, we think it abundantly
evident, that this elaftic principle is abfolutely and ef-
fentially neceffary to life; that it is continually expen¬
ded thereon; and that it may be faid with the utmoft
propriety, that every time we draw the air into our
lungs, we receive a portion of vivifying or vital fpirit
from it into our blood. Add to all this,, that many
fubftances which are commonly obferved to phlogifti-
cate air, appear to receive an elaftic fpirit by fo doing.
Putrefying bodies fwell: they would not do fo in vacuo;
and therefore we muft conclude, that they receive this
elaftic principle which fwells them from the external
air, and experience fhews that it is communicated by
this fixable part of the atmofphere.
The foregoing reafoning, which to us appears fuffi-
ciently conclufive, leads to a very important difeovery
in natural philofophy, viz. That it is to the atmo¬
fphere, and to that particular part of it which goes by
the name of fixed air, that we are every moment in¬
debted for that vital fpirit which animates our bodies,
and is the immediate bond of union betwixt our imma¬
terial fpirit and this vifible world. It may be afked in¬
deed, If fixed air is capable of fupplying this fpirit in
fuch plenty, how comes it to be fo inftantaneoufly fatal
when breathed? The reply to this, however, is obvi¬
ous : it communicates too great a degree of elafticity to
the blood ; whence the circulation is flopped, and in-
ftant death enfues. That this is really the cafe, ap¬
pears from the following account of the fymptoms ob¬
ferved on the diffeftion of perfons who have been fuffo-
cated by this kind of air.
1. The veffels of the brain are gorged with blood,
and the ventricles of that vifeus are filled fometimes
with a frothy, fometimes with a bloody, ferofity. 2. The
trunk of the pulmonary artery is much diftended, and
the lungs appear nearly in a natural ftate. 3. The
right ventricle and auricle of the heart, the venae cavae,
and jugular veins, are full of frothy blood. 4. Bloody
ferofity is often found in the bronchiae. 5. The trunk
of the pulmonary veins, and the left auricle, are either
empty, or almoft empty, of blood. 6. The blood
found in the places that have been mentioned, is gene¬
rally fluid, and as it were in a diffolved ftate. It is
eafily extravafated into the cellular texture, of the head
particularly, becaufe it is in this part that it abounds
moll. 7. The epiglottis in fuffocated perfons is raifed,
and the glottis open and free. 8. The tongue is muclx
fwelled, and can hardly be contained within the mouth.
9. The eyes protrude, and preferve their luftre to the
fecond or third day. They are often even brighter than
natural. 10. The body preferves its heat for a long¬
time. Nay the heat is fometimes greater than it isdu-
Edinburgh
Medical
Comment.
Vol. III.
p. ij«.
Appear¬
ances on the
difle&ion of
thofe fufTo-
ited by fix¬
ed air.
ciple from
ring life, or at leaft confiftently with health. 11. The
limbs are flexible for a long time after death.
12. The
face
cl Wood.
ij Fixed air
1 the caufe of
i animal heat.
Circulation
of the blood
how carried
New hypo-
thefis by Dr
Wilfon.
B L O [ 12
face Is more fwelled, and often mpre red than ufuah
13. The neck and upper extremities are fometimes Jb
much fwelled, that they appear to be inflamed. Thefe
fwellings, however, do not, like cedematous ones, pre-
ferve the imprefiion of the finger.
This account is fo much in favour of what we have
already advanced concerning the adlion of fixed air, that
we fhall make no obfervation upon it farther than that
this elaftic principle would feem alfo to be the caufe of
animal-heat; for as the blood evidently received a vaft
quantity of elaftic fluid, it alfo received a much greater
proportion of heat than ufual.
It now remains only to give fome account of the
means by which the circulation of the blood is carried
on in the living body, from the time of Harvey till
very lately, this was fuppofed to be chiefly the mufcu-
lar power of the heart and arteries, which by fome phy-
fiologifts have been thought to be prodigioufly great ;
and accordingly many calculations, requiring no fmall
degree of mathematical knowledge to underitand them,
have been made of the forces requifite to perform this
circulation. Other phyfiologifts, however, have thought
proper to take in feveral auxiliary helps, as the motion
of the mufcles, refpiration, &c. and from Dr Hales’s
experiment abovementioned, it appears, that refpira¬
tion hath a confiderable influence in this matter. It
cannot, however, be the foie caufe, feeing the circula¬
tion's carried on in animals which do not refpire.—In
1773, Dr Wilfon, in the le&ure already quoted, fug-
gefted a new principle of motion, which we believe was
never ufed before to account for the circulation of ani¬
mal fluids. It is (hortly this. “ As the fluids of the
human body do all of them fuffer a continual wafte, and
confequently require a conftant fupply in proportion,
we muft look upon their going out of the body to be
the end of their motion, and on their entering into the
body to be the beginning of it; and hence we are to look
for the origin of all the motion of the fluids in that part
of the fyftem where the new fupplies are taken in. This
is the primae vise, where the lafteals abforb a fluid from
the digefted aliment, and convey it into the blood.
The power by which this is accompliftied, is neceffarily
independent of the heart, as having not the lea ft con¬
nexion with it. It has been faid to be the fame with
that which caufes fluids rife in capillary tubes; but
though very probably the powers in both cafes may be
the fame, there is this remarkable difference between
them, that in the capillary tubes the fluids only rife to
a certain height, and will not rife at all unlefs the
tubes are empty. In the laXeals they rife ip veffels al¬
ready full, and continue to do fo. Neither is the force,
whereby this abforption is performed, to be accounted
little; feeing the fupply by the chyle muft conftantly
be equal to the wafte which is continually taking place
in the fluids already contained in the veffels. We fee
alfo, with what force an abforption of this kind fome-
times takes place in other cafes; thus, ropes will 'ab¬
forb water with fuch ftrength as to raife immenfe
weights faftened to them, and which no mechanical in-
jeXion of water into fmall tubes could pofiibly accom-
plilh. What is already faid of the laXeals applies alfo
to the lymphatics; and from thence we are almolt
tempted to conclude, that the cafe is the fame with the
fanguiferous veins alfo; that though there may be a
continuation of fome arteries into the veins correfpond-
Vol. II.
1.3 ] li L O
ing with them, yet that for the mo ft part thefe veffels B!oo<l-
extravafate the blood into fmall cavities, which is then
taken up by the abforbent power of the veins, and re¬
turned to the heart.
“ If, however, the veffels continued abfolutely full,
it would be impofiible that any motion could be carried
on in them ; and to continue and regulate the circula¬
tion, the heart with its cavities is provided. Let us
fuppofe, that by the abovementioned power the veins
are all full, and the auricles or chambers into which
the veins empty themfelves are full alfo : where is the
colleXed ftream in the veins to gO next ? There is no
room for more in the auricle. What muft be done ?
The auricle contraXs and empties itfelf. The confe.-
quence is a fudden vacuum, equal to what the auricle
could contain ; the turgid veins, urged by the abforb-
ing power above-mentioned, rufh their contents into
the auricle to fill up the vacuum again, and all behind
moving in the venous direXion advances forward with
fo much force, that the veins near the heart fuftain a
pulfation from the regurgitation of this impetuous
ftream, when the auricle ftiuts upon it to empty itfelf.
In flrort, the full auricle occupies a determinate quan¬
tity of fpace in the breaft : when it is emptied, there
is a nonrefifting vacuum of fo much fpace as was full
before, and thither there is a mechanical nifus from the
remoteft filament of a vein over the whole body, which
becomes confpicuous in the torrent that rufhes every
other moment from the mouth of the vena cava into
this vacuum.”
This is a Ihort abftraX of Dr Wilfon’s new theory
of the circulation. According to him, this abforbing
power of the veins is the principal agent, while the
heart and arteries do no more than empty themfelves of
the blood with which they are filled by the veins. E-
ven this caufe, however, he fays would not be fuffi-
cient to carry on the circulation for a Angle moment,
without the prefence of another which he calls/j/e, and
does not confider as abfolutely unmechanical, tho’ we
cannot reduce i£ either to mechanical rules or ideas.
But, as we apprehend all fpeculations concerning fuch
caufes muft be arbitrary and without foundation, we
forbear to give any account of the DoXor’s opinions on
this fubjeX.
It hath been a general opinion, that blood, as it exifts Blood con-
in the bodies of animals, contains a confiderable quan- ta'”s ft0 a^r
tity of common air; and indeed it is certain, that blood, hopes'"/ a-
after it has been drawn from the veins of any animal, nimals.
and afterwards placed under the receiver of an air-
pump, yields a very confiderable quantity of air upon
exhaufting the receiver : but if a portion of any blood-
veffel is tied up fo as to prevent the efcape of its contents,
and then cut out of the body and placed under a recei¬
ver, it will not fwell, or (hew the lead lign of its con¬
taining any quantity of air whatever. 3,;
Blood was formerly held in great efteem as a medi- Medicinal
cine for fome particular difeafes. Baths of the blood of31,11 olher
infants have been recommended as an infallible remedy £
for the elephantiafis, &c. ; and the blood of goats and
fome other animals was ufed by the Galenifts, and is
recommended even by Dr Mead in pleurifies: but the
firft abominable medicine, as well as the other, is now
defervedly exploded. The principal ufe of blood in
the arts is for making Pruffian blue, or fometimes for
clarifying certain liquors ; it is alfo recommended in
7 O 3gri-
Blood.
B L O [ 1214 ] B L O
agriculture as an excellent manure for fruit-trees. A
mixture of blood with lime makes an exceedingly ftrong
cement; and hence it is of ufein the preparation of fome
f See Anhi- chemical lutes, the making floors f, Sec.—As a food,
tcBure, been difputed whether blood really affords any
l:'0l,<!' nouriftiment or not. The bed judges now, however,
are generally agreed that it is very nutritious ; and tho’
out of the body, like the white of an egg, it is very in-
foluble, yet, like that too, in the body it is commonly
of eafy digeftion. It is, however, highly alcalefcent
in hot climates; on which account the prohibition of it
to the Ifraelites was very proper. Even in this coun¬
try, when blobd was ufed as food in great quantity,
the fcurvy was more frequent than at other times ; but
to a moderate ufe of it here no fuch objedlion takes
place.
Religious ufes c^Blood. Among the ancients blood
was ufed for the fealing and ratifying covenants and
alliances, which was done by the contra&ing parties
drinking a little of each others blood ; and for appea¬
ling the manes of the dead, in order to which blood
was offered on their tombs, as part of the funeral cere¬
mony.
The blood of vi&ims was anciently the portion of the
Gods ; and accordingly was poured or fprinkled on the
altars in oblat’on to them.
The priefts made another ufe of blood, viz. for di¬
vination : the ftreaming of blood from the earth, fire,
and the like, was held a prodigy, or omen of evil.
The Roman priefts were not unacquainted with the
ufe of blood in miracles : they had their fluxes of blood
from images, ready to ferve a turn ; witnefs that faid
to have ftreamed from the ftatue of Minerva at Mode¬
na, before the battle at that place. But we know not
whether in this their fucceffors have not gone beyond
them. How many relations in ecclefiaftical writers of
Madonas, crucifixes, and wafers, bleeding ? At leaft
the liquefaftion of the blood of St Januarius at Naples,
repeated annually for fo many ages, feems to tranfcend
by far all the frauds of the Grecian or Roman prieft-
hood. But the chemifts at laft got into the fecret; and
we find M. Neumann at Berlin to have performed the
miracle of the liquefaction of dried blood, with all the
circumttances of the Neapolitan experiment.
Among the fchoolmen we find a famous difpute, un¬
der Pope Pius II. whether the blood of Chrift, Which
fell from him in the three days paffion, retained or loft
the hypoftatic union ; and confequently whether it was
the proper objeCt of adoration. The Dominicans main¬
tained the former, the Francifcans the latter. It feems
the dominican do&rine gained the afcendant, as being
fitter to favour the profits of the monks; who becoming
poflefled fome way or other of a few drops of this pre¬
cious liquor, were fecured of ample offerings from the
deluded laity, who flocked to pay their homage to the
facred relic. Jofeph of Arimathea is faid to have firft
brought into Britain two filver vefiels filled with the
blood of Chrift, which by his order was buried in his
tomb. King Henry III. had a cryftal, containing a
portion of the fame blood, fent him by the mafter of
the temple at Jerufalem, attefted with the feals of the
patriarch ; which treafure the king committed to the
church of St Peter’s, Weftminfter, and obtained from
the biftiops an indulgence of fix years and 116 days to
all that (hould vifit it. Mat. Paris even affures us, that
the king fummoning his nobles and prelates to cele- B'ood.
brate the feaft of St Edward in St Peter’s church, was
chiefly pro veneratione fanfli fanguinis Chrijli nuper a-
depti, “ in veneration of the holy blood of Chrift lately
acquired.” Divers others of our monafteries were pof-
fefled of thisprbfitable relic; as the college of Bon Hom¬
ines at Afhridge, and the abbey of Hales, to whom it
was given by Henry, fon of Richard duke of Corn¬
wall, and king of the Romans. To it reforted a great
concourfe of people for devotion and adoration ; till in
1538, as the reformation took place, it was perceived
to be only honey clarified, and coloured with faffron,
as was (hewn at Paul’s crofs by the bifhop of Roche-
fter. The like difcovery was made of the blood of
Chrift, found among the reliques in the abbey of Fef-
camp in Normandy, pretended to have been preferved
by Nicodemus, when he took the body from the crofs,
and given to that abbey by William duke of Norman¬
dy : it was buried by his fon Richard, and again dif-
covered in 1171, and attended with different miracles;
but the cheat, which had been long winked at, was
at length expofed, the relation of which is given by
Speed.
Avenger of Blood, among the Jews, was the next
of kin to the perfon murdered, who was to purfue the
murderer.
Ecclefiaftical judges retire, when judgment is to be
given in cafes of blood, by reafon the church is fuppofed
to abhor blood : it condemns no perfon to death; and
its members become irregular, or difabled from their
fun&ions, by the effufjcn of blood.
Field of Blood, ay?®- in Syriac aceldama,
was a field purchafed by the Jews, with the thirty pie¬
ces of filver which had been given to Judas for betray¬
ing his Mafter, and which he had reftored. It (till ferves
for a burial-ground, in which all pilgrims who die in
their pilgrimage at Jerufalem are interred.
Hound, in zoology, the cams fagax of Lin-
nseus *, le chien courant of Buffon, the feuthounde of * See Catiisd
the Scots: The hound, or dog, with long, fmooth, and
pendulous ears.—It was a dog of great ufe, and in
high efteem with our anceftors : its employ was to re¬
cover any game that had efcaped wounded from the
hunter, or been killed and Hole out of the foreft. It
was remarkable for the acutenefs of its fmell, tracing
the loft beaft by the blood it had fpilt; from whence
the name is derived. This fpecies could, with the ut-
moft certainty, difcover the thief by following his foot-
fteps, let the diftance of his flight be ever fo great, and
through the moft fecret and thickeft coverts : nor would
it ceafe its purfuit, till it had taken the felon. They
were likewife ufed by Wallace and Bruce during the
civil wars. The poetical hiftorians of the two heroes,
frequently relate very curious paffages on this fubjedl;
of the fervice thefe dogs were of to their mafters, and
the efcapes they had from thofe of the enemy. The
blood-hound was in great requeft on the confines of
England and Scotland; where the borderers were con¬
tinually preying on the herds and flocks of their neigh¬
bours. The true blood-hound was large, ftrong, muf-
cular, broad breafted, of a ftern countenance, of a deep
tan-colour, and generally marked with a black fpot
above each eye.
Hhoon-Sbotten. See Ophthalmia.
Blood Spavin. See Farriery, § xxxii. 2.
Spitting
B L O [ 12
-Kf Blood. Spitting of Blood, or Hxmoptoe. See Index fub-
~ “ joined to Medicine.
Blood of Chrijl, the name of a military order in-
ftituted at Mantua in 1608. The number of knights
was reftri&ed to 20, befides the grand matter. Their
device was, Domine, probajli ■me ; or Nihil hoc, trifle,
recepto: “ Lord, thou haft proved me;” or, “ Forti-
tified by this, no evil can prevail.”
Precious Blood, a denomination given to a reformed
congregation of Bernardine nuns at Paris, firft efta-
blilhed under that name in 1661.
Dragon’s Blood. See Dragon.
Blood-Stone. See Haematites.
Blood-Vejfels. See Anatomy, n° 387, &c. and
Plate XVII.
BLOOD-Wite, in ancient law-writers, a muldl or fine
for {bedding of blood.
B-LOOD-Wort, in botany. See Rumex.
BLOOD (Thomas), generally known by the appel¬
lation of Col. Blood, was a difbanded officer of Oliver
Cromwell’s, famous for his daring crimes and his good
fortune. He was firft dillinguifhed by engaging in a
confpiracy to furprife the cattle of Dublin; which was
defeated by the vigilance of the duke of Ormond, and
fome of his accomplices were executed. Efcaping to
England, he meditated revenge againft Ormond; and
a&ually feized him one night in his coach in St James’s-
ftreet, where he might have finiftied his purpofe if he
had not ftudied refinements in his vengeance. He
bound him on horfeback behind one of his affociates,
refolving to hang him at Tyburn, with a paper pin¬
ned to his breaft: but when they got into the fields,
the duke, in his efforts for liberty, threw himfelf and
the affaffin, to whom he was fattened, to the ground ;
and while they were ftruggling in the mire, he was ref-
cued by his fervants, but the authors of this attempt
were not then difcovered. A little after, in 1671, Blood
formed a defign of carrying off the crown and regalia
from the towerj a defign, to which he was prompted,
as well by the furprifing boldnefs of the enterprize, as
by the views of profit. He was very near fucceeding.
He had bound and wounded Edwards the keeper of
the jewel-office, and had got out of the tower with his
prey; but was overtaken and feized, with fome of his
affociates. One of them was known to have been con¬
cerned in the attempt upon Ormond ; and Blood was
immediately concluded to be the ringleader. When
queftioned, he frankly avowed the enterprize; but re-
fufed to difcover his accomplices. “ The fear of death
(he faid) ftiould never engage him either to deny a
guilt or betray a friend.” All thefe extraordinary cir-
cumftances made him the general fubject of converfa-
tion ; and the king was moved with an idle curiofity
to fee and fpeak with a perfon fo noted for his cou¬
rage and his crimes. Blood might now efteem him¬
felf fecure of pardon; and.he wanted not addrefs to
improve the opportunity. He told Charles, that he
had been engaged, with others, in a defign to kill him
with a carabine above Batterfea, where his majefty of¬
ten went to bathe: that the caufe of this refolution was
the feverity exercifed over the confciences of the godly,
in reftraining the liberty of their religious affemblies:
that when he had taken his ftand among the reeds, full
of thefe bloody refolutions, he found his heart checked
with an awe of majefty; and he not only relented him-
x5 ] B L O
felf, but diverted his affociates from their purpofe: that Blood
he had long ago brought himfelf to an entire indiffe- II .
rence about life, which he now gave for loft; yet could B 0 oming-
he not forbear warning the king of the danger which
might attend his execution : that his affociates had
bound themfelves by the ftri&eft oaths to revenge the
death of any of their confederacy; and that no precau¬
tion nor power could fecure any one from the effe&s of
their defperate refolutions. Whether thefe confidera-
tions excited fear or admiration in the king, they con¬
firmed his refolution of granting a pardon to Blood;
but he thought it a requifite point of decency firft to
obtain the duke of Ormond’s confent. Arlington came
to Ormond in the king’s name, and defired that he
would not profecute Blood, for reafons which he was
commanded to give him. The duke replied, that his
majefty’s commands were the only reafon that could be
given ; and being fufficient, he might therefore fpare
the reft. Charles carried his kindnefs to Blood {till
farther: he granted him an eftate of 500/. a-year in
Ireland ; he encouraged his attendance about his per¬
fon; he (hewed him great countenance; and many ap¬
plied to him for promoting their pretenfions at court.
And while old Edwards, who had bravely ventured his
life, and had been wounded, in defending the crown
and regalia, was forgotten and negle&ed, this man,
who deferved only to be flared at, and detefted as a
monfter, became a kind of favourite.—Blood enjoyed
his penfion about 10 years, till being charged with fix¬
ing an imputation of a fcandalous nature on the duke
of Buckingham, he was thrown into prifon, where he
died, Auguft 24th, 1680.
BLOODY, fomething belonging to, or abounding
with, blood.
Bloody-E^x. See the Index fubjoined to Medi¬
cine.
Bloody-Hand, is when a trefpaffer is apprehended
in a foreft with his hands or other parts bloody; which
is a circumftance of his having killed the deer, though
he be not found chafing or hunting them.
BLOODY-Rain. See Rain.
Bloody-See Urine.
BLOOM, a mafs of iron after having undergone the
firft hammering called blomary\.—It has yet to under- t See 'Bio-
go many hammerings before it become iron fit for the marh
fmith’s ufe, and be firft made what they call the; an-
cony. See An cony.
BLOSSOM, in a general fenfe, denotes the flower
of any plant. See the article Flower.
Blossom, in a more proper fenfe, is reftrained to
the flowers of trees, which they put forth in the fpring
as the fore-runners of their fruit, otherwife called their
bloom. The office of the bloffom is partly to proteft,
and partly to draw nourifhment to, the embryo, fruit,
or feed.
Blossom, or Peach-coloured, in the menage, a term
applied to a horfe that has his hair white, but inter¬
mixed all over with forrel and bay hairs. Such horfes
are fo infenfible and hard both in the mouth and the
flanks, that they are fearce valued ; befides they are apt
to turn blind.
BLOSSOMING of Plants, the aft of blowing, or
putting forth flowers or bloffoms, called alfo flonvering*. * ®ee
The bloffoming of the fpina acuta, or Glaftenbury t’,&'
thorn, pioufly on Chriftmafs-day-morning, is a vulgar
7 O 2 error,
Blount.
B L O [ 12x6 ] B L O
error; owing to this, that the plant, befides its ufual
bloflbming in the fpring, fonietxmes puts forth a few
white tranfient bloflbms in the middle of winter. For
the bloflbming of the rofe of Jericho on the fame day,
as it is commonly held in England, or in the time of
midnight mafs, as it is held in France, is fomewhat
more than an error, being really a fraud on one fide,
and a fuperflition on the other. This rofe, whofe leaves
are only clofed and flirivelled up in winter, will, at any
time, upon fetting its pedicle in water, expand and
bloflbm a-new; becaufe the pedicle being fpongy im¬
bibes the fluid apace, and thus fills and fwells out the
Ihrivelled leaves : which property fome monks have
turned to good account.
BLOUNT (Thomas), a learned Englifh writer of
the 17th century, born at Bordefley in Worcefterihire.
He had not the advantage of an univeriity education ;
but, by ftrength of genius and great application, made a
confiderable progrefs in literature. Upon the breaking
out of the popifh plot in the reign of king Charles II.
being much alarmed on account of his being a zealous
Roman-catholic, he contrafted a palfy; and died in
December 1679, aged 61. He wrote, 1. The aca¬
demy of eloquence, containing a complete Englilh rhe¬
toric. 2. Gloflbgraphica, or a di&ionary interpreting
fuch hard words, whether Hebrew, Greek, Latin,
Italian, &C. that are now ufed in our refined' Englifli
tongue, &c. 3. Bofcobel; or the hiftory of his ma-
jefly’s efcape after the battle of Wtfrcefter. 4. A law
di&ionary. 5. Animadverfions upon Sir Richard Baker’s
chronicle. 6. Fragmenta Antiquitatis ; and other works.
Blount (Sir Henry), an Englifn writer, born at
his father’s feat in Hertfordfhire in 1602. After a re¬
gular education, he fet out on his travels in 1634; and
getting acquainted with a janizary at Venice, he ac¬
companied him into the Turkifli dominions : having
been abroad two years, he returned and publifhed a
relation of his travels in the Levant, which went thro’
feveral editions. He was knighted by Charles I. and
was at the battle of Edge-hill, at which time he is fup-
pofed to have had the care of the young princes; but,
after the king’s death, was employed by the parliament,
and by Cromwell. Yet after the reftoration of the royal
family, he was appointed high Iheriff of the county of
Hertford, and from that time lived as a private gentle¬
man above 20 years. He publifhed, i. An account
of his travels. 2. Six comedies, written by John
Lilly, under the title of Court Comedies. 3. The ex¬
change walk, a fatire ; and 4. An epiftle in praife
of tobacco. He died Oftober 9th, 1682.
Blount (Sir Thpmas Pope), baroqet, an emi¬
nent writer, and the eldeft fon of the former, was
born at Upper Holloway, in the county of Middle-
fex, September i2th, 1649. He was educated un¬
der the eye of his father; and always diftinguifiied
himfelf as a lover of liberty, a fincere friend to his
country, and a true patron of learning. He was ad¬
vanced to the degree of baronet by king Charles IT.
in whofe reign he was defied burgefs for St Alban’s
in two parliaments, and was knight of the fhire in
three parliaments after the Revolution. He wrote in
Latin, 1. A critique on the moft celebrated writers.
2. Eflays on feveral fubjefls. 3. A natural hiftory,
extrafled out of the beft modern writers ; and, 4. Re¬
marks upon poetry, with charaflers and cenfures of
the moft confiderable poets, whether ancient or modern.
He died June 30th, 1697.
Blount (Charles), younger brother of Sir Thomas
Pope Blount, had alfo an excellent capacity, and was
an eminent writer. His Anitna Mundi, or An hif-
torical narration of the opinions of the ancients,' con¬
cerning man's foul after this life, according to unen¬
lightened nature, gave great offence, and was complained
of to the bifhop of London. But the work which
rendered him moft known, was his tranflation of Phi-
loftratus’s Life of Appollonius Tyaneus, publilhed in
1680; which was foon fuppreffed, as an attack on re¬
vealed religion. Another work of the fame complexion
he pub! iftied the fame year, called Great is Diana of
the Ephejians, &c, in which, under colour of expofing
fuperftition, he ftruck at revelation: In 1684, he
printed a kind of Introduliion to Polite Literature. In
the warmth of his zeal for the Revolution, he writ a
pamphlet to prove king William and queen Mary con¬
querors; which was condemned to be burnt by both
houfes of parliament. The cldfe of his life was very
unhappy. For, after the death of his wife, he be¬
came enamoured of her fifter, who was only fcrupulous
againft their union on account of their prior connexion
by the marriage ; on which he writ a letter on the fub-
je<£l, as the cafe of a third perfon, with great learning
and addrefs. But the archbifhop of Canterbury and
other divines deciding againft him, and the lady op
this growing inflexible, it threw him into a frenzy in
which he fhot himfelf, in 1693. After his death, his
mifcellaneous pieces were colledled and publilhed.
BLOW (Dr John), a famous mufician and com-
pofer, was a native of North Collingham in the county
of Nottingham; and was one of the firft fet of children
after the rettoration, being bred up under Captain Henry
Cook. He was alfo a pupil of Hingefton, and after
that of Dr Chriftopher Gibbons. On the 16th day of
March, 1673, he was fworn one of the gentlemen of
the chapel in the room of Roger Hill; and in July,
1674, upon the deceafe of Mr Pelham Humphrey,
was appointed mafter of the children of the chapel.
In 1685, he was made one of his majefty’s private
mufic; and in 1687, was appointed almoner and maf¬
ter of the chorifters of the cathedra] church of St Paul.
Blow was not a graduate of either univerfity; but arch-
bifliop Sancroft, in virtue of his own authority in that
refpedl, conferred on him the degree of dotlor in mufic.
Upon the deceafe of Purcell in 1695, he became or-
ganift of Weftminfter-abbey. In the year 1699, he
was appointed compofer to his majefty, with a falary.
Blow was a compofer of anthems while a chapel-boy,
and on the fcore of his merit was diftinguilhed by
Charles II. The king admired very much a little duet
of Cariffimi to the words ‘ Dite o Cieli,’ and alked of
Blow if he could imitate ft. Blow modeftly anfwered
he would try ; and compofed in the fame meafure, and
the fame key of D with a minor third, that fine fong,
‘ Go perjured man.’
The Orpheus Britannicus of Purcell had been pub-
lilhed by his widow foon after his deceafe; and con¬
tained in it fome of that author’s fineft fongs : the fa¬
vourable reception it met with was a motive with Blow
to the publication, in the year 1700, of a work of the
fame kind, entitled Amp hi on Anglicus, containing com-
pofitions for one, two, three, and four voices, with
ac-
Blount,
Blow. 1
B L O [ i:
Blow, accompaniments of inflrumenta? mufic, and athorough-
’ bafs figured for the organ, harpfichord, or theorbo-
lute. To this book are prefixed commendatory verfes
by fimdry perfons; and among them an ode, in the
fecond ftanza of which are the following lines:
‘ His Gloria Pali: long ago reach’d Rome,'
‘ Sung and revei’d too in St Peter’s dome;
‘ A canon will outlive her jubilees to come.’
The canon here meant is that fine one to which the
Gloria Patri in Dr Blow’s gamut fervice is fet. Dr
Blow fet to mufie an ode for St Cecilia’s day, in 1684,
the words by Mr Oldham, publifhed together with one
of Purcell on the fame occafion performed the pre¬
ceding year. He alfo compofed and publilhed a col-
lediion of leffons for the harpfichord or fpinnet, and
m an ode on the death of Purcell, written by Mr Dry-
den. There are alfo extant of his compofition fundry
hymns printed in the Harmonia Sacra, and a great
number of catches in the latter editions of the mufical
companion.
This great mufician died in the year 1708, and lies
buried in the north aile of Weftminfter-ahbey. On
his monument is the canon above mentioned, engraven
on a book with an infeription above it.
BLOW, in a general fenfe, denotes a ftroke given
either with the hand, a weapon, or inftrument. In
fencing, blows differ from thrufis, as the former are
given by ftriking, the latter by pufhing.
Military Blow, alapa militaris, that given with a
fword on the neck or fhoulder of a candidate for knight¬
hood, in the ceremony of dubbing him. The cullom
feems to have taken its rife fromihe ancient ceremony
of manumifiton. In giving the blow, the prince ufed
the formula EJlo bonus miles, “ Be a valiant foldier
upon which the party rofe a complete knight, and qua¬
lified to bear- arms in his own right.
Blow, in law. See Battkry.
/Ty-BLOws, the ova of flies depofited on flefh, or
other fubftances proper for hatching them.
BLow-P;/>e, among jewellers and other artificers, is
a glafs tube, of a length and thicknefs at diferetion,
wherewith they quicken the flame of their lamp, by
blowing through it with their mouth; It is ufed in
works of quicker difpatch, which do not need the bel¬
lows. Though the wind blown out at a fmall bent
tube of glafs, called a blow-pipe, feems not to have any
great celerity, in comparifon of the parts of flame, and
is itfelf of little force ; yet, when the flame of a lamp
or candle is diredied by it, fo as to beat upon a body
at a convenient diftance, it may be made to melt filver,
or even copper .itfelf, which yet maybe kept, for many
hours, unmelted in a red-hot crucible, or the flame of
the lamp or candle unafiifted by the blaft. The ena-
mellers have alfo tubes of divers fizes, wherewith to
blow their enamel, anfwering to the fame purpofe as
the pontillio, or blow-pipe, ofglaffmen.
The blow-pipe has alfo been a little ufed by chemifts
and mineralifts. But Mr Cronfted has lately extended
its ufe to the examination of all mineral bodies; which
by means thereof, with a candle and piece of charcoal,
may, in portions fufficient for mineralogical experi¬
ments, be burnt, calcined, melted, or fcorified, &c.
as well as in any great works.—This inftrument is
compofed of two parts ; and this for the facility both
of making, carrying it along, and cleanfing it in the
17] B L O
infide when neceflary. The two parts are reprefented Blow,
feparate f, and of the true fize ; the figure of the in- Blowing,
ftrument, when thefe are put together, may be eafily f p|ate xy
conceived. The globe a (n° 2.) is hollow, and made fig. 2.
on purpofe to condenfe the vapours, which always han- n'’
pen to be in the blow-pipe when it has been tifed fome
time : if this globe was not there, the vapours would
o direftly with the wind out into the flame, and there-
y cool the aftay. The hole in the fmall end b, thro’
which the wind comes out, ought not to be larger than
the fize of the fineft wire. This hole may now and
then happen to be flopped up by fomething coming into
it, fo as to hinder the force of the wind: one ought there¬
fore to have a piece of the fineft wire, to clear it with
when required ; and, in order to have this wire the
better at hand, it may be faftened round the blow-pipe,
in fuch a manner as is reprefented in n° 1: c is the wire
faftened round the blow-pipe, and afterwards drawn
through a fmall hole at e, made in the ring f, to keep
it more fteady. In order to determine the moft con¬
venient proportions of this inftrument, feveral blow¬
pipes of different fizes, both bigger and fmaller, have
been tried: the former have required too much wind ;
and the latter, being too foon filled with the wind,
have returned it back again upon the lungs: both thefe
circumftances hindered greatly the experiments, and
are perhaps even prejudicial to the health. The fize
here given is found Jo anfwer beft ; and though the
hole muft be as fmall as abovementioned, yet the fides
of the pipe at the point muft not be thinner, nor the
point narrower, than here reprefented, elfe it will be
too weak, and not give fo good a flame. It is alfo to
be obferved, that the canar throughout the pipe, but
particularly the hole at the fmall end, muft be made
very fmooth, fo that there be no inequalities in it; the
wind would elfe be divided, and confequently the flame
made double. That blow-pipe is to be reckoned the
beft, through which can be farmed the longeft and
moft pointed flame from off a common-fized candle.
Thefe blow-pipes are commonly made of brafs or filver.
The manner of ufing them in mineralogical experiments
are explained under the article Mineralogy.
BLOWING, iii a general fenfe, denotes an agita¬
tion of the air, whether performed with a pair of bel¬
lows, the mouth, a tube, or the like. Butchers have
a pradlice of blowing up veal, efpecially loins, as foor;
as killed, with a pipe made of a fheep’s fhank, to make
it look larger and fairer.
Blowing of Glafs, one of the methods of forming
the various kinds of works in the glafs manufafture.
It is performed by dipping the point of an iron blow-
ing-pipe in the melted glafs, and blowing through it
with the mouth, according to the circumftances,of the
glafs to be blown. See Glass.
Blowing of Tin denotes the melting its ore, after
being firft burnt to deftroy the mundic.
Machines for Blowing the Air into Furnaces. See
the article Furnace.
Blowing, among gardeners, denotes the a&ion of
flowers, whereby they open and difplay their leaves.
In which fenfe, blowing amounts to much the fame
with flowering or bloffoming *. * Bee Finn.
The regular blowing feafon is in the fpring ; though
fome plants have other extraordinary times and man-
ners of blowing, as the Glafteubury thorn. Divers
flowers
IS L U [ ui8 ] BOA
flowers alfo, as the tulip, clofe every evening, and blow grind-ftone or whet-ftone, and rub hard on the work,
again in the morning. Annual plants blow fooner or to take off the black fcurf from it: then heat it in the
later, as their feeds are put in the ground ; whence the fire; and as it grows hot, the colour changes by degrees,
curious in gardening fow fome every month in fummer, coming firft to light, then to a darker gold colour, and
to have a conftant fucceffion of flowers. The blowing laftly to a blue. Sometime* alfo they grind indigo and
of rofes may be retarded by {hearing off the buds as fallad-oil together; and rub the mixture on the work
•they put forth. with a woollen rag, while it is heating, leaving it to
BLUBBER, denotes the fat of whales and other cool of itfelf. Among fculptors we alfo find mention
large fea-animals, whereof is made train-oil. It is of bluing a figure of bronze, by which is meant the
properly the adeps of the animal: it lies immediately heating of it, to prepare it for the application of gold-
under the Ikin, and over the mufcular flefh. In the ' leaf, becaufe of the bluifh caff it acquires in the ope-
porpoife, it is firm and full of fibres, and invefts the ration.
body about an inch thick. In the whale, itsthicknefs BLUFF-head, among failors. A {hip is faid to
is ordinarily fix inches; but, about the under lip, it is be bluff-headed, that has an upright ftern.
found two or three feet thick. The whole quantity BLUNDERBUSS, a fliort fire-arm with a wide
yielded by one of thefe animals ordinarily amounts to bore, capable of holding a number of bullets at once.
40 or 50, fometimes to 80 or more, hundred weight. BOA, in zoology, a genus of ferpents, belonging
The ufe of blubber to the animal feems to be partly to to the order of amphibia. The characters of this ge-
poife the body, and render it equiponderant to the wa- mis are, that the belly and tail are both furnirtied with
ter; partly to keep off the water at fome diftance from fcuta. The fpecies are ten, viz. 1. The contortrix,
the blood, the immediate contaCt whereof would be apt has 150 fcuta on the belly, and 40 on the tail: the
to chill it; and partly alfo for the fame ufe that clothes head is broad, very convex, and has poifon-bags in
ferve us, to keep the fifti warm, by reflecting or rever- the mouth, but no fang, for which reafon its bite is
berating the hot fleams of the body, and fo redoubling not reckoned poifonous: the body is alh-coloured, in-
the heat; fince all fat bodies are, by experience, found terfperfed with large dulky fpots; and the tail is about
lefs fenfible of the imprelfions of cold than lean ones, a third of the length of the body. This ferpent is
Its ufe in trade and manufaClures is to furnifli train-oil, found in Carolina. 2. The canina, has 203 fcuta on
which it does by boiling down. Formerly this w'as the belly, and 77 on the tail ; it is greenilh, and va-
performed afhore, in the country where the whales riegated with white belts. It is a native of America,
were caught: but of late the fifliers do not go afhore; and lodges in the hollow trunks of trees, and is about
they bring the blubber home flowed in calks, and boil two feet long. The bite of the canina is not poifonous.
it down here. 3. The hipnale, is. of a dull yellow colour, and is
•Sc^-Blubber. See Medusa. found in Alia. It has 179 fcuta on the belly, and 120
BLUE, one of the feven colours into which the on the tail,
rays of light divide themfelves when refra&ed through 4. The conftri&or, has 240 fcuta on the belly, and
a glafs prifm.—For an account of the particular ftruc- 60 on the tail. This is an immenfe animal: it often
tureof bodies by which they appear of a blue colour, exceeds 36 feet in length ; the body is very thick, of
fee the article Chromatics.—The principal blues ufed a dulky white colour, and its back is interfperfed with
in painting are Prulfian blue, bice, Saunders blue, 24 large pale irregular fpots; the tail is of a darker
azure, or fmalt, verditer, &c.; for the preparation of colour; and the fides are beautifully variegated with
which, fee Colour-—In dyeing, the princi- pale fpots. Befides, the whole body is interfperfed
pal ingredients for giving a blue colour are indigo and with fmall brown fpots. The head is covered with
woad. See Dyeing. fmall fcales, and has no broad laminae betwixt the eyes,
Blue Colour of the Sky. See Sky. but has a black belt behind the eyes. It wants the
Blue Bird. See Motacilla. large dog-fangs, and of courfe its bite is not poifonous.
Blue/q/Z?. See Coryphena. The tongue is flefliy, and very little forked. Above
Blue ffapart. Take gum-water, what quantity the eyes, on each fide, the head rifes high. The fcales
you pleafe, and white lead a fufiicient quantity; grind of this ferpent are all very fmall, roundilh, and fmooth.
them well upon a porphyry : then take ifinglafs fize The tail does not exceed one eighth of the whole length
what quantity you pleafe, of the fineft and beft fmalt of the animal. The Indians, who adore this mon-
a fufficient quantity ; mix them well: to which add, of ftrous animal, ufe the {kin for cloaths, on account of
your white lead, before ground, fo much as may give its fmoothnefs and beauty. There are feveral of thefe
it a fufiicient body. Mix all thefe together to the con- {kins of the above dimenfions preferved, and to be feen
fiftence of a paint. in the different mufeums of Europe, particularly in the
BLUING, the aft or art of communicating a blue library and botanic garden of Upfal in Sweden, which
colour to bodies otherwife deftitute thereof. Landref- has of late been greatly enriched by count Grillinborg.
fes blue their linen with fmalt; dyers their fluffs and The flefh of this ferpent is eat by the Indians, and the
wools with woad or indigo. negroes of Africa. Pifo, Margraave, and Kempfer, give
Bluing of Metals is performed by heating them in the following account of its method of living and cat.ch-
the fire, till they affume a blue colour; particularly prac- ing its prey. It frequents caves and thick forerts,
tifed by gilders, who blue their metals before they ap- where it conceals itfelf, and fuddenly darts out upon
ply the gold and filver leaf. ftrangers, wild beafts, &c. When it ehufesa tree for
Bluing o/’/ruw, a method of beautifying that metal its watching-place, it fupports itfelf by twilling its
fometimes praftifed ; as for mourning buckles, fwords, tail round the trunk or a branch, and darts down up-
and the like. The manner is thus: Take a piece of on fheep, goats, tigers, or any animal that comes with-
Bluff-head|
Boa, ;
Plate X/VH.
Penx
c l lin e
A/x l5. Blocks
-/•
Binnacle
BOA [ is
Boa, In its reach. When it lays hold of animals, efpecially
J oadlcea~ any of the larger kinds, it twills itfelf feveral times
round their body, and by the vaft force of its circular
mufcles bruifes and breaks all their bones. After the
bones are broke, it licks the ikin of the animal all over,
befmearing it with a glutinous kind of faliva. This o-
peration is intended to facilitate deglutition, and is a
preparation for fwallowing the whole animal. If it be
a ftag, or any horned animal, it begins to fwallowthe
feet firft, and gradually fucks in the body, and laft of
all the head. When the horns happen to be large,
this ferpent has been obferved to go about for a long
time with the horns of a Hag flicking out from its
mouth. As the animal digefls, the horns putrify and
fall off. After this ferpent has fwallowed a flag or a
tiger, it is unable for fome days to move ; the hunters,
who are well acquainted with this circumflance, always
take this opportunity of deflroying it. When irrita¬
ted, it makes a loud hiding noife. This ferpent is faid
to cover itfelf over with leaves in fuch places as flags or
.other animals frequent, in order to conceal itfelf from
their fight, and that it may the more eafily lay hold of
them. See Plate LVIII.
5. The murina, has 254 fcuta on the belly, and 65 on
the tail. The colour of it is a light blue, with round fpots
on the back. It is a native of America, and its bite is
not poifonous. 6. The fcytale, has 250 fcuta on the
belly, and 70 on the tail. The body is afh-coloured and
bluifh, with round black fpots on the back, and black la¬
teral rings edged with white. This ferpent is a native
of America; and, like the conflridtor, tho’ not fo long,
twifls itfelf about fheep, goats, &c. and fwallows them
whole. 7. The cenchria, has 265 fcuta on the belly,
and 57 on the tail. It is of a yellow colour, with
white eye-like fpots. It is a native of Surinam, and
its bite is not poifonous. 8. The ophrias, has 281
fcuta on the belly, and 64 on the tail; the colour is
nearly the fame with that of the conftriftor, but
browner. The place where this ferpent is to be found
is not known ; but its bite is not venomous. 9. The
enydris, has 270 fcuta on the belly, and 105 on the
tail. The colour is a dufky white, and the teeth of
the lower jaw are very long ; but its bite is not poifon¬
ous. It is a native of America. 10. The hortulana,
has 290 fcuta on the belly, and 128 on the tail. It is
of a pale colour, interfperfed with livid wedge-like
-fpots. It is a native of America, and its bite is not
poifonous.
BOADADA bashee, in the Turkifh military or¬
ders, an officer of the janizaries, whofe bufinefs it is
to walk every day about the principal parts of the ci¬
ty, with a number of janizaries to attend him, to keep
order, and fee that all things are regular, even to the
drefs. This office is for three months, and from this
the perfon is ufually advanced to be a ferach.
BOADICEA, a valiant Britiffi queen in the time
of Nero the emperor, wife to Prafutagus king of the
Iceni in Britain, who by his will left the emperor and
his own daughters co-heirs to his great treafures, in
expe&ation of procuring by that means Nero’s protec¬
tion for his family and people : but he was no fooner
dead, than the emperor’s officers feized all. Boadicea
oppofed thefe unjuft proceedings ; which was refented
to fuch a pitch of brutality, that they ordered the lady
to be publicly whipped, and her daughters to be ra-
19 ] BOA
vifhed by the foldiers. The Britons took arms, with Boar.
Boadicea at their head, to ihake off the Roman yoke ;
and made a general and bloody maffacre of the Romans
in all parts. The whole province of Britain would have
been loft, if Suetonius Paulinus had not haftened from
the ifle of Mona to London ; and with 10,000 men en¬
gaged the Britons, who had an army of 200,000. The
battle was fought for a long time with great vigour
and doubtful fuccefs, till at laft vidlory inclined to the
Romans. Boadicea, who had behaved with all bravery
imaginable, difpatched herfelf by poifon.
BOAR, in the menage. A horfe is faid to boar,
when he (hoots out his nofe as high as his ears, and
toffes his nofe in the wind.
Boar, a male fwine. See Sus.
The wild boar, among huntfmen, has feveral names,
according to its different ages: the firft year, it is call-
ed a pig of the faunder ; the fecond it is called a hog ;
the third, a hog-Jieer; and the fourth, a boar ; when
leaving the faunder, he is called a finglsr or fangler.
The boar generally lives to 25 or 30 years, if he efcapes
accidents. The time of going to rut is in December,
and lafts about three weeks. They feed on all forts of
fruits, and on the roots of many plants; the root of
fern in particular feems a great favourite with them :
and when they frequent places near the fea-coafts, they
willdefcend to the fhores and demoliftuhe tenderer fhell-
fiffi in very great numbers. Their general places of
reft are among the thickeft bufhesthat can be found ;
and they are not eafily put up out of them, but will
Hand the bay a long time. In April and May they
fleep more found than at any other time of the year,
and this is therefore the fuccefsful time for the taking
them in the toils. When a boar is rouzed out of the
thicket, he always goes from it, if poffible, the fame
way by which he came to it; and when he is once up,
he will never flop till he comes to fome place of more
fecurity. If it happens that a faunder of them are
found together, when any one breaks away, the reft
all follow the fame way. When the boar is hunted in
the wood wrhere he was bred, he will fcarce ever be
brought to quit it; he will fometimes make towards
the fides to liften to the noife of the dogs, but retires
into the middle again, and ufually dies or efcapes there.
When it happens that a boar runs a-head, he will not
be ftopt, or put out of his way, by man or bead, fo
long as he has any ftrength left. He makes no doubles
nor crdffings when chafed; and when killed makes no
noife, if an old boar; the fows and pigs will fqueak
when wounded.
The feafon for hunting the wild boar begins in Sep¬
tember, and ends in December, when they go to rut.
If it be a large boar, and one that has lain long at
reft, he muft be hunted with a great number of dogs,
and thofe fuch as will keep clofe to him; and the huntf-
man, with his fpear, fhould always be riding in among
them, and charging the boar as often as he can, to dif-
courage him : fuch a boar as this, with five or fix cou¬
ple of dogs, will run to the firft convenient place of
(belter; and there (land at bay, and make at them as
they attempt to come up with him. There ought al¬
ways to be relays alfo fet of the bed and (launched
hounds in the kennel; for if they are of young eager
dogs, they will be apt to feize him, and be killed or
fpoiled before the reft come up. The putting collars
with
BOA [ 1220 ] BOA
o.!»r, with bells about the dogs necks is a great fecurity
JS >.ud. f()r them ; for the boar will not fo foon ftrike at
them when they have thefe, but will rather run before
them. The huntfmen generally kill the boar with their
fwords or fpears : but great caution is neceflary in ma¬
king the blows ; for he is very apt to catch them upon
liis fnout or tufks ; and if wounded and not killed, he
will attack the huntfman in the moft furious manner.
The places to give the wound with the fpear is either
between the eyes in the middle of the forehead, or in
the (houlder; both thefe places make the wound mortal.
When this creature makes at the hunter, there is no¬
thing for it but courage and addrefs; if he flies for it,
he is furely overtaken and killed. If the boar comes
flraight up, he is to be received at the point of the fpear :
but if he makes doubles and windings, he is to be
watched very cautioufly; for he will attempt getting
hold of the fpear in his mouth ; and if he does fo, no¬
thing can fave the huntfman but another perfon attack¬
ing him behind : he will on this attack the fecond per¬
fon, and the firft mutt then attack him again : two
people will thus have enough to do with him ; and were
it not for the forks of the boar-fpears that make it im-
poffible to prefs forward upon them, the huntfman
who givef the creature his death’s wound would feldom
efcape falling a facrifice to his revenge for it. The
modern way of boar-hunting is generally to difpatch
the creature by all the huntfmen ftrikiug him at once;
but the ancient Roman way was, for a perfon on foot,
armed with a fpear, to keep the creature at bay ; and
in this cafe the boar would run of hixnfelf upon the
fpear to come at the huntfman, and pulh forward till
the fpear pierced him through.
The hinder claws of a boar are called guards. In
the corn, he is faid to feed; in the meadows or fallow-
fields, to rout, 'worth, ox fern; in a clofe, Xo graze.
The boar is farrowed with as many teeth as he will ever
have ; his teeth increafing only in bignefs, not in num¬
ber : among thefe there are four called tufhes, ox tufks;
the two biggeft of which do not hurt when he ftrikes,
but ferve only to whet the other two loweft, with which
the bead defends himfelf, and frequently kills, as be-
ing greater and longer than the red.
It is very remarkakle, that thefe creatures in the
Weft Indies are fubjedl to the ftone : few of them are
abfolutely free from it, yet fcarce any have the ftones
of any confiderable fize. It is common to find a great
number in the fame bladder ; and they are ufually of
about a fcruple weight, and are angular, and that with
great regularity, each having five angles.
Among the ancient Romans, boar’s fldh was a deli¬
cacy ; a boar ferved up whole was a difh of date.
The boar was fometimes alfo the military enfign
borne by the Roman armies, in lieu of the eagle.
Among phyficians, a boar’s bladder has been repu¬
ted a fpecific for the epilepfy. The tufh of the wild
boar ftill palfes with fome as of great efficacy in quin-
zies and pleurifies.
BOARD, a long piece of timber, fawed thin for
building and feveral other purpofes. See Timber.
Deal-boards are generally imported into England
ready fawed, becaufe done cheaper abroad, in regard
we want faw-mills. Cap-boards are imported from
Sweden and Dantzic. Oak-boards chiefly from Swe¬
den and Holland ; fome from Dantzic. We alfo im¬
port white boards for fhoemakers ; mill and fcale- f
boards, &c. for divers artificers. Scale-board is a |
thinner fort, ufed for the covers of primers, thin boxes, f
and the like. It is made with large planes; but might
probably be fawed with mills to advantage.
Board is alfo ufed for a kind of table or bench,
whereon feveral artificers perform their work. In this
fenfe, we fay a v/oxk-board, tUo^-board, taylor’s-
board, &c.
Board is alfo ufed for a flat machine, or frame, ufed
in certain games, and the like. In this fenfe, we fay
a draught-fo#r</, a chois-board, a QaoxeX-boafd, and
the like.
Boards, in book-binding See 'Book-Binding.
Board, Bureau, is alfo ufed for an office where ac¬
counts are taken, payments ordered, and the like. In
this fenfe, we fay the board of works, board of ord¬
nance, board of treafury, and the like.
Board, among feamen. To go aboard, fignifies to
go into the ftiip. To flip by the board, is to flip down
by the fhip’s fide. Board and board, is when two fliips
come fo near as to touch one another, or when they
lie fide by fide. To make a board, is to turn to wind¬
ward ; and the longer your boards are, the more you I
work into the wind. To board it up, is to beat it up,
fometimes upon one tack, and fometimes upon another.
She makes a good board, that is, the (hip advances much
at one tack. The nxieather-board, is that fide of the
(hip which is to windward.
BOARDING, in a naval engagement, a defperate
and furious aflault made by one (hip on another, after
having found every other method to reduce her inef-
fe&ual: it may be performed in different places of the
(hip, according to their circumftances and fituation, by
the affailant detaching a number of men armed with pi-
ftols and cutlaffes on the decks of his antagonift, who
Hands in the fame predicament with a city ftormed by
the befiegers. This expedient, however, is rarely at¬
tempted by king’s (hips, which generally decide the
combat without grappling each other ; but chiefly
praftifed by privateers, which, bearing down on the
enemy’s quarter or broadfide, drop from the bowfprit,
which projeds over the defendant’s deck, an earthen
fhtll, called a Jlink-pot, charged with fiery and fuffo-
cating combuftibles, which immediately burfts, catches
fire, and fills the deck with infufferable flench and
fmoke : in the middle of the confufion thus occafioned,
the privateer’s crew rufli aboard, under cover of the
fmoke, and eafily overpower the aftoniflied enemy; un-
lefs they have clofe quarters to which they can retreat
and beat them off the deck.
BOAT, a fmall open veffel, conduded on the wa¬
ter by rowing or failing. The conftrudion, machinery,
and even the names of boats, are very different, ac¬
cording to the various purpofes for which they are cal¬
culated, and the fervices on which they are to be em¬
ployed. Thus they are occafionally flight or ftrong,
fharp or flat bottomed, open or decked, plain or or¬
namented ; as they may be defigned for fwiftnefs or
burden, for deep or (hallow water, for failing in a har¬
bour or at fea, and for convenience or pleafure.
The largeft boat that ufually accompanies a (hip is
the long-boat, which is generally furnifhed with a matt
and fails : thofe which are fitted for men of war, may
be occafionally decked, armed, and equipped, for
cruizing
Boat.
BOA [ 12
cruifing fliort diftances againft merchant-fhips of the e-
“ nemy, or fmugglers, or for impreffing feamen, &c. The
barges are next in order, which are longer, {lighter,
and narrower : they are employed to carry the princi¬
pal fea-officers, as admirals, and captains of (hips of
war, and are very unfit for fea. Pinnaces exadlly re¬
ferable barges, only that they are fomewhat fmaller,
and never row more than eight oars ; whereas a barge
properly never rows iefs than ten. Thefe are for the
accommodation of the lieutenants, &c. Cutters of a
(hip, are broader, deeper, and (horter, than the barges
and pinnaces ; they are fitter for failing, and are com¬
monly employed in carrying {lores, provifions, paf-
fengers, &c. to and from the {hip. In the ftrudlure of
this fort of boats, the lower-edge of every plank in the
fide overlays the upper edge of the plank below, which
is called by fiiip-wrights clinch-work. Yawls are fome-
thing lefs than cutters, nearly of the fame form, and
ufed for fimilar fervicea; they are generally rowed with
fix oars.
The above boats more particularly belong to men of
war; as merchant-ffiips feldom have more than two,
viz. a long-boat and yawl: when they have a third, it
is generally calculated for the countries to which they
trade, and varies in its conftrudtion accordingly. Mer¬
chant-fhips employed in the Mediterranean find it more
convenient to ufe a lanch, which is longer, more flat-
bottomed, and better adapted every way to the harbours
of that fea, than a long-boat.
A wherry is a light {harp boat, ufed in a river or
harbour for carrying paffengers from place to place.
Punts are a fort of oblong flat-bottomed boats, nearly
refembling floating ftages ; they are ufed by fhip-
wrights and caulkers, for breaming, caulking, or re¬
pairing a {hip’s bottom. A mofes is a very flat broad
boat, ufed by merchant-{hips amongft the Caribbee-
iflands, to bring hogfheads of fugar off from the fea-
beach to the {hipping which are anchored in the roads.
A felucca is a ftrong paffage-boat ufed in the Mediter¬
ranean, from IO to 16 banks of oars. The natives of
Barbary often employ boats of this fort as cruifers.
For the larger fort of boats, fee the articles Craft,
Cutter, Periagua, and Shallop.
Of all the fmall boats, a Norway yawl feems to be
the beft calculated for a high fea, as it will often ven¬
ture out to a great diftance from the coaft of that coun¬
try, when a {tout {hip can hardly carry any fail.
An account of feveral trials made on a Boat, or
Sloop, fit for inland navigation, coajling voyages, and
foort pafi'ages by fea, which is not, like ordinary vefiels,
liable to be overfet or funk by winds, waves, water-fpouts,
or too heavy a load; contrived and conftrufted by Mon-
fieur Bernieres, direttor of the bridges and caufeways in
France, &c. &c. Some of thefe trials were made on
the firlt of Augufl: 1777, at the gate of the invalids in
Paris, in the prefence of the provolt of the merchants,
of the body of the town, and a numerous concourfe of
fpeftators of all conditions.
The experiments were made in the way of compari-
fon with another common boat of the fame place, and
of equal fize. Both boats had been built ten years,
and their exterior forms appeared to be exactly fimilar.
The common boat contained only eight men, who
rocked it and made it incline fo much to one fide, that
it prefently filled with water, and funk; fo that the
Vol. II.
21*] BOA
men were obliged to fave themfelves by fwimming;
a thing common in all veffels of the fame kind, either Boatfwain-
from the imprudence of thofe who are in them, the
ftrength of the waves or wind, a violent or unexpe&ed
{hock, their being overloaded, or overpowered in any
other way.
The fame men who had juft efcaped from the boat
which funk, got into the boat of M. Bernieres ; rocked
it; and filled it, as they had done the other, with water.
But, inftead of finking to the bottom, though brim
full, it bore being rowed about the river, loaded as it
was with men and water, without any danger to the
people in it.
M. Bernieres carried the trial ftill farther. He or¬
dered a maft to be erefted in this fame boat, when filled
with water; and to the top of the maft had a rope faft-
ened, and drawn till the end of the maft touched the
furface of the river, fo that the boat was entirely on
one fide, a pofition into which neither winds nor waves
could bring her: yet, as foon as the men who had
hauled her into this fituation let go the rope, the boat
and maft recovered themfelves perfe&Iy in lefs than the
quarter of a fecond ; a convincing proof that the boat
could neither be funk nor overturned, and that it af¬
forded the greateft poffible fecurity in every way. Thefe
experiments appeared to give the greater pleafure to the
public, as the advantages of the difeovery are not only
fo fenfible, but of the firft importance to mankind.
A boat of the fame fort had been tried, O&ober 1 Ith,
1771, at Choify, before Lewis XV. and his prefent
majefty, then Dauphin, &c. to whom M. Bernieres,
as much diftinguiflied by his difintereftednefs and his
virtues as a citizen, as by his inventive genius, referred
for the fatisfadtory refult of the experiments.
In confequence of the above trials, the provoft of the
merchants, and the corporation of Paris, at their meet¬
ing on the 20th of September, gave the Sieurde Berni¬
eres permiffion to eftablifti his boats on the river Seine,
at the port near Pont-Royal; and moreover promifed
him all the prote&ion and encouragement in their power.
And the Sieur de Bernieres, on his fide, propofes to
fupply the public with a certain number of thefe boats
before the end of next year.
The known humanity of the inventor warrants the
pleafing belief, that this very capital difeovery will neii
ther be unneceffarily concealed, nor illiberally reftrifted.
It is due to mankind ; and we doubt not but that its
importance will be enhanced by an early, free, andex-
tenfive communication.
In Britain efpecially, where fo much bufinefs of
every kind is tranfa&ed on the water, we muft more
anxioufly wifh to derive from the ingenuity and bene¬
volence of the Sieur Bernieres, a comfortable refource
againft the many diftrefsful and dangerous accidents to
which we are perpetually expofed.
BOATSWAIN, the officer who has the boats, fails,
rigging, colours, anchors, and cables, committed to
his charge.
It is the duty of the boatfwain particularly to direft
whatever relates to the rigging of a flu'p, after {he is
equipped from a royal dock-yard. Thus he is to ob-
ferve that the mafts are properly fupported by their
Ihrouds, ftays, and back-ftays, fo that each of thofe
ropes may fuftain a proportional effort when the maft
is {trained by the violence of the wind, or the agitation
7 P of
B 0 C [ 1222 ] B O C
Boatfwam of the ftiip. He ought alfo to take care that the blocks
Bo/ace an^ runn'ng'r0Pes ‘*re regularly placed, fo as to an-
  ]_ fwer the purpofes for which they are intended ; and
that the fails are properly fitted to their yards and ftays,
and well furled or reefed when occafion requires.
It is likewife his office to fummon the crew to their
duty; to affift with his mates in the necefiary bufinefs
of the fhip ; and to relieve the watch when it expires.
He ought frequently to examine the condition of the
marts, fails, and rigging; and remove whatever may
be judged unfit for fervice, or fupply what is deficient:
and he is ordered by his inftru&ionsto perform this duty
with as little noife as poffible.
Boatswain’s Matehw the peculiar command of the
long boat, for the fetting forth of anchors, weighing
or fetching home an anchor, warping, towing, or
mooring ; and is to give an account of his ftore.
BOB, a term ufed for the ball of a fhort pendulum.
BOBARTIA, in botany, a genus of the digynia
order, belonging to the triandria clafs of plants. Of
this genus there is only one fpecies known, which is a
native of the Indies, and hath no remarkable property.
BOBBIN, a fmall piece of wood turned in the form
of a cylinder, with a little border jutting out at each
end, bored through to receive a fmall iron pivot. It
ferves tofpin with the fpinning-wheel,or to wind thread,
worfted, hair, cotton, filk, gold, and filver.
BOBBING, among fifhermen, a particular manner
of catching eels, different from fniggling. Bobbing for
eels is thus performed: They fcour well fome large lobs,
and with a needle run a twifted filk through them from
end to end, taking fo many as that they may wrap
them about a board a dozen times at leaft : then they
tie them fart with the two ends of the filk, that they
may hang in fo many hanks; which done, they faften
all to a ftrbng cord, and, about an handful and an half
above the worms, fix a plummet three-quarters of a
pound weight, and make the cord fart to a ftrong pole.
With this apparatus fifhing in muddy water, they feel
the eels tug luftily at the bait; when they think they
have fwallowed it fufficiently, they gently draw up the
rope to the top, and bring them artiore.
BOBIO, an epifcopal town of Italy, in the Milanefe
and territory of Pavia, feated on the river Treba, in
E. Long. 9. 30. N. Lat. 44. 48.
BOCA-chica, the ftreight or entrance into the
harbour of Carthagena in South America. It is de¬
fended by feveral forts belonging to the Spaniards, all
which were taken by the Englilh in 1741 ; they were
neverthelefs obliged to raife the fiege of Carthagena in
a fliort time after.
Hock-del-Drago, a ftreight fo called, between the
ifland of Trinidad and Andalufia, in the province of
Terra Firma in South America.
BOCANUM, (anc. geog.), a town of Mauritania
Tingetana, to the fouth of mount Atlas; laid to be that
of Morocco in Africa. W. Long. 9. o. N. Lat. 31 • o.
BOCCACE (John), one of the moft polite and
learned writers of his age, was born in Tufcany in
1313. His father firft placed him with a merchant;
but as he gave figns of genius, he was put afterward
to ftudy the canon law: he loft almoft as much time
at this as at the laft occupation ; and thought of no¬
thing but poetry. He came under the inftruftion of
Petrarch; but did not fo entirely devote himfelf to
poetry, as to forget other ftudies. In the profecution Bcccace,
of thefe, however, as he fought every where for the
beft mafters, and had not an income fufficient for his
expences, he was reduced to fuch circumftances as to
ftand in need of the bounty of others: he was particu¬
larly obliged to Petrarch, who furniffied him with mo¬
ney as well as books, and affifted him in many other
refpe&s. Boccace was a great admirer of the Greek
language: he found means to get Homer tranflated
into Latin for his own ufe ; and procured a profeffor’s
chair at Florence for Leontius Pylatus, in order to
explain this poet. The republic of Florence honoured
Boccace with the freedom of that city ; and employed
him in public affairs, particularly to negociate the re¬
turn of Petrarch : but this poet not only refufed to re¬
turn to Florence, but perfuaded Boccace alfo to retire
from thence, On account of the fa&ions which prevailed
in that republic. Having quitted Florence, he went to
feveral places in Italy; and flopped at laft at the court
of Naples, where king Robert gave him a very kind
reception. He conceived a violent affedlion for the
natural daughter of that prince, which made him re¬
main a confiderable time at Naples. He alfo made
a long ftay in Sicily, where he was in high favour
with queen Joan. He returned to Florence when the
troubles were a little appeafed : but not liking the
courfe of life he muft have followed there, he retired to
Certaldo; and, far from the noife of bufinefs, he fpent
his time in ftudy agreeably to his own humour. His
great application brought on him an indifpofition, of
which he died in 1376. He wrote feveral books,
fome learned and ferious, others of gallantry and full
of ftories. It is by his Decameron chiefly that he has
immortalized himfelf. Petrarch found fo many charms
in this compofition, that he was at the pains to tran-
flate it into Latin for his own fatisfa&ion.
BOCCALINI (Trajan), a celebrated fatirical wri¬
ter, born at Rome, who, in the beginning of the 17th
century, obtained the admiration of all Italy by his
refined and delicate criticifms. Sovereign princes them-
felves did not efcape the laflt of his fatire. The car¬
dinals Borghefe and Gaetan having declared themfelves
his protectors, he publifhed his Ragguaglio di Parnajfo,
and La Secretaria di Apollo, which is the continuation
of the former. Thefe two works were received by the
public with uncommon applaufe. He there feigns,
that Apollo, holding his court at Parnaffus, heard
the complaints of the whole world, and did juftice ac¬
cording as the cafes required. He at length printed his
Pietra di Parangone ; wherein he attacks the court of
Spain, fetting forth their defigns againft the liberty of
Italy, and inveighing particularly againft them for the
tyranny they exercifed in the kingdom of Naples.
The Spaniards complained of him in form, and were
determined at any rate to be revenged. Boccalini was
frightened, and retired to Venice ; but was there affaf-
finated in a very ftrange manner. He lodged with one
of his friends, who having got up early one morning,
left Boccalini in bed : a minute after, fome armed men
entered his chamber, and gave him fo many blows with
bags full of fand, that they left him for dead ; fo that
his friend returning fome time after, found him fpeech-
lefs. Great fearch was made at Venice for the authors
of this murder ; and though they were never difcovered,
it was univerfally believed that they were employed by
B O C [ 1223 ] BOD
Bocconi the court of Spain.
II BOCCONI (Sylvio), a celebrated natural hiftorian,
>oc art‘ born at Palermo in Sicily. After he had gone through
the ufual courfe of ftudies, he applied himfelf chiefly
to natural hiftory, in which he made a moil furprifing
progrefs. He was afterwards ordained prieft, and en¬
tered into theCittercian order, at which time he changed
his Chriftian name Paul into that of Sylvia. This new
way of life did not in the lead divert him from his fa¬
vourite ftudy: for he purfued it with greater vigour
than ever, and travelled not only over Sicily, but like-
wife vitited the ifle of Malta, Italy, the Low Countries,
England, France, Germany, Poland, and feveral other
nations; and, in 1696, was admitted a member of the
academy of the virtuofi in Germany. Upon his return
to Sicily, he retired to a convent of his own order near
Palermo; where he died in 1704, being 71 years of
age. He left many curious works.
BOCCONIA, (fo called from the Revd Paul Boc¬
coni of Sicily, who publiihed fome curious books on
botany), greater tree celandine ; a genus of the
monogynia order, belonging to the dodecandria clafs of
plants. Of this genus there is but one known fpecies,
viz. the frutefeens, which is efteemed for the beauty
of its large foliage. It is very common in Jamaica and
other warm parts of America, where it grows to the
height of 10 or 12 feet, having a ftraight trunk as large
as a man’s arm, and covered with a white fmooth
bark. At the top it divides into feveral branches, on
which the leaves are placed alternately. Thefe leaves
are eight or nine inches long, and five or fix broad;
are deeply finuated, fometimes almoft to the mid¬
rib ; and are of a fine glaucous colour. The whole
plant abounds with a yellow juice of an acrid nature ;
fo that it is ufed by the inhabitants of America to take
off warts and fpots from the eyes. The Angular beauty
of this plant renders it worthy of a place in every cu¬
rious colleftion : and it feems the Indians are very fond
of it; for Hernandez, tells us, their kings ufed to plant
it in their gardens. It is propagated by feeds from
America, fowing them in fpring, in pots of light earth,
which muft be plunged in a hot-bed. When the plants
come up, they are to be put in feparate pots, which
muft always be kept in the ftove.
BOCHART (Samuel), one of the moft learned
men in the 17th century, was born at Roan in Nor¬
mandy. He made a very early progrefs in learning,
and became a great proficient in the oriental languages.
He was many years paftor of a proteftant church at
Caen ; where he was tutor to Wentworth Dillon earl
of Rofcommon, author of the Effay on Tranflated Verfe.
Here he particularly diftinguiftied himfelf by his pub¬
lic difputations with father Veron, a very famous con-
troverfift. The difpute was held in the caftle of Caen,
in the prefence of a great number of Catholics and Pro-
teftants. Bochart came off with great honour and re¬
putation ; which were not a little increafed in the year
1646, upon the publication of his Phaleg and Canaan,
which are the titles of the two parts of his Geographica
Sacra. He acquired alfo great fame by his Hierozoicon,
printed in London in 1675. This treats de animalibus
facra feripturx. The great learning he difplayed in
his works rendered him efteemed not only amongft thofe
of his own profeflion, but amongft all lovers of know¬
ledge of whatever denomination. In 1652, the queen
of Sweden invited him to Stockholm, where flie gave Bochins
him many proofs of her regard and efteem. ^ II.
At his return to Caen, he refumed the fundtions of Botlm'
the miniftry, and was received into the academy of that
city. His learning was not his principal qualification,
he had a modefty equal to it; and hence enjoyed his
great reputation in tranquillity, ftieltered from thofe
unhappy quarrels which fo many other learned men
draw upon themfelves. He died fuddenly while he
was fpeaking in the above academy, on the id111 of
May, 1667, aged 78. A complete edition of his works
was publiflied in Holland, in two volumes folio, 1712.
BOCHIUS, or Bocqui (John), a Latin poet, born
at Bruffels in 1555. He travelled into Italy, Ger¬
many, Poland, and Mufcovy, and at his return became
fecretary to the duke of Parma. He died on the rj111
of January, 1609. The critics in the Netherlands let
fo great a value on his poetry, that they gave him the
name of the Belgic Virgil. He wrote, 1. De Belgii
Principatu. 2. Parodia Her oka Pfalmorum Davidi-
corum. 3. Obfervationes Phyfiae, Ethia, Politic#, et
Hijloricx, in Pfalmos. 4. Vita Davidis. 5. Orationes.
6. Poemata.
BOCHETTA, a place of Italy, famous in the war
of 1746 and 1747. It is a chain of mountains over
which the great road lies from Lombardy to Genoa ;
and on the very peak of the higheft mountain is a nar¬
row pafs, which will hardly admit three men to go a-
breaft. This pafs is properly called the Bochetta ; for
the defence of which there are three forts. It is the
key of the city of Genoa ; and was taken in 1746 by
the Imperialifts, by which means they opened a way
to that city.
BOCKHOLT, a town of Germany in the circle of
Weftphalia and diocefe of Munfter, capital of a fmall
diftridt, and fubjedt to the bilhop of Munfter. E. Long,
6. 20. N. Lat. 51. 40.
LOCKING, a very large village of Effex in Eng¬
land, adjoining to Brain-tree, from which it is fepa-
rated only by a fmall ftream. Its church is a deanry,
and very large ; and there are here two or three meet¬
ing houfes; but the market is kept at Brain-tree. In
both parilhes there are about 1500 houfes, which in
eneral are but indifferent, and the ftreets narrow and.
adly paved. There is a large nianufadlory of bays,
chiefly for exportation. It is 42 miles north-eaft of
London.
BOCK-land, in the Saxons time, is what we now
call freehold lands, held by the better fort of perfons
by charter or deed in writing ; by which name it was
diftinguilhed from folkland, or copy-hold land, holden
by the common people without writing.
BODERIA, or Bodotria, the ancient name for
the frith of Forth in Scotland.
BODIN (John), native of Angers, one of the ableft
men in France in the 16th century,' famous for his
Method of Hiftory, his Republic, and other works. He
was in great favour with Henry HI. who imprifoned
John de Serre for writing an injurious piece againft
Bodin, and forbid him upon pain of death to publiftt
it. But his favour was not of long continuance. The
duke of Alen^on, however, gave him feveral employ¬
ments ; and carried him to England with him as one
of his counfellors, where he had the pleafure and glory
to fee his books de Republica read publicly in the
7 P 2 univerfity
BOD [ 12.24 I B O E
Bodkin univerfity of Cambridge, having been tranflated into
II Latin by the Englidi. He had written them in French.
Bo(t!ey- In the Ragguagli of BoccaKni he is condemned as an
athieft to the fire, for having faid in his books that li¬
berty of confcience ought to be granted to feftaries.
He declared himfelf pretty freely againft thofe who
aflerted that the authority of monarchs is unlimited;
but yet he difpleafed the republicans. Upon the death
of the duke of Alen5on, Bodin retired to Laon, where
he married. He had an office in the prefidial of this
city; and in Charles the Ninth’s time he was the king’s
folicitor with a commiffion for the forefts of Normandy.
He died of the plague at Laon, in 1596.
BODKIN, a fmall inftrument made of fteel, bone,
ivory, &c. ufed for making holes.
BODLEY (Sir Thomas), founder of the Bodleian
library at Oxford, was born at Exeter in Devonfhire,
in 1544. When he was about 12 years of age, his
father, Mr John Bodley, being a Proteftant, was ob¬
liged to leave the kingdom. He fettled at Geneva
with his family, and continued there till the death of
Queen Mary. In that univerfity, then in its infancy,
young Bodley ftudied the learned languages, &c. urt-
der feveral eminent profefibrs. On the acceffion of
Queen Elizabeth, he returned with his father to Eng¬
land ; and was, foon after, entered of Magdalen college
in Oxford. In 1563, he took the degree of bachelor
of arts, and the year following was admitted fellow
of Merton college. In 1565, he read a Greek le&ure
in the hall of that college. He took a mafter of arts
degree the year after, and read natural philofophy in
the public fchools. In 1569, he was one of the proc¬
tors of the univerfity, and, for fome time after, of¬
ficiated as public orator. In the year 1576, he quit¬
ted Oxford, and made the tour of Europe; but returned
to his college after four years abfence.
He became gentleman ulher to Queen Elizabeth, in
the year 1583 ; and in 1585 he married the widow of
Mr Ball, daughter of Mr Carew of Briftol, a lady of
confiderable fortune. Mr Bodley was foon after fent
ambaflador to the king of Denmark, and other Ger¬
man princes. He was next charged with an important
commiffion to Henry III. of France; and, in 1588,
went ambaffador to the United Provinces, where he con¬
tinued till the year 1597.
On his return to England, finding his preferment
obftru&ed by the jarring interefts of Burleigh and Effex,
he retired from court, and could never afterwards be
prevailed on to accept of any employment. He now
began the foundation of the Bodleian library, which
was completed in 1599. Soon after the acceffion of
King James I. he received the honour of knighthood,
and died in the year 1612. He was buried in the choir
of Merton college. His monument is of black and
white marble, on which Hands his effigy in a fcholar’s
gown, furrounded with books. At the four corners are
the emblematical figures of Grammar, Rhetoric, Mu-
fic, and Arithmetic; tw'o angels, &c. ; with a fhortin-
fcription, fignifying his age and time ofhis death. Sir
Thomas Bodley was a polite fcholar, an ablellatefman,
and a worthy man. Mr Granger obferves, that he
merited much as a man of letters ; but incomparably
more in the ample provifion he made for literature, in
which he Hands unfiyalled; and that his library is a
maufoleum which will perpetuate his memory as long
as books themfelves endure. Sir Thomas wrote his own Bodmin
Life to the year 1609 ; which, together with the firfi II
draught of the Statutes, and his Letters, have been Boece’
publifhed from the originals in the Bodleian library, by
Mr Thomas Hearn, in 1703.
BODMIN, a town of Cornwall in England, feated
in a bottom between two high hills, which renders the air
very unwholefome. It confifls chiefly of one Hreet,
and the many decayed houfes fhew that it has once
been a place of greater note. It is a mayor-town,
fends two members to parliament, and had formerly
the privilege of the coinage of tin. W. Long. 4. 5.
N. Lat. 50. 32.
BODON, a fortified town of Bulgaria in Turky in
Europe, with an archbifhop’s fee. It is feated on the
Danube, in E. Long. 45. 24. N. Lat. 45. 10.
BODROCH, a town of Hungary, feated on the
north-eaH fliore of the river Danube, in E. Long. 20.
20. N. Lat. 46. 15.
BODY, in phyfics, an extended folid fubHance, of
itfelf utterly paffive and ina&ive, indifferent either'to
motion or refi.
Colour of I&o'dwz. See Chromatics.
Body, with regard to animals, is ufed in oppofitioa
to foul, in which fenfe it makes the fubje& of anatomy.
The height of the human body is faid to be different
in different parts of the day ; ordinarily it is an inch
more in the morning than at night f. The body ceafes j.
to grow in height, when the bones are arrived at a de- Traaf.
gree of firmnefs and rigidity which will not allow of far- n° Es¬
ther extention by the effort of the heart and motion of
the blood.
Body, among painters, as to bear a body, a term
fignifying that the colours are of fuch a nature, as to
be capable of being ground fo fine, and mixing with
the oil fo entirely, as to feem only a very thick oil of
the fame colour.
Body, in the menage. A horfe is chiefly faid to
have a good body, when he is full in the flank. If the
laff of the fliort ribs be at a confiderable diHance from
the haunch bone, although fuch horfes may for a
time have pretty good bodies, yet, if they are much
laboured, they will lofe them ; and thefe are properly
the horfes that have no flank. It is alfo a general
rule, that a man fliould not buy a light bodied-horfc,
and one that is fiery, becaufe he will foon deflroy him¬
felf.
Body, in the art of war, a number of forces, horfe
and foot, united and marching under one commander..
Main Body of an army, the troops encamped in the
centre between the two wings, and generally infantry;
the other two bodies are the vanguard and the rear¬
guard ; thefe being the three into which an. army,
ranged in order of battle, is divided.
Body, in matters of literature, denotes much the
fame with fyffem, being a colleflibn of every thing be¬
longing to a particular fcience or art, difpofed in pro¬
per order: thus we fay, a body of divinity, law,
phyfic, &c.
~E>ov>y-Corporate. See Corporation.
BOECE, or Boethius, (He6tor),the hifforian, was
born at Dundee about the year 1470, and Hudied with
applaufe in the univerfity of Paris. It was there he be¬
came acquainted with Erafmus, and laid the foundation
of a friendlhip which was fo honourable to him. In 1500
he
B O E [ 1225 ] B O E
Boece he was recalled to Aberdeen by bifhop Elphingdon,
Boehmen W^° ma^e PrincTa^ univerfity. Gratitude
' for this promotion engaged him to write with particu¬
lar attention the Life of that prelate. It appeared in
his hiftory of the diocefe of Aberdeen ; and may be
'COhfidered, perhaps, as the moft valuable portion of
that work. His hiftory of Scotland, a more ufeful
undertaking, was firft publilhed in the 1526. In 1574,
it underwent a "fecond impreffion, and was enriched
with the 18th book, and a part of the 19th. A far¬
ther continuation of it was executed by Joannes Fer-
rerius Pedemontanus. Boece died about the year 1550;
He has been compared, and not without reafon, to
Geoffroy of Monmouth. He had a propenfity to fable
and exaggeration; a fault which the elegance of his
expreffion does not compenfate. His judgment was
not equal to his genius ; and his fiftions as an hiftorian
are a contraft to his probity as a man. John Ballenden,
archdeacon of Murray, tranflated his hiftory into the
Scottifh language, at the defire of James V. TMs
tranflation William Harrifon converted, though with
imperfe&ions, into Englifti; and his aflbciate Holling-
fhed publifhed his work in his chronicle, with additions
and improvements by the ingenious Francis Thynne.
BOEDROMIA, in antiquity, folemn feafts held at
Athens in memory of the fuccour brought by Ion to
the Athenians, when invaded by Eumolpus fon of Nep¬
tune, in the reign of Ere&heus. Plutarch gives ano¬
ther account of the boedromia ; which, according to
him, were celebrated in memory of the vi&ory obtained
by Thefeus over the Amazons, in the month Boedro-
mion.
BOEDROMION, in chronology, the third month
of the Athenian year, anfwering to the latter part of
our Auguft and beginning of September.
BOEHMEN (Jacob), called the Teutonic philofo-
pher, was a noted vifionary of the 17th century, born in
a village of Germany near Gorlitz, in 1575. He was
bred a (hoemaker; and marrying, fupported a large fa¬
mily by this occupation; until, after amufing himfelf
with chemiftry, a vifionary turn of mind, heated by fer-
mons and German divinity, got the upper hand of his
common fenfe, and produced raptures and notions of
divine illumination. Thefe he firft gave vent to in 1612,
by a treatife intitled Aurora, or the ri/ing of the Sun ;
being a mixture of aftrology, philofophy, chemiftry,
and divinity, written in a quaint obfcure ftyle. This
being cenfured by the magiftrates of Gorlitz, he re¬
mained filent for feven years: but improving that in¬
terval by purfuing the flights of his imagination, he
refumed his pen ; and refolving to redeem the time he
had loft, he, in the remaining five years of his life, pu-
bliftied above 20 books, which greatly needed what
he concluded with, A table of his principles, or a key to
his ’writings ; though this has not proved fufficient to
render them intelligible to common apprehenfions. The
key above mentioned appeared in 1624, and he did not
long furvive it. For early in the morning of the 18th
of November, that year, he called one of his fons, and
aiked him “ if he alfo heard that excellent mufic;” to
which being anfwered in the negative, he ordered
the door to be fet open, that the mufic might
be the better heard. He aflced afterwards, what a
clock it was; and being told it had ftruck twe, he
faid “ It is not yet my time, my time is three hours
hence.” In the interim he was heard to fpeak thefe Boehmew
words, “ O thou ftrong God of hofts, deliver me ac- It
cording to thy will. O thou crucified Lord Jefus, have Boerhaave*
mercy upon me, and receive me into thy kingdom.”
When it was near fix o’clock, he took his leave of his
wife and fons, and blefled them, and faid, “ Now I go
hence into paradifc then bidding his fon turn him,
he immediately expired his laft breath in a deep figh.
A great number of perfons have been inveigled by
the vifions of this fanatic, notwithftanding his talents
in involving the plaineft things in myftery and tenig-
matical jargon. Among others, the famous Quirinus
Kahlman may be reckoned the principal of his followers
in Germany; who fays, he had learned more being a-
lone in his ftudy, from Boehmen, than he could have
learned from all the wife men of that age together;
and, that we may not be in the dark as to what fort of
knowledge this was, he acquaints us, that amidft an
infinite number of vifions it happened, that, being
fnatched out of his ftudy, he faw thoufands of thou-
fands of lights rifing round about him. Nor has he been
without admirers, and thofe in no fmall number, in
England; among the foremoft of whom ftands the fa¬
mous Mr William Law, author of Chriftian Perfection,
&c. who has favoured his countrymen with an Englifti
edition of Jacob Boehmen’s works in 2 vols 410.
BOEOTlA, the name of two ancient kingdoms,
one of which w^as founded or rather reftored by Cad¬
mus, and named by him Bxotia, from the ox which
is faid to have directed him to the place where he built
the capital of his new kingdom, better known after¬
wards by the name of Thebes. But as the inhabitants
were fcarce ever diftinguifhed as a nation by the name
of Boeotians, but of Thebans, we refer to the article
Thebes, for their hiftory, &c.
The other Bceotia was in Theflaly, and is faid to
have been founded by Bceotus the fon of Neptune and
brother of jEolus, by Arne the daughter of iEolus
king of .<Eolis. This laft, having fent his daughter to
Metapontium a city of Italy, fhe was there delivered of
thofe two fons, the eldeft of whom (he called after her
father’s name JEolus ; and he pofleffed himfelf of the
iflands in the Tyrrhenian, now the Tufcan fea, and
built the city of Lipara. Boeotus the younger fon went
to his grandfather and fucceeded him in his kingdom*
called it after his own name, and the capital city Arne,
from his mother. All that we know of thefe Boeotians
is, that they held this fettlement upwards of 200 years
and that the Thefialians expelled them from it; upon
which they came and took pofleflion of that country,
which till then had been called Cadmeis, and gave it
the name of Bxotia. Diodorus and Homer tell us,
that thefe Boeotians fignalized themfelves at the Tro¬
jan war; and the latter adds, that five of Boeotus’s
grandfons, viz. Peneleus, Leitus, Prothoenor, Arce-
filaus, and Cloning, were the chiefs who led the Boeo¬
tian troops thither.
BOERHAAVE (Herman), one of the greateft
phyficians as well as the beft men, that this or per¬
haps any age has ever produced, was born, in 1668, at
Vorhout, a village near Leyden. At the age of 16,
he found himfelf without parents, prote&ion, advice,
or fortune. He had already ftudied theology, and the
other ecclefiaftical fciences, with the defign of devoting
himfelf to a clerical life; but the fcience of nature,
which
BCE [ J226 ] B O E
which equally engaged his attention, foon engroffed his
whole time. This illuftrious perfon, whofe name af¬
terwards fpread throughout the world, and who left at
his death above L. 200,000, could at that-time barely
live by his labours, and was compelled to teach the ma¬
thematics to obtain neceflaries. But in 1693, being
received doftor in the fcience of phyfic, he began prac¬
tice; and his merit being at length difcovered, many
powerful friends patronized him, and procured him three
valuable employments: the firft was that of profeffor
of medicine in the univerfity of Leyden; the fecond,
that of profelfor of chemiftry; and, thirdly, that of
profeffor of botany. The Academy of Sciences at Pa¬
ris, and the Royal Society at London, invited him to
become one of their members. He communicated to
each his difcoveries in chemiftry. The city of Leyden
became in his time the fchool of Europe for this fcience,
as well as medicine and botany. All the princes of
Europe fent him difciples, who found in this fkilful
profeffor, not only an indefatigable teacher, but even a
tender father, who encouraged them to purfue their la¬
bours, confoled them in their affli&ions, and folaced
them in dheir wants.
When Peter the Great went to Holland in 1715, to
inftruCt himfelf in maritime affairs, he alfo attended
Boerhaave to receive his leffons.
His reputation was fpread as far as China: a Man¬
darine wrote to him with this infcription, “ To the il¬
luftrious Boerhaave, phyfician in Europeand the let¬
ter came regularly to him.
The city of Leyden has raifed a monument in the
church of St Peter, to the falutary genius of Boer¬
haave, Salutifero Boerhaavii genio facrum. It con fills
of an urn upon a pedeftal of black marble: fix heads,
four of which reprefent the four ages of life, and two
the fcienees in which Boerhaave excelled, form a group
iffuing between the urn and its fupporters. The capital
of this balls is decorated with a drapery of white marble,
in which the artift has fhewn the different emblems of
diforders and their remedies. Above, upon the furface
of the pedeftal, is the medallion of Boerhaave: at the
extremity of the frame, a ribband difplays the favou¬
rite motto of this learned man ; Simplex vigilum vert,
“ Truth unarrayed.”
From the time of the learned Hippocrates, no phy¬
fician has more juftly merited the efteem of his cotem¬
poraries, and the thanks of pofterity, than Boerhaave.
He united to an uncommon genius, and extraordinary
talents, the qualities of the heart, which give them fo
great a value to fociety. He made a decent, fimple,
and venerable appearance, particularly when age had
changed the colour of his hair. He was an eloquent
orator, and declaimed with dignity and grace. He
taught very methodically, and with great precifion; he
never tired his auditors, but they always regretted that
his difcourfes were finilhed. He would fometimes give
them a lively turn with raillery; but his raillery was
refined and ingenious, and it enlivened the fubje6l he
treated of, without carrying with it any thing fevere
or fatirical. A declared foe to all excefs, he confi-
dered decent mirth as the fait of life. It was the daily
pra&ice of this eminent perfon, through his whole life,
as foon as he rofe in the morning, which was generally
very early, to retire for an hour to private prayer, and
meditation on fome part of the Scriptures. He often
told his friends, when they alked him how it was pof- 3oerha»«.
fible for him to go through fo much fatigue ? that it  —!
was this which gave him fpirit and vigour in the bu-
finefs of the day. "This he therefore recommended as
the bejl rule he could give: for nothing, he faid, could
tend more to the health of the body, than the tranquil¬
lity of the mind; and that he knew nothing which
could fupport himfelf, or his fellow-creatures, amidft
the various diftreffes of life, but a well-grounded con¬
fidence in the fupreme Being upon the principles of
Chriftianity. This was ftrongly exemplied in his own
illnefs in 1722, which can hardly be told without hor¬
ror; and by which the courfe of his lectures as well as
his praftice was long interrupted. He was for five
months confined to his bed by the gout, where he lay
upon his back without daring to attempt the lead mo¬
tion ; becaufe any effort renewed his torments, which
were fo exquifite, that he was at length not only de¬
prived of motion but of fenfe. Here his medical art
was at a ftand; nothing could be attempted, becaufe
nothings could be propofed with the leaft profpedt of
fuccefs. But, having (in the fixth month of his ill¬
nefs) obtained fome remiffion, he determined to try whe¬
ther the juice of fumitory, endive, or fuccory, taken
thrice a-day in a large quantity, {viz. above half a pint
each dofe), might not contribute to his relief; and by a
perfeverance in this method he was wonderfully reco¬
vered. This patience of Boerhaave’s was founded not
on vain reafonings, like that of which the Stoics
boafted; but on a religious compofure of mind, and
Chriftian refignation to the will of God.
Of his fagacity and the wonderful penetration with
which he often difcovered and defcribed, at the firft
fight of a patient, fuch diftempers as betray themfelves
by no fymptoms to common eyes, fuch furprifing ac¬
counts have been given, as fcarcely can be credited, tho’
attefted beyond all doubt. Yet this great mafter of
medical knowledge was fo far from a prefumptuous
confidence in his abilities, or from being puffed up by
his riches, that he was condefcending to all, and re¬
markably diligent in his profefiion; and he often ufed
to fay, that the life of a patient (if trifled with or ne-
glefted) would one day be required at the hand of the
phyfician. He always called the poor his lejlpatients;
for God (faid he) is their paymafter.
The activity of his mind fparkled vifibly in his eyes.
He was always cheerful, and defirous of promoting e-
very valuable end of converfation ; and the excellency
of the Chriftian religion was frequently the fubjeil of
it: for he afferted, on all proper occafions, the divine
authority and facred efficacy of the Scriptures; and
maintained, that they only could give peace of mind,
that fweet and facred peace which paffeth all under-
ftanding; fince none can conceive it, but he who has it;
and none can have it, but by divine communication. He
never regarded calumny nor detraction, (for Boerhaave
himfelfhadenemies),noreverthought it neceffary to con¬
fute them. “ They are fparks (faid he) which, if you
do not blow, will go out of themfelves. The fureft re¬
medy againft fcandal, is to live it down by a perfeve¬
rance in well-doing ; and by praying to God that he
would cure the diftempered minds of thofe who traduce
and injure us.”
Being once afked by a friend, who had often admi¬
red his patience under great provocations, whether he
knew
B O E [ 12
Boerhsave knew what it was to be angry, and by what means he
l! had fo entirely fupprefied that impetuous and ungo-
06 'U5‘ vernable pafEon? he anfwered, with the utmofl frank-
nefs and fincerity, that he was naturally quick of re-
fentment, but that he had, by daily prayer and medi¬
tation, at length attained to this maftery over himfelf.
About the middle of the year 1737, he felt the tirft
approaches of that fatal illnefs which brought him to
the grave, viz. a diforder in his bread, which was at
times very painful, often threatened him with imme¬
diate fuffocation, and terminated in an univerfal drop-
fy; but during this alHiftive and lingering illnefs, his
conftancy and firmnefs did not forfake him. He nei¬
ther intermitted the neceflary cares of life, nor forgot
the proper preparations of death. About three weeks
before his diflblution, when the Rev. Mr Schultens, one
of the moft learned and exemplary divines of the age,
attended him at his country-houfe, the Doftor defired
his prayers, and afterwards entered into a moll re¬
markably judicious difcourfe with him on the fpiritual
and immaterial nature of the foul; and this he illuflra-
ted to Mr Schultens with wonderful perfpicuity, by a
defcription of the effedls which the infirmities of his
body had upon his faculties ; which yet they did not
fo opprefs or vanquilh, but his foul was always mailer
of itfelf, and always refigned to the pleafure of its ma¬
ker—and then he added, “ He who loves God ought
to think nothing defirable but what is moll pleafing to
the fupreme goodnefs.” Thefe were his fentiments,
and fuch was his conduft in this Hate of weaknefs and
pain. As death approached nearer, he was fo far from
terror or confufion, that he feemed lefs fenfible of pain,
and more cheerful under his torments, which continued
till the 23d day of September, 1738, on which he died
(much honoured and lamented) between four and five
in the morning, in the 70th year of his age—often re¬
commending to the by-Handers a careful obfervation of
St John’s precepts concerning the love of God, and the
love of man, as frequently inculcated in his firll epillle,
particularly in the fifth chapter.
His funeral oration was fpoken in Latin before the
univerfity of Leyden, to a very numerous audience, by
Mr Schultens, and afterwards publilhed at their parti¬
cular defire.
He wrote, 1. Injlitut tones Me die a;. 2. jdphorifmi
de cognofcendis dr curandis Morbis. 3. Infiitutiones it
Experiment a Chemise. 4. Libellus de Materia Me die a,
et remedionnn formulis quae ferviunt aphorifmis. Swie-
ten publilhed Commentaries upon his Aphorifms, in
5 vols 410 ; and feveral other works, all greatly e-
lleemed.
BOERHAAVIA, a genus of the monogynia or¬
der, belonging to the monandria clafs of plants. It has
its name from the celebrated Herman Boerhaave, phy-
fician at Leyden. There are fix fpecies, all natives of
the Indies. Some of thefe plants rife five or fix feet
high, but moll of them only 18 inches or two feet.
They carry flowers of a yellow or red colour, but-are
by no means fo remarkable as to merit any particular
defcription.
BOESCHOT, a town of the Auftrian Netherlands,
in the province of Brabant, feated on the river Nethe,
in E. Long. 4. 45. N. Lat. 51.5.
BOETHIUS, orBoETius, (Flavius Anicius Man¬
lius Torquatus Severinus), a profe as well as poetical
27 ] B O E
writer of the 6th century, born of one of the noblell Boethius,
families of the city of Rome. The time of his birth is
related to have been about that period in the Roman
hillory when Augullulus, whofe fears had induced him
to a refignation of the empire, was banilhed, and Odo-
acer king of the Herulians began to reign in Italv, viz.
in the year of Chrill 476, or fomewhat after. The fa¬
ther of Boetius dying while he was yet an infant, his
relations undertook the care of his education and the
dire&ion of his lludies. His excellent parts were foon
difeovered; and, as well to enrich his mind with the
ftudy of philofophy, as to perfedl himfelf in the Greek
language, he was fent to Athens. Returning young to
Rome, he was foon dillinguilhed for his learning and
virtue, and promoted to the principal dignities in the
flate, and at length to the confulate. Living in great
affluence and fplendor, he addidled himfelf to the lludy
of theology, mathematics, ethics, and logic; and how
great a mailer he became in each of thefe branches of
learning appears from thofe works of his now extant.
The great offices which he bore in the date, and h is
confummate wifdom and inflexible integrity, procured
him fuch a (hare in the public councils, as proved in the
end his dellrudlion; for as he employed his intereft with
the king for the prote&ion and encouragement of de-
ferving men, fo he exerted his utmotl efforts in the de¬
tection of fraud, the repreffing of violence, and the de¬
fence of the Hate againil invaders. At this time Theo-
doric the Goth had attempted to ravage Campania;
and it was owing to the vigilance and refolution of
Boetius that that country was preferved from deftruc-
tion. At length, having murdered Odoacer, Theodoric
became king of Italy, where he governed 33 years with
prudence and moderation, during which time Boetius
poflefled a large {hare of his efteem and confidence. It
happened about this time that Juftin, the emperor of
the eaft, upon his fucceeding to Anaftafius, made an
edid condemning all the Al lans, except the Goths, to
perpetual baniffiment from the eaftern empire: in this
edict Hormifdabifliop of Rome, and alfo the fenate, con¬
curred. But Theodoric, who, as being a Goth, was
an Arian, was extremely troubled at it; and conceived
an averfion againft the fenate for the (hare they had borne
in this profeription. Of this difpofition in the king,
three men of profligate lives and defperate fortunes,
Gaudentius, Opilio, and Bafilius, took advantage. Ha¬
ving entertained a fecret defire of revenge againil Boe- -
tins, for having been inftrumental. in the difmiffion of
the latter from a lucrative employment under the king,
they accufed him of feveral crimes; fuch as the Hiding
a charge, the end whereof was to involve the whole
fenate in the guilt of treafon ; and an attempt, by de¬
throning the king, to reffore the liberty of Italy; and,
laflly, they fuggeffed, that, to acquire the honours he
was in poffeffion of, Boetius had had recourfe to magi¬
cal arts.
Boetius was at this time at a great diflance from
Rome; however, Theodoric tranfmitted the complaint
to the fenate, enforcing it with a fuggeHion that the
fafety, as well of the people as the prince, was rendered
very precarious by this fuppofed d'efign to exterminate
the Goths. The fenate, perhaps fearing the refent-
ment of the king, and having nothing to hope from
the fuccefs of an enterprife which, fuppofingit ever to
have been meditated, was now rendered abortive, with¬
out
BOG [ 1228 ] BOH
Boethius out fummoning him to his defence, condemned Boetius in Piedmont, fituated on the frontiers of France, in E.
II to death. The king, however, apprehending fome Long. 6. 45. N. Lat. 44. 12.
Bogho- bad confequence from the execution of a fentence fo BOGLIO, a diftrift in the territories of the duke
flagrantly unjuft, mitigated it to banifliment. The of Savoy, lying on the river Tinea on the frontiers of
place of his exile was Ticinum, now the city of Pavia, Provence ; the capital is of the fame name,
in Italy: being in that place feparated from his relations, Boglio, a town of Piedmont, and county of Nice,
who had not been permitted to follow him into his re- being the capital of a territory of the fame name. E.
tirement, he endeavoured to derive from philofophy Long. 4. 50. N. Lat. 44. 12.
thofe comforts which that alone was capable of afford- BOGOMILI, or BogarmitjE, in church hiftory,
ing to one in his forlorn fituation, fequeftered from his a fe& of heretics, which fprung up about the year 1179.
friends, in the power of his enemies, and at the mercy They held, that the ufe of churches, of the facra-
of a capricious tyrant; and accordingly he there com- ment of the Lord’s fupper, and all prayer, except the
pofed that valuable difeourfe, entitled De Confolatione Lord’s prayer, ought to be abolifhed ; that the bap-
Philofepbite. tifm of Catholics is imperfeft; that the Perfons of the
About two years after his banilhment, Boetius was Trinity are unequal, and that they oftentimes made
beheaded in prifon by the command of Theodoric. His themfelves vifible to thofe of their fe&. They faid, that
tomb is to be feen in the church of St Auguftine, at devils dwelt in the churches, and that Satan had re-
Pavia, near the fteps of the chancel. ftded in the temple of Solomon from the deftru&ion of
The extenfive learning and eloquence of this great Jerufalem to their own time,
man are confpicuous in his works, which feem to have BOGOTO, the capital of New Granada in Terra
been collefted with great care : an edition of them was Firma in South America, near w'hich are gold mines,
printed at Venice, in one volume folio, in 1499. In It is fubjeA to Spain. W. Long. 73. 55. N. Lat. 4. o.
1570, Glareanus, of Bafil, collated that with feveral BOHEA, in commerce, one of the beft kinds of tea
manuferipts, and publilhed it, wdth a feV various read- that come from China. There are three forts of it: the
ings in the margin. His chief performance is that firft is bought at Canton for 80 tals /er pice; the fe-
abovementioned De Confolatione Philofophia ; a work cond for 45 ; and the third for 25. See The a.
well known in the learned world, and to which the af- BOHEMIA, a kingdom of Europe, fubjedft to the
fli&ed have often applied. In particular, our Saxon houfe of Auftria, and furrounded on every fide with
king Alfred, whofe reign, though happy upon the woods and mountains as with a natural rampart. It is
whole, was attended with great viciflitudes of fortune, bounded on the eaft by Moravia and part of Silefia, on
had recourfe to it at a time when his diftrefies compelled the north by Luface and Upper Saxony, on the weft,
him to feek retirement; and, that he might the better by Franconia, and on the fouth by Bavaria. Altho’this
imprefs upon his mind the noble fentiments inculcated kingdom is fituated in the middle of Germany, and its
in it, he made a complete tranflation of it into the king is an ele&or of the empire, it has neverthelefs its
Saxon language, which, within thefe few years, has particular alfemblies, cuftoms, and language, different
been given to the wmrldin its proper chara&er. And from the Germans. It is one of the moll elevated coun-
Camden relates, that queen Elizabeth, during the time tries of Europe : for no river enters into it, though
of her confinement by her After Mary, to mitigate her many have their fource there ; the chief of which are
grief, read and afterwards tranflated it into very ele- the Elbe, the Oder, the Viftula, and the Morava. The
gantEnglifh. But it deferves alfo particular notice, that air is cold and unwholefome, for they have more epi-
he is the moft confiderable of all the Latin writers on demical difeafes than in the neighbouring countries,
mufic; and that his treatife De Mujica fupplied for There are mines of filver, copper, lead, and even fome
fome centuries the want of thofe Greek manuferipts veins of gold. The capital city is Prague ; the others
which were fuppofed to have been loft. are Cuttenburg, Konigengretz, Pilfen, Czaflaw, Bud-
BOG properly fignifies a quagmire, covered with weys, Egra, Glatz, Tabor, and a great number of
grafs, but not folid enough to fupport the weight of others: for they reckon more than 100 cities, among
the body ; in which fenfe it differs only from marfhes which almoft 40 have the title of/Joy#/. The name Bo-
ox fens, as a part from the whole : fome even reftrain hernia, in the German language, fignifies the Home, or
the term hog to quagmires pent up between two hills; Abode, of the Boii, a people of ancient Gaul, who un-
whereas fens lie in champaign and low countries, where der their leader Sergovefus fettled in that country a-
the defeent is very fmall—To drain boggy lands, a bout 590 years before the Chriftian sera. Thefe Boii
good method is, to make trenches of a fufficient depth were foon after expelled by the Marcomanni, a nation
to carry off the moifture ; and if thefe are partly filled of the Suevi, who were afterwards fubdued by the Scla-
up with rough ftones, and then covered with thorn- vi, a people of Scythia, whofe language is ftill fpoken
bufhes and ftraw to keep the earth from filling up the in Bohemia and Moravia. Notwithftanding this ex-
interftices, a ftratum of good earth and turf may be pulfion of the Boii, the prefent inhabitants are ftill
laid over all ; the cavities among the ftones will give called Bohemians by foreigners, but the natives call
paflage to the water, and the turf will grow at top as themfelves Zechs. At firft they were governed by
if nothing had been done. dukes; but the emperor Otho I. conquered the duke
Bog, or Bog of Gight, a fmall town of Scotland, of Bohemia, and reduced the province under the em-
feated near the mouth of the river Spey, in W. Long. ' pire. Afterwards Henry V. gave the title of king to
2. 23. N. Lat. 57. 48. Ladifiaus duke of Bohemia; and fince that time thefe
Rog-Spavin. See Farriery, § xxxii. 3. kings have been eleftors and chief cup-bearers of the
BOGARMITiE. See Bogomili. empire, and the kingdom has been eledive ; which
BOGHO, or Bueil, a town in the county of Nice privileges have been confirmed by the golden bull.
' Formerly
Boglio
ll
Bohemia;
B O I
hernia.
BOH [ i:
Formerly the kings of Bohemia received the kingdom
as a fief of the empire, which ceremony was pradifed
upon the frontiers; after which, the ftandards of the
principalities of which it is compofed were given to
them, without being torn and given to the people, as
is done with the eniigns of the other fiefs of the em¬
pire. Ferdinand I. of Auftria, having married Anne,
fifter of Lewis, laft king of Bohemia, who died with¬
out iffue, and being ele&ed king, that kingdom has_
remained in his family ever fince. But the crown is
conferred with fome appearance of eleftion; which
right the Hates of Bohemia ftill pretend to claim, not-
withftanding that, by the treaty of Weftphalia, Bo¬
hemia is declared hereditary in the houfe of Auftria.
The king of Bohemia is the firft fecular eleffor, and
ives his opinion after the elector of Cologn ; though
e does not affift at the aflembly of eleftors, except at
the ele&ion of an emperor. For thefe 200 years pad
they have not appeared at the collegiate affemblies, nor
even at the imperial diets. However, in 1708, the
emperor caufed one of his deputies, in quality of king
of Bohemia, to enter into the college pf ele&ors at
the diet of Ratifbon, by the form of re-admillion, to¬
gether with the deputy of the ele&or of Brunfwick.
The dates of Bohemia have never been comprehended
in the government, or in the circles of the empire ;
they are not fubjedt to any of its jurifdidlions, nor to
the Roman months, taxes, or public contributions; and
they owe nothing to the empire but what the emperor
Leopold voluntarily impofed upon himfelf, which a-
mounts to 6000 livres a-year for the imperial chamber.
The king pays homage to the emperor and the empire
for his flates as firft fecular eleftor; otherwife he has a
right to exercife, through the whole extent of his do¬
minions, all authority that the royalty can give, pro¬
vided he do not violate the laws of the kingdom ; ac¬
cording to which he cannot raife contributions or taxes
but at the time when the ftates are afiembled, the ap¬
pointing of which is entirely in their own power. The
government of Bohemia is different from that of all
other ftates, the affairs of the kingdom being managed
by fix different courts. Firft, the council of the re¬
gency, or the great royal council, in which prefides
the great judge or burgrave of Bohemia, and who
lias under him 18 lieutenants of the king and other af-
feffors. Secondly, the council, or fuperior chamber
of juftice, at which the great mafter of the kingdom is
■ prefident. Thirdly, the chamber of fiefs. Fourthly,
the new tribunal to judge the appeals of the German
vaffals in their differences on the account of fiefs; which
court has alfo its prefident, vice-prefident, and affeffors.
Fifthly, the royal chamber of finances, which has a pre¬
fident and vice-prefident. Sixthly, the chancery, which
always follows the coyrt. Befides, every circle of Bohe¬
mia is governed by two bailiffs, who adminifter juftice in
their prefedture. The ftates are compofed of the cler¬
gy, lords, nobles, and burghers. As to Moravia, there
is a grand bailiff who governs it in the name of the
king of Bohemia, as Margrave of Moravia. He is at
the head of the royal council, which is compofed of
three affefi'ors, and in which all is tranfadled in the
name of the king. This province is divided into five
circles, each of which has its bailiff. There are, be¬
fides, other officers of juftice, who have a right of
judging only at certain times, and in particular cafes,
VOL. II.
29 ]
where an appeal is allowed.
Bohemia was divided by the emperor Charles IV.
into 12 provinces, in each of which he ordered two
captains to be appointed every year for the adminillra-
tion of the government. The fame emperor caufed the
church of Prague to be eredled into an archbifhopric,
with this advantage, that the archbifiiop of Prague
ffiould have the prerogative that the archbilhop of
Mentz formerly enjoyed, viz. of crowning the king of
Bohemia. The duchy of Silefia, the marquifate of
Moravia, and that of Luface, formerly held of this
crown, but now only that of Moravia, which is incor¬
porated with the kingdom of Bohemia, and is in the
poffeffion of the houfe of Auftria.
The only remarkable occurrence in the Bohemian
hiftory is the rebellion of the difciples of John Hufs,
and Jerome of Prague, on account of their leaders ha¬
ving been burnt as heretics. This occalioned a bloody
war of 16 years continuance ; for a particular account
of which, fee the article Hussites.
BOHEMIAN bole. See Bole.
Bohemian Brethren, a fe<ft of Cbriftian reformers
which fprung up in Bohemia in the year 1467. They
treated the Pope and cardinals as antichrift, and the
church of Roue as the whore fpoken of in the Reve¬
lation. They rejedled the facraments of the Romiih
church, and chofe laymen for their minifters. They
held the Scriptures to be the only rule of faith, and
rejected the Popifli ceremonies in the celebration of the
mafs, nor did they make ufe of any other prayer than
the Lord’s Prayer. They confecrated leavened bread.
They allowed no adoration but of Jefus Chrift, in the
communion. They re-baptized all fuch as joined them-
felves to their congregation. They abhorred the wor-
fhip of faints and images, prayers for the dead, celiba¬
cy, vows, and fafts ; and kept none of the feftivals but
Chriftmas, Eafter, and Whitfuntide.
In 1504, they were accufed by the Catholics to
King Ladiflaus II. who publifhed an edift againft
them, forbidding them to hold any meetings either
privately or publicly. When Luther declared himfelf
againft the church of Rome, the Bohemian brethren
endeavoured to join his party. At firft that reformer
Ihewed a great averfion to them ; but the Bohemians
fending their deputies to him in 1523 with a full ac¬
count of their do&rines, he acknowledged that they
were a fociety of Chriftians whofe dodlrine came neareft
to the purity of the gofpel. This feft publilhed ano¬
ther confeffion of faith in 1535, in which they renoun¬
ced anabaptifm, which they at firft pradlifed: upon
which a union was concluded with the Lutherans, and
afterwards with the Zuinglians, whofe opinions from
thenceforth they continued to follow.
BOHOL, one of the Philippine iflands in Afia, ly¬
ing to the northward of Mindanoa, in E. Long. 122.5.
N. Lat. 10. o.
BOIANO, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of
Naples, and county of Molefe, with a biffiop’s fee. It
is feated at the foot of the Apennines, near the river
Tilerno, in E. Long. 14. 38. N. Lat. 41. 30.
BOIARDO (MATTEoMARiAof Ferrara), count of
Scandiano, celebrated for his Italian poems, lived in
the 15th century. His principal work is his Orlando
inamorato. His Latin eclogues and fonnets are alfo
much admired.
7 BO-
Bohemidii
, II
Boiardo.
B O I [ 1230 ] B O I
Bojars BOJARS denote Ruffian noblemen. See Russia.
jj. BOIGUACU, in zoology, a fynonime of the boa
-B01 in^‘ conftri&or. See Boa.
BOII. See Bohemia.
BOIL, or Furuncle. See the Index fubjoined to
Medicine, and Surgery.
BOILEAU Sieur Despreaux (Nicholas), the
celebrated French poet, was born at Paris in 1636. Af¬
ter he had gone through his courfe of polite literature
and philofophy, his relations engaged him to the ftudy
of the law, and he was admitted advocate. But tho*
he had all the talents neceffary for the bar, yet he could
not adapt himfelf to a fcience which turns upon conti¬
nual equivocations, and often obliges thofe who follow
it to clothe fslfehood in the garb of truth. He there¬
fore determined to ftudy theology; but he could not
long endure the thorns of fchool divinity. He imagined,
that, to allure him more cunningly, chicanery, which
he thought to avoid, had only changed her habit; and
fo he renounced the Sorbonne, betook himfelf entirely
to the belles lettres, and took poffeffion of one of the
foremoft places in Parnaffus. The public gave his
works the encomium they deferved; and Lewis XIV.
who always loved to encourage the fciences and polite
literature, was not only pleafed to have Mr Boileau’s
works read to him conftantly as he compofed them,
but fettled a yearly penfion of 2000 livres upon him,
and gave him the privilege of printing all his works.
He was afterwards chofen a member of the French a-
cademy, and alfo of the academy of medals and infcrip-
tions. This great man, who was as remarkable for his
integrity, his innocence, and 'diffufive benevolence, as
for the keennefs of his fatires, died on the 2J of March
1711, in the 75th year of his age. The beft edition of
his works is that publiffied by Mr Broffette, with his
notes and commentary.
BOILING, or Ebullition, the bubbling, up of
any fluid. The term is moft commonly applied to that
bubbling which happens by the application of fire,
though that which enfues on the mixture of an acid
and alcali is fometimes alfo diftinguifhed by the fame
name. Boiling, in general, is occafioned by the dif-
charge of an elaftic fluid through that which is faid to
boil; and the appearance is the fame, whether it is
common air, fixed air, or fleam, that makes its way
through the fluid. The boiling of water is proved by
Dr Hamilton of Dublin, in his eflfay on the afcent of
vapour, to be occafioned by the lowermoft particles of
the water being heated and rarified into vapour by rea-
fon of the vicinity of the bottom of the containing vef-
fel; in confequence of which, being greatly inferior in
fpecific gravity to the furrounding fluid, they afcend
with great velocity, and, lacerating and pufhing up the
body of water in their afcent, give it the tumultuous
motion called boiling. That this is occafioned by fleam,
and not by particles of air or fire, as fome have imagined,
may be very eafily proved in the following manner:
Let a common drinking glafs be filled with hot water,
and then inverted into a veffel of the fame : as foon as
the water in the veffel begins to boil, large bubbles will
be obferved to afcend in the glafs, which will difplace
the water in it, and in a ffiort time there will be a con¬
tinual bubbling from under its edge; but if the glafs is
then drawn up, fo that its mouth may only touch the
water, and a cloth dipt in cold water be applied to the
outfide, the fleam within it will be inftantly condenfed. Boiling!
and the water will afcend fo as to fill it entirely, or very il. ;
nearly fo. See the article Evaporation. Bj‘s' 1
Boiling, in trade and manufactures, is a preparation
given to divers forts of bodies by making them pafs 0-
ver the fire, chiefly in water, tho’ fometimes in other
liquors. In this fenfe we fpeak of the boiling of fait,
boiling of fugar, copperas, &c.
Boiling of Silk with Soap is the firft preparation in
order to dying it. Thread is alfo boiled in a ftrong
lixivium of aflies to prepare it for dying.
Boiling, in the culinary art, is a method of dreffing
meats by coCtion fn hot water, intended to foften them,
and difpofe them for eafier digeftion. The effe&s of
boiling are different according to the kinds and qua¬
lities of the water. Pulfe boiled in fea-water grow
harder ; mutton boiled in the fame becomes fofterand
tenderer than in frefli water, but taftes faltiih and bitter.
Boiling to Death, (caldariis decoquere), in the mid¬
dle age; a kind of puniffiment inflifted on thieves, falfe
coiners, and fome other criminals.
Boiling, is alfo a method of trying or effaying the
goodnefs or falfenefs of a colour or dye. The fluff is
to be boiled in water with certain drugs, different ac¬
cording to the kind or quality of the colour, to try
whether or no it will- difcharge, and give a tin&ure to
the water. With this view crimfon filks are boiled
with alum, and fcarlets with foap, in quantity equal to
the weight of the filk.
BoiLiNG-ZTe///, in natural hiftory. SeeBuRNiNG-
Springs.
BOINITZ, a town of Upper Hungary, in the
county of Zell, remarkable for its baths and the quan¬
tity of faffron that grows about it. E. Long. 19. 10.
N. Lat. 48. 42.
BOIOBI, in zoology, the name of a fpecies of fer-
pent found in America, and called by the Portuguefe
cobra de verd. It is about an ell in length, of the
thicknefs of a man’s thumb, and is all over of a very
beautiful and Alining green. Its mouth is very large,
and its tongue black. It loves to be about houfes, and
never injures any creature unlefs provoked or hurt; but
it will then bite, and its poifon is very fatal. The na¬
tives take, as a remedy againft its poifon, the root caa
apia bruifed, and mixed with water. See Caa Apia.
BOIQUIRA, the American name for the rattle-
fnake.
BOIS-le-duc, called by the Dutch Hertogcn-
bofch, a large, ftrong, and handfome town of the Ne¬
therlands, in Dutch Brabant, feated between the rivers
Dommel and Aa among moraffes, in E. Long. 6. 16.
N. Lat. 31.45.
Bois de Soignies, the foreft of Soignies, in the Au-
ftrian Netherlands and province of Brabant, about three
miles fouth^eaft of Bruffels.
Bois de Coijfi, the name given to a South American
tree growing about Surinam, held in the higheft efti-
mation by the Indians in that part of the world, and
now recommended to the phyficians in Europe by Dr
Fermin in a treatife lately publiftied at Amfterdam.
The root is efteemed an excellent ftomachic, reftoring
the appetite, and affifting digeftion ; but it is chiefly
celebrated as an infallible remedy againft even the molt
inveterate intermittents. It is faid alfo to be ufed with
great fafety and advantage in every fpecies of remit¬
tent
B O K [ 1231 ] B O K
Boiflard tent and continued fever, with patients of all ages,
Bokhara ^exes> anc^ conditions, even during pregnancy, and in
-—   the puerperal date. Before employing it, however, it
is abfolutely neceffary to adminifter either a purgative
or emetic. The beft method of exhibiting it is in de-
eodtion : half an ounce of the bark of the root mull
be boiled in a clofe vefiel with fix pints of water till one
half be confumed ; the decodtion is then drained off,
and a cupful taken every two hours till the fever
is entirely extinguifhed. Six or feven days after a cure
is thus performed, it is generally neceffary to repeat the
purgative.
BOISSARD (John James), a famous antiquarian,
born at Befan5on the capital of Franche Compte in
France. He publifhed feveral colle&ions which are of
great ufe to fuch as are defirous to underftand the Ro¬
man antiquities. He had a great pafiion for this ftu-
dy ; and drew with his own hand plans of all the an¬
cient monuments of Italy. He died at Metz, O6I0-
ber 30th 1602. His principal works are, 1. Four vo¬
lumes in folio of Roman antiquities, adorned with
plates engraved by Theodore de Bey and his two fons.
2. Theatrum vita; human#; which contains the lives of
198 famous perfons, with their portraits. 3. A trea-
tife de divinatione & magicis pr#JUgiis. Thefe works
are fcarce, and efteemed by the antiquarians.
BO IT, an excellent painter in enamel. He was
born in Stockholm, and bred a jeweller: which pro-
feflion he intended to follow in England ; but changed
his defign, and went into the country, where he taught
children to draw. He there engaged a gentleman’s
daughter, who was one of his fcholars, to promife him
marriage ; but the affair being difcovered, he was
thrown into prifon. In that confinement, which lafted
two years, he ftudied enamelling ; an art to which he
fixed, on his return to London, and praftifed with the
Jrreateft fuccefs. The prices he is faid to have obtained
or his work are almoft incredible: but being engaged
in a very large defign for the court, and Queen Anne
dying before it was completed, he ran in debt, his
goods were feized by execution, and he fled to France ;
where he changed his religion, was countenanced by
the regent, and obtained a penfion of 250]. per an-
7ium, but died fuddenly at Paris in 1726. There is a
large piece done by him at Kenfington, reprefenting
Queen Anne fitting, and prince George Handing by
her; and at Bedford-houfe is another very large plate
of the duke’s father and mother.
BOITJAPO, in zoology, the name of a fpecies of
ferpent found in America; and called by the Portu-
guefe there, coir a di apo. It grows to feven or eight
feet long, is about the thicknefs of a man’s arm, and
very fmall and taper towards the tail. Its back is of
an olive colour; its belly yellow, and covered with very
regular and elegant triangular feales. It feeds on
frogs, &c. but is very poifonous, and its bite extremely
fatal.
BOKHARA, a city of Tartary in Afia, and capi¬
tal of Great Bukharia, fituated one day’s journey to the
north of the river Jehun, or Amu; in E. Long. 65. 50.
N. Lat. 39. 15. In 1219 it was befieged by Jenghiz
Khan, as being part of Sultan Mohammed’s domi¬
nions, a defeendant of the famous Mahmud Gazari.
At that time, befides the city-walls, which were very
ftrong, Bokhara had an outward inclofure x 2 leagues
in compafs ; which fhut in not only the fuburbs, but
alfo many pleafant feats and farms watered by the river
Soghd, from 'whence the ancient Sogdiana took its
name. The Mogul army arrived before the place in
July, and continued the fiege during the following
winter. In March 1220, they forced the outer wall,
and began to befiege the city in form. Sultan Mo¬
hammed had left in the city a very numerous garrifon
under the command of three generals, who made a fally
at the head of 20,000 men : but being repulfed with
great lofs, their courage failed them ; and, inftead of
flaying to defend the inhabitants, as foon as they had
got into the city by one gate, paffed out by another
with their families, and almoft all their foldiers, hoping
to efcape by the darknefs of the night: but their de¬
fign being difcovered, they were purfued by a detach,
ment of 30,000 Moguls; and being overtaken at the
river Amu, they were, after a bloody difpute, almofl:
all cut to pieces. Mean time, Jenghiz Khan, being in¬
formed of the confufion into which the city had been
thrown by the defertion of the garrifon, ordered an at¬
tack to be made on all fides at once; but while he was
preparing for this, the magiftrates and clergy went
out and prefented him with the keys of the city. Jen¬
ghiz Khan granted them their lives, on condition that
they gave no flicker to any of the fultan’s foldiers, and
put out all who fliould be fufpedted of being in that
prince’s intereft; which they promifed to do upon
oath. All the young people, however, who were dif-
pleafed with the furrender, retired with the governor
to the caftle, which was very ftrong, and refolved to
defend themfelves to the laft extremity. Jenghiz Khan,
having taken poffefiion of Bokhara, entered on horfe-
back into the great mofque, and aiked merrily if that
was the fultan’s palace ? On being anfwered that
it was the houfe of God, he alighted ; and giving the
principal magiftrate his horfe to hold, mounted the gal¬
lery where the ecclefiaftics ufually fat, and then taking
up the Koran, threw it under the feet of his horfes.
Having ftaid here for fome time, he retired to his
camp; where, fome days after, having affembled the
principal people of Bokhara, and afeended a pulpit e-
refted for that purpofe in the midft of them, he began
his fpeech by praifing God, and recounting all the fa¬
vours he had received from the Almighty : he then
mentioned the perfidious behaviour of their fultan to¬
wards himfelf, telling them that God had fent him to
rid the world of fuch wicked men. As to them, he te-
ftified his fatisfa&ion for their having freely furnilhed
his army with neceffaries; and promifed that his fol¬
diers fliould not meddle with any goods which they
made ufe of in their houfes; but commanded them to
deliver up what they had hidden, under pain of being
tortured. This fpeech had fuch an effect, that the poor
inhabitants delivered up every thing, as well what they
had concealed, as what they had prefent ufe for; not-
withftanding which, the tyrant foon after caufed the
city to be burnt, on pretence that fome of the fultan’s
foldiers were concealed in it. As all the houfes were
made of wood, except the fultan’s palace which was
built of ftone, and fome few private houfes of brick, the
whole was utterly confumed; and Jenghiz Khan ha¬
ving found fome few foldiers that had, a&ually con¬
cealed themfelves, put them all to death without mer¬
cy. The caftle furrendered at diferetion foon after; and
7 0^2 though.
B O L
[ 1232 ]
B O L
Bokharia though it was demolhhed, the governor and garrifon,
II. c out of a very extraordinary piece of clemency from fo
 °-ef' bloody a tyrant, had their lives fpared. Bokhara con¬
tinued in ruins for fome years, but at length Jenghiz
Khan ordered it to be rebuilt. It is now large and
populous; and is the refidence of a khan who is altoge¬
ther defpotic, though his power reaches but a little
way without the city. The town is feated on a rifing
ground, with a {lender wall of earth and a dry ditch.
The houfes are low, built nioftly of mud ; but the ca-
ravanferas and mofques, which are numerous, are all of
brick. The bazars or market-places, which have been
{lately buildings, are now moftly in ruins. The inha¬
bitants are more civilized and polite than fome of their
neighbours; and yet are cowardly, cruel, effeminate,
and very perfidious. Great numbers of Jews and Ara¬
bians frequent this place, though they are much op-
prefled, and frequently deprived of all their properties
by the khan or his attendants at pleafure. At bed
they pay heavy taxes, and it is almoft criminal to be
acids. Bolcflafll
3. Bole of Blois is yellow, remarkably lighter than |
mod of the other yellow earths, and effervefces drongly . ° elns’j
with acids.
4. Bohemian bole is of a yellow colour, with a cad
of red, and generally of a flaky texture. It is not
a6ted on by acids.
5. Lemnian earth is of a pale red colour, and flightly
effervefces with acids.
6. Silefian bole is of a pale yellow colour, and acids
have no fenfible effeft upon it.
Thefe and other earths, made into little maffes, and
damped with certain impreffions, are called terraJigil-
lata. They have been recommended as adringent,
fudorific, and alexipharmic; but thefe and many o-
ther virtues that have been afcribed to them appear to
have no foundation. They are dill, however, pre-
fcribed in fluxes and complaints of the primse via;.
BOLESLAFF, or Buntzlau, a town of Silefia
feated on the river Bobar, in E. Long. 16. o. N. Eat.
rich.
BOKHARIA. SeeBuKHARiA.
BOLANDUS (John), a famous Jefuit, born at Til-
lemont in the Netherlands, in 1596. He didinguifhed
himfelf by writing the lives of the faints, under the title
of dfla Sanftorum, of which he publifiied five volumes
in folio ; but died while he was labouring at the fixth,
in the 70th year of his age. The continuators of that
work are called Bo'Uandijls.
BOLBITINUM, (anc. geog.), the fecond mouth
of the Nile reckoning from wed to ead ; now very
fmall, choaked up with fand, and called le Bras de
Beltin.
BOLENTIUM, (anc. geog.), a town of Pannonia
* See 'Racb Superior; now Rackerjburg in Stiria *.
erjburg. BOLES, are vifcid earths, lefs coherent and more
friable than clay; more readily uniting with water,
and more freely fubfiding from it. They are foft and
un&uous to the touch ; adhere to the tongue ; and by
degrees melt in the mouth, imprefling a light fenfe of
adringency. There are a great variety of thefe earths,
the principal of which are the following.
1. Armenian bole, when pure, is of a bright red co¬
lour with a tinge of yellow ; It is one of the harded
and mod compaft bodies of this clafs, and not fmooth
and glofiy like the others, but generally of a rough
and dudy furface. It does not effervefce with acids,
though fome part of it is diflblved by all of them.
Neumann obferves, that four ounces of Armenian bole
diddled in a glafs retort in an open fire, yielded three
drachms of a faline phlegm, which fmelt a little urinous,
and changed fyrup of violets green. In the neck of
the retort was found a little powdery faline matter
which had an ammoniacal tade, but it was in too fmall
quantity to be collected or further examined. Like
mod other coloured earths, this kind of bole contains
a portion of ferruginous matter, to which the colour is
owing; and which may be feparated by the magnet,
after the bole has been calcined with oil or other in¬
flammable matters. It is likewife impregnated with
vitriolic acid; and hence, when mixed with nitre or fca-
falt, it extricates the acids of thefe falls in the fire.
2. French bole is of a pale red colour, variegated
with irregular fpecks of white and yellow. It is much
fofter than the Armenian, and flightly effervefces with
51. 12.
BOLESLAUS I. and II. kings of Poland * See V*4.
BOLETUS, spunk ; a genus of the order of fungi, |
belonging to the cryptogamia clafs of plants ; of which
botanids enumerate 17 fpecies. The following are the
mod remarkable. 1. The fuberofus, or white cork
fpunk, grows commonly on the trunks of birch and
willow trees in England and Scotland. It grows fefllle
and horizontal ; its figure is femicireular ; the upper
fide convex, the under nearly plain ; of various fizes,
from that of an afsrs hoof, to a peck-meafure. The
upper furface is quite white, generally covered with a
fliort drong down, but fometimes fmooth. The flefli
or internal fubdance is thick, white, tough, light, and
fpongy, like cork; and is fometimes cut and (haped by
the country people, and ufed as corks in their bottles :
but fuch corks mud not be fuffered to touch the li¬
quid, for moidure foon renders them foft and ufelefs.
2. The igniarius, or touchwood-fpunk, is frequent on
the trunks of old trees of all kinds, efpecially afh. It
confids of a very hard woody fubdance, in fhape like a
horfe’s hoof, and grows of various fizes, from a man’s
fid to that of his head and larger. The upper fide is
fmooth, but uneven, dillinguilhed near the rim by e-
levated zones of different colours, brown, grey, tawny,
&c. The flefh is of a tawny brown colour, extremely
hard and tough. This fungus is made ufe of in Ger¬
many and fome parts of England for tinder. The Ger¬
mans boil it in drong lye, dry it and boil it again in fo-
lution of faltpetre. The Laplanders burn it about their
habitations, in order to keep off a fpecies of the gadfly
which is fatal to the young reindeer. It has been ufed
todopthebleedingoftheveffelsafteramputationsf. For + Phil. I
this purpofe the hard outer part is cut off, and the foft Tranf. Vo!
inner fubdance is beat with a hammer to make it dill XLVllI. .j
fofter. It is bed when gathered in Augud or Sep- xLlx"? 1
tember. 3. The bovinus, or cow-fpunk, is frequent in ^ :
woods and padures. It is generally of a brown co- I
lour, though fometimes it is tawny, yellowifli brown,
reddifh brown, deep red, purple, or greeniflr brown.
The flefh is yellow, white, or reddifh. The young
plants are eaten in Italy, and edeemed a great delicacy.
The Germans alfo account them a dainty, calling them
gombas, and brat-bulz. Cows, dear, fheep, and fwine,
will feed upon this and other boleti, and are fometimes
greatly
COL [ 1233 ] B O L
Boleyn, greatly difordered by them. In cows and other cattle by no means fatisfted within, while he was yet no more
J r,lingbroke they have been known to create bloody urine, naufeous than a mere titular lord, and remained excluded from
milk, fwellings of the abdomen, inflammations of the
bowels, ftoppages, diarrhseas, and death. In fheep
they bring on a feirrhous liver, a cough, a general
I wafting, and dropfy. Scarabs, dermeftes, and many
other infefts, feed upon and breed in them in abundance.
BOLEYN (Ann), queen of Henry VIII. of Eng¬
land ; memorable in the Englifh hiftory, as the firft
caufe of the reformation, as the mother of queen Eli¬
zabeth under whom it was completely eftablifhed, and
alfo on account of her own fufferings. She was born
in 1507, and beheaded in 1536 J.
See (fti-
ory of)
iglani.
the houfe of peers. This ftigma operated to fix him ■
in enmity to Sir Robert Walpole, to whofe fecret en¬
mity he attributed his not receiving the full extent of
the king’s clemency : hence he diftinguilhed himfelf by
a multitude of political writings, till the year 1735;
when, being thoroughly convinced that the door was
finally flmt againfthim, hereturnedonce more to France.
In this foreign retreat he began his courfe of Letters
on the ftudy and ufe of Hiftory, for the ufe of Lord
Combury, to whom they are addrefled. Upon the
death of his father, who lived to be extremely old, he
BOLINGBROKE, or Bullingbroke, a town of fettled at Batterfea, the ancient feat of his family,
Lincolnfiiire in England. It hath the title of an where he paffed the remainder of his life in philofophi-
earldom, and is a very ancient place, but is now in a cal dignity. Pope and Swift, one the greateft poet,
mean condition. E. Long. o. 40. N. Lat. 53. jy. the other the greateft wit, of the time, perfedlly adored
Bolingbroke (Henry St John), lord vifcount, him ; and it is well known that the former received
a great ftatefman and philofopher, defcended from from him the materials for his incomparable poem
ancient and noble family, was born about the the “ EITay on Man.”—He died in i 751, and left the
year 1672. He had a regular and liberal education ;
and, by the time he left the univerfity, was confidered
as a perfbn of uncommon qualifications : but, with great
parts, he had, as it ufually happens, great paffions,
and thefe hurried him into many indifcretions and fol¬
lies. Contrary to the inclinations of his family, he cul¬
tivated Tory conne&ions; and gained fuch an influence
in the Houfe of Commons, that in 1704 he was ap¬
pointed fecretary of war and of the marines. He was
clofely united in all political meafures with Mr Harley:
when, therefore, that gentleman was removed from the
feals in 1707, Mr St John refigned his employment;
and in 1710, when Mr Harley was made chancellor of
care and benefit of his MSS. to Mr Mallet, who pu-
blifhed them together with his former printed works,
in 5 vols 410 : they are alfo printed in 8vo.
BOLISAW, a town of the kindom of Bohemia in
Germany, fituated in E. Long. 14. 35. N. Lat. 50. 25.
BOLKOWITZ, a town of Silefia, in the duchy of
Glogaw. E. Long. 15. 20. N. Lat. 51. 27.
BOLLARDS, large polls fet into the ground on
each fide of a dock. On docking or undocking Ihips,
large blocks are lalhed to them ; and through thefe
blocks are reeved the tranfporting hawfers to be brought
to the capftons.
BOLLlTO, a name by which the Italians call a
the exchequer, the poll of fecretary of ftate was given fea-green colour \x\ zxix'nQiA cryftal. To prepare this
to Mr St John. In 1712 he was created Baron St colour, you mull have in the furnace a pot filled with
John of Lediard-Tregoze in Wiltlhire, and Vifcount 40 lb. of good cryftal, firft carefully Ikimmed, boiled,
Bolingbroke. But being overlooked in the be- and purified, without any manganefe : then you miilt
ftowal of vacant ribbons of the order of the garter, have twelve ounces of the powder of fmall leaves of cop-
he relented the affront, renounced the friendlhip of per thrice calcined, and half an ounce of zaffre in pow-
Harley then earl of Oxford, and made his court to der: mix them together; and put them at four times into
the whigs. Neverthelefs, on the acceflion of George I.
the feals were taken from him; and being informed that
a refolution was taken to purfue him to the fcaffold,
for his conduft regarding the treaty of Utrecht, he
withdrew to France. Here he accepted an invitation
to enter into the Pretender’s fervice, and accepted the
feals as his fecretary : but he was as unfortunate in his
new conneftions as in thofe he had renounced ; for the
year 1715 was fcarcely expired, when, at the fame
time that he was attainted of high treafon at home, the
feals and papers of his foreign fecretary’s office were
taken from him ; followed by an accufation from the
Pretender and his party, of negledt, incapacity, and
treachery. Such a complication of diftrefsful events
threw him into a ftate of reflexion, that produced by
' way of relief a confolatio pkilofophica, which he wrote
the fame year under the title of Reflexions upon exile ;
and the following year drew up a vindication of his
condudl with refpeil to the Tories, in the form of A
Letter to Sir William Wyndham. His firft lady being
dead, he about this time efpoufed a niece of the famous
Madam Maintenon, and widow of the marquis de Vil-
lette, with whom he had a very large fortune. In 1723
the king was prevailed on to grant him a free pardon,
and he returned in confequence to England ; but was
the pot, that they may the better mix with the glafs;
ftirring them well each time of putting in the powder,
left the mixture ftiould fwell and run over.
BOLOGNA, an ancient, large, and very hnnd-
fome town of Italy, in the territory of the church,
and capital of the Bolognefe ; an archbifiiop’s fee, and
an univerfity. The public buildings are magnificent, as
well with regard to the archite&ure, as the ornaments,
efpecially the paintings, which are done by the greateft
mafters. There are a vaft number of palaces, in one
of which the pope’s nuncio refides ; the private houfes
are alfo well built. Here are 169 churches, and the
town is faid to contain about 80,000 inhabitants. All
the gates and windows are open during the fummer ;
infomuch that one may fee into their apartments and
gardens, where there are vaft numbers of orange-trees
that perfume the air. It is a place of great trade,
which is in fome meafure owing to a canal that runs
from this city to the river Po. The Reno, which runs
near Bologna, turns 400 mills that are employed in the
filk-works; befides, they deal in wax, foap, hams, fau-
fages, and even lap-dogs, which are greatly efteemed.
It is feated at the foot of the Apennine mountains, in
E. Long. n. ;3o. N. Lat. 44. 27.
BOLOGNE, by the Englifti commonly called 5«/-
len.
BoliTaw
Bologne.
B O L [ 1234 ] B O L
Bologncfc len^ a city of Picardy in France, and capital of the
gjj|t Bolonnois, feated near the fea. It is divided into two
   towns, the Upper and Lower; the firft is ftrongly
fortified, the other is inclofed by walls only. The
port is at the mouth of the river Liane, but the water
is fo lhallow that no {hips of burden can enter it. It
is defended on the fide of the river by a mole, which
{helters it from the winds, and at the fame time pre¬
vents the river from filling it with filth. E. Long. 9.
17. N. Lat. 50. 42.
BOLOGNESE, a fmall province of Italy, in the
territory of the church, bounded on the north by the
Ferrarefe, on the weft by the duchy of Modena, on
the fouth by Tufcany, and on the eaft by Romania.
It is watered by a great number of fmall rivers, which
render its foil the moft fertile of any in Italy. Bologna
is the capital, and from the great produce of the land
about it is called Bologna the fat. It produces abun¬
dance of all forts of grain and fruits ; particularly muf-
cadine grapes, which are in high efteem. Here are
mines of alum and iron ; and the inhabitants fabricate
large quantities of linen, filk ftockings, and cloth.
BOLOGNIAN stone. See Chemistry, n° 339.
BOLSANE, a town of Germany, in the territory of
Tyrol, and circle of Auftria. It is very agreeably fi-
tuated in the midft of a fine large valley, full of vil¬
lages, and abounding in vineyards. The wines in this
valley are the beft in all Tyrol; but they muft be drank
the year after that of their growth, otherwife they be¬
come unfit for ufe. E. Long. 11. 11. N. Lat. 46. 42.
BOLSENNA, a town of Italy, in the territories of
the pope, feated on a lake of the fame name. E. Long,
ix. 3. N. Lat. 42. 37.
BOLSTER, among furgeons, a foft yielding fub-
ftance, either laid under the head, or a broken limb.
In this fenfe, bolfters are contrived for crooked, bun¬
ched, and otherwife diftorted backs, flioulders, &c.
By a conftitution made under archbifliop Burchier, the
clergy are forbidden to wear bolfters about their (boul¬
ders, in their gowns, coats, or doublets. The occa-
fion of the prohibition is varioufly conftrued. Some
fay that bolfters came in fafliion in the reign of king
Richard III. who being neceffitated by his natural
deformity, to pad, the courtiers, and even the clergy,
did the fame, out of complaifance to their prince; fo that
every body who had the misfortune to be born ftraight,
was obliged to wear a bolder on his (boulders to be in
the fafliion. Others, however, controvert this; alle¬
ging that the conftitution above mentioned was made
20 years before the ufurpation of Richard.
Bolsters of a Saddle, thofe parts of a great faddle
which are railed upon the bows, both before and be¬
hind, to hold the rider’s thigh, and keep him in a
right pofture.
BOLSWAERT, a town of the United Provinces,
in Weft Friefland, and in the county of Weftergoe.
E. Long. 5. 35. N. Lat. 53. 6.
BOLT, among builders, an iron-faftening fixed to
doors and windows. They are generally diftinguiftied
into three kinds, viz. plate, round, and fpring bolts.
Bolts, in gunnery, are of feveral forts; as, 1. Tran-
fum bolts, that go between the cheeks of a gun car¬
riage, to (Lengthen the tranfums. 2. Prife bolts ; the
large knobs of iron on the cheeks of a carriage, which
keep the h^ndTpike from Aiding, when it is poizing up
the breech of a piece. 3. Traverfe bolts; the two (hort
bolts, that, being put one in each end of a mortar car¬
riage, ferve to traverfe her. 4. Bracket-bolts; the .
bolts that go through the cheeks of a mortar, and by
the help of quoins keep her fixed at the given eleva¬
tion. And, 5. Bed-bolts; the four bolts that fallen
the brackets of a mortar to the bed.
Bolts, in a (hip, are iron pins, of which there are
feveral forts, according to their different makes and
ufes. Such are drive-bolts, ufed to drive out others.
Ray-bolts, with jags or barbs on each fide, to keep
them from flying out of their holes. Clench-bolts,
which are clenched with rivetting hammers. Forelock-
bolts, which have at the end a forelock of iron driven
in to keep them from darting back. Set-bolts, ufed
for forcing the planks, and bringing them clofe toge¬
ther. Fend or fender bolts, made with long and thick
heads, and (truck into the uttermoft bends of the (hip,
to fave her (ides from bruifes. And ring-bolts, ufed for
bringing to of the planks, and thofe parts whereto are
faftened the breeches and tackle of the guns.
Bolt of Canvas, in commerce, the quantity of 28
ells.
Y>o\.T-Rope, in naval affairs, a rope palling round the
fail, to which the edges of it are fewed, to prevent the
fail from tearing: the bottom part of it is called the
foot-rope; the fides, leeches; and if the fail be oblong
or fquare, the upper part is called the head-rope.
BOLTED flour, that which has paffed thro’ the
bolters. See the following article.
BOLTERS, or Boulters, a kind of fieves for
meal, having the bottoms made of woollen, hair, or
even wire. The bakers ufe bolters which are worked
by the hand; millers have a larger fort, wrought by
the motion of the mill.
BOLTING, a term of art ufed in our inns of court,
whereby is intended a private arguing of cafes. The
manner of it at Gray’s inn is thus : An ancient and
two barrifters fit as judges; three Undents bring each a
cafe, out of which the judges choofe one to be argued;
which done, the ftudents firft argue it, and after them
the barrifters. It is inferior to mooting ; and may be
derived from the Saxon word bolt, a houfe, becaufe
done privately in the houfe for inftru&ion. In Lin¬
coln’s inn, Mondays and Wednefdays are the bolting
days in vacation time; and Tuefdays and Thurfdays
the moot days.
Bolting, or Boulting, the aft of feparating the
flour from the bran, by means of a fieve or bolter *.
Bolting-C/c/^, orBoljler-cloth, fometimes alfo called
lulling-cloth, denotes a linen or hair cloth for fifting
meal or flour.
Bolting Mill, a verfatile engine for fifting with
more eafe and expedition. The cloth round this is
called the bolter.
Bolting, or Boulting, among fportfmen, fignifies
roufing or diflodging a coney from its reding place.
The fay, to bolt a coney, Jlart a hare, roufe a buck,
&c.
BOLTON or Boulton (Edmund), an ingenious
Englifh antiquarian, who lived in the beginning of the
17'“ century. His moft confiderable work is that intitled
Nero Ceefar, or Monarchic depraved, dedicated to the
duke of Buckingham, lord-admiral, printed at Lon¬
don 1624, folio, and adorned with feveral curious and
va-
Bolt
I!
Bolton.
1 See Bolter*
[Bolton
oJI, s
BOM [ 1235 ] BOM
valuable medals. It is divided into 55 chapters, in have lately invented a new fort of bombs of vaft weight Bombard
fome of which are introduced curious remarks and ob- called comminges.—The art of throwing bombs makes ^ ^bax
fervations. In the 24th and 25th chapters he gives an a branch of gunnery, founded on the theory of projec- °m ax‘
account of the revolt in Britain, againft the Romans, tiles, and the laws and qualities of gunpowder *. * See th¬
under the conduct of Boadicea, which he introduces BOMBARD, a piece of ordnance anciently in ufe, / ri~
with a recapitulation of the affairs in Britain from the exceedingly fhort and thick, and with a very large"
firft entrance of the Romans into this illand under Ju- mouth. There have been bombards which have thrown ”
lius Casfar, till the revolt in the reign of Nero. In a ball of 300 pound weight. They made ufe of cranes
chapter 36^ he treats of the Eaft-India trade in Nero’s to load them. The bombard is by fome caWed bajilifk,
time, which was then carried on by the river Nile, and and by the Dutch donderbufs.
from thence by caravans over land to the Red-Sea, and BOMBARDIER, a perfon employed about a mor-
thence to the Indian ocean ; the ready coin carried tar. His bufinefs is to drive the fufee, fix the fhell, and
yearly from Rome upon this account, amounting, ac- load and fire the mortar.
Bombardier, in zoology. See Carabus.
BOMBARDMENT, the havock committed in
throwing bombs into a town or fortrefs.
BOMBARDO, a mufical inftrument of the wind
cording to Pliny’s computation, to above 300,000
pounds fterling; and the ufual returns in December and
January, yielding, in clear gain, an hundred for one.
Befides this he wrote, 1. An Englifh tranflation of
See Vhar-
Lucius Florus’s Roman hiftory. 2. Hypercritica, or kind, much the fame as the baflbon, andufedas a bafs
a rule of judgment for reading or writing our hiftories. to the hautboy.
3. The elements of armories, &c.; and fome other BOMBASINE, a name given to two forts of fluffs,
works. the one of filk, and the other croffed of cotton.
Bolton, a town of Lancashire in England, feated BOMBAST, in compofition, is a ferious endeavour,
on the river Croell, and pretty well built. It has a by drained defcription, to raife a low or familiar fub-
manufafture for fuftains, and the market is confider- jeft beyond its rank ; which, inftead of being fublime,
able for cloth and provifions. W. Long. 2. 15. N. never fails to be ridiculous. The mind in fome ani-
Lat. 53. 55. mating paffions is indeed apt to magnify its objedfs be-
BOLUS, an extemporaneous form of a medicine, yond natural bounds: but fuch hyperbolical defcrip-
foft, coherent, 3 little thicker than honey, and the tion has its limits; and, when carried beyond thefe, it
quantity of which is a little morfel or mouthful ; for degenerates into burlefque, as in the following ex-
which reafon it is by fome called buccella *.
BOMAL, a town of Luxemburg in the Auftrian
Netherlands, fituated on the river Ourt, in E. Long.
5. 30. N. Lat. 50. 20.
BOMB, in military affairs, a large fhell of caft iron,
having a great vent to receive the fufee, which is made
—Great and high,
mple.
Sejauus. 
The world knows only two, that’s Rom
My roof receives me not; ’tis air I tread.
And at each ftep 1 feel my advanc’d head
Knock out a flar in heaven. SejAn. of Ben. Johnfon, aft y.
of wood. The fhell being filled with gunpowder, the A writer who has no natural elevation of genius is ex-
fufee is driven into the vent or aperture, within an inch tremely apt to deviate into bombaft. He drains a-
of the head, and faftened with a cement made of quick- bove his genius, and the violent effort he makes car-
lime, allies, brick-duft, and fteel-filings, worked toge- ries him generally beyond the bounds of propriety,
ther in a glutinous water; or of four parts of pitch, BOMBAX, or silk-cotton tree; a genus of
two of colophony, one of turpentine, and one of wax. the polyandria order, belonging to the monodelphia
This tube is filled with a combuftible matter, made of clafs of plants.
two ounces of nitre, one of fulphur, and three of gun- Species. 1. The ceiba, with a prickly ftalk. 2. The
powder-duft, well rammed. To preferve the fufee, pentandrum, with a fmooth ftalk. 3. The hentaphyl-
they pitch it over, but uncafe it when they put the lum, with leaves cut into feven parts. The firif andfe-
bomb into the mortar, and cover it with gunpowder cond forts grow naturally in both the Indies, where
dull; which having taken fire by the fiafh of the powder they arrive at a great magnitude, being fome of the
in the chamber of the mortar, burns all the time the largeft trees in thefe parts; infomuch that Bofman fays
bomb is in the air; and the compofition in the fufee he has feen in Guinea, trees of this kind fo widely dif-
being fpent, it fires the powder in the bomb, which fufed that 20,000 armed men might Hand under the
burfts with great force, blowing up whatever is about branches of one. They generally grow with very
it. The great height a bomb goes in the air, and the ftraight ftems. Thofe of the firft fort are armed with
force with which it falls, makes it go deep into the fliort ftrong fpines : but the fecond hath very fmooth
earth. ftems, which in the young plant are of a bright green;
Bombs may be ufed without mortar-pieces, as was^ but after a few years they are covered with a grey or
done by the Venetians at Candia, when the Turks had afh-coloured bark, which turns brown as the treee
poflefied themfelves of the ditch, rolling down bombs grow older. The branches toward the top are gar-
upon them along aplank fetfloping towards their works nilhed with leaves compofed of five, feven, or nine ob-
with ledges on the fides, to keep the bomb right for- long fmooth little leaves, which are fpear-ftiaped, and
ward. They are fometimes alfo buried under ground join to one common centre at their bafe, where they
' SeeCaif- to blow up *.—Bombs came not into common ufe be- adhere to the long footftalk. The flower-buds appear
fore the year 1634, and then only in the Dutch and at the end of the branches; and foon after the flowers
Spanifh armies. One Malthus an Englifh engineer is expand, which arc compofed of five oblong purple pe-
faid to have firft carried them into France, where they tals, with a great number of ftamina in the centre :
were put in ufe at the fiege of Collioufe. The French when thefe fall off, they are fucceeded by oval fruit as
BOM [ 1236 ] BOM
TVnvilux, large as a fwan’s egg, having a thick ligneous cover,
Bombay, which when ripe opens in five parts, and is full of a
dark fhort cotton, inclofing many roundi(h feeds as
large as fmall peafe. The cotton of the third fort is of
a fine purple colour, but the fize of the tree is not
particularly mentioned by botanical writers. Befides
thefe fpecies, Mr Miller mentions another which he
faw in the gardens of the late duke of Richmond at
Goodwood, and was raifed from feeds which came
from the Eafi: Indies. The Item was very itraightand
fmooth, the leaves were produced round the top upon
very long footflalks, each being compofed of feven or
nine narrow filky fmall lobes, joined at their bafe to the
footilalk in the fame manner as the firft and fecond;
but they were much longer and reflected backward, fo
that at firft fight it appeared very different from either
of them.
Culture. Thefe plants, being natives of warm cli¬
mates, muft always be kept in a ftove. They are raifed
from feeds procured in the eapfules from the places
where they grow naturally. Thefe are to be fown in
the fpring, in pots of light earth, plunged in a fub-
ftantial hot-bed of dung or tan, where the plants will
appear in three or four weeks. They muft then be
placed feparately in fmall pots, plunging them in the
bark-bed, giving them (hade and w'ater, and Ihifting
them occafionally into larger pots with frefh earth.
They muft be watered plentifully in fummer, but mo¬
derately in winter.
Ufes. The dark fhort cotton of the firft two fpecits
is ufed by the poorer inhabitants of thofe places where
fuch trees grow to fluff pillows or chairs, but is gene¬
rally deemed unwholefome to lie upon. The beauti¬
ful purple down of the third is fpun, wrought into
clothes, and wore, without being dyed any other colour,
by the inhabitants of the Spanifh Weft Indies, where
the tree naturally grows. Large pirogues, or canoes
fit to carry a fail, are made both at Senegal, and in
America, of the trunk of the filk-cotton tree, the wood
of which is very light, and found unfit for any other
purpofe. In Columbus's firft voyage, fays Miller, it
was reported, that a canoe was feen at Cuba made of
the hollowed trank of one of thefe trees, which was
95 palms long, of a proportional width, and capable
of containing 150 men.
Bombax, in zoology, a fynonime of a fpecies of co-
f See Comi. nus-j-.—Bombaxis alfoufed fometimes for filk or cotton;
but the true botanic name of cotton is Gossypium, It
is likewife applied by Linnaeus to fignify fuch infefts as
have incumbent wings, and feelers refembling a comb.
BOMBAY, an ifland of Afia, in the Eaft Indies, on
the weft coaft of the peninfula on this fide the Ganges.
It is about feven miles in length, and 20 in circumfe¬
rence, and is fituated in E. Long. 73. o. N. Lat. 19. o.
The principal town is near a mile long ; but the houfes
are mean, low, and paltry, a few only excepted which
belong to the Portuguefe. The foil is barren, and in¬
capable of any improvement, nor has the ifland any good
water on it. The beft is what they preferve in their
cifterns after the rains, that which is afforded by the
wells having a brackifti difagreeable tafte. The eftates
on the ifland are chiefly laid out in groves of fine
cocoa-trees. Their gardens alfo produce mangoes,
jacks, and other Indian fruits. They make fait in Targe
quantities by letting the fea into pits, where the fun
evaporates the water, leaving the fait behind. The Bombay]
air and climate are rather unhealthy, although the na- ;
tives, and perfons accuftomed to the country, live to a
good old age. Moft people on their arrival are feized
with fevers, fluxes, fcrophulous diforders, or a difeafe
they call the barbiers, which wholly enervates the body,
reducing it to a total ftate of inaftivity, and depriva¬
tion of all its loco-motive faculties. After rains a mul¬
titude of venomous creatures appear, which grow to an
extraordinary fize. Their fpiders are as large as a wal¬
nut, and their toads almoft equal a duck in magnitude.
The inhabitants are a mixture of feveral nations, En-
glifti, Portuguefe, and Indians, amounting in all to
50,000 or 60,000. Formerly the prefident of Bombay
appeared with all the pomp of a crowned heady being
attended when he went abroad by troops of Moors and
Bandarins, colours flying, drums beating, and mufic
playing; but after the prefidency was removed to Su¬
rat, this fplendor greatly diminiflied.
Bombay formerly belonged to the Portuguefe : but
on the fetting on foot a treaty of marriage between
Charles II. and the infanta of Lifbon, it was thought
a proper opportunity for procuring the ceffion of fome
convenient port and mart for the India company, as
part of the infanta’s portion; and thus the ifland of
Bombay came into the hands of the Englilh, with
whom it has ever fince continued. After the king’s
marriage, a fquadron, conducted by lord Marleburgh,
was fent to receive the poffeflion and inveftiture of the
ifland from the viceroy, who had received his Portu¬
guefe majefty’s commands to that effect. But on lord
Marleburgh’s arrival in September 1633, with a fqua¬
dron of five men of war, the clergy made fuch violent
oppofition, and fo pofitivety refufed to yield the ifland
to heretics, that the viceroy was terrified, and deter¬
mined to keep poffeffion of the ifland. The governor
of Surat, under whofe jurifdidtion Bombay then was,
threatened the Englifti fadlory at Surat, in cafe the En-
gliflr troops did not reimbark from that place, to which
lord Marleburgh had been obliged to retire on account
of the viceroy’s obftinate refufal. His lordfhip there¬
fore fet fail in January 1664, with two (hips for Eng¬
land; leaving the reft under the command of Sir Abra¬
ham Shipman, to fpend the remainder of the weftern
monfoons in fome of the neighbouring ports. During
his ftay he buried above 200 of his men on a defolate
ifland called Anjadiva, where he had wintered. The
monfoons being over. Sir Abraham threatened the vice¬
roy and clergy who oppofed his pretenfions with the
vengeance of the kings of England and Portugal if
they continued longer obftinate, or denied obedience
to their majefties inllrudlions and contradls. At laft the
terrors of a Britifh fleet got the better of religion; the
church began to abate of her zeal, and confented to a
treaty, by which the inhabitants were to be continued
in the free exercife of their religion and poffeflion of
their eftates under the crown of England. Sir Abra¬
ham dying, Mr Cook, next in commiflion, figned the
treaty; and, in quality of governor, took poffeflion of
the ifland in the name of the king his mafter. Here he
immediately fet about building a fortrefs ; but a capi¬
tal miftake he made in concluding the treaty, by not
including the appendages to Bombay, extending to
Verfica on Salet, has been a bone of contention ever
fince. The fort was laid out in a regular manner, and
an
BOM [ 1237 ] BON
Bombay an old fquare houfe fitted out for himfdf as governor;
II . but Mr Hamilton obferves, that both Mr Cook, and
Boroomci. fome 0f jjjs fUCceflbrs, never once thought of a church.
Thus the trade of Bombay flourifhed exceedingly;
but the revenues of the place not being equal to the
expence of keeping it, and other political and com¬
mercial reafons fuperadded, the crown was obliged to
make it over in fee-tail to the Eaft India Company,
who ft ill continue to hold it in that manner. Af¬
ter the fort was traced and the foundation laid, Sir
George Lucas arrived from England with two {hips;
but affairs being accommodated before he came, he
continued here no longer than January 1666, when he
returned to England, leaving the government as he found
it, in the hands of Mr Cook and the council, under the
prefidency of the fettlement at Surat. Mr Cook {hewed
bis ignorance of archite&ure, by building the fort upon
the ground on which it ftands, and which is exceed¬
ingly inconvenient. As an engineer, too, he committed
a capital error; his fort being commanded by a hill
called Dangeree, about Boo paces diftance. The con-
fequences of this unfortunate choice were apparent in
the year 1689, when it was befieged by the Mogul.
In this he is the more inexcufable, as common fenfe,
though joined with the greateft ignorance of architec¬
ture and engineering, might have pointed out a much
more commodious fituation about 500 paces to the
fouthward. As for the magnitude, figure, and mate¬
rials of the fort, fays captain Hamilton, there is no¬
thing confiderably faulty. It is a regular tetragon,
whofe outfide polygon is about 500 paces, built of an
excellent hard ftone. It can mount 100 pieces of can¬
non ; and thefe particulars are all that can be alleged
in its favour. It has not a Angle fpring of frefh water;
which very circumftance muft, in cafe of a fiege, render
all its fortifications of little or no value, fince a little
patience muft render the enemy mafters of it at difcre-
tion.—For the further particulars of the hiftory of
Bombay, fee the article East Indies.
BOMB-ketch, a fmall veffel built and ftrengthened
with large beams for the ufe of mortars at fea.
BOMBUS, in medicine, a refounding and ringing
noife in the ears. It is a bad fign in acute difeafes.
BOMBYLIUS, in zoology, a genus of infe&s be¬
longing to the order of diptera. The roftrum is long,
briftly, and bivalved ; the briftles being fixed between
the horizontal valves. There are five fpecies, viz. 1.
The major, with black wings. 2. The medius, with
a yellowilh body, white behind, and the wings fpotted
with yellow. 3. The minor, with unfpotted wings.
4. The ater, has red wings, but a little blackifti at the
bafe; and green feet. The above four are natives of
Europe. 5. The capenfis, with the wings fpotted
with black, an alh-coloured body, and white behind.
It is a native of the Cape of Good Hope.
BOMENE, a fea-port town of the United Provinces,
in Zealand, feated on the northern {hore of the ifland
of Schonen, oppofite to the ifland of Goree, in E.
Long. 4. o. N. Lat 51. 50.
BOMMEL, atown of Dutch Guelderland, fituated
on the northern {hore of the river Waal, in E. Long.
5. 50. N. Lat. 52. o.
BOMONICI, in Grecian antiquity, young men of
Lacedaemon, who contended at the facrifices of Diana
which of them was able to endure moft lafties ; being
Von. II.
fcourged before the altar of this goddefs. Bom.
BONA, by the Moors called Balederna, a fea-port — '
town of the kingdom of Algiers in Africa, fituated in
E. Long. 7. 57. N. Lat. 36. 5. It was formerly rich,
populous, capital of the province of the fame name un¬
der the kingdom of Conftantina, and is fuppofed by
fome to be the ancient Hippo, once the feat of the
great St Auftin, and a fea-port built by the Romans.
The inhabitants, however, deny it to be the ancient Hip¬
po, which hadbeen fo often taken, retaken, and deft royed
by the wars ; and pretend it to be fince rebuilt at the
diftance of two or three miles from the ancient Hippo,
out of its ruins, and called Ugned, from a fort
of trees of that name that grow in the neighbour¬
hood. It is now a very mean place, poorly built, and
thinly inhabited, with fcarce any traces of its former
grandeur, except the ruins of a cathedral, or, as others
guefs, of a monaftery, built by St Auftin about three
miles diftance from the city. Near thefe ruins is a fa¬
med fpring called by his name, much reforted to by
the French and Italian failors, who come to drink of
its waters, and pay their devotions to a maimed ftatue
faid alfo to belong to the faint, but fo mutilated that
no traces either of face or drefs are remaining ; and as
each of them ftrives to break off fome fplinter, or to
ferape off fome part of it on account of its fuppofed
fandtity, it will probably be foon reduced to a ftate of
non-exiftence. Bona was taken by the pirate Barba-
roffa, and joined to his new kingdom of Algiers ; but
as quickly loft, and recovered by its old mafters the Tu-
nifeens, who foon after loft it again. It is commanded
by a little fort, in which is a garrifon of about 300
Turks, under the command of an aga, who is alfo go¬
vernor of the town. The road for the {hips is good
for nothing before the town, but a little farther weft is
very deep and fafe. Dr Shaw tells us, that the con¬
tinual difeharging of balaft into the road, and the ne~
gle<ft of cleanfing the port which came to the very walls,
is the caufe of both becoming fo unfafe and incommo¬
dious ; though this might be eafily remedied fo as to
make the town one of the moft flouriftiing in all Bar¬
bary.
Bona Dea, the good goddefs, in Pagan mythology,
one of the names of Cybele. Others fay, ftie was a
Roman lady, the wife of one Faunus, and was famous
for her chaftity, and that after her death fhe was dei¬
fied. Her facrifices were performed only by matrons;
and in fo fecret a manner, that it was no lefs than death
for any man to be prefent at the affembly *. Cicero *See fylele.
reproaches Clodius with having entered into this temple
difguifed as a finging woman, and having by his pre¬
fence polluted the myfteries of the good goddefs. What
kind of myfteries thefe were, we may learn from Juve¬
nal, Sat. VI. 313. The poet then mentions the ad¬
venture of Clodius.
Atqut utinam ritus veteres, et publica faltem
His in/alfa mails agerentur facra : fed omnes
Noverunt Mauri, atquc Indi, qua pfultria pencm
Major cm, quant fint duo Cafaris Antic atones,
Illuc tefticuli fibi confcius, unde fugit mus,
Intulerit.
I with at lead our facred rites were free
From thefe pollutions of obfeenity :
But ’tis well known what finger, how difguifed,
A lewd audacious aftion enterpriz’d :
Into the fane, with women mix’d, he went.
Arm’d with a huge two-handed inftrument;
7 R A
BON [ 1238 ] BON
Bona A grateful prefent to thefe holy choirs, lege, matter of the free fchool in Taunton in So- Bond,
|j where the moufe, confcious of his fex, retires. Dry pen. merfetfliire. In this employment he continued many Bondage.'
Bond- ]Bon A Fidffty in law. When a perfon performs any ac- years with great reputation ; but being at length weary |
tion which he believes at the time to be juft and law- of his laborious employment, he commenced phyfician, ;
ful, he is faid to have a<fted bona fide. and we are told became eminent in that capacity. He
BoNA71/oW//rt,thefamewithmoveableeffeftsorgoods. died in the year 1612, pofleffed of feveral lands and
Bona Notabilia, are fuch goods as a perfon dying tenements in his neighbourhood ; but whether acquired
has in another diocefe than that wherein he dies, amount- by the praftice of phyfic, does not appear. He
ing to the value of 5 1. at leaft ; in which cafe the will wrote, 1. Commentarii in poeviata i£. Horatii, 8vo.
of the deceafed muft be proved, or adminiftration grant- 2. Commentarii infexfatyras Perjii, Lon. 1614, 8vo.
ed in the court of the archbifhop of the province, un- Bond, in law, is a deed whereby the obligor obliges
lefs by compofition, or cuftom, any diocefes are autho- himfelf, his heirs, executors, and adminiftrators, to
rized to do it, when rated at a greater fum. pay a certain fum of money to another at a day ap-
Bona Patria, an affize of countrymen, or good pointed. If this be all, the bond is called a fimple
neighbours, where 12 or more are chofen out of the one, Jimplex obligatio. But there is generally a con-
country to pafs upon an aflize, being fworn judicially dition added, that if the obligor does fome particular
in the prefence of the party. aft, the obligation fhall be void, or elfe {hall rema’u
BONAIRE, an ifland of South America, near the in full force: as, payment of rent; performance of
north coaft of Terra Firma. It belongs to the Dutch; covenants in a deed ; or repayment of a principal fum
and abounds in kabritoes and fait. W. Long. 66. 18. of money borrowed of the obligee, with intereft, which
N. Lat. 20. 16. principal fum is ufuaily one half of the penal fum fpe-
BONAIS, very high mountains of Italy, in the ciiied in the bond. In cafe this condition is not per-
duchy of Savoy, not far from Lafioreburg : in fome formed, the bond becomes forfeited, or abfolute at law,
feafons they cannot be afcended without great danger, and charges the obligor while living; and after his
BONARELLI (Gui Ubaldo), an Italian count, death the obligation defcends upon his heir, who (on
He was intrufted with feveral important negociations, deleft of perfonal aflets) is bound to difcharge it, pro-
and was efteemed an able politician and learned philo- vided he has real aflets bydefcent as a recompenfe.
foplier. He was the author of a fine Italian paftoral If the condition of a bond be impoffible at the time
entitled Filli di Sciro. He died at Fano, in 1608, of making it, oi-be to do a tiling contrary to fome rule
aged 45. of law that is merely pofitive, or be uncertain, or in-
BONAVENTURA, (the bay of), in America, fenfible, the condition alone is void, and the bond fhall
on the coaft next the South Sea, in the Popayan. It ftand Angle and unconditional: for it is the folly of the
has a port, and harbour for fliips; but the air is very obligor to enter into fuch an obligation from which he
unwholefome. W. Long. 75. 18. N. Lat. 3.20. can never be releafed. If it be to do a thing that is
BONAVENTURE, a celebrated cardinal, called, the obligation itfelf is void : for the whole
from his works, the feraphic doftor. He was born at is an unlawful contraft, and the obligee {hall take no
Bagnarea, a fmall town of Tufcany, in 1221 ; and his advantage from fuch a tranfaftion. And if the con-
original name was John Fidauze. He took the habit dition be poflible at the time of making it, and after-
of a monk of the order of St Francis in 1243, became wards becomes impoflible by the aft of God, the aft of
doftor of Paris in 1255, and the next year general of law, or the aft of the obligee himfelf, there the penalty
his order. After the death of Clement IV. the cardinals of the obligation is faved : for no prudence or forefight
difagreeing about the eleftion of a new pope, engaged of the obligor could guard againft fuch a contingency,
themfelves by a folemn promife to eleft him who fliould On the forfeiture of a bond, or its becoming iingle,
be qamed by Bonaventure, even tho’ it {hould be him- the whole penalty was recoverable at law: but here the
felf; but he chofe Theobald archdeacon of Liege, who courts of equity interpofed, and would not permit a
was then in the Holy Land, and took the name of Gri?- man to take more than in confcience he ought, viz.
goryy*.. This pope, in return, in 1272, made him cardi- his principal, intereft, and expences, in cafe the for-
nal and bilhop of Alba, and ordered him to aflift at the feiture accrued by non-payment of money borrowed ;
fecond general council of Lyons, where he died in 1274. the damages fuftained upon non-performance of cove-
His works were printed at Rome in 8 vols folio. nants ; and the like. And the ftatute 4 and 5 Ann.
BONAVISTA, an ifland in the Atlantic ocean, c. t6. hath alfo enafted, in the fame fpirit of equity,
the moft eafterly and firft difcovered of the Cape de that in cafe of a bond, conditioned for the payment of
Verd iflands. It is 20 miles long, and 13 broad; has money, the payment or tender of the principal fum due,
plenty of goats and cotton, and fome indigo. The in- with intereft and cofts, even though the bond be for-
habitants are remarkable for flothfulnefs; they have a feited and a fuit commenced thereon, {hall be a full fa-
town and two roads where {hips come to an anchor, tisfaftion and difcharge.
W. Long. 23. 6. N. Lat. 16. 5. BONDAGE, properly fignifies the fame with fla-
BOND (John), a commentator on Horace and very, but in old law books is ufed for villenage *.— * See VUh\
Perfius, was born in Somerfetfhire in the year 1550, Tenants in bondage paid kenots, and did fealty; they 1
and educated at Winchefter fchool. In 1569 he was were not to fell trees in their own garden, without li-
entered a ftudent of the univerfity of Oxford, probably cence of the lord. The widow of a tenant in bondage
in the New college, of which he became either one of held her hufband’s eftate quam din vixerit fine nuirito,
the clerks or one of the chaplains. He took his ba- “ as long as {he lived Angle.”
chelor of arts degree in 1573, and that of matter in Bondage by the Forelock, or Bondagiumper anteri-
*579 > f°on after which he was appointed, by his col- ores crines capitis, was when a freeman renounced his
liberty,
Bondman
' II
BON [ 1239 ] BON
liberty, and became fiave to fome great man: which produced before the academya fmall ivoryfpoon, which,
was done by the ceremony of cutting oif a lock of hair by long lying in muftard, was become flexible and
. from the forehead, and delivering it to his lord; de- tranfparent like horn ; that Mr Fouchy faw an ivory
noting that he was to be maintained by him for the fpoon, which, by lying for a confiderable time in milk,
future. Such a bondman, if he reclaimed his liberty, was become fupple like leather; and that Mr Hunauld
or were fugitive from his mafter, might be drawn again produced bones, which had been foftened by fteeping
to his fervitude by the nofe; whence the origin ot the in vinegar, afterwards hardened to their natural Hate
popular menace to pull a man by the nofe. by fteeping in water, and foftened a fecond time by
BONDMAN, in the Englifh law, is ufed for a vil- fteeping in vinegar. Dr Lewis obferved that the ni-
lain, or tenant in villenage f.—The Romans had two trous and marine acids diluted, and the acetous acid,
kinds of bondmen ; one called fcrvi, who were thofe make bones flexible and tough like leather; but that
either bought for money, taken in war, left by fuc- the diluted vitriolic acid, though it renders them no-
ceffion, or purchafed by fome other lawful acquiiition; tably foft, makes them at the fame time brittle. It
or elfe born of their bondnssomen, and called venue. We feems as if a great part of the earthy matter, which is
may add a third kind of bondmen mentioned by Jufti- the balls of the bone, and on which its hardnefs de-
nian, called adfcripiii glebce, or agricenfiti; who were pends, was diflblved and extradled. by the three firft;
not bound to the perfon, but to the ground or place, whilft the latter, incapable of diffolving this kind of
and followed by him who had the land. Thefe in our earth into a liquid form, only corrodes it into a kind
law are called villains regardants, as belonging to the of felenitic concrete, which remains intermixed in mi-
manor or place. nute particles among the gelatinous matter. Dr Lewis
BONE-ace, a game at cards played thus: The did not find that the foftened bones, whatever acid they
dealer deals out two cards to the firft hand, and turns were foftened by, recovered their hardnefs by fteeping
up the third, and fo on through all the players, who in water. Slips of foftened ivory, after lying above a
may be feven, eight, or as many as the cards will per- month in water, continued nearly as foft as when they
mit : he that has the higheft card turned up to him, were taken out of the acid liquor,
carries the bone; that is, one half of the ftake; the o- There is a Angular induration of bones produced by
ther half remaining to be played for. Again, if there fire ; the effe&s of which agent are here remarkably
be three kings, three queens, three tens, &c. turned different according to its degree and the circumftances
up, the eldeft hand wins the bone. But it is to be ob- of its application. Bones expofed to a moderate fire,
ferved, that the ace of diamonds is bone-ace, and wins either in open veffels, or in contadl with the burning
all other cards whatever. Thus much for the bone: and fuel, become opaque, white, and friable throughout;
as for the other half of the ftake, the neareft to 31 wins it; and an increafe of fire, after they have once fuffered this
and he that turns up or draws 31, wins it immediately, change, renders them only more and more friable.
BONES, their origin, formation, compofition, tex- But if they are urged at firft with a ftrong fire, fuch
ture, variety, offices, &c. See Anatomy, Part I. as that in which copper or iron melts, they become
Bones Whitened for Skeletons. Two proceffes are hard, femitranfparent, and fonqrous, like the hard mi-
defcribed in the Atta Hofftiierfta for whitening bones, neral ftones. This curious experiment deferves to be
Profeffor Rau had a method of giving them a great de- further profecuted.
gree of whitenefs. By bare expofure to the air, fun. Colouring of Bones. Bones may be ftained of a
and rain, for a length of time, they become notably variety of colours by the common dying infufions and
white; but the whiteft bones, kept in rooms tainted deco&ions of animal and vegetable fubftances. They
with fmoke or fuliginous vapours, grow in a little time are ftained alfo, without heat, by metallic folutions ;
yellowifh, brownifh, and unfightly. It is cuftomary and by means of thefe may be fpotted or variegated at
for the purification of bones, to boil them in alcaline pleafure. Thus, folution of filver in aqua fprtis gives
liquors ; which, by diffolving and extra&ing the fu- a brown or black according to its quantity.; folution
perfluous fat, improve their whitenefs. of gold in aqua regia or in fpirit of fait, a fine pur-
Bones Hardened and Softened. Boerhaave obferves, pie; .folution of copper in the acetous acid, a fine
that alcaline falts render bones harder and firmer, and green ; and folutions of the fame metal in volatile al-
that acids make them fofter and more flexible. Thefe calies, a blue, which at firft is deep and beautiful, but
effc&s fucceed in certain circumftances, but not uni- changes, upon expofure to the air, into a green or
verfally ; for bones may be hardened and foftened both bluim-green. If the bone is but touched with the
by acids and by alcaiies, according to the quantity of two firft folutions, and expofed to the air, it does not
faline matter employed, and the manner in which it is fail to acquire the colour in a few hours: In the two
applied. Newmann made bones harder and more com- latter, it requires to be fteeped for a day or longer in
paft by treating them with the ftrongeft of the mineral order to its imbibing the colour. In thefe and other-
acids ; though, when the acid is in fufficient proportion, cafes where immerfion for fome time is neceffary, the
it deftroys or diffolveS them. In Papin’s digefter (a bone may be variegated, by covering fuch parts as are
ftrong clofe veffel, in which the (team of boiling li- to remain white, with wax or any other matter that
quors is confined, and the fluid by this means made to the liquor will not diffolve or penetrate,
undergo a greater degree of heat than it could otherwife Oeconomical Ufes o/T Bon-es. Bones are a very ufeful
fuftain), the hardeft bones are reduced in a (hort time, article, not only for making different kinds of toys,
by the adtion of Ample water, into a foft pap, or jelly; but likewife in feveral of the chemical arts ; as, For
and alcaline liquors produce this effed ftill fooner. making caft iron malleable, for abforbing the fulphur
In the hiftory of the French Academy for the years of fulphureous ores ; for forming lefts and cupels, or
1742 and 1743, there is an account that Mr Geoffroy veffels for refining gold and filver with lead, (burnt
7 R a bones
BON [ 124° ] BON
Bones. bones compofxng a mafs of a porous texture, which
abforbs the vitrified lead and other matters, while the
unvitrefcible gold and filver remain entire behind) ; for
the preparation of milky glafles and porcelains; for
the rectification of volatile falts and empyreumatic
oils; and for making glue. The bones of different
animals are not equally fit for thefe ufes : even the glue,
or gelatinous part of the bones of one animal is nota¬
bly different both in quantity and cohefivenefs from
that of another.
The human Ikull-bone, or cranium, the natural de¬
fence of the feat of fenfation and perception in the no-
bleft animal, has been recommended medicinally as a
cure for epilepfies, deliria, and all diforders of the
fenfes, from the fame philofophy which afcribed anti-
afthmatic virtues to the lungs of the long-winded fox ;
and expe&ed, becaufe fowls are faid to digeft even
fmall ftones, that the fkin of the gizard, dried and
powdered, would produce a fimilar effeCt in the human
ftomach. To fuch lengths of extravagance have the
fons of phyfic been carried by the blind fuperflition
of former ages!
Bones in the Funeral Solemnities of the Ancients.—
Divers ufages and ceremonies relating to the bones of
the dead have obtained in different ages ; as gathering
them from the funeral pile, wafhing, anointing, and
depofiting them in urns, and thence into tombs; tranf-
lating them, which was not to be done without the
authority of the pontiffs ; not to fay worfhipping of
them, ftill pra&ifed to the bones of the faints in the
Romifh church. Among the ancients, the bones of
travellers and foldiers dying in foreign countries were
brought home to be buried ; till, by an exprefs S. C.
made during the Italic war, it was forbid, and the fol¬
diers bones ordered to be buried where they died.
The Romans had a peculiar deity under the deno¬
mination of Ojfslago, to whom the care of the indura¬
tion and knitting of the human bones was committed ;
and who, on that account, was the objed of the ado¬
ration of all breeding women.
Foffile, or Petrified Bones, are thofe found in the
earth, frequently at great depths, in all the ftrata,
even in the bodies of ftones and rocks ; fome of them
of a huge fize, ufually fuppofed to be the bones of
giants, but more trucly of elephants or hippopotami.
It is fuppofed they were repofited in thofe ftrata when
all things were in a ftate of folution ; and that they
incorporated and petrified with the bodies where they
happened to be lodged.
We often find in the earth petrified bones, greateft
part of their gelatinous matter being extrafted by the
moifture, and a ftony one introduced in its room. In
fome parts of France petrified bones are met with
which have an impregnation of copper. Hence, on
being calcined in an open fire, a volatile fait is produ¬
ced from the remains of their gelatinous principle, and
the bone is tinged throughout of a fine greeniih-blue
colour, copper always ftriking a blue with volatile al-
calies. The French turcoife ftones are no other than
thefe bones prepared by calcination : they are very du¬
rable, and bear to be worked and poliihed nearly in the
fame manner as glafs ; without the imperfeftion, infe-
parable from glaffy bodies, of being brittle. See the
article Turcoise.
There have lately been difcovered feveral enormous
fkeletons, five or fix feet beneath the furface, on the Bones •
banks of the Ohio, not far from the river Miume in
America, 700 miles from the fea-coaft. Some of the  ^
tuiks are near feven feet long ; one foot nine inches at
the bafe, and one foot near the point; the cavity at
the root or bafe, 19 inches deep. Befides their fize,
there are feveral .other differences which will not allow
the fuppofition of their having been elephants : the
tuflcs of the true elephant have fometimes a very flight
lateral bend ; thefe have a larger twift, or fpiral curve,
towards the fmaller end : but the great and fpecific dif¬
ference confifts in the drape of the grinding teeth ;
which, in thefe newly found, are fafhioned like the
teeth of a carnivorous animal; not flat and ribbed
tranfverfely on their furface like thofe of the modern
elephant, but furnifhed with a double row of high and
conic proceffes, as if intended to mafticate, not to
grind, their food. A third difference is in the thigh¬
bone, which is of great difproportionable thicknefs to
that of the elephant ; and has alfo fome other anato¬
mical variations. Thefe foffile bones have been alfo
found in Peru and the Brazils ; and when cut and po-
lifhed by the workers in ivory, appear in every refpeft
fimilar. It is the opinion of Dr Hunter, that they
muft have belonged to a larger animal than the ele¬
phant ; and differing from it, in being carnivorous.
But as yet this formidable creature has evaded our
fearch ; and if, indeed, fuch an animal exifts, it is
happy for man that it keeps at a diftance ; fince what
ravage might not be expe&ed from a creature, endowed
with more than the ftrength of the elephant, and all
the rapacity of the tiger ?
Bone-5/<7v;«. See Farriery, $ xxvi.
BON-esperance, the fame with the Cape of Good
Hope. See Good Hope.
BONET (Theophilus), an eminent phyfician born
at Geneva, March 15th 1620. He took his degree in
phyfic in 1643, after he had gone through moftof the
famous univerfities, and was for fome time phyfician to
the duke of Longueville. Mean while his fldll in his
profeffion got him confiderable pra&ice; but being
feized with deafnefs, it obliged him to retire from bufi-
nefs, which gave him leifure to colledt all the obferva-
tions he had made during a prafticeof 40 years. He
wrote, 1. Polyalthes, five Thefaurus Medico Prattico,
3 vols folio. 2. Labyrinthi Medici extricati. 3. Me-
dicini Septentrionalis Collatitia ; and other works.
BONFADIO (James), one of the moft polite wri¬
ters of the 16th century, was born in Italy, near the
lake Garda. He was fecretary to the cardinal de Bari,
and after his death to the cardinal Ghinucci. He af¬
terwards read public le&ures on Ariftotle’s politics, and
on rhetoric ; and was made hiftoriographer to the re¬
public of Genoa. He applied himfelf to compofe the
annals of that ftate, in which he wrote too fatirically
on fome families. This creating him enemies who were
refolved to ruin him, they accufed him of the unna¬
tural fin ; and, as witneffes were found to convidt him
of it, he was condemned to be burnt. Some fay that
this fentence was executed ; and others, that his pu-
nifliment was changed, and that he was beheaded. This
was in the year 1560. Upon the day of his exe¬
cution he wrote a note to John Baptift Grimaldi, to
teftify his gratitude to the perfons who had endeavoured
to ferve him; and promifed to inform them how he
found
BON [ 1241 ] BON
ririjonfinius found himfelf in the other world, if it could be done
Sj, II without frightning them. But it does not appear that
i^otu ace. jje performeci promife, any more than the many
who had promifed the like before him.—His hiftory of
Genoa is efteemed. We have alfo fome letters, fome
orations, and Latin and Italian poems, of his, which
were printed at Bologna, in the year 1744, oftavo.
BONFINIUS (Anthony), flourifhed in the 15th
century. He was a native of Afcoli in Italy, and
attached himfelf to the ftudy of the belles lettres.
Matthias Cowin king of Hungary, having heard of
his learning, fent for him, retained him, and fettled
upon him a good penfion. He wrote, 1. A hiftory of
Afcoli. 2. A treatife of virginity and conjugal cha-
ftity. 3. An hiftory of Hungary; and other works.
BONFRERIUS (James), a learned Jefuit, born at
Dinant, in 1573. He wrote a commentary on the
Pentateuch, and learned notes on the Onamafticon of
the places and towns mentioned in the Scripture. He
died at Toumay in 1643, aged 7°*
BONGARS (James), in Latin Bongarfias, a na¬
tive of Orleans, was one of the moft learned men of the
16th century. He applied himfelf to the ftudy of critical
learning, and was for near 30 years employed in the
moft important negociations of Henry IV. whofe refi-
dent he was feveral times at the courts of the princes of
Germany, and at length his ambaflador. He was of
the Proteftant religion ; and, when very young, had the
courage to write and poft up in Rorhe a very fpirited
anfwer to a bull of Pope Sixtus V. The public is ob¬
liged to him for the edition of feveral authors who
have written the Hiftory of the expeditions to the Holy
Land ; he alfo publilhed, among other works, an edi¬
tion of Jultin, in which he reftored feveral paflages that
had been corrupted, byconfulting valuable manufcripts,
and added notes which explained many difficulties. He
died in 1612, aged 58.
BONIFACE, the name of feveral eminent men,
particularly of nine popes. To the firft of thefe, who
was chofen pope 10418, St Auguftine dedicated his
four books againft the two epiftles of the Pelagians.
The third of that name prevailed upon the emperor
Phocas to confent that the title of Univerfal Bijhop
fhould be conferred on no other than the bilhop of
Rome. Boniface IV. obtained from the fame empe¬
ror, the pantheon, a famous heathen temple built by
Agrippa, and converted it into a church which is now
called “ Our Lady della Rotunda.” Several works
are alfo attributed to him, but they appear to be fpu-
rious. Boniface VII. hath the title oi antipope ; be-
caufe in 974 he caufed Benedift VI. to be ftrangled in
prifon, and after the ele&ion of Benedift VII. remo¬
ved the treafures of the church to Conftantinople. He,
however, at length returned after the death of Bene-
dift, and caufed his fucceflbr John XIV. to be mur¬
dered ; but died himfelf foon after, and was dragged
naked by the feet about the ftreets. Boniface VIII.
canonized St Lewis in 1297, and in 1300 appointed
the jubilee to be folemnized every too years after.
Boniface is alfo the name of a faint, who before
he took that name was called Winifred, and was born
at Kirton in Devonfhire. He chofe to go and preach
the gofpel among the barbarous nations; and though
created archbiftiop of Mentz, foon after refigned his
office, to go and preach in Eaft Friefland, where he
was killed by the Pagans on the 5th of June 754. His Bonifacio
letters were publilhed by Senarius. H
BONIFACIO, a town in the ifland of Corfica, be- _ fnner‘
yond the mountains, near the ftraight called Bocca di
Bonifacio. It is well fortified, and pretty populous.
E. Long. 9. 20. N. Lat. 41. 25.
BONIS non amovendis, in law, is a writ diredted to
the IherifFs of London, &c. charging them, thataper-
fon againft whom judgment is obtained, and profecu-
ting a writ of error, be not fuffered to remove his
goods until the error is determined.
BONN, an ancient and ftrong city of Germany, in
the Ele&orate of Cologn, and the ufual refidence of
the eleftor. It is of great confequence in the time of
war ; becaufe it is feated on the Rhine, in a place
where it can ftop every thing that comes down that ri¬
ver. It is well fortified by the ele&or, who has a fine
palace and beautiful gardens in the city. E. Long.
7.5. N. Lat. 50. 44.
BONNA, (anc. geog.), one of the 50 citadels built
by Drufuson the Rhine; fuppofed by fome to be the
fame with the Ara Ubionum : now Bonn *. * ■c’ee
BONNEFONS (John), a Latin poet born at Cler- ^eding
mont in Auvergne, and lieutenant-general of Bar fur
Seine, acquired great reputation by his Pancharis, and
other poems. He died under the reign of Lewis XIII.
He ought not to be confounded with John Bonnefons
his fon, another Latin poet.
BONNER (Edmund), bilhop of London, of infa¬
mous memory, was born at Hanley in Worcefterlhire,
and generally fuppofed to be the natural fon of one Sa¬
vage a prieft; and that prieft was the natural fon of
Sir John Savage of Clifton in the fame county. Strype,
however, fays, he was pofitively allured that Bonner
was the legitimate offspring of a poor man, who lived
in a cottage known to this day by the name of Bon¬
ner's place. About the year 1512, he entered Undent
of Broadgate Hall in Oxford. In 1519, he was ad¬
mitted bachelor of the canon and civil law. About the
fame time he took orders, and obtained fome prefer¬
ment in the diocefe of Worcefter. In 1525, he was
created doftor of canon law. Having now acquired
the reputation of a (hrewd politician and civilian, he
was foon diftinguilhed by cardinal Wolfey, who made
him his commiflary for the faculties, and heaped upon
him a variety of church-preferments. He poffefled at
the fame time the livings of Blaydon and Cherry-Bur¬
ton in Yorklhire, Ripple in Worcefterlhire, eaft Der-
cham in Norfolk, prebend of St Paul’s, and the arch¬
deaconry of Leicefter. Bonner was with the cardinal
at Caw-wood, when he was arrefted for high treafon.
After the death of that minifter, he foon found means
to infinuate himfelf into the favour of Henry VIII.
who made him one of his chaplains, and employed him
in feveral embaffies abroad, particularly to the pope.
In 1532, he was fent to Rome, with Sir Edward Kame,
to anfwer for the king, whom his Holinefs had cited to
appear in perfon or by proxy. In 1533, he was again
difpatched to pope Clement VII. at Marfeilles, upon
the excommunication of king Henry on account of his
divorce. On this occafion he threatened the pope with
fo much refolution, that his Holinefs talked of burning
him alive, or throwing him into a caldron of melted
lead ; upon which Bonner thought fit to decamp. His
infallibility did not forefee that the man whom he thus
threat.
BON [ 1242 ] BON
Bonner threatened was predefuned to burn heretics in England.
il In 1538, being then ambaffador at the court of France,
Bonneva . ^ was nominated bi(hop of Hereford ; but, before
confecration, was tranflated to the fee of London, and
enthroned in April 1540.—Henry VIII. died in 1547,
at which time Bonner was ambaffador with the empe¬
ror Charles V. During this reign he was conftantly
zealous in his oppofition to the pope ; and, in com¬
pliance with the king, favoured the reformation. Hen¬
ry VIII. was not to be trifled with ; but, on the ac-
ceflion of young Edward, Bonner refnfed the oath of
fupremacy, and was committed to the fleet; however,
he foon thought fit to promife obedience to the laws,
and was accordingly releafed. He continued to com¬
ply with reformation ; but with fueh manifeft negledt
and reludtance, that he was twice reprimanded by the
privy council, and in 1549, after a long trial, wascom-
mitted to the Marfhalfea, and deprived of his bilhopric.
The fucceeding reign gave him ample opportunity of
revenge. Mary was fcarce feated on the throne before
Bonner was reftored to his bifhopric ; and foon after
appointed vicegerent and prefident of the convocation.
From this time he became the chief inftrument of papal
cruelty : he is faid to have condemned no lefs than 200
Proteftants to the fldmes in the fpace of three years.
Nor was this monfter of a prieft more remarkable for
his cruelty than his impudence. When Queen Eliza¬
beth came to the crown, he had the infolence to meet
her, with the reft of the bifliops, at High-gate. In
the fecond year of her reign, refufing to take the oath
of allegiance and fupremacy, he was again deprived,
and committed to the Marlhalfea; where he died in
1569, after ten years confinement. There cannot be
a ftronger inftance of the comparative lenity of the Pro-
teftant church, than its fuffering this mifereant to die a
natural death. Several pieces were publiftied under his
name.
BONNESTABLE, a town of Le Maine in France,
which carries on a great trade in corn. E. Long. o. 30.
N. Lat. 48. 11.
BONNET, in a general fenfe, denotes a cover for
the head, in common ufe before the introduftion of
hats. Bonnets are ftill ufed in many parts of Scot¬
land.
Bonnet, in fortification, a fmall work confiding of
two faces, having only a parapet with two rows of pa-
lifadoes, of about ten or 12 feet diftance ; it is gene¬
rally railed before the faliant angle of the counterfcarp,
and has a communication with the covered way, by a
trench cut through the glacis, and palifadoes on each
fide.
Bonnet a Pretre, or Priejl’s Bonnet^ in fortifica¬
tion, is an out-work, having at the head three faliant
angles, and two inwards. It differs from the double
tenaille only in this, that its fides, inftead of being pa¬
rallel, are like the quevc d’aronde, or fwallow’s tail, that
is, narrowing, or drawing clofe at the gorge, and open¬
ing at the head.
Bonnet, in the fea-language, denotes an addition
to a fail; thus we fay, lace on the bonnet, or (hake
off the bonnet.
BONNEVAL (Claudius Alexander de) count,
known in the latter part of his life by the name of
Ofman Bajhaw, defeended from a family related to
the blood-royal of France, entered himfelf at the age
of 16 in the fervice of that crown, and married the Bonevalfi
daughter of marlhal de Biron. He made the campaign 11 .
in Flanders in 1690; but foon after left the French ononcm*j
army, and entered into the imperial fervice under prince
Eugene, who honoured him with an intimate friend-
Ihip. The intrigues of the marquis de Prie, his inve¬
terate enemy, ruined his credit, however, at the court
of Vienna, and caufed him to be banilhed the empire.
He then offered his fervice to the republic of Venice,
and to Ruffia ; which being declined, his next tender
was to the Grand Signior, who gladly received him:
it was ftipulated, that he Ihould have a body of 30,000
men at his difpofal; that a government Ihould be con¬
ferred on him, with the rank of Balhaw of three tails,
and a falary of 10,000 afpers a day; and that, in cafe
of a war, he fliould be commander in chief. The firft
expedition he engaged in after his arrival at Conftanti-
nople, was to quell an infurreition in Arabia Petrasa,
which he happily effected; and at his return had large
offers made him by Kouli Khan, but he did not choofe
to accept them. Some time after, he commanded the
Turkifli army againft the emperor, over whofe forces he
gained a victory on the banks of the Danube. But fitc-
cefs does not always proteft a perfon againft difgrace;
for Bonneval, notwithftanding his fervice, was firft im-
prifoned, and then banilhed to the ifland of Ohio. The
fultan, however, continued his friend; and the evening
before his departure made him Bafhaw-general of the
Archipelago, which, with his former appointment of
beglerbeg of Arabia, rendered him one of the moft
powerful perfons in the Ottoman empire. In this ifland
he found a retirement quite agreeable to his wifties ;
but did not long enjoy it, being fent for back, and
made tofigi or mafter of the ordnance, a poll of great
honour and profit. He died in this employment,
aged 75, in 174V; and wrote the memoirs of his own
life.
Bonneval, a town of France, in Beauce, with a fine
Benedi&ine abbey. It is feated on the river Loire, in
E. Long. 1. 30. N. Lat. 48. 10.
BONNEVILLE, a town of Savoy, fituated pn the
north fide of the river Arve, and fubjeft to the king of
Sardinia. E. Long. 6. 10. N. Lat. 46. 18.
BONNY, among miners, a bed of ore, differing only
from a fquat as being round, whereas the fquat is flat f. t ®ec
BONNY, a town of France, in the Gatinois, feated
at the confluence of a river of the fame name with the
Loire. E. Long. 2. 54. N. Lat. 47. 36.
BONONIA, (anc. geog.), a town of Italy, in the
Gallia Cifpadana; a name probably given by the Gauls,
there being a Bonania in Gallia Belgica. Its ancient
name when in the hands of the Tufcans, who were ex¬
pelled by the Gauls, was Falfina. In the 563d year of
the city the Romans led a colony thither; which, about
the beginning of the Adtiac war, was increafed by Au-
guftus, and is the Colonia Bonmienfts of Tacitus. Now
Bologna ; which fee.
Bononia, (anc. geog.), a town of Panonia Inferior,
between Murfa to the north-weft, and Taurinum to the
eaft.—Another Bononia, a town of Moefia Superior, on
the Danube; now Bodon, in Bulgaria. See Bodon.
BONONIAN. See Boloman.
BONONCINI (Giovanni), an eminent compofer of
mufic, for fome time divided the opinions of the cono-
feenti of this kingdom with refpedl to the comparative
merits
BON [ 1243 ] BOO
ionofiani merits of himfelf and the great Handel, which gave oc-
II cafion for the following epigram faid to have been writ-
Eoilzes- ten by Dr Swift:
~ Some fay that Signior Bononcini
Compar’d to Handel’s a meer ninny ;
Others aver, that to him Handel
Is fcarcely fit to hold the candle.
Strange! that fuch high difputes fhmild be
’Twixt Tweed/e Dum and TivtetUe Dee.
There is one opera (Italian) publiihed, with his name
prefixed to it, intitled Pbarnaces; but whether the
words, or only the mufic, are his compofition, is uncer-
tam; and indeed, in the general, the language of thofe
pieces written merely for mufical reprefentation, is fo
extremely paltry, and fo oppofite to every thing that
can be deemed poetry, that the greateft compliment
that can be paid to the authors of them is, to fuffer
their names to lie buried in the lhades of obfeurity.
BONOSIANI, or Bonosiaci, an ancient branch
of ddoptiani, in the fourth century, denominated from
their leader Bonofus, a bifliop of Macedonia. The Bo-
nofiani were prior to the Feliciani, and even to Nefto-
rius ; whence fome rather confider them as a branch of
Arians. They allowed Chrift to be no otherwife the
Son of God than by adoption.
BONPOURNICKEL, a coarfe kind of bread ufed
in Weftphalia. See Bread.
BONTIA, wild olive of Barbadoes; a genus of
the angiofpermia order, belonging to the didynamia
clafs of plants. Of this genus there are two fpecies, the
daphnoides and the germinans. The firft hath a woody
ftem and branches; rifing to the height of ten feet,
with narrow, finooth, thickhh leaves, crenated at the
edges ; and flowers from the fides of the branches, fuc-
ceeded by large oval fruit that fometimes ripen in Eng¬
land. This fpecies is greatly cultivated in the gardens
at Barbadoes for making of hedges; for which purpofe
it is exceedingly proper, it being an evergreen of very
quick growth. It is faid, that from cuttings planted
there in the rainy feafon, when they have immediately
taken root, there has been a complete hedge, four or
five feet high, in 18 months. The fecond fort has been
reckoned by many botanic writers to be a fpecies of
the mangrove tree, as it grows in fvvamps, which they
alfo do. It rifes 14 or 16 feet high, fending out feve-
ral fmall branches which incline downward toward the
water, and as foon as they reach that, put out roots into
the mud, whereby they propagate very faft: thefe
branches are garniihed with leaves placed oppofite;
they are of a thick fubftance like thofe of the bay tree,
about two inches long and one broad, very fmooth on
their furface: the flowers are white, and come out in
fpikes from the upper branches. This hath been alfo
by fome fuppofed to be the anacardium orientale.
Thefe plants are eafily propagated, either by feeds or
cuttings, fown or planted on a hot-bed; but they muft
be kept conftantly in the ftove.
BONUS HENRICUS. See Chenopodium.
BONZES, Indian priefts. The Tonquinefe have
a pagod or temple in each town; and each paged has
at leaft two bonzes belonging to it : fome have 30 or
40. Thefe bonzes, in order to diftinguifh themfelves
from the laity, wear a chaplet about their necks con-
fifting of too beads; and carry a ftaff, at the end of
which is a wooden bird. They live upon the alms of
the people; yet are very charitably difpofed, and main¬
tain feveral orphans and widows out of their own col- Bonzes
le&ions. II
The bonzes of China are the priefts of the Fohifts, Eo° %
or fe& of Fohi. It is one of their eftabliihed tenets,
that there are rewards allotted for the righteous,
and punifhments for the wicked, in the. next world ;
and that there are various manfions in which the fouls
of men will refide, according to their different degrees
of merit. But, in order to deferve the favour of hea¬
ven, the bonzes inftru& the people to treat the priefts
with refpedl and reverence, to fupport and maintain
them, and to ere£t temples and monafteries for them.
They tell them, that, unlefs they comply with thefe
injun&ions, they will be cruelly tormented after death,
and pafs through a difagreeable variety of tranfmigra-
tions : in Ihort, that they will be changed into mules,
affes, rats, and mice.
TJie Chinefe bonzes, according to F. le Compte,
are no better than a gang of diffolute idle fellows. All
their aim is to incite people to commiferate their ab-
jeft condition : to which end they have recourfe to fe¬
veral tricks and impoftures. When the common arts
of addrefs fail them, they try what public ads of
penance will do. Some of them drag heavy chains 30
feet long after them; fome fit in the highway knocking
their heads againft flint-ftones ; others fet particular
drugs on fire upon their heads : all thefe are feveral
ways of drawing the attention and exciting the com¬
panion of the people, and they feldom fail of fuccefs.
The bonzes of Japan are, for the generality, gen¬
tlemen of the higheft extraftion ; for when a gentle¬
man of quality finds his family grow too numerous,
nay, when he has only two fons, he generally makes
the youngeft a bonze, to prevent all domeftic broils
and confufions. Thefe priefts are dreffed in various
colours ; their apartments are very commodious, and
fituated in the healthieft parts of the country.
F. Navarette tells us, that the bonzes are obliged to
chaftky ; and that, on the 2d of April 1667, a petty
king of Canton had condemned 11 of them to be burnt
alive for incontinence. He adds, that it was reported
of an emprefs of the laft reigning family, who had a
particular kindnefs for the bonzes, that ftie granted
them a difpenfation for the ufe of women during three
days. The bonzes of China, according to the fame
author, are computed at 50,000.
BOOBY, in ornithology. See Pelicanus.
BOOK, the general name of almoft every literary
compofition ; but, in a more limited fenfe, is applied
only to fuch compofitions as are large enough to make
a volume. As to the origin of books or writing, thofe
of Mofes are undoubtedly the molt ancient that are ex¬
tant : But Mofes himfelf cites many books that beho¬
ved to be written before his time.
Of profane books, the oldeft extant are Homer’s
poems, which were fo even in the time of Sextus Em¬
piricus ; though we find mention in Greek writers of
feventy others prior to Homer ; as Hermes, Orpheus,
Daphne, Horus, Linus, Mufaeus, Palamedes, Zoro-
after, he.: but of the greater part of thefe there is
not the leaft fragment remaining ; and of others, the
ieces which go under their names are generally held,
y the learned, to be fuppofititious.
Several forts of materials were ufed formerly in ma¬
king books: Plates of lead and copper, the barks of
, trees.
BOO [ 1244 1 BOO
trees, bricks, ftone, and wood, were the firfl: materials
employed to engrave fuch things upon as men were
willing to have tranfmitted to pofterity. Jofephus
fpeaks of two columns, the one of ftone, the other of
brick, on which the children of Seth wrote their in¬
ventions and aftronomical difcoveries : Porphyry makes
mention of fome pillars, preferved in Crete, on which
the ceremonies pra&ifed by the Corybantes in their fa-
crifices were recorded. Heftod’s works were originally
■written upon tables of lead, and depofited in the tem¬
ple of the Mufes, in Bceotia : The ten commandments,
delivered to Mofes, were written upon ftone ; and So¬
lon’s laws upon wooden planks. Tables of wood, box,
and ivory, were common among the ancients : When
of wood, they were frequently covered with wax, that
people might write upon them with more eafe, or blot
out what they had written. The leaves of the palm-
tree were afterwards ufed inftead of wooden planks, and
the fineft and thinneft part of the bark of fuch trees, as
the lime, the afti, the mapple, and the elm ; from
hence comes the word liber, which fignifies the inner
bark of the trees : and as thefe barks are rolled up, in
order to be removed with greater eafe, thefe rolls were
called volumen, a volume; a name afterwards given to
the like rolls of paper or parchment.
Thus we find books were firft written on ftones, wit-
nefs the Decalogue given to Mofes: Then on the parts
of plants, as leaves chiefly of the palm-tree ; the rind
and barks, efpecially of the tilia, orphillyrea, and the
Egyptian papyrus. By degrees wax, then leather,
were introduced, efpecially the fkins of goats and fheep,
of which at length parchment was prepared: then lead
came into ufe ; alfo linen, filk, horn, and laftly paper
itfelf.
The firft books were in the form of blocks and ta¬
bles j but as flexible matter came to be wrote on, they
found it more convenient to make their books in the
form of rolls : Thefe were compofed of feveral (heels,
faftened to each other, and rolled upon a flick, or um¬
bilicus ; the whole making a kind of column, or cy¬
linder, which was to be managed by the umbilicus as
a handle, it being reputed a crime to take hold of the
roll itfelf: The outfide of the volume was called frons;
the ends of the umbilicus, cornua, which were ufually
carved, and adorned with filver, ivory, or even gold
and precious ftones: The title was (truck on
the outfide; the whole volume, when extended, might
make a yard and a half wide, and fifty long. The
form which obtains among us is the fquare, compofed
of feparate leaves; which was alfo known, tho’ little
ufed, by the ancients.
To the form of books belongs alfo the internal ce-
conomy, as the order and arrangement of points and
letters into lines and pages, With, margins and other
appurtenants. This has undergone many varieties. At
firft the letters were only divided into lines; then into
feparate words; which, by degrees, were noted with
accents, and diftributed, by points and ftops, into pe¬
riods, paragraphs, chapters, and other divifions. In
fome countries, as among the orientals, the lines be¬
gan from the right and ran leftward; in others, as the
northern and weftern nations, from left to right; others,
as the Greeks, followed both direftions, alternately go¬
ing in the one, and returning in the other, called boujlro-
phedon\ In moft countries, the lines run from one fide
to the other ; in fome, particularly the Chinefe, from
top to bottom.
Everlajiing Book.—We find in Signior Caftaquo’s
account of the a(beftus, a fcheme for the making of a
book, which, from its imperiftiable nature, he is for
calling the book of eternity. The leaves of this book
were to be of the a(beftus paper, the covers of a thicker
fort of work of the fame matter, and the whole fewed
with thread fpun from the fame fubftance. The things
to be commemorated in this book were to be written in
letters of gold; fo that the whole matter of the book
being incombuftible, and everlaftingly permanent a-
gainft the force of all the elements, and fubjeft to no
changes from fire, water, or air, muft remain for ever,
and always preferve the writing committed to it. He
carried this projeft fo far towards execution, as to find
a way of making a fort of paper from the albeftus,
which was fo traftable and foft, that it very well re-
fembled a thin parchment; this, by the fame procefs,
was capable of being thickened or thinned at pleafure,
and in either ftate equally refilled the fire. The cover¬
ing of the thinneft kind of this paper with fire, only
makes it red hot and very clear, the fire feeming
to pafs through it without wafting or altering any part
of it. Copper, iron, or any other metal except gold
or filver, expofcd to the fame degree of fire in the
fame thin plates, would be found not to bear it in this
manner, but to fcale, and burn it into fcorias at the
furface, which this ftone does not.
IbooK.-Binding. The art of gathering together and
fewing the (beets of a book, and covering it with a
back, &c. It is performed thus : The leaves are firft
folded with a folding-ftick, and laid over each other
in the order of the iignature; then beaten on a ftone
with an hammer, to make them fmooth and open well;
and afterwards prefled. They are fewed upon bands,
which are pieces of cord or packthread ; fix bands to
a folio book ; five to a quarto, odtavo, &c.; which is
done by drawing a thread through the middle of each
(hect, and giving it a turn round each band, begin¬
ning with the firft and proceeding to the laft. After
this the books are glued, and the bands opened and
fcraped, for the better fixing the pafteboards; the back
is turned with a hammer, and the book fixed in a prefs
between two boards, in order to make a groove for fix¬
ing the pafteboards; thefe being applied, holes are
made for fixing them to the book, which is prefled a
third time. Then the book is at laft put to the cutting
prefs, betwixt two boards; the one lying even with
the prefs, for the knife to run upon ; the other above
it, for the knife to run againft : after which the pafte¬
boards are fquared.
The next operation is the fprinkling the leaves of
the book ; which is done by dipping the brufli into
vermillion and fap-green, holding the brufli in one
hand, and fpreading the hair with the other ; by which
motion the edges of the leaves are fprinkledin a regu¬
lar manner, without any fpots being bigger than the
other.
Then remains the covers, which are either of calf-
flcin or of (heep-(kin : thefe being moiftened in water,
are cut out to the fizc of the book ; then fmeared over
with pafte made of wheat-flour; and afterwards ftretch-
ed over the pafteboard on the outfide, and doubled
over the edge* withinfide ; after having firft taken off
BOOK-KEE PING.
the four angles, and indented and platted the cover at fliould be marbled ; when the fpots are to be made
the head-band: which done, the book is covered, and larger by mixing the ink with vitriol. After this the
bound firmly between two bands, and then fet to dry. book is glazed twice with the white of an egg beaten,
Afterwards it is waflied over with a little pafte and wa- and at laft polilhed with a polilhing iron pafled hot
ter, and then fprinkled with a fine brufh, unlefs it over the glazed cover.
B O O K - K
S the art of recording mercantile tranfaftions in a
regular and fyftematic manner,
i. A merchant’s books ihould contain every parti¬
cular which relates to the affairs of the owner. They
fhould exhibit the ftate of all the branches of hisbufi-
nefs, the connexion of the different parts, the amount
and fuccefs of the whole. They fhould be fo full and
fo well arranged, as to afford a ready information in
every point for which they may be confulted.
The matter which the books Ihould contain is com¬
prehended under the three following heads : Firft, The
debts which are owing to the owner, and the debts
which he owes to others. Secondly, The goods and
other articles of property which belonged to him ; the
quantity and value fold, or otherwife difpofed on ; and
the quantity and value which ftill remain in his poffef-
fion. Thirdly, The amount of his flock when the
books were opened ; the profits he has obtained, and
the Ioffes he has fuffered, fince; and the amount of his
flock at prefent.
That method of book-keeping which anfwers thefe
purpofes moft clearly and concifely, is the beft. The
Italian method by double entry, is generally preferred;
at leaft, it is founded upon the moft univerfal princi¬
ples, and is the moft convenient in extenfive and com¬
plicated bufinefs : and the accountant who underftands
it, will find little difficulty in following, or even in in¬
venting other methods that are better accommodated
to any particular purpofe.
The Italian method requires three principal books;
the Wafte-Book, Journal, and Leger.
Se£t. I. Of the "W a s t e-B o o k.
2. The wafte-book, or day-book, contains an exa&
regifter of all occurrences in bufinefs in the fame order
as they take place. It begins with an inventory of
every thing belonging to the owner, a lift of the debts
due to him, and of the debts he owes to others : It is
carried on with a full relation of all the money he re¬
ceives or pays 5 of all the goods he buys or fells; and
of every other occurrence in his bufinefs. Each arti¬
cle ftiould be entered as foon as the tranfaftion takes-
place, and ffiould be clearly expreffed in the plaineft
language. It ffiould require no fupply from the ac¬
countant’s memory, but ffiould be fully intelligible to
any perfon, however unacquainted with the bufinefs:
at the fame time, it ffiould be written with all conve¬
nient brevity ; and, therefore, fometimes refers to in¬
voices and other accounts, for particulars. The ac¬
countant’s firft care ffiould be to have nothing defeft-
ive or ambiguous; his fecond, to have nothing fuper-
fluous.
3. The date is written in text on the top of each
page. The articles are feparated from each other by
Vol. II.
E E P I N G
a line ; and the tranfa&ions of one day are feparated
from thofe of another by a doubleline, in the middle
of which there is left a blank fpace for inferting the
day of the month. This book muft be kept with the
greater care, as it contains the materials from which
the other books are compofed ; and any error ordefedl
will occafion a like one in the others. Befides, it is
the book whofe authority is trufted to, and which muft
be exhibited to judges, or arbiters, when an account
is difputed. As the journal is filled up from the wafte-
book, the authority of the former is efteemed more
authentic, unlefs there be an obvious miftake through
hurry ; and either of thefe books is depended on ra¬
ther than the leger, which, from its form, is more
liable to error, and may be more eafily vitiated by a
fraudulent defign.
4. As the wafte-book contains the whole fubftance
of the bufinefs, it may be applied fo as to afford any
information that can be wanted : but the labour of con-
fulting it would be very great. For inftance, if it
were required to know how much any perfon owes us,
we muft look over the book from the beginning, and
mark down every article in which we have dealt with
him : or, if it were required to know what quantity
of goods we ffiould have on hand, we muft look over
the whole book, and mark down every article bought
or fold. This operation would not only be found very
tedious, but much expofed to the rifle of omiffions.
To prevent thefe inconveniencies, another book is ufed,
in which the articles are arranged in a methodical or¬
der. This book is called the Leger, and we ffiall con-
fiderit next; becaufe the journal, though it comes be¬
fore it in the order of writing, cannot be well under-
ftood, till the nature of'the leger be explained.
Se&. II. Of the Leger.
5. In the ledger, articles of the fame kind are collec¬
ted together ; and, for that purpofe, it is divided into
many accounts, under which the different branches of
bufinefs are arranged. Each account is introduced by
a proper title, to explain the nature of the articles it
contains ; and articles of oppofite kinds, which belong
to the fame account, are placed on the oppofite pages
of the fame folio : for inftance, money received on the
one fide, and money paid on the other; or goods bought
on the one fide, and goods fold on the other. The left-
hand page is called the Debtor or Dr. fide of the ac¬
count, and the right-hand page the Creditor or Cr. fide.
The difference between the fums of the Dr. and Cr.
fides is called the Balance.
Accounts in the leger are of three kinds, which
anfwer to the three purpofes of book keeping men¬
tioned $ I.
6. Firft, Perfonal Accounts. It is neceffary to
7 S open
I245
BOOK-KEEPING.
open an account for every perfon or company with
whom there are any dealings on credit. At opening the
books, if they be indebted to the owner, the debt is
entered on the Dr. ; but, if he be indebted to them, it
is entered on the Cr. During the courfe of the bufi'
nefs, goods fold on truft,^ money paid, and every thing
for which they are accountable to him, is entered on
the Dr.; but goods bought on trull, money received,
and every thing for which he is accountable to them,
is entered on the Cr. The balance Ihews how much
they owe him, when the Dr. fide is greateft ; and how
much he owes them, when the Cr. fide is greater.
7. Secondly, Real Accounts. By this we under-
ftand accounts of property of whatever kind, fuch as
ready money, goods, houfes, lands, Ihips, lhares in
public companies, and the like.
The account of ready mbney is entitled Cajh. On
the Dr. fide, the money on hand at opening the books
is entered, and afterwards every article of money re¬
ceived. On the Cr. fide, there is entered every article
of money paid out; and the balance Ihows how much
ought to be on hand. The fum of the Dr. fide of this
account is always greater than that of the Cr. fide.
8. Accounts of goods are generally ruled with in¬
ner columns for entering the quantities. When the
books are opened, the goods on hand are entered on
the Dr. fide of the refpeftive accounts ; the quantities
being placed in the inner, and the values in the outer
column. Goods bought are entered in the fame man¬
ner, and goods fold are entered on the Cr. fide ; the
quantities and values being placed in the proper columns.
Charges laid out on goods are entered on the Dr. fide;
and, when an incidental advantage arifes from them,
fuch as public bounty, it is entered on the Cr.
If the fums of the inner columns on the oppofite fides
be equal, it ftiows that the goods are all fold, and then
the balance of the money-column Ihows the gain or lofs.
If the Cr. fide be greater, it is gain ; if the Dr. fide
be greater, it is lofs. If the fum of the inner column
be greater on the Dr. fide, it (hows that part of the
goods are on hand ; and their value mull be added to
the fum of the Cr. fide, in order to determine the gain
or lofs.
9. If there be two or more kinds of the fame fort of
goods, they may be entered in the fame account, al¬
lowing as many inner columns as there are kinds, and
entering the quantities of each kind in the inner column
referved for it. This method exhibits the gain or lofs
on the whole goods ; but does not Ihew how much of
it arifes from each kind.
Or, a feparate account may be opened for each kind,
diftinguilhing the titles by the qualities, or by fume
other mark. Thus, one account may be kept fofiane
linen, another for coarfelinen; one for port-wine crop
1772, another for port-wine crop 1773 ;.one for rum
from Jamaica, another for rum from Barbadoes. This
method Ihews the gain or lofs on each kind.
When there are more kinds than can be conveniently
introduced in the fame account, they may be divided
into feveral clafies, each clafs being placed in a feparate
account; and the particular kinds diftinguiflied in in¬
ner columns. Thus the account of fine linen may be
divided into feveral columns, for different kinds, dif-
tinguifhed by the number of threads in the breadth, or
by any other convenient character.
10. Accounts of fhips contain on the Dr. the value
of the fhip when the books are opened, and all expences
laid out thereon ; on the Cr. all freights received. In
like manner, accounts of houfes or lands have the va¬
lue of the fubjedl, and all repairs, or other charges,
entered on the Dr. and all rents or other profits received
on the Cr. If the fubjeA be fold in whole or in part,
the fale is entered on the Cr. And the balance, after
valuing the fubjeft (if any) on hand, fhows the gain
or lofs.
Accounts of property in the public funds, or (hares
in companies, public or private, contain the value, or
money paid in, on the Dr. and the dividends received
on the Cr. and are balanced as other real accounts.
Some perfons open accounts for houfehold furniture,
plate, jewels, books, or the like. The entries on thefe
accounts are made in the fame manner.
In general, real accounts contain the value of the
property, aud all charges on the Dr. and the fales and
other returns on the Cr. When the account is to be
balanced, if any property remains, the value thereof
is placed on the Cr. ; and then the balance fhows the
lofs or gain, according as the Dr. or Cr. fide is greateft.
it. Thirdly, Accounts of Stock, Profit and
Loss, and its fubfidiary accounts, which are fometimes
called fictitious acctunts.
The Jiock account contains on the Dr. the amount of
the debts which the owner owes when the books hre
opened ; and, on the Cr. the amount of ready money,
goods, debts, and property of every kind belonging
to him : therefore the balance fhows what his nett flock
is ; or, in cafe of bankruptcy, how much his debts
exceed his effefts. There is nothing further entered
on this account till the books are balanced : and then,
if the bufinefs has yielded profit, the nett gain is en¬
tered on the Cr. ; if it has been unfuccefsful, the nett
lofs is entered on the Dr. : after which, the balance
fhows the nett flock at the time the books are clofed.
12. The Profit ^and Lofs account contains every ar¬
ticle of gain on the Cr. and every article of lofs on the
Dr. The balance (hews the nett gain or lofs, and is
transferred to the proper fide of the flock-account, as
mentioned above. This account is partly compofed of
articles that occur while the books are running. For
example, legacies received are entered on the Cr. goods
deftroyed on the Dr. The reft of the articles are thofe
of gain and lofs, arifing from the real accounts, which
are colle&ed when the books are balanced.
13. It has been found convenient to open feveral
fubfidiary accounts, in order to fhorten and methodife
that of profit and lofs. Thefe contain certain articles
of gain or lofs, which may be reduced under diftin£t
heads. They are in effedl fo many parts of the profit
and lofs account, and-their balances are entered on the
proper fide of that account when the books are clofed-
The chief of thefe accounts are the following.
Intere/i account. Which contains on the Dr. fums
paid or incurred for intereft; and on the Cr. fums re¬
ceived, or become due for the fame.
Commijfion account. Which contains on the Cr. ar¬
ticles of gain received or owing us for our trouble in
tranfadling bufinefs for others. There are feldom any
entries on the Dr.
Charges merchandize. Which contains on the Dr.
all charges paid or incurred on the bufinefs, which do
i24:
BOOK-KEEPING.
not belong to any particular account, as fhop-rent,
public burdens for trade, clerks wages, poftages, and
the like. If any of thefe fhould afterwards be charged
to fome other account, the fum fo charged is entered
on the Cr.
Proper expences. Which contains on the Dr. money
or any thing elfe, withdrawn from the trade for our
private ufe. There are feldom any entries on the Cr.
The amount of this account, as well as the former, is
not properly lofs; but as it has the fame effeft in dimi-
nilhing the ftock, it is placed in the fame manner to
the Dr. of profit and lofs.
Lofs by bad debts. Which contains on the Dr. fuch
debts as we reckon defperate ; and on the Cr. any of
thefe which may happen to be unexpeftedly recovered.
Account of abatements, Which contains on the Dr.
difcounts allowed by us on payments received ; on the
Cr. difcounts (if any) allowed to us on payments made.
It is particularly ufeful in retail bufinefs, where dif¬
counts are often given, to fhew how much they amount
to.
Infurance account. Which contains on the Cr. pre¬
miums received for making infurances ; and, on the Dr.
Ioffes fuftained on the fame. There may be feveral ac¬
counts of this kind, fuch as infurance againft fea hazard,
which is the moft common ; infurance againft fire ; in¬
furance of lives ; and infurance of debts. The balance
(hows the gain or lofs which arifes from being con¬
cerned in infurance.
More or fewer of thefe accounts may be ufed, ac¬
cording as the articles are frequent; and others may
be invented to fuit the purpofes of the bufinefs which
the books are kept for.
14. Every fimple tranfa&ion in bufinefs belongs to
two accounts, and muft be entered on the Dr. of the
one, and on the Cr. of the other. Thus, when a per-
fon becomes indebted to us, the article he owes muft
be entered on the Dr. of his account; and, ifitbefor
money paid him, it is alfo entered on the Cr. of ca(h ;
if for goods fold, it is entered on the Cr. of the account
of goods ; if for any thing delivered him by another
perfon at our defire, it is entered on the Cr. of the de¬
liverer’s account ; if for any wager or bargain, by
which we are gainers, it is entered on the Cr. of pro¬
fit and lofs. Thus, in whatever way the debt arifes,
it is entered on the Cr. of fome other account, as well
as on the Dr. of the perfons account who owes it.
In like manner, when we become indebted to any
perfon, the article we owe muft be entered on the Cr.
of his account. If it be for money received, it is alfo
entered on the Dr. of ca(h ; if for goods bought, it is
entered on the Dr. of the account of goods ; if for any
thing delivered to. another perfori at our defire, it is
entered to the Dr. of the receiver’s account; and if it
be in confequence of a lofing bargain, it is entered on
the Dr. of profit and lofs.
Again, when goods are received, the tranfa&ion is
entered on the Dr. of the account of goods. If they
be bought for ready money, it is alfo entered oh the
Cr. of cadi; if on truft, it is entered on the Cr. of the
feller ; if they be exchanged for other goods, it is en¬
tered on the Cr. of the goods delivered; if they be
obtained by fome profitable bufmefs, without any re¬
turn, it is entered on the Cr. of profit and lofs.
When goods are delivered, the tranfa&ion is entered
on the Cr. of the account of goods; and, if they be
fold for ready money, it is alfo entered on the Dr. of
cafti; if on credit, it is entered on the Dr. of the pur-
chafer ; if exchanged for other goods, it is entered on
the Dr. of the goods received; and, if they be given
gratis, or deftroyed, it is entered on the Dr. of profit
and lofs.
Laftly, When any article of lofs occurs, the tran-
fa&ion is entered on the Dr. of profit and lofs; and as
we muft either pay it in money or goods, or remain
indebted to fome perfon for it, it muft be entered on
the Cr. of cafti, or of goods delivered, or of the per¬
fon intitled to receive it. And, when an article of
gain occurs, it is entered on the Cr. of profit and lofs,
and alfo on the Dr. of cafti or goods, if money or
goods be received ; and on the Dr. of the perfon ac¬
countable for it, if not immediately paid.
Thus, every article in any account, whether perfonal
or real, or belonging to profit and lofs, correfponds
to fome other article on the oppofite of a different ac¬
count. The fame fum is entered on the Dr. of one
account, and on the Cr. of the other; and it follows
from this, that. If all the accounts in the leger be ad¬
ded, the amount of the fums of the Dr. mill be equal to
thofe of the Cr.
Se£t. III. Journal.
15. The journal is a fair record of all the tranfac-
tions compiled from the wafte-book, in the fame order
as they (land there; but expreffed in a technical ftile,
that it may be transferred to the leger with more eafe.
When we are to enter any article in the journal, we
muft confidcr which accounts in the leger it will re¬
quire to be placed to, both on the Dr. and Cr. and
write [the'former account'] Dr. to [the latter account] ;
then we annex an explanation of the article, and place
the fum in the money column.
Example.
Wafte-book.) Sold for ready money, 30 yards li¬
nen, at 3s L410 —
Journal.) Cafh Dr. to Linen. Sold 30 yards, at 3 s
L 4 10 —
Here we confider, that the article muft be entered
on the Dr. of cafti, becaufe money is received ; and on
the Cr. of linen, becaufe linen is delivered : Therefore
we write Cafh Dr. to Linen, to which we annex the
nature of the tranfaftion. The article thus entered
is called a journal-pojl; Cajh is called the Dr.; Linen
the Cr.; the words “ Cafh Dr. to Linen,” the Entry,
and the following words the Narration.
The purpofe of expreffing the article in this form,
is to point ont the accounts in the leger, -to which it
will require to be pofted, and thereby enable the ac¬
countant to write the leger with, more eafe than he
could do if it were filled up immediately from the wafte-
book.
The learner will be able, from this example, to en¬
ter any fimple article in the journal, providing he know*
the accounts to which it ftiould be pofted on the Dr.
and Cr. of the leger. This muft be colle&ed from
the defcription of the ledger accounts already given,
$6—13. and the nature and tendency of the article.
7 S 2 16. Ge-
1248
BOOK-KEEPING.
16. General Rules for //;<? Journal-entries.
I. Every thing received, or perfon accountable to us,
is Dr.
II. Every thing delivered, or perfon to whom we are
accountable, is Cr.
17. As the whole art of writing the journal depends
on a proper ehoice of the Drs. and Crs. we (hall give
fome particular rules for the moll common cafes, and
a few examples for the illuftration and pra6tice of each.
Rule I. The perfon to whom any thing is delivered is
Dr. to the thing delivered, when nothing is received in
return.
Therefore when money is paid, the receiver is Dr.
to calh.
When goods or other property is fold on credit, the
purchafer is Dr. to the thing fold. Thus,
they are Dr. to Cafh ; if any thing elfe be delivered, they
are Dr. to the thing delivered; if the charge be taken
on truft, they are Df. to the perfon to whom it is due.
Thus,
Wafte-book.) Paid for repairs to fhip
Traffick,
Journal.) Ship Traffick Dr. to Cajh, paid
for repairs,
Wafte-book.) Delivered wood from my
timber-yard for repairing the Angel-
tavern
Journal.) Angel-tavern Dr. to Wood, de¬
livered for repairing the fame
Wafte-book.) Due to William Carpen¬
ter for repairs to the Angel-tavern
Journal.) Angel-tavern Dr. to William
Carpenter, due him for repairs
L 18 
18 
12 
Wafte-book.) Paid John Bell in full L 52 
Journal.) John Bell Dr. to Cajh, paid
him in mil, - 52 
Wafte-book.) Sold 50 yards cloth to
J. Hill, at 12 s 30 
Journal.) J. Hill Dr.to Cloth, fold him
, jo yards, at 12 s 30 
18. Rule II. A thing received is Dr. to the perfon
from whom it is received, when nothing is delivered in
return.
Therefore, when money is received, Cafh is Dr. to
the payer : when goods are bought, the goods are Dr.
to the feller. Thus,
Wafte-book.) Received from Thomas Gay
in full L 72 
Journal.) Caffi Dr. to Thomas Gay, re¬
ceived in full - 72 
Wafte-book.) Bought from J. Hawley
60 tb. wool, at 9 d 2 J ——
Journal.) Wool Dr. to J. Hawley, bought
60 lb. at 9 d 2 5 —
19. Rule III. A thing received is Dr. to the thing
given for it.
Therefore goods bought for ready money are Dr. to
cafh.
When goods are fold for ready money, Cafh is Dr.
to the goods.
When goods are bartered, the goods received are
Dr. to the goods delivered. Thus,
Wafte-book.) Bought for ready money
lo hds. wine, at L 15 L. ijo — —-
Journal.) Wine Dr. to Cajh, bought
10 hds. at L 15 IJO 
Wafte-book.) Sold for ready money
100 gallons rum, at 9 s . 4J 
Journal.) Cajh Dr. to Rum, fold 100
gallons, at 9 s 4J 
Wafte-book.) Bartered 3 hds. wine,
at L 1 J, for too gallons rum, at 9 s 4J 
Journal.) Rum Dr. to Wine, received 100
gallons at 9 s in barter for 3 hds. at L 1J 4J 
20. Rule IV. Goods and other real accounts are Dr.
for all charges laid out on them. If money be laid out.
21. Rule V. When resits of houfes or lands, freights
of Jhips, bounties on goods, or any other profits from real
accounts, are received, Cajh is Dr. to the account from
which the profit arifes: if any thing bejides money be
received, the article received is Dr. : if they remain un¬
paid, the perfon who owes them is Dr. Thus,
Wafte-book.) Received freight of the
fhip Traffick for a voyage to London
Journal.) Ship Traffick Dr. to Cajh, re¬
ceived freight to London
Wafte-book.) Received 100 barrels fal-
mon, being the rent of Inver fifhery,
at J2 s
Journal.) Salmon Dr. to Inverfijhery, re¬
ceived the rent, being 100 barrels, at
J2S
Wafte-book.) John Public owes me a
year’s rent of the Angel-tavern
Journal.) John Public Dr. to Angel-ta¬
vern, for a year’s rent due by him
L 35 
3 5 
260 
260 
J2 
J 2 
22. Rule VI. When an article vf lofs occurs. Profit
and Lofs, or fome fubftdiary account, is Dr. If the lofs
be paid in ready money, it is Dr. to Cajh; if it be paid
in any thing elfe, it is Dr. to the thing delivered. If it
remain unpaid, it is Dr. to the perfon to whom it is owing.
Thus,
Wafte-book.) Given my daughter at her
marriage L. $00 .
Journal.) Profit and Lofs Dr. to Cajh,
given my daughter at her marriage yoo ■
Wafte-book.) Taken for family ufe from
my granary 3 bolls meal, ati3s4d 2-
Journal.) Profit and Lofs [or Proper
expences~\ Dr. to Meal, taken for fa¬
mily ufe 3 bolls, at 13 s 4ft 2 •
Wafte-book.) Due James Rich for a
year’s intereft on L. 1000, at ^percent 40 •
Journal.) Profit and Lofs [or Interejl
account] Dr. to James Rich, due him
ayear’sintereftonL. \QCiOZ.t\percent. 40 ■
23. Rule VII. When an article of gain occurs, that is
not immediately conneded with any real account, Cajh,
the article received, or the perfon accountable for it, is
Dr. to Profit and Lofs, or to fome fubfidiary account.
Thus,
BOOK-KEEPING.
Thus,
Wafte-book. ) Received in a gift from
my father, L loo ■
Journal.) Ca(h Dr. to Profit and Lofs,
received from my father too ■
Wafte-book.) Received in like manner
at opening/hop, i oo yards cloth at 12 s 60 ■
Journal.) Cloth Dr. to Profit and Lofs,
received from my father at opening
fhop xooyards, at 12 s 60 -
Wafte-book.) James Barbour owes me
a year’s intereft of L. IOOO JO -
Journal.) James Barhour Dr. to Profit
and Lofs [or Interefi account'] due by
him for a year’s intereft of L. 1000 jo -
24. Rule VIII. When one perfon pays money, or de¬
livers any thing elfe to another on our account, the
perfon nuho receives it is Dr. to the perfon ‘who pays
it. Thus,
Wafte-book.) James Goldfmith haspaid
the bank of Scotland on my account L 100 
Journal.) Bank of Scotland Dr. to James
Goldfmith, paid them by him 100 -■
Wafte-book.) Arthur Young has deli¬
vered James Baker 100 quarters wheat,
for which I am to account to him,
at 30 s 150 
Journal.) J'ames Baker Dr. to Arthur
Toung, for too quarters wheat deli¬
vered him on my account, at 30 s 150 
Payments of this kind are often tranfafted by bills
of exchange.
25. Thefe examples will make the learner acquainted
with the form of the journal, and the rules extend to
the greateft part of the Ample tranfaftions that occur
in domeftic trade. We may obferve, that the technical
fenfe of the words Dr. and Cr. has an analogy to their
meaning in common language, but is not precifely the
fame. Thus, in A'x. 1. Rule VIII. the journal-entry
. is, Bank of Scotland Dr. to James Goldfmith; by
which we are not to underftand that the bank is in¬
debted to James Goldfmith ; for a debt between them
has no conne&ion with our bufinefs; and therefore
ought not to be entered in our books : the meaning of
the entry is, that the bank becomes indebted to us by
the tranfa&ions narrated; and that we become indebted
to James Goldfmith by the fame.
the journal by Rule I. they would Hand thus:
William Drapier Dr. to Cloth, fold him
25 pieces, at L. 15 - - L 375 
William Drapier Dr. to Wool, fold him
150 itones, atjs6d - - SJtJ —
And if thefe were polled to the leger, there would
be two articles placed to the Dr. of William Drapier,
one to the Cr. of Cloth, and one to the Cr. of Wool.
. But the falcs may be entered in the form of one com¬
plex journal poll, as follows :
William Drapier Dr. to Sundries,
To Cloth, for 25 pieces,
at L. iy - L 375 
To Wool, for 130 (tones,
atjs6d - - 3515 —
  L410 rj —
And then there is only one article on the Dr. of William
Drapier in the leger.
Ex. 2.] Sold 10 piecescloth to W. Drapier,
at L 15 L 150 
12 ditto to J.
Mercer, at do 180 — —
22
This example alfo falls under Rule I. But whereas
there was one Dr. and two Crs. in the former example,
there are two Drs. and one Cr. in this : William Dra¬
pier and John Mercer, the purchafers, are Drs. for
their refpedtive quantities; and cloth, which is the
only thing delivered, is Cr. for the whole quantity.
The journal poll is,
Sundries Drs. to Cloth,
W. Drapier, for I o pieces, at 151.
L ijo 
J. Mercer, for 12 ditto at 151. 180 
— L33° 
22
Ex.^.] Bought from H. Hood,
5 puncheons rum, at L 42, L210 
3 hds. claret, at 33, 99 
2 pipes madeira, at 56, 112 
 L 421 
This example falls under Rule II. The articles re¬
ceived, rum, claret, and madeira, are Drs.; and the
perfon from whom they are received is the only Cr.
Sundries Dr. to Henry Hood,
i?M«,for5puncheons, 3142!. L210 
Claret, for 3 hds. at*33, 99 
Madeira, for 2 pipes, at 56, 112 — -—
 L 421 
26. An article which contains more Drs. or more
Crs. than one, is called a complex pojl. The form of
thefe will appear from the following examples*
Ex. 1.] Sold William Drapier,
2J pieces cloth, at L. ij
per piece L. 375 
130 (tones wool, at 5 s 6d
per (lone - - 35 *5 —
   L 410 15 —
If the two articles fold to William Drapier were en¬
tered feparateJy in the wafte-book, and transferred to
jEx.4.] Bt. JO qrs. wheat from J.
Tulhatjjs L&7 iQ.—
rzfromS.Ellis, 36s 2112 —
—  L 109 2 —
This example alfo falls under Rule II. There is only
one Dr. wheat being the only thing received ; arid two
Crs. becaufe it is received from different perfons.
Wheat Dr. to Sundries.
To J. Tull, for 50 qrs. 313531.87 10 —
To £.£///’r, for 12 qrs. 36 s 21 12 —
—    L109 2 —
62
125°
BOOK-KEEPING.
In like manner, examples might be given of complex
pods under every rule, which contained either feveral
Drs. or feveral Crs.; but, as it is unneceffary to en¬
large fo far, we fhall only add a few examples of cafes,
in which the different parts of the complex article fall
tinder different rules.
Ex. 5.3 Sold150 qrs. beans to A. Arnot,
ati3S4d L. 100 
75 ditto to S. Berry,
at 13 s 4d 30 
18 ditto, for ready
money, ijszd 1117 —
243 L. 16117—
Here beans are delivered, fome to different purchafers
on truft, and fome for ready money. The purchafers
are Drs. for the quantities fold to each, by Rule I.;
Cafh is Dr. for the quantity fold for ready money, by
Rule III.; and beans are Cr. for the whole.
Sundries Dr. to Beans.
A.Armtioxi^O(\r%.2X 13s 4d L 100 
S. Berry, for 75 13 s 4d 50 
Cajh, for 18 13s 2d 11 17 —
 L161 17 —
Ex. 6.] Bought from David Young
8 cwt. 3 qrs. copper, at L. 12 per
cwt. L 105 —
Paid in part, L. 50 
Balance, 55 
 L 105   
Here the article received, copper, is the only Dr.;
but, as it is bought partly for ready money, and partly
on credit, it is Dr. to Cafh for the value of the former,
by Rule III. and to the feller for the value of the latter,
by Rule II.
Copper Dr. to Sundries,
For 8 cwt. 0. qrs. at L. 12 per
cwt. - L. 105 
To Cajh in part, L. 50 
ToD. 2oa^,forbalanceduehim, 55 
Ex. 7.3 James Willfon being bankrupt, I have ac¬
cepted a compofition on the debt due by him to me of
L. 150, and difcharged the fame. -
The compofition received, at 15 s
per L, is, L 112 10 —
And the balance loft 3710 —
Here the whole debt of L. 150, due by James Wil-
fon, is cancelled* and he muft therefore be ftate'd as
Cr. for that fum. Cafh is Dr. for the fum received, by
Rule II.; and Profit and Lofs, or Lofs by bad debts,
for the reft, by Rule VI.
Sundries Dr. to Tames Wilfon,
Cajh, for compt. on L. 150,
atiys./erL. L. 112 10 ■—
Profit and Lofs, forbalanceloft 37 10 —
 L.150 
Ex. 8.3 Shipped for William Smith, per the Bonad-
?enture, Forbes, from Leith to London
1000 yds linen, at is 2d L. 58 6 8
600 tb leather, bought
from J. Currier, at 1 s 30 
Paid charges at flipping — 13 4
 L.89 
Here William Smith is Dr. for the amount of the
cargo ; he is debtor to Linen for the quantity delivered,
as by Rule I. and to J. Currier for the leather delivered
by him, by Rule VIII. and to Cafh for the charges
paid by us, by Rule I.
William Smith Dr. to Sundries,
To Linen, for 1000 yards,
at 1 s 2d L. 58 6 8
To J. Currier, for 600 lb.
leather, at 1 s 30 
To Cajh, for charges at fhip-
ping — I3 4
Shipped per the Bonad-
venture, Forbes, from
Leith to London. —    L. 89  
27. The learner may be afiifted in underftanding
thefe and other complex pofts, by refolving them into
fimpleones. Moft of them might have been ftated in
that manner; and the complex form is only preferred,
for abridging the leger. In fome articles, the diffe¬
rent claufes are fo conne&ed, that they cannot be fe-
parated with propriety.
The narration is fometimes equally diffufed through
the poft, after the Dr. and Cr. as in the five firft exam¬
ples. Sometimes the chief circumftances are narrated
before the Drs. or Crs. be fpecified, as in Ex. 6.; fome¬
times after the firft, as in Ex. 7.; and fometimes at the
end, as in Ex. 8.
28. In fome articles, there are both more Drs. and
more Crs. than one. Thefe may be entered in one
journal-poft, Sundries Dr. to Sundries, fpecifying firft
the Drs. and then the Crs. But, as this method is
fomewhat confufed, we would recommend it, as a
better way, to divide the tranfaftion into two journal-
pofts ; fo that the firft may contain only one Dr. and
the fecond only one Cr.
Ex. Bartered with James Fo-
theringal 100 pieces ofna-
burgs, at 12 s L. 60 
100 lb thread, at 3 s 6 d 17 10 —
For 10 hds lintfeed, at 50 s L. 25 
50oydslinen,at 1 s6d 37 10 —
And received the ba¬
lance in money 15 
 L. 77*10 —
Journal. Sundries Dr. to Sundries.
Lintfeed, for 10 hhds at 50 s L25 
Linen, for 500yds, atis6d 37 10 —
Received in barter from J. Fo-
theringal
Cajh, for balance 15 
L. 77 10 —
To Ofnaburgs, for 100 pieces,
at 12 s L. 60 
7’u7Zre<7^,forioolbat3s 6d 17 10 —
Delivered him in barter —— L. 77 10 —
Or
1251
BOO K-K E
Or rather,
Sundries Dr. to James Fotheringal.
Lintfeed, for 10hds at50s L. 25 
Zzwtz, for 500yds, at is 6d 37 10 —
- Received in barter
Cfljbi received balance 15 
   L. 77 to —
James Fotheringal Dr. to Sundries.
To OfnahurgSy for 100 pieces,
at 12 s L. 60 
Ti? for 100 tb 313$ 6d 17 10 —
Delivered in barter L. 77 10 —
29. It is neither practicable nor neceflary to enume¬
rate all kinds of complex ports that may occur in bu-
fmefs. We (hall here only mention the entries which
occur at opening the books.
The firft journal-port contains the fubftance of the
inventory. The entry is Sundries Drs. to Stock ; the
particular Drs. are Ca(h, the different kinds of goods
and other property belonging to us, and the perfons in¬
debted to us.
The fecond journal-port contams the debts due by
us. The entry is, Stock Dr to Sundries ; the particular
Crs. are the perfons to whom we are indebted.
The form of thefe entries is more fully exhibited at
the beginning of the following fets.
' 30. The journal fliould be written by one perfon, in
a fair hand, and at leifure hours. The articles are fe-
parated, and the titles and dates marked in the fame
manner as in the wafte-book, $ 3. The entries are
written in half text, for ornament and diftinftion. In
the inventory, the defignation (or the bufinefs, ftation,
and place of refidence) of every perfon is mentioned ;
and the fame is done the firft time that any name oc¬
curs in journal-entry. At other times, it is fufficient
to enter the name without the defignation, unlefs we
have dealings with two perfons of the fame name; in
which cafe, it is always neceffary to annex the defigna¬
tion, in order to diftinguilh them. The narration
fliould be complete, without referring to the wafte-
book ; and fo clear, that every perfon, acquainted with
the ftile of the journal, may underftand it with eafe.
When the port is written, we mark a dalh / againft
the article, on the margin of the wafte-book, to (how
how far the writing of the journal is advanced.
SeCl. IV. Of Posting and Balancing the
Leger.
31. The firrt thing to be done in the ledger, is to
allot a proper fpace for each account. The accounts
may be either opened in the fame order that they occur
in the journal; or accounts of the fame kind may be
placed together, the perfonal accounts on one part of
the leger, and the real accounts in another. The ac¬
counts of Stock, and Profit and Lofs, are generally
placed at the beginning. The room which each will
require cannot be exaftly known, but muft be conjec¬
tured from the number of tranfa&ions that are likely
to follow.
The number of the folio is marked in ftrong text at
each corner of the top-line ; and the titles of the ac¬
counts are written in fair text through both folio’s, if
neceffary. The defignations of the perfonal accounts
may be written on half text, or Italian hand; and feme
E P I N G.
write the titles in Saxon hand, for ornament. The
word Dr. is prefixed to the title on the left-hand page;
and Contra Cr. annexed to it on the right-hand page.
32. Next, An Index muft be provided,'for pointing-
out the folio’s where the accounts are opened. The
titles of the accounts are entered alphabetically in the
index, and the number of the folio annexed. Perfonal
accounts are entered by the firft letter of the firname ;
companies, by the firft letter of the firname of the firft
partner ; and all other accounts, by the firft letter of
the firft word. The moft convenient kind of index is
a long narrow book, of 24 leaves, one for each letter
of the alphabet. A is marked on the top of the firft
leaf, and the paper pared away below it; B is marked
on the fecond leaf, under A ; and the other letters on
the following leaves, in the fame manner ; by means
of which we can turn at once to any letter required.
33. In polling the leger, proceed by the following
diredlions. Firft, look for the Dr. of the journal-poft
in the index, under the proper letter, and this dire<fts
you to the folio of the leger where the account is, if
it be already opened : if not, you muft allot a fpace for
it, write the title, and enter it in the index. Then en¬
ter the article on the left-hand page of the account
under the title, or the former article, by writing the
date on the margin, and the name of the creditor on
the line, with the word To prefixed, and a fhort narra¬
tion of the tranfaftion annexed, and infecting the fum
in the money-column, and the quantity, if it be an ac¬
count of goods, in the inner column. Then turn to
the account of the Cr. of the journal-poft, and enter
the article in the right-hand page, prefixing the word
By to the name of the Dr.
34. This being done, turn to the journal, and mark
on the margin the number of the folio’s to which the
article is polled. The figures which point out the re¬
ference to the Dr. and Cr. folio’s Ihould be feparated
by a line : for example, If the Dr. entry be on the
third folio, and the Cr. entry on the fifth, the reference
is marked j-. Thefe figures Ihow how far the polling
is advanced, andareufeful in comparing the books.
The figures for dates or references Ihould be written
in a lighter hand than the figures in the columns for
money or quantity.
35. There is often a reference-column ruled in- the.
leger, for pointing out the other entry, correfponding^
to any article. In this column, the folio of the Cr.
entry is marked againft the Dr. article, and the folio
of the Dr. entry againft the Cr. article.
Sometimes the accounts are numbered according to
their order in the leger ; and the references, both in
the journal and leger, point out the number of the
account inftead of the folio.
36. In complex polls, turn to the feveral Drs. or
Crs. in their order, and enter the articles according to
the foregoing dire&ions ; placing the fums belonging
to each in the money-column, againft the refpedlive
entries.
37. An article in the leger is generally comprehend¬
ed in one line. The narration Ihould be as full as can
be contained in that bounds. If it cannot be narrated
completely, the journal is referred to for further par¬
ticulars, by writing f>er Journal, (or />. J.), either af¬
ter an incomplete narration, or immediately after the
Dr. or Cr. when there is no room for a proper narra¬
tion..
12,-2
BOOK-KEEPING.
tion. In complex pods, there can feldom be any nar¬
ration annexed to the fingle Dr. or the fingle Cr. The
entry is generally To Sundries per J. or, By Sundries
per jf. If the fenfe of the whole article can be nar¬
rated, it (hould be done ; but it is improper to narrate
the firft or any other part of the article, and omit the
others.
38. When the fpace allotted for an account in the
leger is filled up, the account muft be tranfported to
another folio. For this purpofe, add the columns on
both fides, and write againft the fum, Tranfported to
folio , inferting the number of the folio where the
new account is opened, in the reference-column, or on
the line, if no reference-column be ufed. Then, after
titling the new account, and entering the number of the
folio in the index, write on the Dr. To amount, brought
from folio , inferting the number of the folio where
the old account was ; and on the Cr. By amount brought
from folio ; and place the fums, and quantities, if
any, in the proper columns.
When either fide of an account is full, both fides
fhould be tranfported, and diagonal lines drawn, to
fill up the vacant fpace of the fide which requires it.
39. The books fhould be written up as frequently as
can be done conveniently ; fo that the journal may keep
pace nearly with the wafte-book, and the leger with
the journal. Each book fhould be carefully revifed,
and compared with the book from which it is pofted.
In comparing the leger, obferve the following direc¬
tions :
Begin with the firft journal-poft, and turn to the fo¬
lio’ of the leger where the Dr. is entered, which you
are diredled to by the marginal reference, and compare
the date, entry, and fum. If you find them to cor-
refpond, it is well; if not, the leger muft be altered,
till it correfpond with the journal. Then place a dot
before the reference-figure in the journal, and a mark
A before the fum in the leger.
Proceed in the fame manner to compare the Cr. of
the journal-poft, and all the following pofts in their
order. The dots in the journal fhow how far the com-
parifon is advanced, and the marks in the leger fhow
what articles are compared.
The fums of accounts tranfported fhould be left
blank till the books be compared ; as an error in any
article will occafion an alteration in the fum.
40. Some accountants corrcft all errors in the le¬
ger, without crazing any thing, by the following me¬
thods : 1 ft, If the fum be entered too fmall, they make
a fecond entry for the deficiency. 2d, If it be entered
too large, they make an entry on the oppofite fide for
the excefs. 3d, If it be entered on the wrong fide of
the account, they enter it twice on the other; once, to
counterbalance the error, and a fecond time for the true
entry. 4th, If it be entered on a wrong account, they
charge the wrong account Dr. to, or Cr. by, the right
ene.
41. We do not much approve of thefe methods, as
they give the books a confufed appearance; and would
rather recommend the following rules: ift, If an ar¬
ticle be omitted, do not attempt to interline at the
place where it fhould have been; but infert it under the
laft article when you difeover the omiffion, and mark
a crofs X againft it on the margin, and another at the
place where it (hould have been. 2d, If you difeover
a miftake immediately when committed, correft it with¬
out cancelling any thing, as in this example. To Cafh,
fay. To James Speirs received to account. 3d, If you
have written a line entirely wrong, or in a wrong place,
write the word Error at the end, prefix a crofs, and
omit or cancel the fum. 4th, Cancel errors, by draw¬
ing a line lightly through them, fo that the old wri¬
ting may ftill be legible; by which it will be evident,
that the book has not been vitiated for a fraudulent
purpofe. The fame method fhould be followed in cor-
refting errors in the journal.
42. When the comparifon of the books is finifhed,
glance over the leger, to obferve if the mark of com¬
parifon be affixed to every article. If not, you muft
turn to the journal, and obferve if the articles be right
which had not been marked.
43. Becaufe the whole fum of the Dr. fide of the
leger fhould be equal to the whole fum of the Cr. $ 14.
it is proper to try if they correfpond. For this pur¬
pofe, you may add the Dr. of every account, except
fuch as are already balanced, placing the fums in an in¬
ner column, and extending them at the end of one or
more folio’s, as you find moft convenient, to the outer
column; and, as you go along, add the Cr. in the fame
manner. If the fum total of both fides be equal, it
gives a prefumption that the books are right; if thev
differ, there is certainly fome miftake. This is called
the Trial-balance. The labour beftowed upon it is not
loft, as the fums may be referved for affifting us to col-
left the balances; the method of which will be ex¬
plained afterwards.
44. If the fums of the trial-balance do not corre¬
fpond, the books muft be examined again. For this
purpofe, begin with the firft article on the Dr. fide of
the firft account, and turn to the account where the
correfponding entry is, .which you will find by the fi¬
gure in the reference-column. If the articles agree,
mark them with a dot. Proceed in like manner with
the other articles on the Dr. of the firft account; then
with the articles on the Cr. of the fame; and then with
the following accounts in their order, till the error or
errors be difeovered. In complex entries, obferve if
the amount of the fums on one fide be equal to the fum
on the other. When you come to a dotted article, you
may pafs it by, becaufe it has been examined already.
If the errors be not difeovered at the firft revifal, you
muft repeat the fame operation again, till you bring the
books to balance. Marks different from the former
ones, or differently placed, may be ufed, to fignify that
an article has been examined a fecond or a third time.
As the deteftion of errors is the moft tedious and dif-
agreeable part of book-keeping, the accountant will
be induced to guard againft them with all poffible care,
when he has once experienced the trouble which they
occafion.
45. Before we explain the method of balancing the
books, it will be proper to direft the learner how to
balance particular accounts. When we fettle accounts
with any perfon, and afeertain how much is owing at
either hand, it is neceffary to balance his account in
the leger, and open a new one, beginning with the
fum that was due according to the fettlement; and
when we clear accounts again, we muft go back to that
article, and no farther.
If any articles be charged on either fide, at the time
of
1253
B O O K - K
of fettling, they muft be immediately entered on the
wafte-book; from which they will pafs in courfe to the
journal and leger; and a remark muft; be entered in
the wafte-book, that the account was fettled, and the
balance transferred to the proper tide of the new ac¬
count. This remark is tranfcribed in the journal;
and the leger account is balanced, when it occurs, in
the courfe of polling.
If the balance be due to you, write on the Cr. By
balance due by him to Dr. new account, and infert the
fum due you; after which, the amount of both fides
will be equal. Add the account, placing the fums op-
polite to each other; and, if the fides be unequal, draw
a diagonal line through the vacant fpace of the Ihorter
fide, and clofe the old account by drawing lines under
the fums. Then open the new account immediately
under the old one, or in a new folio if the old one be
full, by writing on the Dr. To balance of former ac¬
count due by him. If the balance be due by you to
him, the entries are made on the oppofite fides, with
the necelfary alterations. When the new account is
opened in the fame folio, it is unneceflary to repeat the
title; but the year and month, as well as the day, are
repeated at the date of the firll article.
46. Sometimes when an account is balanced, one or
more articles are left out on purpofe: For example,
goods lately bought on credit may be left out, and the
fettlement may only relate to articles of longer Hand¬
ing. When this is the cafe, if the articles omitted be
on the Dr. of the leger, we write on the Cr. thus.
By articles fold him fmce if January replaced: and
when we have balanced the account, and opened a new
one, we write on the Dr. To articles replaced at fettling,
furrtijhed fince if January: or, if the articles were
left out for any other reafon, we explain the fame in
the narration. If the omitted articles be on the Cr. the
like entries are made on the oppofite fides. It ftiould
be noticed in the wafte-book and journal when this o-
peration is neceffary.
47. When we poft any common article from the
journal, we enter the fum on the Dr. of one account,
and on the Cr. of another: when we balance an ac¬
count, we place the balance fum on the Dr. of the old
account, and on the Cr. of the new one, or contrary-
wife : and when we replace an article, as above direcfted,
to the Dr. or Cr. of the old account, we place it after
balancing to the Cr. or Dr. of the new one. Thus, in
thefe entries, as well as in common polls, there are like
fums entered on the Dr. and Cr. of the leger, and the
general equality of the fides is Hill preferved.
48. Merchants generally balance their books once a-
year. The defign of this operation is, to colledl the
various branches of their bufinefs, diffufed through the
books, into a concife abftract; to afcertain their gain
or lofs fince the laft balance ; and exhibit the prefent
ftate of their funds. If the bufinefs be of fuch a kind,
that moll of the branches naturally come to an iffue at
a certain time of year, that time is the proper one for
making the balance. Otherwife the end of the year,
or the leaft bufy time, may be chofen.
49. It is proper, bfefore balancing, to fettle as many
perfonal accounts as poffible ; to clear all arrears and
fmall charges; to take an exa& inventory of the goods
on hand, as far as can be done ; and affix a moderate
value to each article, according to the current prices at
Voi. II.
i E P I N G,
the time ; fuch a value as you would be willing at pre¬
fent to buy for. It is more proper to value the goods
on hand in conformity to the current prices, than at
prime coft : for the defign of affixing any value is to
point out the gain or lofs, and the gain is in reality
obtained, fo foon as the prices rife, or the lofs fuffered
fo foon as they fall; therefore it is impoffible to make
up a juft ftate of the affairs, unlefs the prefent prices
be attended to.
50. Thefe things being done, proceed to make the
balance as follows: Prepare two Iheets of paper, ruled
with money-columns, in the form of Dr. and Cr.; write
Poofit and Lofs as the title of the firlt, and Balance as
the title of the fecond.
Prepare alfo fome paper for computing the balances,
and mark down the folios, titles, and fums of each ac¬
count in the leger, in a regular order. If a trial-ba¬
lance was made, the fums may be tranfcribed from it.
Pafs by fuch accounts as are already clofed; alfo the
accounts of Stock and Profit and Lofs, which are al¬
ways the laft of being balanced. Then fubtraft the
leffer fum from the greater, and enter the difference on '
either of the ftieets that the nature of the article points
out, and oq the fide of that fheet which correfponds to
the greater fum of the account. More particularly.
In perfonal accounts, enter the difference, which is
the debt owing to you, or by you, on the proper fide
of the balance-ffieet.
In the calh-account, enter the difference, which is the
money in hand, on the Dr. fide of the balance-ftieet.
In accounts of goods or other property, if there be
nothing remaining on hand, enter the difference, which
is the gain or lofs, on the proper fide of the profit and
lofs fheet.
If the whole be ftill on hand, enter the prefent value
on the Dr. of the balance-fheet; and, if this be dif¬
ferent from the prime coft, charges included, enter the
difference in the proper fide of the profit and lofs fheet.
If part be fold, and part on hand, place the value
of the quantity on hand under the fum of the Cr. and
add them. The fum is the whole return that will be
obtained, if the reft of the goods be fold at the efti-
mated value ; and this, being compared with the fum
of the Dr. which is the whole expence, fhowsthe gain
or lofs. Enter the fame in the proper fide of the pro¬
fit and lofs fheet, and enter the quantity and value on
hand on the Dr. of the balance-fheet.
Obferve if the quantities in the inner columns be e-
qual on both fides, when the goods are all fold ; or, if
the difference, when only part is fold, be equal to the
quantity in hand. If they correfpond, you have a juft
account of the goods. If the Dr. be greater, there is
fomething amiffing, which you muft enter on the Dr.
of the balance-fheet, and mark the caufe of the defi¬
ciency, as inlake, wafte, or the like. If the Cr. be
greater, there is an excefs, which you muft enter on the
Cr. of the balance-fheet, together with the occafion of
it, as difference of meafure, or the like.
In accounts fubfidiary to profit and lofs, enter the
difference on the proper fide of the profit and lofs fheet.
When there is nothing written on one fide of an ac¬
count, enter the fum of the article or articles on that
fheet which the kind of the account points out.
51. When you have colledled all the balances, fum
up both fheets, and add to the profit and lofs fheet the
7 T fums
,254
BOOK-KEEPING.
fums of t^ie profit and lofs account in the leger : then ken from the refpeftive fjdes of the balance-fheet.
fubtraft the leffer fum of each facet from the greater. 5 th, Profit and Lofs Dr. to Stock for nett gain ; or
This being done, mark the fums of the flock-account Stock Dr. to Profit and lofs, for nett lofs.
on your computation-paper, and add thereto the ba- 6th, Balance-account Dr. to Stock, for nett flock.
lance of the profit and lofs fheet, on the fide which cor- 55. When the four firfc of thefe articles are polled
refponds with the greater fum of that account : then in the leger, all the perfonal, real, and fubfidiary ac-
fubtraft the lefler fum from the greater. The remainder counts will balance, and you imay add them as you go
will be equal to the difference of the fides of the balance- along. In accounts of goods, if there be any deii-
fheet, if the books be right, and the balances exadlly ciency, you mufl enter it on the Cr. in the inner co-
colledted. lumn; and, if there be any outcome, you mull enter
52. We fhall prove that this equality mufl always it on the Dr. before you add the account. Then the
hold, from the nature of the articles collected. The fums of every account and every column on the oppo-
Dr. of the balance-fheet contains every kind of pro- file fides will be equal.
perty belonging to you, and every debt owing to you; The only accounts that remain open are, Profit and
and the Cr. contains every debt owing by you : there- Lofs, Stock, and Balance. The fifth port balances the
fore the difference of the fides (hows what your nett e- profit and lofs account, and the fixth balances the flock-
flate amounts to. The profit and lofs fheet, when the account. It was noticed, $ 14. that the whole fums
articles from the leger are included, contains every of Dr. and Cr. of the leger are equal; and therefore,
thing you have gained on the Cr. and every thing you if the fides of every account, except one, be balanced,
have loll on the Dr.; and the difference of the fides is that one will balance of its own accord. Thebalance-
your nett gain or lofs. The flock-account contained account alone remains open, and, upon trial, you will
your effedls and debts at the time the books were opened; find that the fides are equal. This affords an additional
and therefore, when the gain or lofs is added to the proof, or, at leafl, a different view, of what was de¬
proper fide, it mull fhow the extent of your nett eilate monflrated, with refpecl to the balance of the books,
at prefent. Thus the flock-account and the balance- in $ 52.
Iheet both point out how much you are worth at prefent; The lines above and under the fums, at a general
theone from yourformerflock, allowance beingmadefor balance, may be drawn with red ink ; and, attheba-
your gains or Ioffes; the otherfrom a viewofyourprefent lancing of particular accounts, with black ink, for di-
effedls and debts; and they will correfpond, becaufe both flindlion.
mufl be agreeable to the truth, if the books be corredl. 56. Some chufe to infert the particulars of the profit
53. Though the books mufl balance, if free from and lofs and balance fheets in the refpedtive accounts of
error, yet it is fometimes difficult to adjufl them ex- the leger. If this be done, it is unneceffary to enu-
adtly, efpecially when the bufinefs is extenfive, and the merate them alfo in the journal.—Some chufe to balance
error trifling. If there be flill a difference, which we the accounts of goods, whenever the quantity is fold
do not think it worth while to make further fearch for, off; and we approve of this method, as it leffens the
we may clofe the books, by making Profit and Lofs work at the general balance, which is always fufiiciently
Dr. or Gr. for the fame. This introduces an article on laborious.
one fide of the leger, which has none correfponding 57. Thus is the {late of a perfon’s affairs brought
to it on the other, but is balanced by fome undifeovered together, in a fhort compafs, under his view ; and the
error. articles of the balance-fheet fupply materials for a new
54. The balance being {truck, your next work is to inventory. It is convenient, however, to alter the or-
clofe the books. Every article in the leger fhould be der, and arrange the real accounts together, and the
pofted from the journal; therefore, the rnoft regular perfonal ones together.
wayr of finifhing both is by inferting the following ar- 58. It is not neceffary to begin new books, nor open
tides in the journal, and polling them in the common the accounts anew, unlefs the old folios be full. The
manner to the leger. accounts may be continued in the former folios ; but it
iff, Profit and Lofs Dr. to Sundries, for lofs, on the is bell to begin a new leger, if the old one be not
following accounts. The particulars are taken from likely to hold all the bufinefs of the next year. When
the Dr. of the Profit and Lofs fheet. one comes to have feveral fets of books, it is common
2d, Sundries Dr. to Profit and lofs, for gain, on the to diftinguifh them by the letters of the alphabet. The
following accounts. The particulars are taken from the firft watte-book, journal, and leger, are marked A,
Cr. of the Profit and Lofs fheet. the fecond, B ; and fa on.
3d, Balance-account Dr. to Sundries, for debts and In the following fpecimen, the wafte-book andjour-
property belonging to me. nal are placed on oppofite pages,, that the learner may
4th, Sundries Dr. to Balance-account, for debts due eafily compare them ; and the rules are referred to by
by me. The particulars of this and the former are ta- their numbers.
WASTE-
INVENTORY of ready money, goods, and debts^
belongingtojames Oiwald merchant in Edinburgh.
Ready money - L 75 to —
200 bolls meal, at 13 s L 130 —
:6 hds. Port wine, at L 15 90 —
bo reams paper, at 10 s 6d 36 15
120 fp. five hank yarn, at
3d 13 10
  270 5 —
A houfe in Lawn-market Edin. value 300 —
James Bofwell merch. Edin.
owes per account L 73
Thomas Pirie writer Edin.
owes per d° 12
Henry Hardy merch. Glaf-
gow per bill 75 —
David Miller manufa&urer
To the Royal Bank per account L 230 —
To Tho. Smith merchant London per d° 54 
To Will. Nilbet carpenter Leith per d° 28 7 3
B O O K-K
(1) WASTE-BOOK.
Edinburgh, I. 1774-
E E P
4 —
3 8
Haddington per receipt 18 — -
§ 29
178 7
824
LIST of debts by the faid James Ofwald.
§ 29
 3.—
Bought for ready money 105 yards calicoe, at 3 s 2 d
b Rule III.
Sold James Cuthbert merchant Leith 50 bolls meal,
at 13 s 3 d
Rule I.
■5-
Bartered 60 fpindles five hank yar
yards diaper, at 1 s 9 d
Rule III.
t 2 s 4 d, for 80
Paid William Nilbet in full
Rule I.
3>-
Bought from Will. Bruce merchant
Leith, 200 bufhels fait, at 1 s 8 d L 16 13 4
320 Hone iron, at3S4d 53 6 8
Rule II.
 15.-
Sold 30 rms paper to Ja. Bofwell, at 12 s L 18 
12 to John Henderfon ftationer
Edinburgh, at 12 s 7 4 —
5 for ready money, at 11 s 2 15
Rules I. III.
Sold Will. Hunter merchant Dunbar
i5obufh. fait, at is 9d, L 13 : 2 : 6
Received in part - L 10 -
And he owes the balance - 3
Rules I. HI.
75
ajh on hand - L
Meal. ForJ20obolls,ati3SL130 
Forfihds.atLiy 90 — —
Paper. For 70 rms, at ios6d 36 15 —-
Tarn. For i2ofp. five hank,
at 233d —
Houfe in Lawn-market Edin. value 300 
fa.Bofwellvixtr. Ed.perac. L73 4 —
Tho. Pirie writer Ed. per d° 12 3 8
Henry Hardy merchant Glaf-
gow per bill - 75 — —
David Miller manufa&urer
Haddington, per receipt 18   
7^ per account L 230 —
To Tho. Stnith merch. London peracc. 54 —
carpenter Leith per d0. 28 7 5
I N G.
J O U R N A L-
Edinburgh, January x. 1774.
1255
(0
Sundries Dr. to Stock for articles belonging to James
Ofwald merchant Edinburgh.
824
Stock Dr. to Sundries.
Calicoe Dr. to Cajh. Bought 105 yards, at 3 s 2 d
fames Cuthbert merchant Leith, Dr. to Meal, fold
50 bolls, at 13 s 3 d
Diaper Dr to Tarn. Delivered 60 fp. five hank i
barter for 80 yards, at x s 9 d
William Nijbet Dr. to Cajh. Paid him in full
Sundries Drs. to William Bruce merchant Leith
Salt. For 200 bufhels, atxs8d L 16 13 4
Iron. For 320 ftones, at3S4d 53 6 8
-15—
Sundries Drs to Paper.
'James Bofwell, for 30 rms, at 12 s L 18 — —
John Henderfon (lationer
Edinburgh, for 12 x 2 s 7 4 —
Cajh. For - 5 ns 215-
Sundries Drs to Saltfox xyobfli. at xs9d, L13 2 6
Cafh. Received in part - L 10 
William Hunter merchant Dunbar, for
balance due by him - 326
7T2
Edinburgh,
(2)
1256 B O O K-
(2) WASTE-BOOK.
Edinburgh, January 22. 1774.
KEEP
Paid the Royal Bank
Bought from Alex. Sharp merch. Dundee 500 fp.
four hank yarn, at is 1 id L47 184
Paid him in part . - L 15 — —
And the Balance due him is 32 18 4
Rules II. III.
Received 150 bolls meal, 13s 2d L 98 : 15 s, in bar¬
ter for 6 hds. Port wine, at L 16 L 96 
Paid the balance - 2 15
Received from Henry Hardy in pay¬
ment of his bill - L 75 — -
And for intereft on do 2 io -
Rules II. VII.
Rule I.
-26.-
Edinburgh, iji February, 1774.
Sold James Bofwell
48 buih. fait, being the rem. at is. 8-yd. L 4 2 —
60 fp. five hank yarn, at 2s 3-Id 617 6
00 done iron, 3133 4|-d 16 17 6
Rule I.
-3-
Received from James Cuthbert in part
Rule II.
Bartered 22 reams paper, at 12s K 13 4-
30 bolls meal, 31133 6d 20 5 -
For 3344- fp. four hank yarn, at 2 s
Rule III.
L 33 9 —
Taken for the ufe of my fhop the remaining fream
paper, value
Rule VI.
Received from William Hunter in full L. 3 2 6
from James Bofwell in part 70 —
Paid the Royal Bank
Rule I
-19.-
Bartered 100 yards calicoes, at 3s 6d, L 17 : 10s
For one hhd. Port-wine
Received the balance
L14 10 —
3 —
Rule III.
Ca/h Dr. to Sundries.
To Henry Hardie. Rec. paym. of his bill L 75 — -
To Profit and Lofs. Rec. intereft on do 2 10 -
Royal Bank Dr. to Cajh. Paid them
Tarn Dr. to Sundries, for 500 fpindles four hank,
atisud L4718 4
To Cajh. Paid in part L 15 
Ti? merch. Dundee for bal. 32 18 4
Meal Dr. to Suifd. for 150 bolls, 31133 2d L 98 : 15s
To Port-Wine. For 6 hds. delivered in
barter, L 16, - L 96 —
To Cajh. Paid balance 2 15 —
I N G.
JOURNAL.
Edinburgh, January 22. 1774.
-26—
-30.-
Edinburgh, \Jl February, 1774.
James Bofiwell Dr. to Sundries.
To Salt, for 48 bufli. being the rem.
at 1 s 8Jd L42 —
7o3'rfr«, for 60 fp. fivehank, at 2 s 34-d 6 17 6
To Iron, for 100 ftones, at 3s 44-d 1617 6
Cajh Dr. to James Cuthbert. Received in part
Tarn Dr. to Sundries. For 334! fp. four hank yarn,
at 2s, L 33:9s
To Paper. For 22 reams delivered in
barter, at 12s L134
To meal. For 30 bolls, at 13 s 6d 20 5 —
Charges Merchandize Dr. to Paper, taken for the ufe
' of fhop, 1 ream, value
Cajlo Dr. to Sundries.
To Wiliam Hunter. Received in full L 3 26
To James Bofiwell. in part 70 
Royal Bank Dr. to Cajh. Paid them
— 19- ; 
Sundries Dr. to Calicoes. For 100 yards delivered in
barter, at 3s 6d, L 17 : 10s.
Port Wine. For 1 hd. L 14 10
Cajh. Received balance 3 
77 10
■
100 — —
4718 4 |
98 15
27 i7_
30 
33 9 —
— 10 6
73 2 6
100 
17 10
Edinburgh,
Sold 30 bolls meal for ready money,
at 13s 8d L 20 10
45 to Henry Hardy, at 13 s od 31 2 6
27 to William Hunter, 31133 tod 18 13 6
52 to Baillie and Bell, Borrow-
ftownnefs, at 13s tod 35 I9 4
Drawn on the Royal Bank
Rule II.
BOO K-K E
(3) WASTE-BOOK.
Edinburgh, 19M February, 1774.
*54
Rules I. III.
Paid William Bruce in. part L 50 —
Alexander Sharp in full 32 18 4
AndTho. Smith’s bill on me at fight 35 
Rule I.
Edinburgh, \Ji March, 1774.
Paid charges and cellar-rent of felt
Charges and loft-rent of meal
Li 26
3 3
Received from Thomas Pirie in full
Difcounted him
Rules II. VI.
L 12 — 
- 3
Sold James Dalton, Manchefter
60 fpindles four hank yarn, at 2s ^d L 61
300 do do at is 11 Jd 29 13 9
360
Received from Jan Jonkheer Rotterdam 6 bagrfclo¬
ver feed, qt. 200 lb. each, amount per invoice
y'312, at22dper/i L28 12 —
Paid freight and charges 1 5 —
/
Rule I.
Rules II. IV.
17-
Bartered with James Bofwell 2 bags clover feed,
L 6, L 12, for 2 hds. lintf. at 55 s L 5 10
Received in money 5 
And he owes the balance i 1 c
Paid Tho. Smith in full
And for intereft
L 19 — —
1 10 —
Rules I. IV.
/Sold 140 lb. clover-feed to John Scott farmer at
Haugh-head, at yj-d L 4 7 6
70 to James Cuthbert, at 7-Jd 239
120 for ready money, at y^d 3 12 6
330
Rules I. II.
E P I N G.
JOURNAL.
Edinburgh, 19M February, 1774.
(3)
Sundries Drs. to Meal.
Cajh. For 30bolls, 13 s 8d L 20 10 -
Henry Hardy. For 45 133 lod 31 2
William Hunter. Foray 13 s lod 18 13
Baillie and Bell, Bor-
rowftownnefs. For52 13s lod 35 19
^ #154
Cafb Dr. to Royal Bank. Drawn on them
Sundries Dr. to Cajh.
.3 William Bruce. Paid him in part L 50 
\Hlex. Sharp. Paid him in full 32 18 4
Tho. Smith. Paid his bill on me at fight 35 —
Sundries Drs. to Cajh.
Salt. Paid charges and cellar-rent L 1 26
Meal. Paid charges and loft-rent 3 3 —
Edinburgh, ijl March, 1774.
Sundries Drs. to Thomas Pirie.
Cajh. Received in full L 12 
Projit and Lojs. Difcounted him — 3
James Dalton, Manchefter, Dr. to Tarn.
For 60 fp. four hank, at 2 s ^d L6 1
And 300 do. at is n^d 29 13
360
Cloverjeed Dr. to Sundries.
To Jan Jonkheer, for 6 bags, qt. 200 lb. each,
1200 lb. amount per invoice, f. 312, at
2d L 28 12 —
To CaJJj. Paid freight and charges 1 5 —
17.—
Sundries' Drs. to Clover-feed. For 2 bags, at
L 6, L 12 -
•\ Lint-feed. For 2 hds. reed, in bart. 55 s 5 ic
Cajh. In part 5 —
James Bofwell, for balance 1 ic
Sundries Drs. to Cafn.
Thomas Smith. Paid him in full L 19 —
Profit and Left. Paid him intereft I 10 —
Sundries Drs. to Clover-feed.
John Scott, farmer at Haugh-head, for
1401b. at yj-d L4 7
James' Cuthbert, for 70 yj-d 2 3
Cajh. for 120 y^d 3 12
33°
Edinburgh^
1258 BOO
(4) WASTE.BOOK.
Edinburgh, 2\th March, 1774.
Tames Bofwell has paid the Royal Bank on my accr.
Rule VIII.
Bought from William Ainflie merchant Alloa-f fhart
of the fhip Hazard, for
Rule II.
—28,  
Sold Baillie and Bell,
150 ftone Iron, at 3s yd
1 hd. Port-wine
Rule I.
Sold for ready money
50 yards diaper, at 1 s 1 r d
30 bolls meal, at 13s yd
1 hd. lint-feed
160 lb. clover-feed, at y^d
30 ftone iron, at 3 s 6-^d
Rule III.
-5.- —
Drawn on the Royal Bank for
Rule II.
K-KEEPING.
JOURNAL. (4)
Edinburgh, 2^th March, 1774.
L 26 17 6
*5 5
Edinburgh, 2^ April, 1774.
L 4
20
5 IC
7 ^
3 3 -
5 3 4
5 6 3
Bought for ready money
30 calks train oil, at 22 s L 33 —
30 bolls meal,at 13s L 19 10 —
4odo. at 13s 2d 26 6 8
   45 16 8
70  
Rule III.
Sold Will. Ainflie 30 yds. diaper, at 2 s L 3 
^nd paid him - - 30 
BailHe and Bell have paid Will. Ainflie, at my de
fire, balance of my lhare of the fhip Hazard
Rule VIII.
Sold James Bofwell 20 calks train-oil, at 27 s
Rule I.
Sold George Gordon merch. Stirling
10 calks train-oil, at 28 s
1 hd. lint-feed
35 bolls meal, at 13 s 8 d
Received in part
And he owes the balance
L 14 
3 5 —
23 18
L 41 3 4
6 3 4
Rules I. II.
16.—
Paid Baillie & Bell’s bill on me to C. Cowan, at fight
Rule I.
Royal Bank Dr. to James Bofvjell. Paid them byhin
Share of fhip Hazard Dr. to William Ainflie merchant
Alloa, bought \ lhare for
Baillie and Bell Drs. to Sundries.
To Iron. For 150 ftone, at 3s yd L 26 17
To Port wine. For 1 hd. 15 5 ■
Cajh Dr. to Sundries.
To Diaper. For 50 yards, at 1 s lid L4 15 10
To Meal. For 30 bolls, at 13 s yd 20 7
To Lint-feed. For 1 hd. 3 3
To Clover-feed. For 160 lb. at 7^ d 5 3 4
To Iron. For 30 ftone, at 3 s 6~d 563
Cafy Dr. to Royal Bank. Drawn on them for
Edinburgh, 2^ April, 1774.
Sundries Drs. to Cajh.
Train-oil. For 30 calks, at22s L33 — -
Meal. For 3obolls,at 13s L 19 10 —
And40 at 13s 2d 26 6 8
  45 16
Willaim Ainfie Dr. to Sundries.
To Diaper. For 30 yards, at 2 s L 3 — -
To Cafh. Paid him 30 — -
William Ainflie Dr. to Baillie and Bell. Paid him;
by them on my account, being balance of lhare
of Ihip Hazard
James Bofwell Dr. to Train-oil. Sold him 20 calks,
at 27s
-14.-
George Gordon Dr. to Sundries.
To Train-oil. For jo calks, at 28 s L 14 —
To Lint-feed. For f*hd. - 3 5 —
To Meal. For 35 b6fis, at 13 s 8d 23 18 4
Cajh Dr. to George Gordon. Received in part
Baillie and Bell Dr. to Cajh. Paid their bill on me
to C. Cowan, at fight
Edinburgh^
BOOK
(5) WASTE-BOOK.
Edinburgh^ i%th April, 1774.
Taken for the life of my family, the remaining five
yards calicoe, at 3 s 2 d
Rule VI.
The Royal Bank have paid Jan Jonkheer’s bill on
me, 1 mdt. at my defire
Rule VIII.
Received my proportion of profits on a voyage to
Rotterdam by the Hazard
Rule V.
Paid for fmall charges on my bufinefs
fince ift January X. 5 3 8
Perfonal and family expences 32 — —
Due Thomas Sharp, my clerk, for wages
Rule VI.
Due the Royal Bank for intereft
Rule VI.
Previous to the balancing of my books, I have ta
ken an inventory of the goods in my ihop and
ware houfe.
124 bolls meal, at 13 s 6 d
474 fp. four hank yarn, at 2 s
40 ftone iron, at 3 s 4 d
300 lb. clover-feed, at 6 d
I value my houfe at
And my ftiare of fhip Hazard
L 83 14 —
47 8
6 13 4
7 10 —
L 145 5 4
300 
140 
L 585 5 4
-KEEPING. 1259
JOURNAL. (5)
Edinburgh, 18//& April, 1774.
510 -3
'\^Jan. Jonkheer Dr. to Royal Bank. For his bill on
me 1 mdt, paid by them
Sundries Drs. to Cajh.
Charges Merchandize. Paid fmall char¬
ges fince Jan. 1. - L 5 3 8
Proper Exp. Paid perf. and family charges 32 — —
Charges of Merchandize Dr. to Thomas Sharp, my
clerk. Due him for wages
Profit and Lofs Dr. to Royal Bank. Due them for int.
Profit and Lofs Dr. to Sundries, for articles of lofs.
3 To Salt - L — 11 4
4 To Charges Merchandize 13 14
To Proper Expences - 32 15 10
See § 54  
Proper expences Dr. to Calicoes. For 5 yards taken
for family-ufe, at 3 s 2 d
Cafh Dr. to Share of [hip Hazard. Received my pro¬
portion of profits on a voyage to Rotterdam,
--30-
Sundries Drs. to Profit and Lofs, for articles of gain.
Meal
Port.’wine
Paper
Tarn
Calicoes
Diaper
Iron
Clover-feed
Lint-feed
Share of fhip Hazard
Train-oil
L 918
6 15
4 18 6
2 3
1 !3 4
— 15 10
2 7 11
5 — 1
Bal Account Dr. to Sun. for articles belonging to me.
To Caflo - L 8 3 10
To Meal. For 124 bolls, 3X133 6d 83 14
To Tarn. For 474 fp. at 2 s 47 8
Amiffing J- fpindle.
To Houfe in Lawn-market
To James Bofwell
To Henry Hardy
To David Miller
• 3 To James Cuthbert
•3 To Iron. For 40 ftone, at 3 s 4 d
To John Henderfon
To William Hunter
To James Dalton
To Clover-feed. For 300 lb. at 6d
Inlake 10 lb.
.5 To John Scott
.5 To Share of Jhip Hazard
.5 To George Gordon
300 
37 11 -
3126
18 —
5 6 3
6 13 4
7 4 -
1813 6
35 !5
7 io
4 7
140 —
6 3 4
Edinburgh)
1260
book-keeping.
(6) JOURNAL.
Edinburgh, ^oth April, 1774.
Sundries Drs. to Balance-Account
Meal- Outcome 3 bolls
Royal Bank - L 201 3
William Bruce - 20 — -
Thomas Sharp - 8 — •
Profit and Lofs Dr. to Stock for nett gain
Stock Dr. to Balance-Account, for nett ftock
The next Journal would begin thus.
Sundries Dr. to Stock.
Cajh on hand L 8 310
Meal. For 124 bolls, at 13s L 83 14 —
I'lzr#. For474fp.4-hank, at2S47 8 —
Iron. For 40 (tone, at3*4d6i3 4
Clover-feed. For 300 lb. at 6 d 7 10 —
 145
Houfe in Lawn-market Edin¬
burgh, value L 300 — —
Share in Jhip Hazard. For
one third 140 — —
 440
James Bofwell Edinburgh.
Due by him L 37 11 —
Henry Hardy Glafgow. D° 31 2 6
DavidMillerYLzAdington. D° 18 — —
_ rames Cuthlert Leith. D° 5 6 3
~John Henderfon Edin. D° 7 4 —
Williajn Hunter Dunbar. D° 18 13 6
James Dalton Manchefter. D° 35 15 —
John Scott Haughhead. D° 4 7 6
George Gordon Stirling. D° 634
-164 3
Stock Dr to Sundries.
To Royal Bank. Due them L 201 3
To William Bruce Leith. Due him 20 —
Thomas Sharp, my clerk. D° 8 — ■
757
13 8
i
9 1
Stock
(0
BOOK-KEEPING.
} Dr.
} J774
Jan.
Api
Apr.
*774
Jan.
Apr.
Dr.
*774
Jan.
Mar.
Apr.
Dr.
*774
Jan.
Feb.
Apr.
To Sundries per J.
To Balance-account, for nett flock
Profit and Lofs^
To Thomas Pirie, difcounted him
To Cafh, paid Tho. Smith intereft
To Royal Bank, for intereft due thenv
To Sundries, per J.
To Stock, for nett gain
Cajhy
To Stock on hand
To Paper, for y reams, at 11 s
To Salt, in part, per J.
To Sundries for Hen. Hardy’s bill, with int.
To James Cuthbert, in part
To Sundries, per J.
To Calicoes, for bal. of ioo yards, per J.
To Meal, for 30 bolls, at 13 s 8 d
To Royal Bank, drawn on them
To Thomas Pirie, in full
To Clover-feed, in part, for 2 bags
To Clover-feed, for 120 lb. at y^d
To Sundries, per J.
5 To Royal Bank, drawn on them
14 To George Gordon, in part
25 To Share of (hip Hazard for fhare profits p. J.
Mealy
To Stock on hand, at 13 s
To Sundries, per J. at 13 s 2d
To Cafh, paid charges and loft-rent
^ To Cafh, per J.
To Profit and Lofs, for gain
Outcome
Bolls
200
I5°
Port-wine,
To Stock on hand, at L 15
To Calicoes, in barter
To Profit and Lofs, for gain
Hds
I 6
840
I 20 ;
98X5
3 3
45*6
9'i8
  Apr.
287
90 —
*4
LEGE E,
1261
(0
1774
Jan,
Api
1774
8 Jan.
— Apr.
o —
*5 —
IQ 
6
*774
Jan.
*774
_ Jan.
„ Feb.
8 APr-
By Sundries, per J.
By Profit and Lofs, for nett gain
By Cafh, received int. i
By Sundries, per J.
Cr.
1 Hen. Hardy’s bill
Contra
Cr.
By Calicoes, for 105 yards, at 3 s 2 d
By William Nifhet, in full
By Royal Bank, paid them
By Yarn, in part, for 500 fp. four hank
By Meal, paid balance of 150 bolls
By Royal Bank, paid them
By Sundries, per J.
By Sundries, per J.
By Clover-feed, paid freight and charges
By Sundries, paid Tho. Smith, with int.per J.
By Sundries, per J.
By William Ainflie, paid him
By Bailie and Bell, paid their bill on. me ft.
By Sundries, for charges and expences per J.
By Balance-account
* 774
Jan.
Mar.
824
Contra
By James Cuthbert, at 13 s 3 d
By Yarn in barter, at 13 s 6 d
By Sundries, per J.
By Cafh, at 13 s yd
By George Gordon, at 13 s 8 d
By Balance-account, at 13 s 4d
Cr.
Bolls
5°
3°
54
30
35
*24
423
By Meal, in barter, at L 16
By Bailie and Bell
Cr.
Hds
6
599 I5
Vox.. II.
1262
(2)
BOOK-KEEPING.
(2)
Dr.
1774
Jan.
Apr.
1774
Jan.
Feb.
Apr.
Br.
1774
Jan.
Dr.
1774
Jan:
Feb.
Mar
Api
Dr.
1774
Jan.
Dr.
1774
Jan.
Dr.
1774
Dr.
1774
IX.
Mar.
Apr.
Papery
To Stock on hand, at I os 6d
To Profit and Lofs, for gain
Tarn,
Spindles
|5 H
To Stock on hand, at 2s 3d
To Sundries, per J. at 1 s 11 d
To Sundries, per J. at 2 s
To Profit and Lofs, for gain
500
334’
r
8341-120
Houfe in Lawn-market,
1 To Stock,, for value
Jal Bofwell merchant Edinburgh,
To Stock due by him per account
To paper, for 30 reams, at 12 s
To Sundries per J.
To Clover-feed;, forbal. of 2 bags, per. J.
To Train-oil, for 20 calks, at 27 s
Thomas Pirie writer Edinburgh,
To Stock due by him per account
Henry Hardy merchant Glafgow,
To Stock due by him per bill
To Meal, for 45 bolls, at 13 s tod
1774
- Jan.
6 Feb.
David Miller manufacturer Haddingtot
To Stock due by him, per receipt
Royal Bank of Scotland,
To Cafh, paid them
To Calh, paid them ' -
To Ja. Bofwell, paid them by him
To Balance-account
1774
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Apr.
1774
AP.
1774
Feb.
Mai
_ Apr.
By Sundries, per J.
By Yarn in barter, at 12 s
By Charges Merchandize, for Ihop-ufe
Cr.
R.\
47!
222 13
4
Cr.
Spindles
By Diaper, at 2 s 4 d
By James Bofwell, at 2 s 34- d
By James Dalton per J. -
By Balance-account, at 2 s
Amiffing
aH\5H
603
6°
360
474
8341
Contra
30 By Balance-account
5 By Cafh in part
24 By Royal Bank, paid in by him
30 By Balance-account
— Jan.
6 Apr.
1774
Apr.
1774
Jan.
Feb.
Api
Contra
By Sundrie
n full, with difcount, per J.
By Cafh in full
By Balance-account
Contra
By Balance-account
Contra
Cr.
By Stock, due them per account
By Cafh, drawn on them
By Cafh, drawn on them
By J. Jonkheer, for his bill paid them p. J.
By Profit and Lofs, for intereft due them
441 3 2
Dr.
(3) LEGE R.
BOOK-KEEPING.
fo. LEGE R.
II63
• (3)
Dr.
1774
Feb.
Mar.
Dr.
1774
Jan.
Dr.
1774
Jan.
Apr.
Dr.
1774
Jan.
Mar.
Dr.
*774
Jan.
Apr.
Dr.
*774
Jan.
Mar.
Dr.
*774
Feb.
Apr.
Dr.
*774
Jan.
Apr
Tho. Smith merchant London,
To Cafh, paid his bill on me at fight
To Cafh, in full
Will. Nijhet carpenter Leith,
To Cafh, paid him in full
To Cafh, at 3s 2d
To Profit and Lofs, for gain
Ja. Cuthbert merchant Leith,
To Meal, for 50 bolls, at 13s 3d
To Clover-feed, for 70lb. at 7Jd
Diaper,
To Yarn in barter, at 1 s gd
To Profit and Lofs, for gain
To William Bruce, at 1 s 8d
To Cafh, paid charges and cellar-rent
Bujh
200
William Bnice merchant Leith,
To Cafh in part
To Balance account
Iron,
To William Bruce, at 3 s 4d
To Profit and Lofs, for gain
*774
— Jan.
*774
3 Jan-
*774
6 Feb.
4 APl
*774
6 ^b.
9 Apr.
*774
Apr.
*774
4 Jan.
6 Feb.
Apr.
'774
Jan.
*774
Feb.
Mar.
Apr.
By Cafh in part
Bv Balance account
Contra Cr.
By Stock, due him per account
Contra Cr.
By Stock, due him per account
By Sundries, per J. at 3 s 6d
By Proper Expencestaken at 3s 2d
Cr.
Tds.
By Cafh, at 1 s 11 d
By William Ainflie, at 2 s
Contra
By Sundries, per J. at 1 s pd
By Ja. Bofvvell, for the rein, at I s 8
By Profit and Lofs,
Make
Contra
By Sundries per J.
Cr.
Tds.
Cr.
m
;cl 48
200
Cr.
Contra
By James Bofwell, at 3 s 4Jd
By Baillie and Bel!, at 3 s 7d
By Cafh, at 33 6J d
By Balance-account, at 3 s 4d
Cr.
Stones,
lot
*5° 4
3'
4C
320
5 10
5 *0
7 U 2
1264
(4)
BOO
L £ G E R.
K-K E E
Dr.
'in
Jan.
1774
Jan.
1774
Feb.
Dr.
1774
Feb.
Apr.
Dr.
1774
Feb.
Mar.
Apr.
1774
Mar.
Dr.
1774
Mar,
Apr.
Dr.
'in
Apr.
Dr.
'in
Mar.
Api
Jo. Henderfon Jlationer Edinburgh,
To Paper, for 12 reams, at 12 s
William Hunter merchant Dunbar,
To Salt, for balance of 150 bulhels, per J.
To Meal, for 27 bolls, at 13 s 10 d
Alexander Sharp merchant Dundee,
To Cafh, in full
To Paper, taken for fhop-ufe, 1 ream
To Cafh, for fmall charges fince ift Jan.
To Tho. .Sharp, for wages
To Meal, for 52 bolls, at 3 s 10 d
To Sundries, per J.
To Cafh, pd their bill on me to C. Cowan, st
Charges Merchandize,
Baillie and Bell Borrovjflonnefs,
James Dalton Manchejler,
To Yarn, for 360 fpindles four hank, per J.
Clover-feed,
To Sundries perj. forpr. coft and char.
~ Profit and Lofs, for gain
30 To
lb.
1200
J. Jonkheer merchant Rotterdam,
To Ro. Bank, for his bill on me paid by them
Lint-feed,
To Clover-feed, in barter at 55 s
To Profit and Lofs, for gain
1774
- Apr.
PING.
L E G E R.
6 Apr.
1774
4 Jan.
1774
6 Api
1774
Api
1774
Api
1774
Mar.
Apr
Contra
By Balance-account
Contra
By Cafh in full
By Balance-account
Contra Cr.
By Yarn, for balance of 300 fpindles, per J.
Contra
By Profit and lofs
Contra Cr.
By William Ainflie, paid him by them
J774
Api
Contra
By Balance-account
Contra
By Sundries per J.
By Sundries per J.
By Cafh, at 7!-
By Balance-account, at 6 d
Inlake
Cr.
lb.
400
33°
160
300
Contra
By Clover-feed, for 6 bags, per. J.
Cr.
Hds.
By Cafh
By George Gordon
■ (4)
(5)
BOOK-KEEPING.
L E G E R. L E G E R.
Dr.
-J774
Mar.
Apr.
Dr.
1774
Api
Dr.
1774
Apr.
Dr.
1774
Apr.
Dr.
1774
Apr.
Dr.
i774
Apr. 30
Share of Jhip Hazard,
To William Ainflie, bought -j- lhare for
30 To Profit and Lofs,
Dr.
1774
Apr.
John Scott farmer at Haughead,
To Clover-feed, for 140 lb. at y^d
William Ainjlie merchant Alloa,
To Sundries, per J.
To Baillie and Bell, for bal. paid him by them
Train-oil,
To Calh, at 22 s
To Profit and Lofs, for gain
Cajks
3°
George Gordon merchant Stirling,
14 To Sundries, per J.
Proper Expences,
To Calicoes, for 5 yards, at 3 s 2 d
To Cafh, for charges fince ift January
Thomas Sharp, my clerk,
To balance-account
10T0
Balance-account,
Sundries, per J.
1774
6 Api
I774
Apr.
1774
Mar.
*774
_ APr-
1774
4 Apr.
Contra
By Balance-account
By Cafh, for lhare profit of a voyage to Rot.
By Balance-account
Contra Cr.
By Share of Ship Hazard, for bt. from him 5
J774
Api
757 i2
757
1774
Apr.
Contra Cr.
30 By Charges Merchandize, due him for wages 4
1774
3 Apr.
By James Bofwell, at 27 s
By George Gordon, at 28 s
Cr.
Cajks
By Cafh in part
By Balance-account
126?
f*. (5)
Contra
By Profit and Lofs
By Sundries, per J.
By Stock
35 
6 3 4
41
3 2
9 *
T R I A L-
1266
B O OK-KEEPING.
Dr.
i Stock
Profit and Lois
Cafh
2 Meal
Port-wine
Paper
Yarn
i Houfe in Edinburgh
3 James Bofwell
Plenry Hardie
David Miller
Royal Bank
4 Calicoes
James Cuthbert
Diaper
Salt
5 Iron
William Bruce
John Plenderfon
William Hunter
Charges Merchandize
6 James Dalton
Clover-feed
Flax-feed
John Scott
Share of Ship Hazard
y Train-oil
George Gordon
Proper Expences
Thomas Sharp
T R I A L-B A L A N C E.
L 312 7 3
4 4 10
599 15
L 277 14 8
104 10 —
36 15 —
94 17 4
300 — —
L 247 11 —
3126
18 — —
140 — —
L 16 12 6
35 6 3
7 — —
17 15 10
1 53 6 8
50 — —
7 4 —
18 13 6
I3 H 2
^ 35 15 —
29 !7 —
5 10 —
4 7. 6
150 — —
L 33 — —
41 3 4
32 15 10
L 824 2 8
2 10 —
- L 916 8
- L 1418 4 9
L 203 18 8
in 5 —
41 *3 6
49 12 6
813 17 —
436 13 6
76 14 7
142 18 4
225 9 6
— 106 19 2
L 2719 •— 1
406 9
L 18 5 10
30 — —
7 15 f°
17 4 6
L 49 1 3
70 — —
27 7 1
6 8 —
L 41 — —
35 — —
73 6 2
66 15 1
84 —
L 2719 —
C O M P U-
c
Cafh
2 Meal
Dr. 420 bolls
Cr. 299
121
124
3 outcome
Port-wine
Paper
Yarn
Spindles
8344- 120
360 120
4744-
Amifiing i
Houfe in Edinburgh
3 Ja. Bofwell
Henry Hardie
David Miller
Royal Bank
4 Calicoes
J. Cuthbert
Diaper
BOOK-KEEPING.
M P U T A T
4 Salt >
IONS.
Dr. Cr.
L 599 15 11 L 591
591 12 1
L 8 3 10
L 277 14 8 L 203
83
L 83 14 —
L 287
277
12 8
14 8
Profit L 9 18
Li 04 10 — Liu 5.
~—  104 10 -
Profit L 6
L 36 15 — L 41
Profit L 4
L 94 17 4 L 49
47
L 47 8 —
L 91
94
Profit L 2
L 300 
L 147 11 — L no -
no 
L 27 n —
L 31 26
L 18 
L240 L441
L 201
L 16 12 6 L 18
   6
Profit L. 1
L 35 6 3
30 
L 563
L 7 L 7
5 William Bruce
18 8
14 —
15 —
13 6
15 —
18 6
12 6
— 6
>7 4
Iron
320 ftone
280
J. Henderfon
W. Hunter
Char. Merchan.
6 Ja. Dalton
Clover-feed
1200 16.
890
310
300
10 inlake
Lint-feed
J. Scott
Share Hazard
3 2
3 2-
15 10
15 10
7 Train-oil
George Gordon
Proper Ex.
Thomas Sharp
STOCK
Balance
Dr. . Cr.
L 17 15 10 L 17 4
1746
L — n 4
L 50 — -
■ L 70 -
50 -
1267
L 20 
L 53 6 8 L 49 1 3
t  6 J3 4
L 6 13 4  
L 55 H 7
53 6 8
7 “
Profit L
L 7 4 —
L 18 13 6
L 13 14 2 lofs.
L 3515—
L 29 17 — L 27 7 1
L 7 10 —
Profit L 8 
L 41 3 4 L 35  
35 
L 6 3 4
L 32 15 10 lofs
L 8 
L312 7 3 L824 2 8
528 9 ■ 1 prof. 16 13 8
L 840 16 4 L840 16 4
PROFIT
1268
BOOK-KEEPING.
PROFIT and LOSS SHEET.
Salt
Charges Merchandize
Proper Expences
In leger
Nett gain
L — ii 4
13 14 2
32 15 10
L47
4
L51
16
1 4
4 10
L67 19 10
Meal
Port wine
Paper
Yarn
Calicoes
Diaper
Iron
Clover-feed
Lint-feed
Share of (hip Hazard
Train-oil
In Leger
L 9 18 —
6 15 —
4 18 6
232
1 13 4
— 15 10
2 7 11
5 — 1
— 18 —
23 
8 
L 65 9 10
2 10 —
L67 19 10
BALANCE-SHEET.
Cadi
Meal, 124 b. at 13 s 4d
Yarn, 474 fp. at 2 s
Amiffing 4
Houfe in Edinburgh
James Bofwell
Henry Hardie
David Miller
J. Cuthbert
Iron, 40 ftone at 3 s 4 d
J. Henderfon
W. Hunter
James Dalton
Clover-feed, 300 lb. at 6 d
Inlake 10 lb.
J. Scott
Share of Ihip Hazard
George jplordon
L 8 3 10 Meal, outcome 3 B.
Royal Bank
William Bruce
Thomas Sharp
83 14
47 8 —
300  
37 ” —
31 2 6
18 
563
6 13 4
7 4 —
18 13 6
35 >5 —
7 10 —
476
140 
634 STOCK
L 201 3 2
20 — —
L229 3 2
L757 12 3
528 9 1
L 757 12 3
The
BOO K-K
The prefent article, it is hoped, will appear fuffi-
ciently extended for a work of this nature. It contains
the general principles of Italian book-keeping; and is
fufficient to unfold the nature and defign of that art
to the fpeculative inquirer, to diredl the accountant in
common and eafy cafes, and prepare him for under-
tlanding thofe that are more complicated. In fadl, if
he have a clear apprehenfion of the fenfe of the tranfac-
tions, the tendency of the journal-entries, and the im¬
port of the balances in the leger, he will feldom be at
a lofs how to proceed.
Subjidiary Books ufsd by merchants.
Tho'all merchant-accounts may bekept by the Wafte-
book, yournal^nALeger,^\onf, yet men of great bufinefs
find it convenient, either for abridging thefe, or for o-
ther ends, to ufe fome others, generally called Subjidi¬
ary or Subfervient Books’, the moll common of which
are thefe nine following, viz.
X. Cajh-book. This book is kept in a folio form,
like the leger, and ferves to abridge the cafli-account
there. On the left-hand page, or Dr. fide, Cajh is
charged Dr. for all the fums received; andon the right-
hand page, Cajh is made Cr. for all the fums paid.
Once a-week, or, which is more ordinary, once a month,
this book is polled to the leger ; or, if you pleafe
firft to the journal, by two entries, viz. Cajh Dr. to
Sundries, for all the receipts, and Sundries Drs. to
Cajh, for all the payments. By this means the calh-
account in the leger will be fo far contradled as to con-
fill of 12 lines, viz. one for each month in the year.
2. Book of Charges of Merchandife. This book is
only paged, and defigned to abbreviate the calh-book.
It contains particular charges on goods and voyages ;
fuch as, carriage, cuftom, freight, cranage, wharf¬
age, &c : as alfo other expences that affedl trade in
general; fuch as, warehoufe-rent, Ihop-rent, accoun¬
tant’s wages, pollage of letters, and the like. At the
end of each month the money-columns of this book are
added up, and the fum carried to the credit-fide of the
eafh-book.
3. Book of H'/ufe-expences. This book is alfo paged,
and defigned Kkewife to eafe the calh-book. It con¬
tains all dilburfements for family provifions, fervant’s
wages, houfe-rent, apparel, utenfils, &c. The money-
columns of this book are alfo added up at the end of
each month, and the fum transferred to the credit-fide
of the calh-book.
4. Invoice-book. This book, which is ufed chiefly
by factors, is paged, and contains doubles or copies
of the invoices of goods fent to fea, or of goods received
from abroad.
5. Sales-book. This book too is chiefly ufed by
faftors ; and into it is polled, from the walle-book,
-the particular fales of every configned cargo ; by which
means the feveral articles of a fale, that lie fcattered in
the walle-book, are brought together, and reprefented
under one view, and that in a manner more full and
minute than they are collefted in the leger-account.
This book exhibits the fales of every confignment fepa-
B O O wmmwwu
BOOKSELLER, one who trades in books, whe¬
ther he prints them himielf, or gives them to be printed
by others.
VOL. II.
E E P I N G.
rately and by themfelves : to which are fubjoined the
refpedlive charges, fuch as freight, cullom, thefaftor’s
commilfion, as alfo abatements allowed to buyers, &c.
whofe fum fubtra&ed from the grofs amount of fales,
gives the neat proceeds. From this book, when a
cargo is fold off, an account of fales is drawn out, in
order to be tranfmitted to the employer.
6. Bill-book. The defign of this Bill-book, or Month-
look, is to furnilh a merchant with a ready way of know¬
ing the time when bills or other debts become payable
to or by him. It confifts of 12 folios, one for each
month in the year. The left-hand page contains the
debts that fall due to the merchant in the month on
the top, and the right-hand page contains the debts
payable by him to others in the fame month.
7. Receipt-book. In this book a merchant takes re¬
ceipts of the payments he makes. The receipt Ihould
contain the date ; the fum received, exprefled in words
at large, and alfo in figures in the money-columns ;
the reafon why ; and whether in full or. in part ; and
mult be figned by the perfon receiving. But there it
no occafion to mention the merchant’s name ; for the
book being his own, fufficienfly implies that.
8. Letter-book. It is very imprudent in any perfoa
to fend away a letter of bufinefs, without keeping a
double of it to himfeif; and therefore, to prevent the
bad confequences of fuch a carelefs practice, merchants
are provided with a large book in folio, into which is
copied verbatim every letter of bufinefs before it be
fent off. So that this book, together with the letters
received (which mull alfo be carefully kept in files or
boxes), makes a complete hillory of all the dealings
that pafs betwixt a merchant and his correfpondents ;
which may be very ufeful and neceffary on many oc-
cafions.
9. Pocket-book. This is a fmall book, of a portable
fize, which a merchant carries in his pocket when bu¬
finefs calls him abroad to a tavern, a fair, the country,
or other places. In this he fets down the bargains he
makes, the expences he is at, the debts he pays, or fums
he receives, with every other part of bufinefs he tranf-
a&s while abroad; as alfo any occurrence or piece of
news he thinks worth while to record. And when he
comes home to his counting-houfe or Ihop, he transfers
the things contained in this book, each to their pro¬
per places in the walle-book, or books fubfidiary.
Fadlors of great bufinefs fometimes keep another
fmall book, called the Memorandum-book.^ Into this
book is copied, from letters as they come to Tiand, Ihort
notes of the feveral commifiions for buying goods con¬
tained in them ; and as the commiflions are effedted,
the notes are croffed, or have fome mark affixed to
them. This is more convenient in doing bufinefs, than
to be continually running to the letters themfelves.
The above are the fubfidiary books moll in ufe:
but a merchant is not tied down or rellridted to them ;
he may keep fome, and negledl others, or invent more,
as the nature of his bufinefs requires, and he finds con¬
venient.
BOO
Bookfellers are in many places ranked among the
members of univerfities, and intitled to the privilege
of ftudents, as at Tubingen, Salifburg, and Paris, where
7 X they
I269
BOO [ 1270 ] BOO
Boom they have always been diftinguifhed from the vulgar and
I! mechanical traders, and exempted from divers taxes
Boot- and impofxtions laid upon other companies.
The traffic of books was anciently very inconfider-
able, infomuch that the book-merchants of England,
France, Spain, and other countries, were diftinguiffied
by the appellation of Jlationers, as having no (hops,
but only flails and ftands in the ftreets. During this
ftate, the civil magiftr.ates took little notice of the book-
fellers, leaving the government of them to the univer-
fities, to whom they were fuppofed more immediate
retainers ; who accordingly gave them laws and regula¬
tions, fixed price-s on their books, examined their cor-
re&nefs, and puniflied them at difcretion.
But when, by the invention of printing, books and
bookfellers began to multiply, it became a matter of
more confequence; and the fovereigns took the direc¬
tion of them into their own hands, giving them new
ftatutes, appointing officers to fix prices, and granting
licences, privileges, &c.
BOOM, in the fea language, a long piece of tim¬
ber with which the clew of the ftudding fail is fpread
out; and fometimes the boom is ufed to fpread or boom
out the clew of the main-maft.
Boom, denotes alfo a cable ftretched athwart the
mouth of a river or harbour; with yards, top-mails,
battling or fpars of wood lalhed to it, to prevent an
enemy’s coming in.
BOOMING, among failors, denotes the application
of a boom to the fails. A ffiip is faid to come boom¬
ing forwards, when Ihe comes with all the fail file can
make.
BOOPTHALMUS, a kind of agate with large
circles in it, bearing fome refemblance to an ox’s eye,
from whence it has got this name.
BOOPS, in zoology, the trivial name of a fpecies
ofbalsena. See BaljEna.
BOOT, a leathern cover or defence for the leg, ufed
on horefeback,, both to keep the body more firm, and
defend the part from the injuries of the weather. Boots
feem to have taken their name from the refemblance
they bear to a fort of jacks or leathern bottles formerly
in ufe, and called botta, in the old French bouts. Borel
derives the name from the old French word hot, a flump,
by reafon the boot gives the leg this appearance. The
Chinefe have a kind of boots made of filk or fine fluff
lined with cotton, a full inch thick, which they always
wear at home. This people are always booted; and
when a vifit is made them, if they happen to be with¬
out their boots, their gueft muft wait till they put
them on. They never ftir out of doors without their
boots on ; and their fcrupuloufnefs in this refpeft is
the more remarkable as they are always carried in their
chairs.
The boot was much ufed by the ancients, by the
foot as well as by the horfemen. It was called by the
ancient Romans ocrea', in middle-age writers, greva,
gamberia, bainberga, bembarga, or benbarga. The boot
is faid to have been the invention of the Carians. It
was at firft made of leather, afterwards of brafs or iron,
and was proof both againft cuts and thrufts. It was
from this that Homer calls the Greeks brazen-booted.
The boot only covered half the leg ; fome fay the right
leg, which was more advanced than the left, it being
advanced forwards in an attack with the fword; but
in reality it appears to have been ufed on either leg,
and fometimes on both. Thofe who fought with darts
or other miffive weapons, advanced the left leg fore- _
moft, fo that this only was booted.
Boot- Tree, or Boot-laft, an inftrument ufed by fhoe-
makers to widen the leg of a boot. It is a wooden
cylinder flit into two parts, between which, when it is
put into the boot, they drive by main force a wedge or
quoin.
BOOTES, a conftellation of the northern hemi-
fphere, confifting of 23 ftars according to Ptolemy’s
catalogue, of 18 in Tycho’s, of 34 in Bayer’s, of 52
in Hevelius’s, and of 54 in Mr Flamftead’s catalogue.
BOOTH (Barton), a famous Engliflt aftor, born
in Lancafliire in 1681, and educated in Weftminfter
fchool under the celebrated Dr Bufby, where his fuc-
cefs in the Latin plays cuftomarily performed by the
fcholars gave him an inclination for the ftage. He
was intended for the church ; but running away from
fchool to Dublin, he there commenced a£tor. His firft
appearance was in the part of Oroonoko, in which he
came off with every teftimonial of approbation from the
audience. From this time he continued daily impro¬
ving; and, after two fuccefsful campaigns in that king¬
dom, conceived thoughts of returning to his native
country, and making a trial of his abilities on the Eng-
lifli ftage. To this end, he firft, by letter, reconciled
himfelf to his friends; and then, as a farther ftep to¬
wards infuring his fuccefs, obtained a recommendation
from Lord Filzharding (one of the lords of the bed¬
chamber to prince George of Denmark) to Mr Bet¬
terton, who with great candour and good-nature took
him under his care, and gave him all the affiftance in
his power. The firft part Mr Booth appeared in at
London was that of Maximus in Lord Rochefter’s Va~
lentinian, his reception in which exceeded even his moft
fanguine expe&ations; and very foon after his perform¬
ance of Artaban, in Rowe’s Ambitious Stepmother,
which was a new tragedy, eftablifhed his reputation,
as fecond at leaft to his great inftrudlor. Pyrrhus, in
the Diftreffed Mother, was another part in which he
Ihone without a rival. But he was indebted to a happy
coincidence of merit and chance, for that height of
fame which he at length attained in the character of
Cato, as drawn by Mr Addifon, in 1712. For this
play being confidered as a party one, the Whigs, in
favour, of whofe principles it was apparently written,
thought it their duty ftrongly to fupport it, while at
the fame time the Tories, who had too much fenfe to
appear to confider it as a reflexion on their adminiftra-
tion, were ftill more vehement in their approbation of
it, which they carried to fuch an height, as even to
make a colledlion of 50 guineas in the boxes during the
performance, and prefent them to Mr Booth with this
compliment, “ That it was a flight acknowledgment
for his honeft oppofition to a perpetual di&ator, and
his dying fo bravely in the caufe of liberty.” Befides
this, he had a prefent of an equal fum from the ma¬
nagers, in confideration of the great fuccefs of the play,
which they attributed in a good meafure to his extra¬
ordinary merit in the performance ; and certain it is,
that no one fince that time has ever equalled, or even
nearly approached, his excellence in that charadler.—
But thefe were not the only advantages which were to
accrue to Mr Booth from his fuccefs in this part; for
Lord
Boot
II
Booth.
BOO [ 1271 ] BOR
Booth, Lord BoKngbroke, then one of the principal fecretaries
Booty. Gf ftate, in a little time after procured a fpecial licence
from queen Anne, recalling all the former ones, and
nominating Mr Booth as joint manager with Wilks,
Cibber, and Dogget ; none of whom were pleafed at
it ; but the laft efpecially took fuch difguft as to with¬
draw himfelf from any further fliare in the management.
In 1704, Mr Booth had married a daughter of Sir
William Barkham Barb who died in 1710, without
iffue. Being now eftablifhed in the management, he
once more turned his thoughts towards matrimony ;
and in the year 1719 united himfelf to the celebrated
Mifs Hefter Santlow, a woman of a moll amiable dif-
pofition, whofe great merit as an a&refs, added to the
utmoft difcretion and prudential ceconomy, had enabled
her to fave up a cpnhderable fortune. During the 20
years in which Mr Booth continued a manager, the
theatre was in the greateft credit; and his illnefs and
death, which happened on the 10th of May 1733* con‘
tributed not a little to its decline.
Mr Booth wrote a dramatic entertainment called
Dido and JEneai; but his mailer-piece was a Latin in-
fcription to the memory of Mr William Smith, a cele¬
brated aftor, who died while he was young.—As an
aftor, his excellency lay wholly in tragedy, not being
able to endure fuch parts as had not ftrong paffion to
infpire him. And, even in this walk, dignity rather
than complacency, rage rather than tendernefs, feemed
to be his tafte. For a particular idea of his abilities,
we mull refer to the defcription Mr Cibber has given
of him in his Apology; and the admirable chara&er
drawn of him by that excellent judge of dramatic per-
feftion, Aaron Hill, Efqr. in a political paper pu-
blilhed by him called the Prompter, which may be feen
at length in Theoph. Cibber’s Lives of the Poets, and
Chetwood’s Hiftory of the Stage.—^His chara&er as a
man was adorned with many amiable qualities, among
which, a goodnefs of heart, the balls of every vir¬
tue, was remarkably confpicuous; and fo particularly
was he diftinguilhed and cardfed, and his company
fought by the great, that, as Chetwood relates of him,
*ot one nobleman in the kingdom had fo many fets of
horfes at command as he had.
BOOTY, whatever is taken fro'm an enemy in time
of war.—Among the Greeks, the booty was divided
in common among the army, the general only claiming
a larger lhare. By the military difcipline of the Ro¬
mans, fpoils taken from the enemy belonged to the re¬
public, particular perfons having no right to them. The
generals who piqued themfelves on their probity carried
it wholly to the public treafury. Sometimes indeed
they divided it among the foldiery, to animate them,
and ferve in lieu of a reward. But this dillribution
depended on the generals, who were to condudl them¬
felves herein with great equity and moderation ; other-
wife it became a crime of peculate to lay hands on the
pillage, as regularly belonging only to the ftate. The
confuls Romulus and Vaturius were condemned for
having fold the booty taken from the ALqui.—Among
the Jews, the booty was divided equally between the
army and the people, though under the kings a dif¬
ferent kind of diftribution obtained.—Among the Ma¬
hometans, two thirds of the fpoils are allowed to the
army ; the other third to God, to Mahomet and his re¬
lations, and to the orphans, thepoor, and the pilgrims—
Among us, formerly the booty was divided among the Boppart
foldiery. If the general be in the field, every body 11 . #
takes what he can lay hold on : if the general be abfent, °rDonia.
the booty is dillributed among the foldiery, two parts
being allowed to the cavalry, and one to the infantry.
A captain is allowed ten firares, a lieutenant fix, and a
cornet four.
BOPPART, a town of Germany, in the circle of
the Rhine, and Eledlorate of Treves ; it is feated at
the foot of a mountain near the Rhine, in E. Long. 7.
35. N. Lat. 50. 19.
BOPSINGEN, a town of Suabia in Germany,
feated on the river Egar, in E. Long. 9. 55. N. Lat.
48.51.
BOQUINIANS, in church-hiltory, a fe£l of here¬
tics, fo called from Boquinus their founder, who taught
that Chrift did not die- for all mankind, but only for
the faithful, and confequently was only a particular
Saviour.
BORAGO, in botany, a fynonime of the Anchusa.
BORAK, among Mahometans, a fabulous animal,
fuppofed to be of the middle kind between an afs and
a mule, whereon their prophet was carried in his noc¬
turnal flight from Jerufalem into the heavens. This a-
nimal the Arabians call Al-Borak, q. d. Jhining. The
night when the journey was performed is called Lailat
al Meeraga, i. e. the night of afeenjion ; and the flight
itfelf Al Mefra ; concerning which there are a multi¬
tude of traditions.
BORAX, a faline fubftance brought from the Eafl:
Indies, much ufed in the foldering of metals, making
glafs, &c f. Asa medicine too it has by fome been held f See Chemi-
in confiderable efteem; but its virtues in this way have^’ n°
never yet been fufficientlyafcertained by experience, tho’ ~g?Y' an
Dr Lewis thinks there are ftrong reafons for believing J ’
them greater than they are generally fuppofed. In
dofes of half a dram or two fcruples, it is recommended
as a diuretic, emmenagogue, and promoter of deli¬
very ; with this lail view it was an ingredient in the
pulvis ad partum, or powder to promote delivery, of
the Edinburgh college. Mr Billet, in an eflay on the
medical conllitution of Great Britain, recommends a
folution of this fait in water, as the moll powerful dif-
folvent yet known of aphthous crufts in the mouth and
fauces of children. Dr Alfton of Edinburgh fays that
it fliould be diffolved when taken inwardly, for that
the ftomach is not able to melt it; but that, if given
in a dilfolved ftate, it enters the vafa minima, mixes with
the blood, and dilutes it. If given in powder, it is e-
meticj but, mixed with aromatics, this quality is
checked ; and in the fluor albus it is faid to be a fpe-
cific. Its doze is from five grains to half a dram. Ex¬
ternally ufed, borax is faid to be a better cofmetic than
bifmuth, and is undoubtedly much fafer.
BORBETOMAGUS, (anc. geog.), a city of the
Vangiones on the Rhine ; now Worms, in Germany.
BORBONIA, in botany, a genus of the decandria
order, belonging to the diadelphia clafs of plants, for
which there is no Englilh name. There are fix fpecies,
all of which are natives of warm countries. They are
a kind of broom ; and in the places where they grow
naturally, they rife to the height of ten or twelve feet,
but in Europe feldom rife more than four or five. They
mull be kept conftantly in the ftove, and may be pro¬
pagated by laying down the young (hoots; but as thefe
7X2 are
BOR [ 1272 ] BOR
JBfirborites are generally two years before they put forth proper
II roots, the moll eligible method is by feeds, which mull
or g‘ be procured from thofe places where they grow na¬
turally, as theydo notcometo perfedion in this country.
BORBORITES, in church-hillory, a fed of gno-
flics, in the fecond century, who, befides embracing the
errors of thefe heretics, denied the lall judgment. Their
name comes from the Greek Borhoros, filth ; on ac¬
count of a cuftom they had of daubing their faces and
bodies with dirt and filth.
BORCH, a town of the duchy of Magdeburgh in
Lower Saxony, feated on the river Elbe, in E. Long.
12. 14. N. Lat. 52. 25.
BORCHLOEN, a town of the bifhopric of Liege
in Germany, fituated in E. Long. 5. 28. N. Lat.
50. 50.
BORCOVIUM, (anc. geog.), a town of the Otta-
dini in Britain, now Berwick on Tweed.
BORD-halfpenny, a fmall toll by cultom paid
to the lord of the town for fetting up boards, tables,
booths, &c. in fairs and markets.
BoRD-L«»i//, the demefnes which lords keep in their
hands for the maintenance of their board or table.
BoRD-Z-We, a fervice required of tenants to carry
timber out of the woods of the lord to his honfe. It
is alfo ufed to fignify the quantity of provifion which
the bordarii or bordmen paid for their bord-lands.
Foil'd-Service, the tenure of bord-lands, by which
fome lands in certain places are held of the biihop of
London, and the tenants now pay fixpence per acre,
in lieu of fending provifion anciently for their lord’s
table.
BORDAT, in commerce, a fmall narrow Huff,
which is manufa&ured in fome parts of Egypt, parti¬
cularly at Cairo, at Alexandria, and Damieta.
BORDE (Andrew), a phylician, was born at Pe-
venfey in Suflex, early in the 16th century, and fup-
pofed to have been educated at Wellminller fchool. In
his Introduflion to Knowledge, he fays that he was a
ftudent of Oxford; but of what college, he does not
mention. He left the univerfity without a degree, and
entered himfelf a brother of aCarthufian convent in or
near London; but, not liking the fevere difcipline of
that order, he returned to Oxford, and applied himfelf
to the ftudy of phyfic. Some time after, he embarked
for the Continent; and, as he himfelf exprefies it, “ tra¬
velled through and round about Chrillendom, and out
of Chriftendom into fome parts of Africa.” In the
years 1541 and iy42,herefided at Montpelierin France,
where he was made do&or of phyfic, and after his re¬
turn to England was incorporated into the fame degree
at Oxford. From the preface to his introdufiion above
mentioned, it appears that he had been in Scotland,
which probably was foon after his return from France.
Having now fatisfied his inclination for travelling, he
fettled fir ft at Pevenfey where he was born, afterwards
at Winchefter, and finally in London, where he is faid
to have become a fellow of the college of phyficians,
and firft phyfician to king Henry VIII. But, not-
withftanding his eminence in his profeffion, he had the
misfortune to fpend the latter end of his life in the
Fleet prifon, where he died in the year 1549. As to
his charafter, Wood fays, that “ he was efteemed a
noted poet, a witty and ingenious perfon, and an ex-
«elknt phyfician.” Pits calls him a man of fuflicient
learning, but too volatile and inconftant. Bale and B^rde
fome others, on the contrary, abufe him grofsly. His II
writings are, x. A book of the introduaion of know- Boreas-
ledge, the whych doth teach a man to fpeak part of
all manner of languages, &c. Lond. 1542, 410; dedi¬
cated, from Montpelier, to the lady Mary daughter
to Henry VIII. It is written partly in verfe, and
partly in profe, containing 39 chapters, before each
of which is a wooden print of a man. 2. The brevi¬
ary of health, wherein are remedies for all manner
of ficknefies and difeafes, &c* Lond. 1547, &c. 410.
3. Dietary of health, Lond. 1576, 8vo. 4. The
merry tales of the madmen of Gotham. Printed, fays
Wood, in the time of Henry VIII. in whofe reign, and
after, it was accounted a book full of wit and mirth by
fcholars and gentlemen. Afterwards beingoftenprinted,
it is now fold only on the ftalls of ballad-fingers. 5.
A right pleafant and merry hiftory of the myhier of
Abington, with his wife and his fair daughter, and of
two poor fcholars of. Cambridge. Lond. printed by
Richard Jones, 410. 6. A book of every region,
country, and province; which Ihcws the miles and
leagues diftance from city to city, and from town to
town, with the noted things in the faid cities and towns.
Wood fays that the author lent the manufeript of this
book to his friend Thomas Cromwell, who loft it, to
the great grief of the author, who would otherwife
have publilhtd it. In this inilance, however, the an¬
tiquary was milinformed; for it has fince been publifhed
by Hearne at the end of Benediflus abbas Peterb. de
vita Henrici II. Oxf. 1735, ®vo- 7- The principles
of aftronomy, the whych diligently perfecuted is in a
manner a prognoftication to the world. Lond. printed
by Robert Copland, i2mo. The author fays that he
wrote this little book in four days, with one old pen
without mending.
BORDER, in gardening, is made to inclofe par¬
terres, that they may not be injured by walking in
them. Borders are made either circular, ilraight, or in
cants; and are turned into knots, fcrolls, volutes, and
other compartiments. They are rendered very orna¬
mental by the flowers, ftirubs, yews, &c. that are
raifed in them. They are always laid with a iharp ri-
fing in the middle ; becaufe, if they are flat, they are
noways agreeable to the eye : and as for their breadth,
the largeil are allowed five or fix feet, and the fmalleft
commonly four.
BORDUNI, or Bordone, (Paris), an excellent
Italian painter, was born at Venice about the year
1512; and, being of a noble family, had a polite edu¬
cation. He was the difciple of Titian ; but has been
admired more for the delicacy of his pencil than for the
truth of his outlines. He was at the court of France
in the reign of Francis I. who had a great efteem for
him, and for whom he drew not only abundance of hif-
tory-pieces, but the portraits of feveral court-ladies, in
fo fine a manner, that original nature was hardly more
charming. He at length returned to Venice, laden
with riches and honour; and having gained great repu¬
tation in all parts of Italy, died in 1387, aged 75.
BORDURE, in heraldry. See there, n° 10.
BORE, among engineers, denotes the diameter of
the barrel of a gun or cannon, or rather its whole
cavity.
BOREAS, a Greek name, now in common ufe for
the
BOR [ 1273 ] BOR
Bo-'d the north-wind. Pezron obferves, that anciently Bo- Caefar, by the vigour of his youth, and the force of
BoLia. re3S %n,'^ed t^e north~eaJi wind, blowing at the time antidotes, after many ftruggles, recovered. He only
 S_l_ of the fummer folftice. Boreas is reprefented in paint- recovered to outlive his fortune and grandeur, to fee
ing like an old man with a horrible look, his hair and hirafelf deprefled, and his enemies exalted ; for he was
beard covered with fnow or hoar froft, with the feet foon after diverted of all his acquifitions, and fent a
and tail of a dragon. M. Spierlingius has a.treatife in prifontr to Spain, in order to free Italy from an incen-
praife of Boreas, wherein he rtiews the honours paid to diary, and the Italian princes from thofe dangers which
him by antiquity. Boreas, according to this author, the turbulent and reftlefs fpirit of Caefar made them
purifies the air, renders it calm and falubrious, pre- fear even though he was unarmed. He efcaped from
ferves buildings from decay, drives away the plague thence ; and got fafe to Navarre, to king John his bro-
and other noxious difeafes, and expels locults and other ther-in-law, who was then at war with his fubje&s.
vermin hurtful to the grounds. _ Csefar ferved as a volunteer in that war, and was killed*
BOREL (Peter), a learned phyfician, was the fon in 1507.
of James Borel who publiflied feveral poems, and was BORGO, an ancient town of Sweden, feated on the
born at Caftres in 1620. He applied himfelf to the gulf of Finland, in the province of Nyland. E. Long,
ftudy of phyfic, of which he was created dodlor, and 26. 25. N. Lat. 60. 34.
pradifed with great fuccefs in the city of Caftres. To- Borgo de St Sepulchre, a town of Tufcany, in
wards the end of the year 1653, he went to Paris, and Italy, fituated in E. Long. 13. o. N. Lat. 43. 30.
was foon after made phyfician in ordinary to the king. Borgo de val de Faro, a town of Italy, in the
In 1674, he was received into the academy of fciences, duchy of Parma, in E. Long. 10. 36. N. Lat. 44. 35.
and diftinguiftied himfelf by writing a great number Borgo-/W(?, a town of the Mantuan in Italy,
of works. The molt dleemed are, 1. Hijloriarum fituated at the confluence of the rivers Po and Menzo.
<b obfervationum niedico-phyjicarum. 2. Bibliotheca E. Long. 11.0. N. Lat. 44. 50.
Chymica, duodecimo. 3. De vero telefcopii inventore, Borgo San Domino, a town of Italy, in the duchy
cumbrevi omnium confpicilloruni hijioria. He died in of Parma, with a bifhop’s fee. E. Long. 10. 31. N.
j678. Lat. 41. 53.
BORELLI (John Alphonfo), a famous philofo- BORGOGNONE, a celebrated painter, whofe true
pher and mathematician born at Naples the 28th of name was Giacomo Cortefi; but he is commonly called
January 1608. He was profeflbr of philofophy and Borgognone, from the country where he was born, a-
mathemathics in fome of the molt celebrated univer- bout the year 1605. He was much admired and highly
fities of Italy, particularly at Florence and Pifa, where applauded for his admirable gufto, and grand manner
he became highly in favour with the princes of the of painting battles. He had for feveral years been con-
houfe of Medicis; but having been engaged in the re- verfant in military affairs, was an officer of confiderable
volt of Meffina, he was obliged to retire to Rome, rank in the army, made the camp his fchool, and form-
where he fpent the remainder.of his life under the pro- ed all his ideas from what he had feen performed in
te&ion of Chriftina queen of Sweden, who honoured the field. His ftyle is roughly noble, full of fire and
him with her friendfliip, and by her liberality towards fpirit, and there are a fewprints etched by his own hand,
him foftened the rigour of his hard fortune. He con- Towards the clofe of his life he retired to the Jefuits
tinued two years in the convent of the regular clergy convent in Rome, where he is faid to have taken fanc-
of St Pantaleon, called the pious fchools, where he in- tuary to rid his hands of an ill bargain he had got of a
ftrudfted the youth in mathematical ftudies. He died wife. But happily furviving her, he lived in great
there of a pleurify, the 31st of December 1679, in the efteem and honour till after the year 1675.
72d year of his age. He wrote, in Latin, 1. Euclid BORIA, a fmall town of Spain, in the kingdom of
reftored. 2. The theory of the influence of the planets Arragon. W. Long. 2. 2. N. Lat. 41. 50.
in medicine, deduced from phyfical caufes. 3. Of BORING, in a general fenfe, the art of perforating,
percuffive force. 4. Of natural motions depending up- or making a hole through any folid body,
on gravity, y. An hiftorical and meteorological ac- Boring of Water-pipes. The method of boring
count of the burning of mount ^Etna, in the year 1669. water-pipes is as follows. The poles of alder, which
6. Of the motion of animals 4 and feveral other works, is a very ufeful wood in making pumps, water-pipes,
fome of which are in Italian. &c. being laid on horfes or traffels of a foot height,
BORGIA (Csefar), natural fon of pope Alexan- to reft the augre upon while they are boring, they fet
der VI. was a brave general, but a molt abandoned up a lath to turn the leaft end of the poles, to fit them
villain. See (Hijlory of) Italy.—It is incredible what to the cavities of the great end of the others. They
numbers he caufed to be taken off by poifon, or by the turn the fmall ends of the poles about five or fix inches
fword; and it is notorious that fwarms of affalfins were in length, to the fize they intend to bore the bigger
conftantly kept in pay by him at Rome, for the fake ends about the fame depth, viz. five or fix inches. This
of removing all who were either obnoxious or inconve- is defigned to make a joint to ftmt each pair of poles,
nient to him. He experienced various turns of for- together, the concave part being the female part, and
^tune ; and was fometimes very profperous, fometimes the other the male of the joint. In turning the male
the reverfe. He very narrowly efcaped dying by poi- part, they turn a channel in it, or a fmall groove at a
fon in 1503 : for having concerted with the. pope a de- certain diftance from the end ; and in the female part
iign of poifoning nine newly created cardinals at once, they bore a fmall hole to fit over this channel. This
for the fake of poffefiing their effects, the poifoned wine, being done, they bore the poles through ; and to pre-
deftined for the purpofe, was by miftake brought to vent them from boring out at the fide, they flick great
and drank by themfelves. The pope died of it; but nails at each end to be a guide in boring. It is ufual,
however.
Borg*
Boring.
BOR [ 1274 ] BOR
Boring however, to bore them at both ends, fo that if a pole
!t be crooked one way, they can bore it through and not
B,rllt'c>‘ fpoil it.
Boring, in farriery, a cruel and abfurd method of
treating a wrenched (boulder. See Farriery, $ xxiii. 7.
Boring, in mineralogy, a method of piercing the
earth with fcooping irons, which being drawn back at
proper times, bring up with them famples of the dif¬
ferent ft rata through which they have paffed ; by the.
examination of which the (kilful mineralogift will be
able to guefs whereabouts a vein of ore may lie, or
whether it will be worth while to open a mine there or no.’
BORIQUEN, one of the Caribbee iflands in North
America, near that of Porto Rico. The Englifh for¬
merly had a fettlement there, but were driven away by
the Spaniards. It is at prefent without inhabitants,
tho’ agreeable and fertile ; the air being wholefome,
and the water good. There are a great number of
land-crabs, whence fame have called it Crab-ifland.
W. Long. 64. 35. N. Lat. 18. o.
BORISTHENES, (anc. geog.), the largeft river
of Sarmatia Europea, thus defcribed by Mela, who
copies verbatim from Herodotus: “ It runs through
a cognominal people, is the moft pleafant of all the
rivers of Scythia, and calmer than all of them in its
courfe, and very agreeable to drink: it feeds very rich
paftures, and produces large fi(h of the heft flavour,
and without bones : it comes a great way, riling from
fprings unknown ; its courfe is a diftance of 40 days,
and fo far it is navigable.” It is now called the Drie-
per or Nieper.
BORKELO, a ftrong town in the United Provin¬
ces, in the county of Zutphen, feated on the river Bor-
kel, in E. Long. 6. 30. N. Lat. 52. 15.
BORLASE (Dr Edmund), an eminent phyfician
and Englifti writer in the 17th century, was the fon of
Sir John Borlafe, mafter of the ordnance, and one of
the Lord Juftices of Ireland in 1643. He ftudied in
Dublin college, and afterwards at the univerfity of
Leyden, at which laft place he took the degree of
doftor of phyfic. He afterwards pra&ifed phylic with
great fuccefs in the city of Chefter, and was incorpo¬
rated doftor of the faculty in the univerfity of Ox¬
ford. Among the books which he wrote and publifti-
ed are the following, x. Latham Spaw in Lanca-
(hire, with fome remarkable cafes and cures performed
by it. 2. The reduftion of Ireland to the* crown of
England. 3. The hiftory of the Irifh rebellion.
4. Brief refleftions on the earl of Caftlehaven’s me¬
moirs, &c. He died after the year 1682.
BORMIO, a county depending on the republic of
the Grifons in Switzerland. It is bounded on the fouth
by the eftate of Venice, on the eaft by the territory of
the houfe of Auftria, and on the fouth and weft by
Caddea. It is 15 miles over both tvays ; and is divided
into five communities, viz. the town of Bormio, the
valley of Forbia, the Interior Valley, the Lower Valley,
and the Valley of Luvino. Bormio is the only town in
this diftrift ; and has a governor called a podejia, fent
by the Grifons to prefide in civil and criminal affairs.
It is feated at the confluence of the rivers Addo and
Ifalacua, in E. Long. 10. 10. N. Lat. 46. 45.
BORNE, a market-town of Lincolnftiire in Eng¬
land. W. Long. o. 20. N. Lat. 52. 40.
BORNEO, an ifland of Afia, in the Eaft Indies,
and one of the three great Sunda iflands. It is thought Borneo.
to be the largeft ifland in the world, next to New Hoi- ~
land ; being 1500 miles in circumference. It is feated
under the equator, that line cutting it almoft through
the middle. It is almoft of a circular figure 5 abounds
with gold ; and the fined diamonds in the Indies are
found in its rivers, being probably wafhed down from
the hills by torrents. Here are alfo mines of iron and
tin, and loadftones. Birds nefts f are to be had in this t See Bim-
ifland, which are eatable, and reckoned a great deli- Ne^s’
cacy. The beads are, oxen, buffaloes, deer, goats,
elephants, tigers, and monkeys. This ifland has fine
rivers, efpecially towards the weft and fouth. In
their monfoon from April to September, the wind
is wefterly; and they have continual heavy rains,
attended with violent dorms of thunder and lightning.
The rainy feafon continues for eight months of the
year ; and as during that time all the flat country
near the coaft is overflowed, the air is rendered very
unhealthful, and the inhabitants are forced to build
their houfes on floats, which they make faft to trees.
The houfes have but one floor, with partitions made
with cane; and the roofs are covered with palmetto
leaves, the eaves of which reach within four or five
feet of the bottom. The weft and north-eaft fides of
the ifland are almoft defart, and the eaft is but little
known. The inland parts are very mountainous ; and
the fouth-eaft, for many leagues together, is a (linking
morafs, which being overflowed in the wet feafon is
very unhealthy.
The Portuguefe, who firft difcovered Borneo, had
arrived in the Indies above 30 years before they knew
any thing of it more than the name, and its fituation,
by reafon of their frequently palling by its coafts. At
laft one captain Edward Corril had orders to examine
it more narrowly; and being once acquainted with the
worth of the country, they made frequent voyages
thither. They found the coafts inhabited by Malayan
Moors, who had certainly eftablifhed themfelves there
by conqueft ; but the original inhabitants dill .remain
in the mountains, and are (tiled Beajus, which in the
Malayan language fignifies a •wild man. The moft
authentic account of thefe people is the following,
which was extracted from the papers of father Antonio
Ventimiglia, an Italian miflionary. He was fent to
Borneo from Macao^ on board a Portuguefe (hip, con¬
verted great numbers to Chriftianity, and died on the
ifland about the year 1691. The Beajus have no kings,
but many little chiefs. Some are fubjeft to the Moor-
i(h kings, and pay them tribute ; but fuch as live far
up the country, are altogether independent, and live
according to their own cuftoms. They are generally
very fuperftitious, and much addi&ed to augury. They
do not adore idols; but their facrifices of fweet wood
and perfumes are offered to one God, who, they be¬
lieve, rewards the juft in heaven, and puniftiesthe wick¬
ed in hell. They marry but one wife ; and look upon
any breach of conjugal faith, either in the man or wo¬
man, as a capital offence. The Beajus are naturally ho¬
ned and induftrious, and have a brotherly affe6tion for
one another. They have a notion of property, which yet
does not render them covetous. They fow and culti¬
vate their lands ; but, in the time of harveft, each reaps
as much as will ferve his family, and the reft belong*
to the tribe in common; by which means they prevent
neceffity
BOR [ 1275 ] BOR
Bornholm, neceffity or difputes. With the Moors on the coafts
Bornon. portuguefe for fome time carried on a confiderable
trade, and at their requeft fettled a faftory there ;
which, hswever, was afterwards furprifed and plun¬
dered by the Moors, who put moft of the people to
the fword. The moft confiderable river in Borneo is
called Banjar, at the mouth of which our Eaft-India
company have a faffory.
BORNHOLM, an ifland in the Baltic fea, to the
fouth-eaft of the province of Schonen in Sweden. It
is twenty-one miles in length, and above thirteen in
breadth. It has three confiderable towns, Rattum,
Sandwick, and Nexia ; with a great number of vil¬
lages ; and is fertile and populous. It was con¬
quered by the Swedes in 1658 ; but the inhabitants,
under the couduA of Jens Roefods, voluntarily fur-
rendered it to the king of Denmark, on account of the
bad ufage they received from the former. In 1678, a
body of 5000 Swedilh troops, in their paffage from
Pomerania to Sweden, being ftiipwrecked on this ifland,
fuch of them as remained were made prifoners of war.
The inhabitants defend the ifland by their own militia,
without any expence to the crown. The commandant
or governor refides at Rattum. E. Long. 14. 56.
N. Lat. 55. 15.
BORNOU, a kingdom or province of Zaara in
Africa, extending from 12 to 22 ^egrees of eaft lon-
itude, and from 17 to 21 degrees of north latitude,
'he northern part is poor, and like the reft of the pro¬
vinces of Zaara : but all the reft is well watered by
fprings and rivers that tumble down with a dreadful
noife from the mountains ; rendering the country pro¬
lific in corn, grafs, and fruits, and giving it a pleafing
afpeft. The eaftern and weftern frontiers are divided
into mountains and valleys,-the latter being all covered
with flocks of cattle, fields of rice and millet, and many
of the mountains with wood, fruit-trees, and cotton.
On the north-weft Hands the mountain of Tarton, ha-
ving plenty of good iron mines; and on the fouth flows
the river Niger, which, it is faid, after running a great
many leagues under a long chain of mountains, rears
up its head again, and mingles its ftream with the wa¬
ters of the lake Bornou in its courfe, from whence it
wafties the walls of the capital of this kingdom. The
compilers of the Univerfal Hiftory, however, are of
opinion, that in thefe mountains the river Niger hath
ita fource, becaufe no river hath been traced to the
eaftward, except the Nile, which runs in a'different
courfe from north to fouth, and the White river, on the
weftern frontiers of Abyfiinia, which is a branch of
the Nile. The eaftern and weftern parts of Bornou
are inhabited by a people of a roving difpofition, who
live in tents, and have their women, children, and every
thing elfe, in common ; the word property> or any idea
equivalent to it, being utterly unknown among them.
They have neither religion, laws, government, nor any
degree of fubordination; and hence they have been
fuppofed by Cluverius to be the lineal defcendents of
the ancient Garamantes, and this to have been the re-
fidence of that people. In thefe parts, the natives are
almoft to a man fhepherds and hufbandmen. In fum-
mer they go naked, except a fhort apron before; but
in winter they are warmly clothed with the fofteft fheep-
fkins, of which they alfo form their bed-cloaths; and
indeed this is fcarce a fufficient defence againft the in¬
clemency of the weather at certain feafons of the year, Eoromaus
when a cold piercing wind blows from the northern „ H ,
mountains, that chills the blood in proportion as the  g
pores of the body have been opened by the fcorching
heats of fummer. Baudrand and Daper affirm that
the natives are fcarce fuperior in their underftandino;
to brutes; not even having any names whereby to dif-
tinguifti each other, except what they take from fome
perfonal defeft or Angularity ; fuch as lean, fat, fquint-
ing, hump-backed, &c. In the towns, however, it is
acknowledged that they are fomething more civilized
and polite, being many of them merchants; but of
thefe towns, or indeed of the kingdom in general, very
little is known.
BOROMiEUS (Frederic), cardinal and archbifhop
of Milan. He, in 160^, celebrated the council of
Milan. He founded the Ambrofian library, which
he enriched with 9000 manufcripts. He left feveral
works behind him, and died in 1632.
BORONDON, (S'), an ifland in the Atlantic Ocean,
mentioned by fome writers, particularly Linfchotten,
in their defcription of the Canary iflands, as fomething
fupernatural. It is faid to be about too leagues di-
ftant from Ferro, probably weft, though no writer has
pretended to lay down its exaft fituation. Here it is
affirmed feveral fhips have touched by accident, and all
agree in their relations of the ftate of the inhabitants
and ifland. They affirm, that it is perpetually clothed
with a great variety of wood, chiefly fruit-trees : that
the valleys are in a perpetual ftate of verdure; and con¬
tinually decked with flowers, grafs, and plants, the
fpontaneous produ&ions of the earth; or with corn and
pulfe, cultivated with great care by the inhabitants:
that the foil is fo prolific as to raife large quantities of
corn for exportation; and that the fltips that call here
never fail of meeting with refreftiments of every kind.
It is faid to be peopled by Chriftians, who have a lan¬
guage of their own, apparently combined of a variety
of modern languages; for, fay they, whoever under-
ftands the European tongues may make ftiift to hold
converfation with this people. It is remarkable, that
no fhips, exprefsly fent upon this difcovery, were ever
fortunate enough to fall in with the ifland of S'1 Boron-
don, though the Spaniards have feveral times attempted
it from the Canaries. Hence it has been called the
marvellous ifland; and hence indeed we may conclude,
either that it exifts wholly in imagination, or at leaft
that it is furrounded with, fuch currents as infenfibly
carry (hips out of their.courfe, and prevent their meet¬
ing with it. Some writers affirm that it adlually dif-
appears upon certain occafions, and fhifts its pofition-;
while others, with more appearance of truth, allege,
that it is frequently overcaft with thick and impene¬
trable clouds, which occafion the difappointment of all
the adventurers who have gone in fearch of it.
BOROUGH, Burrough, Boro-vj, ox Burgh> a
corporation or town which is not a city. The word
in its original fignification meant a company coniifting
of ten families, which were bound together as each o-
thers pledge. Afterwards borough came to fignify a
town having a wall or fome inclofure round it: and all
places that in old time had the name of borough, it is
faid, were fortified or fenced in fome fhape or other.
Borough is a place of fafety and privilege : and fome
are called free burghs, and the tradefineu in them free,
burgejfes*
BOR [ 12
Borough lurgejes, from a freedom they had granted to them ori-
Borrlllirts S*na^yt0 ^“7 anc^ without difturbance, and exempt
— 1 from toll.
13oroug h-E.nglijh) a cuftomary defcent of lands or
tenements, in fome ancient boroughs and copy-hold
manors, by which the youngeft fon, and not the eldeft,
fucceeds to the burgage tenement on the death of his
father. For which Littleton gives this reafon ; becaufe
the younger fon, by reafon or his tender age, is not fo
capable as the reft of his brethren to help himfelf. Other
authors have indeed given a much ftranger reafon for
this cuftom ; as if the lord of the fee had anciently a
right to break the feventh commandment with his te¬
nant’s wife on her wedding night; and that therefore
the tenement defcended, not to the eldeft, but to the
youngeft fon, who was more certainly the offspring of
the tenant. But it cannot be proved that this cuftom
ever prevailed in England, though it certainly did in
Scotland, (under the name of mercheta, or march?ta),
till aboliftied by Malcom III. But perhaps a more
rational account than either may be brought from the
pra&ice of the Tartars; among whom, according to Fa¬
ther Duhalde, this cuftom of defcent to the youngeft fon
alfo prevails. That nation is compofed totally of {hep-
herds and herdfmen; and the elder fons, as foon as they
are capable of leading a paftoral life, migrate from their
father with a certain allotment of cattle, and go to feek
a new habitation. The youngeft fon, therefore, who
continues lateft with his father, is naturally the heir of
his houfe, the reft being already provided for. And
thus we find, that among many other northern nations
it was the cuftom for all the fons but one to migrate
from the father, which one became his heir. So that
poffibly this cuftom, wherever it prevails, may be the
remnant of that paftoral ftate of the ancient Britons
and Germans which Caefar and Tacitus defcribe.
Borough-Zw^/, or Head-borough, called alfo borough-
holder, or burjholder, the chief man of the decenna, or
hundred, chofen to fpeak and aft in behalf of the reft.
Head-borough alfo fignifies a kind of head coriftable,
where there are feveral chofen as his affiftants, to ferve
warrants, &c. See Constable.
BOROUGHBRIDGE, a town in the north riding
of Yorkfhire in England, feated on the river Your,
over which there is a handfome ftone bridge. The
town is not large, but commodious, and fends two mem¬
bers to parliament. W. Long. i. ij. N. Lat. 54. jo.
BOROZAIL, or the zail of the Ethiopians, adif-
cafe epidemic in the countries about the river Senega.
It principally affefts the pudenda, but is different from
the lues venerea. It owes its rife to exceffive venery;
in the men this diftemper is called afab, and in wo¬
men ajjdbaius.
BORRACHIO. See Caouchouk.
BORRAGE. See Anchusa.
BORRELLISTS, in ehurch-hiftory, a Chrtftian
feft in Holland; fo denominated from their founder
Borrel, a perfon of great learning in the Hebrew,
Greek, and Latin tongues. They rejeft the ufe of
the facraments, public prayer, and all other external
afts of worftiip. They affert, that all the Chrillian
churches of the world have degenerated from the pure
apoftolical doftrines, becaufe they have fuffered the
word of God, which is infallible, to be expounded, or
rather corrupted, by doftors which are not infallible.
76 ] BOS
They lead a very auftere life, and employ a great part Borrichuii
of their goods in alms. f|
BORRICHIUS, one of the moft learned men of
his age, the fon of a Lutheran minifter in Denmark, '
was born in 1626. He applied himfelf to pbyfic. in
the univerfity of Copenhagen, and began to praftife
during a moft terrible plague that made great havoc in
that city. He travelled : but before his departure, in
1660, he was appointed profeffor in poetry, botany,
and Chemiftry ; and at his return difeharged his duties
with great aftiduity, of which the works he puhlifiied
afford full proof. He was raifed to the office of coun-
fellor in the fupreme council of juftice, in 1686; to
that ofcounfellor of the Royal Chancery, in 1689; and
died of the operation for the ftone, in 1690. Hepub-
liftied, 1. Lingua pharmacopasorum. 2. Differtationes
de poeticis Graecis et Latinis. 3. De ortu et pro-
greffu chemise ; and feveral other works.
BORROWING and Hiring, in law, are contrafts
by which a qualified property may be transferred to
the hirer or borrower ; in which there is only this dif¬
ference, that hiring is always for a price or ilipend, or
additional recompenfe; borrowing is merely gratuitous.
But the law in both cafes is the fame. They are both
contrafts, whereby the poffeffion and tranfient pro¬
perty is transferred for a particular time or ufe, on con¬
dition and agreement to reftore the goods fo hired or
borrowed, as foon as the time is expired, or the ufe per¬
formed, together with the price or ftipend (in cafe of
hiring) either exprefsly agreed upon by the parties,
of left to be implied by law, according to the value of
the fervice. By this mutual contraft, the hirer or bor¬
rower gains a temporary property in ths thing hired,
accompanied with an implied condition to ufe it with
moderation, and not abufeit; and the owner or lender
retains a reverfionary intereft in the fame, and acquires
a new property in the price or reward. Thus if a man
hires or borrows a horfe for a month, he has the pof¬
feffion and a qualified property therein during that
period ; on the expiration of which his qualified pro¬
perty determines, and the owner becomes (in cafe of
hiring) intitled alfo to the premium or price for which
the horfe was hired.
There is one fpecies of this price or reward the moft
ufual of any, but concerning which many good and
learned men have in former times very much perplexed
themfelves and other people, by raifing doubts about
its legality in foro confcicntix. That is, when money
is lent on a contraft to receive not only the principal
fum again, but alfo an increafe by way of compenfation
for the ufe, . which is generally called interejl by thofe
who think it lawful, and ufury by thofe who do not fo.
But as to this, fee the article Interest.
BORROWSTONESS. See Burrowstoness.
BORZONl (Luciano), a Genoefe hjftorian and
portrait-painter of great genius and abilities, flourifhed
abo-ut the middle of the ty1111 century. His three fons
were profeffors of the fame art: but only one, Francis
Maria, fucceeded; and that was in fea-pieces, parti¬
cularly ftorme.
BOS (John Baptift du), a celebrated author and
member of the French academy, was born at Beauvais
in 1670, and finifiied his ftudies at the Sorbonne. In
1695, was made one of the committee for foreign
affairs under Mr Torez ; and was afterwards charged
with
BOS [12
Bos. with fomcimportant tranfa&ions inEngland, Genr.any,
_ Holland, and Italy. At his return to Paris, he was
handfomely preferred, made an abbe, and chofen
perpetual fecretary of the French academy. He was
the author of feveral excellent works; the principal
of which are, I. Critical reflexions upon poetry and
painting, 3 vols i2mo. 2. The hiftory of the four
■Gordians, confirmed and illuftrated by medals. 3. A
critical hiftory of the eftablifhment of the French mo¬
narchy among the Gauls, 2 vols 4to, 4 vols i2mo.
He died at Paris, on the 23d of March 1742.
• BOS, in zoology, a genus of quadrupeds belonging
to the order of pecora. The characters of this genus
are taken from the horns and teeth. The horns are
hollow within ; and turned forward, in the form of
crefcents: There are eight fore-teeth in the under jaw,
and none in the upper, their place being fupplied by a
hard membrane ; and there are no dog-teeth in either
jaw. Linnaeus enumerates fix ipecies, viz.
1". The taurus, including the bull'and cow, has cy¬
lindrical horns bent outwards, and loofe dewlaps. The
bull, or male, is naturally a fierce and terrible animal.
When the cows are in feafon, he is perfectly ungo¬
vernable, and often altogether furious. When chaffed,
he has an air of fullen majefty, and oft tears up the
ground with his feet and horns. The principal ufe of
the bull is to propagate the fpecies; although he might
be trained to labour, his obedience cannot be depended
on. A bull, like a ftallion, fhould be the moft hand-
fome of his fpecies. He fhould be large, well-made,
and in good heart; he fhould have a black eye, a fierce
afpeCt, but an open front; a fhort head ; thick, fhort,
and blackifh horns, and long fhaggy cars ; a fhort and
itraight nofe, large and full breaft and fhoulders, thick
and flefhy neck, firm reins, a ftraight back, thick
flefhy legs, and a long tail well covered with hair. Ca-
ftration remarkably foftens the nature of this animal ;
it deftroys all his fire and impetuofity, and renders him
mild and traXable, without diminifhing his ftrength ;
on the contrary, after this operation, his weight is in-
creafed, and he becomes fitter for the purpofes of plow¬
ing, &c.
The beft time for caftrating bulls is at the age of
puberty, or when they are 18 months or two years
old ; when performed fooner, they often die. FIow-
ever, it is not uncommon to caftrate calves a few days
after birth. But fuch as furvive an operation fo dan¬
gerous to their tender age, generally grow larger and
fatter, and have more courage and aClivity than thofe
who are caftrated at the age of puberty. When the o-
peration is delayed till the age of fix, fcven, or eight
years, they lofe but few of the qualities of bulls; are
much more furious and^intraXable than other oxen ;
and when the cows are in feafon, they go in queft of
them with their ufual ardor.
The females of all thofe fpecies of animals which we
keep in flocks, and whofe increafe is the principal ob-
jeCI, are much more ufeful than the males. The cow
produces milk, butter, cheefe, &c. which are principal
articles in our food, and befides anfwer many ufeful pur¬
pofes in various arts.
Cows are generally in feafon, and receive the bull,
from the beginningof May to the middle of July. Their
time of geftation is nine months, which naturally brings
the veal or calves to our markets from the beginning of
Vol. II.
77 1 BOS
January to the end of April. However, luxury has Bo*.
fallen upon methods of interrupting this natural courfe, 
and veal may be had alrnolt every month in the year.
Cows, when improperly managed, are very fubjeX
to abortion. In the time of gettation, therefore, they
ought to be obferved with more than ordinary care, left
they ftiould leap ditches, &c. Neither Ihould they be
fuffered to draw in the plough or other carriage, which
is a praXice in fome countries. They (hould be put into
the belt pafture, and fliould not be milked for fix weeks
or two months before they bring forth their young.
The calf {hould be allowed to fuck and follow its mo¬
ther during the firft fix or eight days. After this it
begins to eat pretty well, and two or three fucks in a
day will be fufficient. But ff the objeX be to have it
quickly fattened for the market, a few raw eggs every
day, with boiled milk, and a little bread, will make it
excellent veal in four or five weeks. This management
of calves applies only to fuch as are defigned for the
butcher. When they are intended to be nouriflied and
brought up, they ought to have at lead two months
fuck ; beta ufe the longer they fuck, they grow the
ftronger and larger. Thofe that are brought forth in
April, May, or June, are the moft proper for this
purpofe ; when calved later in the feafon, they do not
acquire fufficient ftrength to fupport them during the
winter.
The cow comes to the age of puberty in 18 months,
but the bull requires two years: but although they are
capable of propagating at thefe ages, it is better to re-
ftrain them till they be full three years. From three
to nine years thofe animals are in full vigour; but when
older, they are fit for nothing but to be fed for the
butcher. A milk-cow ought to be chofen young,
flefhy, and with a brilk eye.
The heavieft and moft bulky animals neither fleep fo
profoundly, nor fo long, as the fmaller ones. The
deep of the ox is flrort and flight; he wakes at the lead
noife. He lies generally on the left fide, and the kid¬
ney of that fide is always larger than the other. There
is great variety in the colour of oxen. A reddifh or
black colour is moft efteemed. The hair {hould be
glofly, thick, and foft; for, when otherwife, the animal
is either not in health, or has a weakly conftitution.
The beft time for inuring them to labour is at the age
of two and a half or three years.
The ox eats very quick, and foon fills his firft fto-
mach ; after which he lies down to ruminate, or chew
the cud. The firft and fecond ftomachs are continua¬
tions of the fame bag, and very capacious. After the
rafs has been chewed over again, it is reduced to a
ind of mafti, not unlike boiled fpinage; and under
this form it is fent down to the third Itomach, where
it remains and digefts for fome time ; but the digeftion
is not fully completed till it comes to the fourth fto-
mach, from which it is thrown down to the guts. The
contents of the firft and fecond ftomachs are a collec¬
tion of grafs and other vegetables roughly macerated ;
a fermentation however foon commences, which makes
the grafs fwell. The communication between the fe¬
cond and third ftomach is by an opening much fmaller
than the gullet, and not fufficient for the paffage of the
food in this ftate. Whenever, then, the two firft fto¬
machs are diftended with food, they begin to contraX,
or rather perform a kind of re-aXion. This re-aXion
7 Y cons-
BOS [ 1278 ] BOS
Bfls- comprefles the food, and makes it endeavour to get out:
now the gullet being larger than the pafiage between
the fecond and third ftomachs, the preflure of the fto-
mach neceflarily forces it up the gullet. The a&ion of
ruminating, however, appears to be in a great mea-
fure voluntary ; as animals of this kind have a power of
iacreafing the re-a£tion of their ftomachs. After the
food undergoes a fecond maftication, it is then reduced
into a thin pulp, which eafily pafles from the fecond to
the third ftomach, where it is ftill further macerated ;
from thence it pafles to the fourth, where it is reduced
to a perfect mucilage, every way prepared for being
taken up by the ladteals, and converted into nourifti-
ment. What confirms this account of chewing the cud
is, that as long as thefe animals fuck or feed upon li¬
quid aliment, they never ruminate ; and in the winter,
when they are obliged to feed upon hay and other dry
victuals, they ruminate more than when they feed upon
frefti grafs.
Bulls, cows, and oxen, are fond of licking them-
felves, efpecially when lying at reft. But this practice
fhould be prevented as much as pofiible ; for as the hair
is an undigeftible fubftance, it lies in the ftomach or
guts, and is gradually coated by a glutinous fubftance,
which in time hardens into round ftones of a confider-
able bulk, which fometimes kills them, but always
prevents their fattening, as the ftomach is rendered in¬
capable of digefting the food fo well as it ought.
Buffon, Uift. The age of thefe animals may be diftinguilhed by
Naturelle. ^ teeth and horns. The firft fore-teeth fall out at
the age of fix months, and are fucceeded by others of
a darker colour, and broader. At the end of fixteen
months, the next milk-teeth likewife fall out; and at
the beginning of the fourth year all the fore-teeth are
renewed, and then they are long, pretty white, and
equal: However, as the animal advances in years, they
become unequal and blackifli. The horns of oxen four
years of age are fmall pointed, neat, and fmooth, but
thickeft near the head : This thick part next feafon
is pulhed further from the head by a horny cylinder,
which is alfo terminated by another fwelling part, and
fo on, (for as long as the ox lives, the horns continue
to grow) ; and thefe fwellings become fo many annular
knots by which the age may eafily be reckoned : But,
from the point to the firft knot muft be counted three
years, and every fucceeding knot only one year. The
bull, cow, and ox, generally live about fourteen or fif¬
teen years.
Ox-beef is very nouriflu'ng, and yields a ftrong ali¬
ment ; the flelh of a cow, when well fatted and young,
is not much inferior. Bull-beef is hard, tough, and
dry; for which reafon it is not much ufed for food.
Veal is well tafted, eafy of digeftion, and rather keeps
the body open than otherwife.
The northern countries of Europe produce the beft
cattle of this kind. In general, they bear cold better
than heat; for this reafon, they are not fo plenty in the
fouthern countries. There are but few in Afia to the
fouth of Armenia, or in Africa beyond Egypt and
Barbary. America produced none till they were car¬
ried there by the Europeans. But the largeft are to
be met with in Denmark, Podolia, the Ukrain, anda-
mong the Cal muck Tartars ; likewife thofe of Ireland,
England, Holland, and Hungary, are much larger than
thofe of Perfia, Turky, Greece, Italy, and Spain; but
thofe of Barbary are leaft of all. In all mountainous ®os.
countries, as Wales, the Highlands of Scotland, &c. the ' ~
black cattle are fmall; but hardy, and when fattened
make excellent beef. In Lapland, they are moftly
white, and many of them want horns.
The Britifti breed of cattle, Mr Pennant obferves, Synopfi, of
has in general been fo much improved by foreign mix- Quadrupeds.
ture, that it is difficult to point out the original kind
of thefe iflands. Thofe which may be fuppofed to have
been originally Britilh are far inferior in fize to thofe
on the northern part of the European continent : the
cattle of the Highlands of Scotland are exceedingly
fmall; and many of them, males as well as females, are
hornlefs : the Welfti runts are much larger : the black
cattle of Cornwall are of the fame fize with the laft.
The large fpecies that is now cultivated through moft
parts of Great Britain, are either entirely of foreign
extra&ion, or our own improved by a crofs with the fo¬
reign kind. The Lincolnfhire kind derive their fize
from the Holftein breed ; and the large hornlefs cattle
that are bred in fome parts of England, come originally
from Poland.
About 250 years ago, there was found in Scotland
a wild race of cattle, which were of a pure white colour,
and had, if we may believe Boethius, manes like lions.
Mr Pennant fays he cannot but give credit to the re¬
lation ; having feen in the woods of Drumlanrig in
North Britain, and in the park belonging to Chilling-
ham caftle in Northumberland, herds of cattle pro¬
bably derived from the favage breed. They have loft
their manes, but retain their colour and fiercenefs:
they were of a middle fize, long legged ; and had black
muzzels and ears; their horns fine, and with a bold and
elegant bend.—The keeper of thofe at Chillingham
faid, that the weight of the ox was 38 ftones; of the
cow, 28 : that their hides were more efteemed by the
tanners than thofe of the tame ; and they would give
fixpence per ftone more for them. Thefe cattle were
wild as any deer: on being approached, they would in-
ftantly take to flight, and gallop away at full fpeed ;
never mix with the tame fpecies ; nor come near the
houfe, unlefs conftrained to it by hunger in very fevere
weather. When it is neceflary to kill any, they areal-
ways {hot : if the keeper only wounds the bead, he
muft take care to keep behind fome tree, or his life
would be in danger from the furious attacks of the
animal, which will never defift till a period is put to
its life.
Frequent mention is made of our favage cattle by
hiftorians. One relates that Robert Bruce was (in
chafing thefe animals) preferved from the rage of a
wild bull by the intrepidity of one of his courtiers,
from which he and his lineage acquired the name of
Turn-bull. Fitz-Stephen * names thefe animals [uri *HifTory of
fylvejlres) among thofe that harboured in the great fo- London
reft that in his time lay adjacent to London. Another
enumerates, among the provifions at the great feaftof uin> yur.
Nevil archbifliop of York, fix wild bulls; and Sibbald
allures us, that in his days a wild and white fpecies was
found in the mountains of Scotland, but- agreeing in
form with the common fort. Thefe were probably the
fame with the bifontes jubati of Pliny, found then in
Germany, and might have been common to the con¬
tinent and our ifland : the lofs of their favage vigour
by confinement might occafion fome change in the ex¬
ternal
Campitll’s
Pofitical
Survey,
BOS [ i
ternal appearance, as is frequent with wild animals de¬
prived of liberty ; and to that we may aferibe their lofs
of mane. The urus of the Hercynian foreft deferibed
by Caefar, (lib. vi.) was of this kind ; the fame which
is called by the modern Germans, aurochs, i. e. bos
fyheftris.
The ox is the only horned animal in thefe iflands that
will apply his ftrength to the fervice of mankind. It
is now generally allowed, that, in the draught, oxen
are in many cafes more profitable than horfes; their
food, harnefs, and flioes, being cheaper; and (hould
they be lamed or grow old, an old working bead will
be as good meat, and fatten as well, as a young one.
There is fcarce any part of this animal without its
life. The blood, fat, marrow, hide, hair, horns, hoofs,
milk, cream, butter, cheefe, whey, urine, liver, gall,
fpleen, bones, and dung, have each their particular ufe
in manufaftures, commerce, and medicine.
The (kin has been of great ufe in all ages. The an¬
cient Britons, before they knew a better method, built
their boats with ofiers, and covered them with the hides
of bulls, which ferved them for fiiort coaftiug voyages.
Primum cana falix madefaRo viniine parvam
Texitnr in puppim, atfoque induln juvenco,
VeRoris pattens, tumidum fuper cynical amnem :
Sic Venetus ftagnante Pado, fufeque Brit annus
Navigat oceano. Lucan, lib.iv. 131.
The bending willow into barks they twine;
Then line the work with fpoilsof ilaughter’d kine.
Such are the floats Venetian fifhers know.
When in dull marfhes ftands the fettling Po;
On fuch to neighb’ring Gaul, allur’d by gain,
The bolder Britons crofs the fwelling main. Rowu.
VefTels of this kind are dill in ufe on the Irifli lakes ;
and on the Dee and Severn : In Ireland they are called
curach, in Englilh coracles ; from the Britifh cnurrugl,
a word lignifying a boat of that ftru&ure. At prefent,
the hide, when tanned and curried, ferves for boots,
(hoes, and numberlefs other conveniencies of life 
Vellum is made of the thinned calves-fkins, and the
lkin« of abortions. Of the horns are made combs,
boxes, handles for knives, and drinking veflels; and
when foftened by water, obeying the manufadlurer’s
hands, they form pellucid laminas for the fides of lan-
thorns. Thefe lad conveniences were invented by the
great king Alfred, who fird ufed them to preferve his
candle time-meafurers from the wind ; or (as other
writers will have it) the tapers that were fet up before
the reliques in the miferable tattered churches of that
time. The very fmalled fragments, and even the dud
and filings, of horn, are found very ferviceable in ma¬
nuring cold lands. The matter lying within, on which
the horn is formed, is called the flough ; and, when dry,
is ufed in making walls or fences, in which, covered
from wet, it will lad a long time. It is alfo mod ad¬
mirable in mending roads, where the foil is foft and
fpewy ; for, difiblving, it becomes a glutinous fub-
dance, that binds amazingly with gravel. As a ma¬
nure, they allow between two and three quarter-facks
to an acre. Horn faw-dud with mould is an excellent
compod for flowers. It is alfo of ufe in hardening,
and giving what is called a proper temper, to metals.
In medicine, horns were employed as alexipharmics,
or antidotes againd poifon, the plague, or the fmall-
pox ; they have been dignified with the title of Englijh
bazaar, and are faid to have been found to anfwer the
end of the oriental kind.
279 ] BOS
. TIie teguments, cartilages, and griflles, for the in¬
different,—and, for the finer, all the cuttings, parings,
and feraps of hides,—are boiled in water, till the gela¬
tinous parts of them are thoroughly diffolved ; and the
mafs, properly dried, becomes glue. See Glue.
The bones are ufed by mechanics where ivory is too
expenfive; by which the common people are ferved with
many neat conveniencies at an eafy rate. From the
tibia and carpus bones is procured an oil much ufed by
coach-makers and others in drefiing and cleaning har-
nefc, and all trappings belonging to a coach ; and the
bones calcined afford a fit matter for tefts for the ufe of
the refiner in the fmelting trade.
The blood is ufed as an excellent manure for fruit-
trees, and is the balls of that fine colour the Pruflian
blue.
The finews are prepared fo as to become a kind of
thread or fmall cord, ufed in fewing faddles, in ma¬
king racquets, and other things of a like nature.
The hair hath alfo its value, and is employed in many
different ways. The long hair of the tail is frequently-
mixed with horfe-hair fpun into ropes, and fometimes
wove. The fhort hair ferves to (luff faddles, feats of
feveral kinds, mattreffes, and chairs. The refufe is a
good manure, and operates morefpeedily than the horns.
The fat, tallow, and fuel, furnilh us with light;
and are alfo ufed to precipitate the fait that is drawn
from briny fprings. The gall, liver, fpleen, and urine,
had alfo their place in the materia medica, though they
have now refigned it to more efficacious and agreeable
medicines.
The ufes of butter, cheefe, cream, and milk, in do-
meflic ceconomy, and the excellence of the latter in
furnifhing a palatable nutriment for moft people vvhofe
organs of digeflion are weakened, are too obvious to be
infifted on.
2. The bonasus has a long mane; its horns are bent
round towards the cheek, and are not above a fpan long.
It is about the fize of a large bull, and is a native of
Africa and Afia. When enraged, he throws out his
dung upon dogs or other animals that annoy him ; the
dung has a kind of cauftic quality, which burns the hair
off any animal it falls upon.
3. The bison has likewife a long thick mane, which
covers the whole neck and breaft on each fide. The
horns are turned upwards, and exceedingly large ;
there is a large protuberance or bunch on the back ;
his eyes are red and fiery, which gives him a furious
afpeft. He is fierce, cruel, and fo bold that he fears
nothing. It is unfafe to hunt him but where the trees
are fo large as to hide the hunters. He is a native of
Mexico and Florida.
_ The mujh-ox of Hudfbn’s bay, a variety of this fpe-
cies, wants the hump between the ftioulders. It is a-
bout the fize of a Scotch bullock; has a thick body, and
fhort legs. .The horns are large, and very remarkable:
they are united at their origin in the fkull; but im¬
mediately after, they fall down on each fide of the
crown of the head, then taper away fmall, the points
turning up. The hair is black, and grows to a great
length ; underneath which is a fine wool fuperior to
Vigonia wool. The male only has the curious fcalp ;
the female is covered with hair. Thefe animals frequent
the country about 100 miles inwards to the north-weft
of Churchill river, in Hudfon’s bay, where they are very
7 Y 2 nu-
BOS [ 1280 ] BOS
Ho?. numerous. The Indians kill great numbers of them :
   but the flefti is coarfe eating; and fo mufky tailed at
certain feafons, as not to be eatable. From 2000 to
4000 weight of the fleih frozen, is brought to Prince
of Wales’s fort annually, and is ferved out as provifions
to the Europeans.
A fpecimen of the head of this animal is now in E-
dinburgh, in the pofleffion of Mr Graham from Hudfon’s
bay. A figure of it is given in Plate LXV.
4. The grunniens, or hog-cow, has cylindrical horns
bent backwards. The body is fo hairy, that the hair
hangs down upon its knees like a goat. The colour
of the body is black, but the front is white. It has
briftles on its back, tail, and hind-legs, and it grunts
like an hog. It is an inhabitant of the north of Alia.
|P1. LVIII. A variety of this fpecies is the Indian ox\, with a vail
hump on the Ihoulders. They differ much in lize, and
in the form of their horns. Some are very large, and
of a reddilh colour ; with horns Ihort, and bending
clofe to the neck: others very fmall, with horns ahnoll
upright, bending a little forward. In Surat, is a minute
kind not bigger than a great dog, which have a very
fierce look, and are ufed to draw children in fmall carts.
In Celebes is a fmall fpecies not bigger than a middle-
fized ffieep, called dnoa, very fierce and wild, of a
dark alh-colour, inhabiting the rocks. Mr Loten,
when in India, put fome of them into a paddock, and
in one night’s time they killed 14 or 15 of his deer by
ripping up their bellies.
5. The bubalis, or buffalo, has large black horns
bent backward and inward, and plain before. The
hair on the back is very hard, but thinly fcattered over
the body. It is a native of Afia. But they are tamed
in Italv, and ufed for thefame purpofes as black cattle
in other countries. They draw carriages, and arc
guided by a rope tied to a firing thruft through their
ijofes. The buffalo is larger than an ox, has a thicker
body, and a very hard hide. His pace is flow; but
he will carry a great burden. They feed in herds like
cows; and yield plenty of milk, of which very good
butter and cheefe is made. Their fleffi is pretty good,
but not to be compared to beef. The wild buffalo is a
very fierce and dangerous animal ; he often attacks tra¬
vellers, and tears them in pieces. However, they are not
fo much to be feared in woods as in the plains, becaufe
their horns, which are fometrmes ten feet long, are apt
to be entangled in the branches of trees, which gives
tfiofe who are furprifed by them time to efcape. They
are excellent fwimmers, and will crofs the largeft rivers
without any difficulty. They run wild in great troops
on the coaft of Malabar ; for which reafon firangers are
allowed to hunt and kill them at pleafure.
6. The indicus, or little Indian buffalo, has horns
Ihorter than its eays, a bunch on its back, and no mane.
It is about the fize of a calf fix months old, and ufed
in the Eaft Indies for drawing coaches.
BOS, in antiquity, was peculiarly ufed for an ancient
Greek filver coin, which was didrachmus., or equiva¬
lent to two drachms. It was fo called as having on it
the impreffion of an ox, and chiefly obtained among
the Athenians and Delians; being fometimes alfo
ftruck of gold. From this arofe the phrafe Bos in lin¬
gua, applied to thofe who had taken bribes to hold
their tongue.
BQSA, a maritime town in the weflern part of the
ifiand of Sardinia, with a caftle, a good port, and a Bofeage
biihop’s fee. It is feated on the river Bofa, to the II
north-eaft of an ifland of the fame name; and has good l:ofcawgn-
fait pits. E. Long. 8. 30. N. Lat. 40. 19.
BOSCAGE, the fame with a grove, or thicket.
Boscage, in a law fenfe, is that food which trees
yield to cattle; as mail, &c. But Manwood fays, to
be quit of bofeage is to be difeharged of paying any
duty for windfall wood in the foreft.
Boscage, among painters, denotes a landfcape re-
prefenting much wood and trees.
BOSCAN (John), a Spaniflr poet of the 16th cen¬
tury, born at Barcelona. He was the friend of Gar-
cilaffo de Viga, another Spanifli poet. Thefe two
were the firft who made any great improvement in
the poetry of their nation, and their pieces were printed
together. Bofcan, who died about the year [542,
principally fucceeded in fonnets.
BOSCAWEN (Edward), a brave Britilh admiral,
was the fecond fou of Hugh late lord vifeount Fal¬
mouth. Having early entered into the navy, he was,
in 1740, captain of the Shoreham ; and behaved with
great intrepidity as a volunteer under admiral Vernon,
at the taking of Porto Bello. At the fiege of Car-
thagena, in March 1740-1, he had the command of a
party of feamen who refolutely attacked and took a
battery of 15 twenty-four pounders, though expofed
to the fire of another fort of five guns. Lord Aubrey
Beauclerk being killed at the attack of Boca-Chica,
captain Bofcawen fucceeded him in the command of
the prince Frederic of 70 guns. In May 1742, he
returned to England, and married Frances daughter
of William Glanville, Efq; and the fame year was e-
le&ed reprefentative for Truro in Cornwall. In 1744,
he was made captain of the Dreadnought of 60 guns ;
and foon after he took the Medea, a French man of
war commanded by M. Hoquart, the firll king’s fhip
taken in that war. May 3d, 1747, he fignalized him-
felf under the admirals Anfon and Warren, in an en¬
gagement with the French fleet off Cape Finifterre,
and was wounded in the ihoulder with a mufquet ball.
Here M. Hoquart, who then commanded the Dia-
mont of 56 guns, again became his prifoner; and ail
the French fhips of war, which were ten in number,
were taken. On the 15th of July, he was made rear-
admiral of the blue, and commander in chief of the
land and fea forces employed on an expedition to the
Eaft Indies ; and, on the 4th of November, failed from
St Helens, with fix fhips of the line, five frigates, and
2000 foldiers. On the 29th of July 1748, he arrived
at St David’s, and foon after laid fiege to Pondicherry;
but the men growing fickly, and the monfoons being
expefled, the fiege was railed, and Mr Bofcawen fhew-
ed himfelf as much the general as the admiral in his
retreat. Soon after he had news of the peace, and
Madrafs was delivered up to him by the French. In
April 1750, he arrived at St Helens in the Exeter, and
found that in his abfence he had been appointed rear-
admiral of the white. He was the next year made one
of the lords commiffioners of the admiralty, and chofen
an elder brother of the trinity-houfe. In February
1755, he was appointed vice-admiral of the blue. On
the 19th of April, failing in order to intercept a French
fquadron bound to North America, he fell in with the
Alcide and Lys of 64 guns each, which were both
taken:
Eofcawen
I n
Bpfea.
BOS r 1281 1 BOS
taken : on this occafion M. Hoquart became his pri-
foner a third time, and he returned to Spithead with
his prizes and 1500 prifoners. In 1756, he was ap¬
pointed vice-admiral of the white; and in 1758, admi¬
ral of the blue, and commander in chief of the expe¬
dition to Cape Breton; when, in conjunction with ge¬
neral Amheril:, and a body of troops from New Eng¬
land, the important fortrefs of Louifbourg and the
whole ifland of Cape Breton was taken, for which he
afterwards received the thanks of the Houfe of Com¬
mons. In J759J being appointed to command in the
Mediterranean, he arrived at Gibraltar, where hearing
that the Toulon fleet, under M. de la Clue, had paffed
the Streights, in order to join that at Breft, he got un¬
der fail, and on the 18th of Auguft, faw, purfued, and
engaged the enemy. His fhip, the Namur, of 90
guns, lofing her main-mail, he drifted his flag to the
Newark; and, after a fliarp engagement, took three
large fhips, and burnt two in Lagos bay, and the fame
year arrived at Spithead with his prizes and 2000 pri¬
foners. On December 8th 1760, he was appointed
general of the marines, with a falary of L. 3000 per
annum, and was alfo fworn one of the privy-council.
He died in 1761.
BOSCHAERTS (Thomas Vuiilebos), a celebrated
painter, was born at Bergen-op-zoom ; and, like the
great painters who flourifhed at that time, began to
draw, when very young, in the books that were intended
for other ftudies. Preferring his pencil to every thing
elfe, he drew his own picture, by his refemblance in a
looking-glafs, fo like, that thofe who faw it were afto-
nilhed. This he did before he had the leaft inftruCtion
from any one, and when he was only 12 years of age.
Upon this, his parents fent him to a mailer, that he
might follow the bent of his genius ; but his firil ma¬
iler being only an indifferent painter, and incapable of
fatisfying his earned defire of learning, he left him,
and engaged himfelf with Gerard Segers, under whom,
after four years praCtice, he proved a moil accompliih-
ed artill. Antwerp being at that time the feat of arts,
where there was a conflux of the moil eminent paint¬
ers, he thought it the fitteft place for his improvement;
and there executed fuch a number of noble pieces as
added greatly to the fplendour of that wealthy city. In
1642, Elenry Frederick prince of Orange, and his
fon prince William, employed him in their fervice ; in
which he continued feveral years, and made thofe ex¬
cellent pieces that are to be feen in that prince’s palace
at the Hague, and other parts of Holland, and painted
portraits for moil of the perfons of quality that were
then living. He died in the flower of his age, in 1670.
BOSCO, or Boschi, a town of Italy, in the Mila-
nefe, feated on the river Orbe. E. Long. 9.44. N. Lat.
44- 53-
BOSEA, golden-rod tree ; a genus of the di-
gynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants.
Of this genus there is but one fpecies, viz. the yer-
vamora. This is a native of the Canary iflands, and
alfo fome of the Caribbees. It hath been long an in¬
habitant of the Britiih botanic gardens, but hath never
been obferved to flower in this country. It is a pretty
flrong woody ihrub, growing with a ftem as large as a
middling perfon’s leg ; the branches come out very ir¬
regular, and make confiderable fhoots every fummer,
which fhould be fhortened in the fpring. Thefe branches
retain their leaves till towards the fpring, when they
fall away, and new leaves are produced in their place.
It may be propagated by cuttings planted in the
fpring ; and the plants mull be houfed in winter, for
they are too tender to bear the open air at that feafon
of the year.
BOSNA-serago, a large and ftrongtown of Turky
in Europe, and capital of the province of Bofnia. E.
Long. 18. 57. N. Lat. 44. 40.
BOSNIA, a province of Turky in Europe, feated
between Sclavonia and Dalmatia. It belongs entirely
to the Turks; but they were on the point of being
expelled from it by the Chriftians, when the Spaniards
invaded Sicily, and obliged the emperor to conclude
t he peace of Paflarowitz in 1718, by which he gave up
Bofnia to the Turks. It is 200 miles in length, and 75
in breadth. It is a barren country, and but little cul¬
tivated; the principal revenue arifing chiefly from the
lilver mines. Among the game there are falcons,
which are held in great elteem.
BOSPHORUS, in geography, denotes, in general,
a narrow' fea, or channel, feparating two continents,
and ferving as a communication between two feas.
Bosphorus is more particularly ufed for the ftraits
of Conftantinople, which divide Europe from Alia.
This w'as the original Bofphorus, fo called becaufe oxen
could fwim over it; and from the refemblance between
it and the ftraits of Kafla, thefe laft were anciently
called the Cimmerian, and the former the Thracian,
Bofphorus. This ftrait, which is the communication
between the Black fea and that of Marmora, is about
20 miles in length, and a mile and a quarter in breadth
where it is narroweft. The Turks have built two ca-
ftles over againft each other to defend the paflage.
The country about it is very pleafant: on one fide Hands
Conftantinople; and on the other Scutari, where the
Grand Signior ha* a palace, and is looked upon as a
fuburb to Conftantinople. The entrance of this ftrait
is dangerous, and fomeiimes fatal to vefiels.
BOSQUETS, in gardening, gr.oves fo called from
hofehetto, an Italian W'ord which fignifies a little 'wood.
They are compartments in gardens formed by branches
of trees difpofed either regularly in rows, or wildly and
irregularly, according to the fancy of the owner. A
bofquet is either a plot of ground inclofed with pali-
fadoes of hornbeam, the middle of it being filled with
tall trees, as elm or the like, the tops of which make
a tuft or plume; or it confiftsof only high trees, as
horfe-chefnut, elm, &c. The ground ftiould be kept
very fmooth and rolled, or elfe covered with grafs, after
the manner of green plots. In planting bofquets, care-
ftiould be taken to mix the trees which produce their
leaves of different lhapes, and various ftiades of green,
and hoary or meally leaves, fo as to afford an agreeable
profpedl. Bofquets are only proper for fpacious gar¬
dens, and require a great expence to keep them up.
BOSSAGE, in architecture, a term ufed for auy
ftone that has a proje&ure, and is laid rough in a bpild-
ing, to be afterw'ards carved into mouldings, capitals,,
coats of arms, &c. Boffage is alfo that w hich is other-
wife called rujlic 'work ; and conlifts of Hones which ad¬
vance beyond the naked, or level, of the building, by
reafon of indentures or channels left in the joinings.
Thefe are chiefly ufed in the corners of edifices, and
.thence called rujlic quoins. The cavities or indentures.
Boffe
II
Bofton.
BOS [ it
are fometimes round, foraetimes chain-framed, or bevel¬
led, fometimes in a diamond form, fometimes indofed
- with a cavetto, and fometimes with a liftel.
BOSSE (Abraham), an able engraver, born at
Tours, was well Ikilled in perfpettive and architecture.
He wrote two treatifes, which are efteemed; the one
on the manner of defigning, and the other upon en¬
graving.
BOSSINEY, or Boss-castle, a town of Corn¬
wall, in England, which fends two members to par¬
liament. W. Long. 5. o. N. Lat. 50. 40.
BOSSU (Rene le), born at Paris in 1631, was ad¬
mitted a canon regular in the abbey of St Genevieve,
in 1649; and after a year’s probation, took the habit.
He taught polite literature with great fuccefs in feveral
religious houfes for 12 years, when he gave up the talk
for retirement. He then publifhed a parallel betwixt
the principles of Ariftotle’s natural philofophy and thofe
of Des Cartes, with a view to reconcile them; which
was but indifferently received. His next treatife was
on epic poetry; which Boileau declared one of the belt
co'mpofitions on that fubjeCl in the French language,
and which produced a great friendfhip between them.
He died in 1680, and left a great number of MSS.
which are kept in the abbey of St John de Chartres.
BOSSUET (James Benignc), bifhop of Meaux,
was born at Dijon, on the 27th of September, 1627.
He diftinguifhed himfelf by his preaching, and the zeal
he difcovered in his endeavours to bring over the Pro-
teilants of France to the Romifh church ; by his op-
poiition to Quietifm ; and by his numerous writings
both in French and Latin, which have been collected
together, and printed at Paris in 17 vols 410. This
famous divine died at Paris, in 1704, aged 77.
BOSSUPT, a town of the Auitrian Netherlands,
in the province of Brabant. E. Long. 4. 30. N. Lat.
50. 52.
BOSSUS (Matthew), diftinguifhed by his virtue
and his learning, was born in 1427. He devoted him-
fdf to the ecclefiaftical ftate in 1451, in the congrega¬
tion of regular canons of Lateran, and afterwards
taught divinity at Padua. His orations, his fermons,
and his letters, have been often printed. He alfo wrote
a fort of an apology for Phalaris, and other works.
He died at Padua in 1502, aged 75.
BOST, a very ftrong town of Perfia, and capital of
the province ofZableftan. E. Long. 64. 15. N. Lat.
31. 50:
BOSTANGIS, in the Turkifh affairs, perfons em¬
ployed in the garden of the feraglio, out of whofe num¬
ber are collected thofe that are to row in the Grand
Signior’s brigantines, when he has a mind to divert
himfelf with fifhing, or to take the air upon the canal.
They who row on the left hand are only capable of
mean employments in the gardens : but they who row
on the right hand may be promoted to the charge of
boftangi-bachi, who has the general intendency of all
the Grand Signior’s gardens, and commands above
10,000 boftangis.
BOSTON, a corporation-town of Lincolnfhire in
England, which fends two members to parliament.
It is commodioufly feated on both fides the river Wi-
tham, over which it has a handfome, high, wmoden
bridge; and, being near the fea, enjoys a good trade.
It has a fpacious market-place, and the largeft parifh
82 ] BOS
church without crofs-ifles in Europe, the fteepie of
which ferves for a land-mark to failors. E. Long. o.
15. N. Lat. 53. 3.
Boston, the capital of New England in North A-
merica, built in 1630, in a peninfula of about four
miles in circumference, at the bottom of Maffachufets
bay, in a very convenient fituation for trade. The fol¬
lowing is a defcription of this capital before the com¬
mencement of the prefent American war. “ The town
ftands in W. Long. 71. 5. N. Lat. 42. 24. about nine
miles from the mouth of the bay. At the entrance of
this bay are feveral fmall rocks which appear above
water, and upwards of a dozen of fmall iflands, fome
of which are inhabited. There is but one fafe channel
to approach the harbour; and that fo narrow, that two
fhips can hardly fail through abreaft; but within the
harbour, there is room for 500 fail to lie at anchor in
a good depth of water. On one of the iflands of the
bay ftands Fort William, the mod regular fortrefs in
Britifh America. This caftle is defended by 100 guns,
20 of which lie on a platform level with the water, fo
that it is fcarce poffible for an enemy to pafs the caftle.
To prevent furprife, they have a guard placed on one of
the rocks, at two leagues diftance, from whence they
make fignals to the caftle when any fhipscome near it.
There is alfo a battery of guns at each end of the town.
At the bottom of the bay is a noble pier near 2000 feet
in length ; along which on the north fide extends a
row of warehoufes for the merchants; and to this pier,
fhips of the greateft burden may come and unload,
without the help of boats. The greateft part of the
town lies round the harbour in the form of a half moon,
the country beyond it rifing gradually and affording
a delightful profpeft. The neck of land which joins
the peninfula to the continent is but 40 yards over;
which fituation, if properly improved, might render the
town impregnable on the land fide. Bofton contains
only about 18,000 inhabitants. They were more nu¬
merous 50 years ago; but the furprifing increafe of
Newbury-port, Salem, Marble-head, Cape Ann, Ply¬
mouth, Dartmouth, and the iflandof Nantucket, check¬
ed the growth and trade of the capital. The trade of
Bofton, however, was fo confiderable, that, in 1768,
1200 fail entered and cleared at the cuftom-houfe there.
The predominant religion is the Independent; though
there are other perfuafions, and ten churches ferve for
them all, but the Independents have fix.” Bofton has
frequently fuffered by fire, but the houfes that were
thus deftroyed have always been rebuilt to advantage.
BOSWORTH, a town of Leicefterfhire in Eng¬
land, fituatedinW. Long. x. 24. N. Lat. 52.45.—It
has a lofty fituation on a hill, and the country about
it is fertile in corn and grafs. It is memorable for the
decifive battle fought near it between Richard III.
and Henry earl of Richmond, wherein the former lofl
his crown and life.
BOTALLUS, (Leonard), phyfician to the duke
of Alencon, and to Henry III. was born at Afti in
Piedmont. He introduced at Paris the pra&ice of fre¬
quent letting of blood ; which was condemned by the
faculty ; but foon after his death it came into practice
with all the phyficians. He publifhed feveral books in
phyfic and furgery; the be ft edition of which is that of
Leyden in 1660, oftavo.
Codon
Botallus.
BOTANY.
BOTANY.
B O T
ANY,
1283
IN the utmoft extent of the word, fignifies a know¬
ledge of plants, and of the ufes to which they may
be applied, either in medicine, chemiftry, or in the
different arts.—But as the medical virtues of plants fall
properly under the province of the phyfician, their che¬
mical properties belong to the chemift, &c.; hence the
fcience of botany is commonly reftrifted to a bare know¬
ledge of the different plants themfelves, and of the dif-
tinguifliing marks whereby each individual fpecies may
be known from every other. This knowledge is indif-
penfably neceffary for thofe who propofe to apply plants
to any ufeful purpofe : for example, though we fhould
fuppofe a phyfician ever fo well acquainted with the
virtues of opium, and a chemift ever fo well acquainted
with the method of preparing it, yet if both of them
were entirely ignorant of botany, fo as to be unable
to diftinguilh the particular fpecies of poppy which pro¬
duces opium from others of the fame genus, it is evi¬
dent their medicinal and chemical Ikill could be of no
life.
The utility of botanical claffifications may be further
illuftrated from the following confiderations.
1. With regard to Food. Many animals are endowed
with au inftin&ive faculty of diftinguilhing with cer¬
tainty whether the food prefented to them be falutary
or noxious. Mankind have no fuch inftinft. They
muft have recourfeto experience and obfervation. But
thefe are not fufficient to guide us in every cafe. The
traveller is often allured by the agreeablenefs of fmell
and tafte to eat poifonous fruits. Neither will a gene¬
ral caution' not to eat any thing but what we know
from experience to be falutary, anfwer in every emer¬
gency. A {hip’s company, in want of provifions, may
be thrown upon an uninhabited coaftor a defert ifland.
Totally ignorant of the nature of the plants they meet
with, difeafes, or fcarcity of animals, may make it
abfolutely neceffary to ufe vegetable food. The con-
fequence is dreadful: they muft firft eat before any
certain conclufion can be formed. This is not the de-
fcription of danger arifing from an imaginary fituation.
Before the vegetables that grow in America, the Eaft
and Weft Indies, &e. became familiar to our failors,
many lives were loft by trials of this kind : neither has
all the information received from experience been fuf¬
ficient to prevent individuals from ftill falling a prey to
ignorance or raftinefs.—If the whole fcieace of botany
were as complete as fome of its branches, very little
{kill in it would be fufficient to guard us infallibly from
committing fuch fatal miftakcs. There are certain or¬
ders and claffes which are called natural, becaufe every
genus and fpecies comprehended under them are not
only diftinguifhed by the fame chara&eriftic marks, but
likevvife pofiefs the fame qualities, though not in an
equal degree. For example : Shew a botanift the flower
of a plant whofe calix is a double valved glume, with
three ftamina, two piftils, and one naked feed ; he can
pronounce with abfolute certainty, that the plant from
which the flower was taken, bears feeds of a farinaceous
quality, and that they may be fafely ufed as food. In
like manner, fhew him a flower with 12 or more fta¬
mina all inferted into the internal fide of the calix, tho’
it belonged to a plant growing in Japan, he can pro¬
nounce without hefitation, that the fruit of it may be
eat with fafety. On the other hand, fliew him a plant
whofe flower has five ftamina, one piftil, one petal, or
flower-leaf, and whofe fruit is of the berry kind, he will
tell you to abftain from it, becaufe it is poifonous. Fads
of this kind render botany not only a refpe&able, but a
moft interefting, fcience.
2. With refpeft to Medicine, the fame thing holds
good. It is found by experience, that plants which
are diftinguiftied by the fame chara&ers in the flower
and fruit, have the fame qualities, though not always
in an equal degree as to ftrength or weaknefs; fo
that, upon infpe&ion of the flower and fruit, a botanift
can determine a priori the effe&s that will refult when
taken into the ftomach. In order, therefore, to deter¬
mine the medical virtues of all the plants belonging to
a natural clafs, the phyfician has nothing to do but
to afcertain by a fet of clear and unqeftionable experi¬
ments, the virtues of any one of them. This greatly
{hortens the labour of inveftigation. Suppofingthe num¬
ber of known fpecies to be 20,000 ; by afcertaining the
virtues of one genus, at a medium, you determine the
virtues of 12 fpecies. But by afcertaining the virtues
of one genus belonging to a natural order, the virtues
of perhaps 300 or 400 fpecies are afcertained.
Se£t. I. Hifiory of Botany.
The origin of this fcience, like that of moft others,
cannot be found out from the moft ancient hiftories ;
but it is very probable, that fome degree of botanical
knowledge has exifted in every age of the world. The
firft botanical writings of which we have any account
are thofe of Solomon, who we are informed by fcripture
did write a treatife upon this fubjedl; but that is ab¬
folutely loft, not being quoted by any ancient author,
nor the leaft fragment of the treatife itfelf remaining.
Among the Greeks, Anaxagoras, Pythagoras, and
other ancient philofophers, wrote treatifes on plants;
but their works are alfo loft ; and from the quotations
that yet remain in the works of Theophraftus, Diof-
corides, and Pliny, we learn, that thofe firft botanical
writings could convey but very little knowledge.
The hiftorical sera of botany, therefore, commences
with Theophraftus the difciple of Ariftotle. He was
born at Erelium, in the ifland of Lelbos; and flouriftied
in the third century before the Chriftian asra, being
about 100 years pofterior to Hippocrates. His
work is entitled The Hifiory of Plants, and treats of
their origin, propagation, anatomy, and conftrudlion;
of vegetable life, and of vegetation. It confifted ori¬
ginally of ten books; but of thefe only nine are now
, extant. In thefe, vegetables are diftributed into feven
claffes or primary divifions; which have for their ob-
jedl, the generation of plants ; their place of growth f
their fize as trees and flirubs ; their ufe as pot herbs
and efculent grains; and their la&efcence, or the liquor
of whatever colour, that flows from plants when cut.
In his work, about 500 different plants are defcribed.
The next botanift of any note was Hiofcorides, a
Grecian by birth, but under the Roman empire, being
near
T284
B O T
near 400 years pofterior to Theopliraftus. He defcribes
about 600 plants; and thefe he has arranged, from
their ufes in medicine and domeftic ceconomy, into four
claffes, which are thus defigned: aromatics; alimen¬
tary vegetables, or fuch as ferve for food; medicinal,
and vinous plants.
Almoft cotemporary with Diofeorides flourifhed An¬
tonins Mufa, Cato, Varro, Virgil, and Columella; the
firft, author of a treatife ftill extant on the plant be~
tony; the four others celebrated for their ufeful tracts
on agriculture and rural ceconomy.
Pliny the Elder, in his voluminous work intitled
'The Hiftory of the World, hath a botanical part which
is contained in 15 books. In thefe, befides the plants
of Theophraftus and Diofeorides, he has given deferip-
tions of feveral new fpecies, extracted probably from
works which would otherwife have been totally loft.
Pliny ufes fcarce any mode of arrangement, except the
ancient, but very incorreft, diftin£lion into trees, fhrubs,
and herbs. His plan, however, extends not only to
botanical diftindtions, but to gardening, agriculture,
and whatever is connected either more nearly or re¬
motely with the fcience of plants. He gives deferip-
tions of above 1000 different fpecies; but from the
want of a proper fyftematic arrangement, it is often
difficult, and perhaps impoffible, to determine what
plants he or other ancient botanifts do really deferibe.
This want of precifion in properly arranging their
plants was the reafon why the botany of the ancients
was always very limited, and after the time of Pliny
declined fo rapidly. On the deftru&ion of the weftern
empire by the Goths and other barbarous nations, it is
not to be thought that botany could furvive any more
than the other fciences. It was not till near the clofe
of the eighth century, that the ancient botany began
again to appear in Arabia. Serapion, well known in
medicine, ftands firft in the Arabian catalogue of bo¬
tanifts; to him fucceeded Razis, Avicenna, Averrhoes,
Adtuarius, &c. An author known by the name of
Plato udpulehu, or Apolienfis, of whpfe herbarium very
old manufeript copies are preferved in foipe curious li¬
braries, is fuppofed to have lived near this period. The
works of moft of thefe botanifts, however, were only
tranflations and compilations from the Greek writers ;
fo that, for want of a proper fyftematic arrangement,
the fcience funk a fecond time into total oblivion. For
near 400 years after Abenguefit, an Arabian phyfician
who flouriftied in the end of the 12th century, fcarce
any attempts were made in the botanical way. Some
obfeure writers indeed appeared in feveral parts of Eu¬
rope; as, Arnoldus de Villa Nova; Platearius; Mat-
thaeus Sylvaticus; and Bartholomew Glanvil, common¬
ly called Bartholomeus Anglus, a Francifcan monk, de¬
fended of the family of the earls of Suffolk, who lived
in the reign of King Edward III. and wrote a book
of natural hiftory, intitled De proprietatibus rerutn,
which was tranflated into Englifti by John de Trevifa
in 1398: but though all thefe wrote of plants, they
were fo totally deftitute of method, that their works re¬
main one great chaos, from whence it is impoffible to
extraft any thing.
On the revival of letters in the beginning of the 16th
century, the botany of the ancients was reftored a fe¬
cond time. The Greek writings were tranflated into
Latin, the common language of Europe. Gaza, a
ANY.
Greek refugee at Rome, made elegant tranflations of
Ariftotle and Theophraftus, who afterwards were com¬
mented upon by Scaliger and Stapel. Diofeorides was
alfo tranflated and commented on. His belt commen¬
tators are Hermolaus Barbarus, Fuchfcius, Ruellus
Cordus, Gefner, and Matthiolus. The moft diftin-
guifhed commentators of Pliny are Dalechamp in 1604,
Salmafius in 1689, Harduin, and Guilandinus. Meur-
fius and Urfinus have written commentaries upon Cato;
Campegius and Monardes upon Mefue the Arabian,
and Lonicer upon Avicenna. This laft hath been
tranflated by feveral writers, particularly Alpagus, Co-
ftseus, and Plempius, into Latin; and by one writer,
Amalthseus, into Hebrew.
Hieronymus Bock, or Bouc, a German, generally
known by the name of Tragus, is the firft modern who
has given a methodical diftribution of vegetables. In
1532, he publiffied a Hiftory of Plants, in which he
defcribes 800 fpecies; and thefe he divides into three
claffes, founded on the qualities of vegetables, their
figure, habit, and fize. The fame method of arrange¬
ment was followed by Lonicer, Dodonaeus, L’Obel-,
Clufius, Brunsfelfius, Monordes, Cordus, and fome other
botanifts of this period. How far fuch a method was
deficient, fliall be confidered in the following fe&ion;
however, it was not till 1560 that Conrad Gefner firft;
propofed to the world an arrangement of vegetables
from the parts of the flower and fruit. He did not
eftablifh any plan founded upon this principle; but, ha-
ving fuggefted the idea, left the application to be made
by others : and in 1582, Dr Andrew Caefalpinus, phy¬
fician at Pifa, and afterwards profeffor of botany at
Padua, firft availing himfelf of the ingenuity of his
predeceffor, propofed a method of arrangement which
has the fruit for its bafis ; and thus gave origin to
fyftematic botany, the fecond grand sera in the hiftory
of that fcience.
Even this improved method of Csefalpinus was not
without very great inconveniences, which (hall be ta¬
ken notice of hereafter. As it was, however, fo greatly
fuperior to every thing that had appeared before, it
might have been expefted that the learned would have
immediately adopted it, and that all the former equi¬
vocal and infufficient characters would have been rejec¬
ted. But the faCt was otherwife. Csefalpinus’s me¬
thod of arrangement died with him ; and it was not till
near a century after, that Dr Robert Morifon of A-
berdeen, attaching himfelf to the principles of Gefner
and Csefalpinus, re-eftablifhed fcientific arrangement
upon a folid foundation ; fo that, from being only the
reftorer of fyftem, he has been generally celebrated as
its founder. In the long interval between Csefalpinus
and Morifon, flourifhed fome eminent botanifts. The
moft noted are, Dalechamp, author of A general hi¬
ftory of plants ; Theodore, furnamed Tabemtemontanus,
and Thalius, two German writers; Porta, an Italian,
famous for an arrangement of plants from their relations
to the ftars, to men, and other animals; Profper Al-
pinus, author of a Catalogue of the plants of Egypt;
Fabius Columns, inventor of many of the botanical
terms now ufed; the two Bauhins; Gerard and Par-
kinfon; Zaluzianfki, a Pole, author of an arrangement
from the qualities and habit of plants ; Marcgrave and
Pifo, celebrated for their Natural Hiftory of Brafil;
Hernandez, equally celebrated for his hiftory of Mexi¬
co;
Sea. II. B O T
co ; Paflseus, or Du Pas, author of an arrangement
ot plants from the time of flowering, of all charafters
the moft uncertain and infufficient; Johnfton ; Bontius,
a Dutchman, author of a Natural Hiftory of the Eaft;
Indies; Aldrovandus, the celebrated naturalift; and
Rheede, governor of Malabar, and author of the well-
known Hortus Malabaricuf.
The method propofed by Morifon has the fruit for
its bails, as well as that of Casfalpinus; to which, how¬
ever, it is greatly inferior both in the plan and execu¬
tion. It is indeed of all others the moft difficult in prac¬
tice ; and was therefore not adopted by any fucceeding
writer, except Bobart who in 1699 completed Mo-
rifon’s Univerfal Hiftory of Plants, and an anonymous
author whofe work appeared in 1720. Imperfeft, how¬
ever, as his method is, it furniflied many ufeful hints,
which fucceeding botanifts have not failed to improve.
Ray and Tournefort have owed him much, and are not
afhamed to own the obligation. The fame has been
done even by Linnseus ; who hath eftablilhed the fcience
of botany on the moft: folid foundation, by introducing
a method of arrangement, if not abfolutely perfeft, at
leaft as nearly approaching to perfeftion as can be ex¬
pected ; and therefore hath been defervedly followed,
in preference to every other, by all botanifts, fince its
firft publication. But to give a particular account of
all the different botanical fyftems, with the particular
advantages and difadvantages attending each, (hall be
the bufinefs of the fubfequent feftions.
Se£t. II. Of the Ancient Method of arranging
Vegetables.
In giving an account of the works of Theophraftus
and Diofcorides, we have already taken notice that
the former chofe feven diftinguilhing characters, viz.
the generation of plants ; their place of growth ; their
fize, as trees and ftirubs ; their ufe, as pot-herbs and
efculent grains ; and their laCtefcence, or liquor that
flows from them when cut. Diofcorides divided them
into aromatics, alimentary, medicinal, and vinous plants.
The good properties of this method are, that the bo-
tanift, as it were, comes to the point at once ; and when
he knows the plant, knows alfo its virtues and ufes, or
at leaft. part of them : but this convenience is greatly
overbalanced by innumerable difadvantages; for the qua¬
lities and virtues of plants are neither fixed and invari¬
able, nor are they impreffed in legible characters on
the plants themfelves. The different parts of a plant
often poffefs different and even oppofite virtues ; fo that,
fuppofing the virtues to be known, and applied to the
purpofe of vegetable arrangement, the root muft fre¬
quently fall under one divifion, the leaves under a fe-
cond, and the flower and fruit under a third. Befides,
if we refleCt that the foie end of fuch arrangement is
to facilitate the knowledge ot plants to others, the in-
fufficiency and even abfurdity of methods founded upon
their virtues will immediately appear. A ftalk of ver¬
vain, for inftance, is prefented to me, which I am to
inveftigate from a prefuppofed knowledge of the virtues
of plants. Before I can fettle the clafs to which it be¬
longs, I muft difcover whether or not it has the virtues
belonging to any of the plants I know; and this dif-
covery being the refult of repeated experiments on va¬
rious parts of the human body, may require many years
VOL. II.
ANY. 128.J
for its accomplilhment.
The fame caufes which render methods founded on
the virtues of plants unfavourable for the purpofe of
inveftigation, muft evidently difqualify all their other
variable qualities and accidents from having a place in
a genuine fyHematic arrangement. The natalefolum
of plants, which is one of Theophraftus’s divifions, af¬
fords no better diftin&ive characters than their powers
and virtues. Many countries as well as many foils pro¬
duce the fame individual plants. The fame fpecies
which crown the mountains, frequently cover the fens ;
and plants which have long been reckoned the peculiar
inhabitants of fome parts of Afia and America, are now
found to grow naturally in equal perfection in the very
different climates of Lapland and Siberia. The fize
of plants, which fuggefted the ancient divifion into trees
and fhrubs, is no lefs an equivocal mark of diftinCtion
than the circumftances already mentioned. The vine,
which modern botanifts denominate a fhrub, was ranged
by Theophraftus in his third clafs containing trees. In
faCt, every thing refpeCting fize is fo much affeCted by
differences of foil, climate, and culture, that the fame
plant, in different circumftances, fhall differ exceedingly
in height ; and in a method founded upon the fize,
would fometimes be ranged as a tree, and fometimes as
a fhrub, or even an under fhrub, according as it hap¬
pens to exceed, equal, or fall fhort of, a given ftandard.
No lefs infufficient arechara&eriftical marks drawn from
the colour, tafte, and fmell of plants. Of all the at¬
tributes of vegetable nature, colour is perhaps the moft
inconftant. Heat, climate, culture, foil, &c. contri¬
bute to the production of endlefs diverfities of colour,
and render the tranfition from one to another natu¬
ral and eafy. Red and blue pafs eafily into white,
white into purple^ yellow into white ; red into blue ;
blue into yellow, &c. In the fame leaf or flower, dif¬
ferent colours are frequently obferved. Variations too
in point of colour, are frequently obferved to take place
not only in different individuals of the fame fpecies,
but even in fimilar parts of the fame plant. Marvel
of Peru and Sweet William produce flowers of different
colour upon the fame ftalk. Objections equally valid
lie againft charaCteriftical marks drawn from the tafte
and fmell. The former varies in different individuals
from differences of age, and even in the fame indivi¬
dual at different times, according to the morbid or found
ftate of the organ. The latter is different in different
fubjeCts, and varies in each ; nor are the effluvia fent
forth from the fame body always of equal intenfity.
In plants, tafte is fubjeCt to continual variations from
differences of climate, foil, and culture. Garlic in fome
climates, particularly in Greece, is faid to lofe its rank-
nefs: apples and pears, that grow naturally in the woods,
are intolerably acid; celery and lettuce, which culture
renders fweet and palatable, are in their wild unculti¬
vated ftate, bitter, difagreeable, and in fome cafes
noxious.
Thefe confiderations are abundantly fufficient to fhew
the imperfeftion of the ancient fyftem of botany ; and
indeed, confidering the vague and uncertain marks by
which they diftinguifhed one plant from another, we
may rather wonder how fuch a fcience as botany came
to have an exiftence among them, than that they ar¬
rived at no greater perfection in it, or fuffered it fo foon
to fall into oblivion.
7Z
Sect. IIL
1286
Sea. nr.
B O T
Sect. Hi. Of the different Botanical Syferns, from
the time of Gefner to that of Linnaus.
The infufficiency of die ancient botanical fyftem be¬
ing fo fully {hewn in die laft fe&ion, we think it need-
lefs to take much notice of the methods ufed by Tra¬
gus and his cotemporaries and followers. The virtues
of plants being found an infufScient charafterillic, fuc-
ceeding botanifts had taken in the root, Item, and
leaves ; but theft being alfo found infufficient and va¬
riable, Gefner turned his eye to the flower and fruit,
as being the rnoft permanent and unchangeable parts
of the plant. In propofing the parts of fructification,
however, as the moft proper for arranging plants, he
communicated no hints refpefiting the choice of fome
of thofe parts in preference to others. Each particular
organ of the flower and fruit furnifhes fufficient variety
to ferve as the foundation of a method ; but all of them
are not equally proper for this purpofe. Casfalpinus,
thefirft follower of Gefner, madea miftake in his choice,
and took his diftinguifhing chara&eriflics only from the
fruit. The parts of the flower, therefore, being em¬
ployed by the firft fyftematic writers only as fubaltern
diftin&ions in finding out orders and genera, it is evi¬
dent that the plant could not be fully inveftigated for
feveral months. Suppofe a plant ripens its fruit in
G&ober, and does not produce flowers till the follow¬
ing May; the clafs, upon infpeflion of the fruit in the
month of Oftober, is immediately afcertained ; but the
plant ftill remains unknown, and will continue fo up¬
wards of fix months after, if the chara&ers of the order
and genus have been made to depend on any part of the
flower. Methods founded on the fruit have another
inconvenience; plants conftantly ripen their fruit in
thofe countries where they grow naturally, but not
always in the countries to which they may be ac¬
cidentally tranfported. So far from this, many plants
that are natives of a warm climate neither ripen, nor
form fruit, in a cold one. Few of the African, Afiatic,
and Weft-Indian plants produce fruit in Britain. A
method, therefore, founded upon the fruit, could only
facilitate the knowledge of fuch plants to the inhabi¬
tants of thofe countries where they grow : to the En-
gliih botanift they could be of little or no fervice. The
fame objedlion cannot reafonably be urged againlt me¬
thods founded on the flower, fince the influence of cli¬
mates much colder than that of Britain has not been
able to deftroy the faculty of producing flowers in many,
perhaps in moft, of the plants juft mentioned.
Casfalpinus fets out with an ancient diftimftion of
vegetables, from their duration, into trees and herbs.
With the former he combines fhrubs; with the latter,
underlhrubs; and diftributes his plants into the 15 fol¬
lowing clafles. 1. Trees with the germ, (radicle or
principle of life in the feed) on the point of the feed.
2. Trees with the germ on the bafe of the feed. 3. Herbs
having one feed only. 4. Herbs having two feeds.
5. Herbs having four feeds. 6. Herbs having many
feeds. 7. Herbs having one grain or kernel. 8. Herbs
having one capfule. 9. Herbs having two capfules.
jo. Herbs having fibrous roots. 11. Herbshaving
bulbous roots. 12. Herbs having fuccory or endive-
Jike flowers. 13. Herbs having a common flower.
34. Herbs having feveral follicles or feed-bags.
ANY.
15. Herbs having neither flower nor feed.
The inconveniences of this method have been already
pointed out pretty fully, and will evidently appear upon
an attempt to refer any common plant to one of the
15 abovementioned clafies. His feiftions, orders, or
fecondary divifions, are 47 in number, and depend upon
a variety of parts and circumftances. The principal
of thefe are, the difpofition, fituation, and figure, of
the flowers; the nature of the feed-veflel, or cover of
the feeds ; the fituation of the radicle in the feed ; the
number of feed-lobes, or feminal leaves ; the difpofition
of the leaves, and colour of the flowers. The la&ef-
cence too, or milkinefs, which is obferved in the com¬
pound flowers with flat florets, is made a charaderiftic
diftinftion, and diferiminates the firft order of the ta'1’
clafs. Thus, in the firft fyftematic arrangements, the
chara&ers of the claffes only were borrowed from the
parts of fruftification ; while thofe of the fubaltern di¬
vifions were very numerous, and refpefted every part
of the plant ; but that fuch divifions might be perfect,
they ftiould be conftituted, like the clafles, from the
modifications of a Angle part of the fru&ification.
The great objed had in view by Morifon, who comes
next in order to Casfalpinus, was to inveftigate the
order of nature, not to fabricate an eafy method of
arranging plants. Hence his fy ftem is devoid of uni¬
formity, and clogged with a multiplicity of characters ;
his clafles are frequently not fufficiently diftinguilhtd
from one another, and the key of arrangement feems to-
tallyloft. Hefetsout with a divifion of plants, from their
confiftence, into ligneous or w'oody, and herbaceous.
He founds his fyftem on the fruit, thecorollae orblof-
foms, and the habit of the plants. His clafles are as
follow. 1. Trees. 2. Shrubs. 3. Underfhrubs.
4. Herbs climbing. 5. Herbs leguminous or papilio¬
naceous. 6. Herbs podded. 7. Herbs tricapiular,
or with three capfules. 8. Herbs with four or five eap-
fules. 9. Herbs corymbiferous. 10. Herbs having
a milky juice, or downy tops. 11. Herbs culmiferous,
as grafles. 12. Herbs umbelliferous. 13. Herbs ha¬
ving three kernels. 14. Herbs having helmet-fhaped
flowers. 15. Herbshaving many capfitles. 16. Herbs
berry-bearing. 17. Herbs called ca/>i//ary plants, as
the fern kind. 18. Anomalous or irregular herbs.
Of thefe clafles, the fourth and eighth poflefs no ge¬
nuine diftindtive chara&er ; nor are the ninth and tenth
clafies fufficiently diftinguifhed ; the fifteenth clafs is
not fufficiently diftinguiffied from the eighth, nor the
id'11 from the fourth. His Ce&ions or fecondary di¬
vifions, which are 108 in number, arife from the fi¬
gure and fubftance of the fruit; the number of feeds,
leaves, and petals; the figure of the root; the direc¬
tion of the ftem ; the colour of the flowers ; the place
of growth; and, in one clafs, from the medicinal vir¬
tues of fome of the plants that compofe it.
In 1682, Ray propofed his method to the world,
two years after the publication of Morifon’s, which
ferved in fome meafure as its bafis. It confifted ori¬
ginally of the following 25 clafles. 1. Trees. 2. Shrubs.
3. Herbs imperfedf. 4. Herbs having no flower.
5. Capillary plants. 6. Staminous herbs having only
the ftamina. 7. Thofe having one naked feed. 8. Um¬
belliferous herbs. 9. Verticillated, annular, or ring-
fliaped ones. 10. Rough-leafed plants. 11. Stellated or
ftar-lhaped ones. 12. Apple-bearing herbs. 13. Berry¬
bearing
128
Sed. III. B O T
bearing herbs. 14. Herbshaving many pods.' 15. Mo-
nopetalous uniform, or regular herbs. 16. Monopetalous
irregular, or having different forms. 17. Tetrapetalous,
having large pods. 18. Tetrapetalous, having fmall
pods. 19. Papilionaceous. 20. Pentapetalous herbs.
21. Corns. 22. Graffes. 23. Grafs-leafedplants. 24. Bul¬
bous-rooted plants. 25. Plants near akin to the bulbous.
This method Ray carefully correfted and amended
at different times} fo that the plan of arrangement
which now bears the name of that author, and was firft
publilhed in 1700, is entirely different from what had
appeared in 1682. It now confifts 0133 claffes. Their
diltinguifhing marks are taken from the port or habit
of the plants; their greater oriels degree of perfeftion;
their place of growth ; the number of feed-lobes, or
feminal leaves, petals, capfules, and feeds; the fituation
and difpofition of the flowers, flower-cup, and leaves;
the abfeuce or prefence of the buds, flower-cup, and
petals ; the fubftance of the leaves and fruit; and the
difficulty of claffing certain plants. They are as follow.
1. Submarine, or fea-plants. 2. Fungi. 3. Moffes.
4. Capillary plants. 5. Thofe without petals. 6. Pla-
nlpetala;, thofe with compound flowers; femiflofculous,
or half-florets. 7. Thofe with compound flowers ra¬
diated. 8. Thofe with compound flowers, flofculous,
or with whole florets, p Plants with one feed.
10. Plants umbellated. 11. Thofe flellated or ftar .
ffiaped. 12. Rough-leafed plants. 13. Plants verti-
cillate or whorled. 14. Thofe with many feeds.
15. Apple-bearing herbs. 16. Berry-bearing herbs.
17. Thofe with many pods. 18. Monopetalous herbs.
19. Thofe with two and three petals. 20. Thofe with
great and fmall, or long and fhort, pods. 21. Legu¬
minous plants. 22. Pentapetalous ones. 23. Bulbs,
and bulbous-like plants. 24. Stamineous ones, or
thofe having only the ftamina. 25. Anomalous plants,
or thofe of an uncertain family. 26. The palms.
27. Trees without petals. 28. Trees with an umbi-
licated fruit. 29. Trees with fruit not umbilicated.
30. Trees with a dry fruit. 31. Trees v/ith podded
fruit. 32. Anomalous, or irregular trees.
The diftin&ion into herbs and trees with which Ray’s
method fets out, acknowledges a different, though not
more certain, principle than that of Caefalpinus and Mo-
rifon. The former, in making this diftin&ion, had an
eye to the duration of the ftem; the latter, to its con-
fiftence. Ray called in the buds as an auxiliary; and
denominates trees, “ all fuch plants as bear buds;”
herbs, “ fuch as bear none.” But againft this auxi¬
liary there lies an unanfwerable objeftion; namely, that
though all herbaceous plants rife without buds, all trees
are not furnifhed with them: many of the largeft trees
in warm countries, and fome fhrubby plants in every
country, being totally deftitute of that fcaly appear¬
ance which conftitutes the effence of a bud. In other
refpecls, it is evident that neither Mr Ray’s plan nor
execution is in any degree calculated to facilitate the
knowledge of plants. In faft, it feems to have been
Ray’s great objeft, no lefs than Morifon’s, to colledl
as many natural claffes as poffible; and thefe being fe-
parately inveftigated, a multiplicity of chara&ers and
fteps was neceffarily required to conned! them : and
hence the intricacy complained of in both thefe me¬
thods, which muff always take place where the claffes
give rife to the connc&ing chara&ers, and not the cha-
A N Y.
rafters to the claffes. The charafters of the orders, or
fecondary divifions, in Ray’s method, are no lefs mul¬
tifarious than thofe of the claffes. They refpeft the
place of growth of plants; their qualities; the figure of
the ftem ; the number, fltuation, fubftance, and divi-
lion, of the leaves; the fituation and difpofition of the
flowers and calix ; the number and regularity of the
petals; with the number and figure of the fruit. In his
improved method, Ray has adopted Tournefort’s cha¬
rafters of the genera, wherever his plan would permit.
His general Hiftory of Plants contains 18,655 fpecies
and varieties. The third volume, which was not pub-
lifhed till 1704, and was defigned as a fupplement to
the two former, contains the plants difeovered by Tour-
nefort in the Levant, and by Camelli at Luzon one of
the Philippin iflands. Ray’s method was followed by
Sir Hans Sloane, in his Natural Hiftory of Jamaica ;
by Petiver, in his Britifti Herbal; by Dilienius, in his
Synopfis of Britifti plants; and by Martyn, in his Ca¬
talogue of plants that grow in the neighbourhood of
Cambridge.
To Ray’s original method fucceeded that of Chrifto-
pher Knaut, a German; which acknowledges the fame
principle, and is manifeftly founded upon it. In his
enumeration of the plants that grow round Hal in
Saxony, publiffied in 1687, he divides vegetables into
17 claffes, which have for their bafis the fize and dura¬
tion of plants, the prefence or abfence of the petals, the
difpofition of the flowers, the fubftance of the fruit,
the number of capfules or feeds, the number and figure
of the petals, and the prefence, abfence, or figure of
the calix. His claffes are, 1. Herbs berry-bearing.
2. Monopetalous, or with one flower-leaf. 3. Tetra¬
petalous and regular, with four petals. 4. Tetrapeta¬
lous and irregular. 5. Pentapetalous, or with five pe¬
tals. 6. Hexapetalous, or fix petals. 7. Polypetalous,
or many petals. 8. Multicapfular, or many capfules.
9. Naked feeds. 10. Solid, or not downy. 11. Downy
feeds. 12. Without petals. 13. Stamineous, with¬
out petals or calix. 14. Imperceptible. 15. Imper-
feft. 16. Trees. 17. Shrubs.
The feftions or fubdivifions of the claffes in Knaut’s
method are 62 in number; and arife from the figure of
the ftem and petals, the number of capfules and cells,
their figure, the number of feeds and leaves, and fitua¬
tion of the flowers.
In 1696, a new method propofed by Dr Herman
profeffor of botany at Leyden, was publifhed by Zum-
bac, who arranged according to it the plants contain¬
ed mi the public garden of Leyden. Rudbeckius the
Younger, in a differtation publiffied the fame year, on
the fundamental knowledge of plants, adopted Her¬
man’s method with a few inconfiderable variations. The
claffes of Dr Herman are 25 in number. They are
founded on the fize and duration of the plants; the
prefence or abfence of the petals and calix ; the num¬
ber of capfules, cells, and naked feeds ; the fubftance
of the leaves and fruit; the form and confiftence of the
roots; the fituation and difpofition of the flowers, leaves,
and calix; and figure of the fruit. 1. Herbs having one
nakedfeedandafimpleflower. 2. Having one naked feed
and a compound flower. 3. With two naked feeds, and
ftellatedorftar-ffiaped. 4. Two naked feeds, and umbelli¬
ferous. 5. Four naked feeds, and rough leaves. 6. Four
flaked feeds, and verticillated or vvhorT-fhaped. 7. With
7 Z 2 many
1288
EOT
many naked feeds. 8. Having feed-veffels, bulbous
and tricapfular. 9. Having one feed-veffel. 10. With
two feed-veffels. x 1. With three feed-veflels. 12. With
four feed-veflels. 13. With five feed-veflels. 14. Pod¬
ded, which are always tetrapetalous. 15. Legumi¬
nous and papilionaceous. 16. With many capfules.
17. Having flefhy fruit, berry-bearing. 18. With fleflxy
fruit, apple-bearing. 19. Without petals, but having
a calix. 20. Without petals, chaffy or ftamineous.
21. Without petals, calix, chaff, or (lamina, i. e. a na¬
ked anthera, as the moffes. 22. Trees. ImperfeA
fru&ification, bearing catkins. 23. Trees with a fleftiy
fruit umbilicated. 24. Trees with a fleihy fruit not
umbilicated. 25, Trees with a dry fruit.
The claffes in Herman’s method are fubdivided into
82 feAions or orders; which have for their bafis the
number of petals, feeds, capfules, and cells, the figure
of the feeds and petals, and difpofition of the flowers.
To the method of Dr Herman fucceeded that of
Dr Boerhaave, who fucceeded to the botanical chair of
Leyden in 1709. His method is that of Herman, blen¬
ded with part of the fyftems of Tournefort and Ray;
and contains the following claffes. 1. Herbs fubmarine,
or fea-plants. 2. Imperfeft land-plants. 3. Capillary
plants, or the fern kind. 4. Many naked feeds. 5.
Four naked feeds, and verticillated. 6. Four naked
feeds, and rough leaves. 7. Four naked feeds, and four
petals. 8. Plants having one feed-veffel. 9. Two feed-
veffels. 10. Three feed-veffels. 11. Four feed-veffels.
12. Five feed-veffels. 13. Many feed-veffels. 14. Two
naked feeds, and umbelliferous. 15. Two naked feeds,
and ffar-ihaped. 16. One naked feed, and a fimple
flower. 17. One naked feed, and compound flowers
femiflofculous. 18. One naked feed, and compound
flowers radiated. 19. One naked feed and compound
flowers corymbiferous. 20. One naked feed, and com¬
pound flowers, flofculous. 21. Berry-bearing herbs.
22. Apple-bearing herbs. 23. Without petals. 24.
One cotyledon, and having petals. 25. One cotyledon
and without petals. 26. 'Trees having one cotyledon.
27. Many podded. 28. Podded. 29. Tetrapetalous
and cruciform. 30. Leguminous. 31. Having no pe¬
tals. 32. Bearing catkins. 33. Monopetalous flowers.
34. Rofaceous flowers.
Thefe 34 claffes of Dr Boerhaave are fubdivided in¬
to 104 feftions, which have for their charadters, the
figure of the leaves, ftem, calix, petals, and feeds; the
number of petals, feeds, and capfules; the fubftance of
the leaves; the fituation of the flowers, and their diffe¬
rence in point of fex. By this method, Dr Boerhaave
arranged near 6000 plants, the produce of the bota¬
nical garden at Leyden, which he carefully fuperin-
tended for the fpace of 20 years, and left to his fuccef-
for Dr Adrien Royen, in a much more flouriftiing (late
than he himfelf had received it. His Index or Cata¬
logue of the Leyden plants was publiflxed in o&avo in
1710; and afterwards, with great additions, in quarto,
in 1720. This laft edition contains defcriptions of 5650
plants ; of which number upwards of two thirds had
been introduced into the garden fince the time of Her¬
man, by his illuftrious fucceffor. Boerhaave’s charac¬
ters are derived from the habit or general appearance
of plants combined with all the parts of fru&ification;
fb that, as Linnaeus very properly obferves, he was the
Srft who employed the calix, (lamina, and ftyle, in de-
A N Y. Sed. III.
termining the genus. About 17 new genera were efta-
blifhed by this author ; among others, the very fplen-
did family of the protea and filver-tree, which, although
partly defcribed by Morifon, had remained generally
unknown till this period. His method was adopted by
one Emfling, a German, in a treatife intitled The fir ft,
principles tf Botany, publiflxed in oftavo at Wolfen-
buttle, in 1748.
Hitherto all the botanifts had been intent upon inve-
(ligating the order of nature, rather than facilitating
the arrangement of vegetables: therefore their methods
were very intricate and perplexed ; and their writings,
however entertaining to the learned, could afford but
very little inftrudlion to the young botanift. In 1690,
however, Auguftus Quirinus Rivinus, a German, pro-
feffor of botany at Leipfic, relinquiftiing the purfuit
of natural affinities, and convinced of the infufficiency
of charatleriftic marks drawn only from the fruit, at¬
tached himfelf to the flower, which, he was fenfible
would furniflx charafters no lefs numerous, permanent,
and confpicuous, than thofe drawn from the fruit.
The calix, petals, (lamina, and (lyle or pointal,
which conftitute the flower, are fuificiently diverfi-
fied in point of number, figure, proportion, and fitua¬
tion, to ferve as the bafis of a mode of arrangement;
yet all are not equally proper for this purpofe. Rivi¬
nus made ufe of the petals as the larged and mod beau¬
tiful part, and that from which the flower itfelf is com¬
monly chara6terized. His method confids of the fol¬
lowing 1 8 claffes, which have for their bafis the perfec¬
tion and difpofition of the flowers, and regularity and
number of the petals. 1. Regular monopetalous, or
having one petal. 2. Dipetalous. 3. Tripetalous.
4. Tetrapetalous. 5. Pentapetalous. 6. Hexapeta-
lous. 7. Polypetalqus, or having many petals. 8. Ir¬
regular monopetalous. 9. Irregular dipetalous. 10. Ir¬
regular tripetalous. X t. Irregular tetrapetalous. 12. Ir¬
regular pentapetalous. 13. Irregular hexapetalous.
14. Irregular polypetalous. 15. Compound flowers of
regular florets. x6. Compound flowers of regular and
irregular florets. 17. Compound flowers of irregular
florets only. 18. Incomplete, or imperfeft plants.
As Rivinus fet out with the profeffed defign of im¬
parting facility to botany, he judged very properly in
diveding his method of all extraneous matter, and ren¬
dering it as fimple and uniform as the nature of the-
fcience would admit. The didindtion into herbs and
trees had been adopted by every writer on plants fince
the time of Aridotle. Rendered in fome meafure fa-
cred by its antiquity, this didindlion maintained a kind
of importance to which it was by no means effentially
intitled. Rivinus was the fird who in this matter dared
to think for himfelf. He was early fenfible of the in¬
conveniences to which thofe had fubmitted who em¬
ployed it as a primary divifion ; and therefore refolved
at once to get rid of a didindlion that is frequently un¬
certain, always dedrudlive to uniformity, and in its na¬
ture repugnant to the genuine fpirit of fyffem, becaufe
totally unconnedled with the parts of frudlification. In
the uniformity of its orders or fecondary divifions,
which are 91 in number, and acknowledge the fruit
for their principle, Rivinus’s method equals, perhaps
excells, all that went before or fucceeded it. Only three
claffes of his method were publiflxed by Rivinus him-
felf. Thefe are the 11th, 14th and 15th, which were
offered
I2§9
Seft. III. EOT
offered to the public at different times, illuftrated with
very fplendid figures. The method was completed and
publilhed entire by Heucher, in a work intitled Hortus
WUieniergcnfts, printed in quarto at Wittenberg in 1711.
Several German authors have followed Rivinus’s me¬
thod, either wholly or in part, without offering any
confiderable amendment. The principal of thefe are,
Koenig, in a work on vegetables, publifhed at Bafil in
1696 ; Welfch in his Bafts Botanica, printed at Leip-
fic in o&avo, in 1697 ; Gemeinhart, in a catalogue of
plants publifhed in 1725 ; Kramer, in a work intitled
Tentamen Botanicum, publifhed at Drefden in 1728,
and afterwards reprinted with additions at Vienna in
1744; and Hecker, in a difiertation on botany pub¬
lifhed at Hal in Saxony, in 1734. To thefe may be
added Hebenftreit, an ingenious botanift, who in a trea-
tife on plants publifhed at Leipfic in 1731, juft before
his famous African expedition, eftablifhed generical
chara&ers, which had hitherto been wanting in Rivi¬
nus’s method.
The writers who have attempted to improve upon
Rivinus’s method are Bernard Ruppius, Chriftopher
Ludwig, and Chriftian Knaut. Ruppius in his Flora
Jenenftsy publifhed at Frankfort in 1718, has arranged
the 1200 plants there defcribed by a method partly
Rivinus’s, and partly his own. It confifts of 17 claffes,
and fets out with the fame divifions and fubdivifions as
that of Rivinus ; with this difference, however, that,
whereas in Rivinus’s method all perfedt flowers are di¬
vided into fimple and compound, in Ruppius the divi-
fion of regular and irregular flowers precedes that juft
mentioned, and fimple and compound flowers are made
fubdivinons of the regular flowers only.
Chriftopher Ludwig’s method, which was publifhed
in 1737, and confifts of 20 claffes, differs but little from
that of Rivinus. The author accompanied Hebenftreit
on his expedition into Africa, and feems to have made
plants his favourite ftudy. The improvement, however,
which he has made on Rivinus’s plan, confifts only in
rendering it more univerfal, having enriched it with a
multitude of genera collefted from the works of Tour-
nefort, Ray, Boerhaave, Dillenius, and other eminent
botanifts, whofe generical charafters he has likewife
adopted. His plan of arrangement has been followed
by two fucceeding writers; M. Wedel, in a botanical
effay publifhed in 1 747 ; and three years after by M.
Boehmer, in his catalogue of the plants which grow in
the garden of Leipfic.
The method of Chriftian Knaut is much more pro¬
perly his own, and departs in a much greater degree
from that of Rivinus than either of the two former.
The regularity and number of the petals furnifhed the
claflical divifions in Rivinus’s method: in that of Knaut,
number takes place of regularity; fo that it is very pro¬
perly termed by Linnaeus, “ The fyftem of Rivinus in¬
verted.” This method was publifhed in 1716; and fets
out with a divifiori into flowers which have one petal,
and fuch as have more than one. It confifts of the 17
following claffes. 1. Monopetalous uniform or regular.
2. Monopetalous difform or irregular. 3. Monopeta¬
lous compound uniform or regular. 4. Monopetalous
compound difform or irregular. 5. Monopetalous com¬
pound uniform and .difform together. 6. Dipetalous
uniform or regular. 7. Dipetalous difform or irregu¬
lar. 8. Tripetalous uniform or regular. 9. Tripeta-
A N Y.
lous difform or irregular. 10. Tetrapetalous uniform
or regular. 11. Tetrapetalous difform or irregular.
12. Pentapetalous uniform or regular. 13. Pentape-
talous difform or irregular. 14. Hexapetalous uniform
or regular. 15. Hexapetalous difform or irregular.
16. Polypetalous uniform or regular. 17. Polypeta-
lous difform or irregular.
The feftions or fecondary divifions in Knaut’s me¬
thod are 121, and depend upon the internal divifions
of the fruit; and upon this his opinions are fomewhat
Angular. Every kind of fruit, whether pulpy or mem¬
branaceous, is termed by bur author a capfule. Neither
is the term reftri&ed to fruits properly fo called : it is
extended alfo to thofe termed by botanifts naked feedst
the exiftence of which Knaut abfolutely denies. Agree¬
able to this opinion, capfules, he fays, with refpebt to
their confiftence or fubftance, are of two forts; pulpy,
or membranaceous. The former correfpond tq the
fruits of the apple, berry, and cherry kind ; the latter
to the capfules properly fo called, and naked feeds of
other botanifts. Again, with refpeft to their cells or
internal divifions, capfules are either fimple or com¬
pound. Simple capfules have an undivided cavity or a
Angle cell; compound capfules are internally divided
into two or more cells. With other botanifts, the um¬
belliferous flowers bear two, the lip-flowers four, na¬
ked feeds; according to Knaut, the former produce two,
the latter four, fimple capfules. Ranunculus, adonis,
anemony, herb-bennet, and feme other plants, have
their flowers fucceeded by a number of naked feeds col-
leded into an aggregate or head: each of thefe feeds
paffes with Knaut for a fimple capfule; fo that the
whole is an aggregate of feveral capfules with an un¬
divided cavity or fingle cell. In numbering the cells
or internal divifions of the pulpy fruits, our author has
adopted a very Angular method. Some fruits of the
apple kind inclofe a capfule thdt is divided into five
membranaceous cells. It might then be very reafon-
ably expected to find fuch fruits arranged with com¬
pound capfules of five cells ; but, inftead of this, the
author whimfically enough combines in their arrange¬
ment the idea both of a fimple and compound capfule-
The pulpy part is undivided ; in other words, it is a
fimple capfule furniftied with one cell ; the compound
capfule inclofed contains five cells, which added to that,
of the pulp make the number fix; and thus thefe kinds,
of fruits are arranged with thofe having capfules of fix.
cells. By the fame kind of reafoning,, the fruit of the
dogwood, which is of the cherry kind, and contains a
ftone with two cells or cavities, is placed by Knaut a-
mong compound capfules with three cells; the pulp
pafling for one divtlion, and, cavities of the ftone or nut
for the remaining two. This method of calculation is.
not the only Angularity for which Knaut is remark¬
able. The effence of the flower is made by Ray, Tour-
nefort, Rivinus,. and moft other botanifts, to confift in
the ftamina and ftyle. This pofition Knaut abfolutely
denies; and has eftablifhed for a principle, that the
flower is effentially conftituted by the petals only. With,
him, the flower-cup, ftamina, and ftyle, are of little
fignificance: their prefence does not conftitute a flower
if the petals are wanting ; neither is their abfenee fuf-
ficient to deftroy its exiftence if the petals are prefent.
From this it follows, r. That there can be no flowers
without petals ; and, 2. That the regularity or irre¬
gularity
1290
B O T
gularity of the flower can never depend on the ftamina
and ftyle, which are only occalionally prefent, and no¬
wife eflential to its exiftence; both of which are evi¬
dently falfe to every botanical reader.
Since the time of Rivinus, no leading method in bo¬
tany has appeared except that of Tournefort and Lin-
nreus. Tournefort fets out with reviving the diftinc-
tion of plants into herbs and trees, which had been ex¬
ploded by Rivinus. His fyftem is founded on the re¬
gularity and figure of the petals, together with the
two-fold fituation of the receptacle of the flowers; his
orders, on the piftillum or calix. The clafles are,
I. Herbs with Ample flowers monopetalous, and bell-
fhaped. 2. Simple flowers monopetalous, tunnel and
wheel-fhaped. 3. Simple flowers monopetalous, labi-
ated or lipped. 4. Simple flowers monopetalous, ano¬
malous, or irregular. 5. Simple flowers polypetalous,
cruciform or crofs-lhaped. 6. Simple flowers polype¬
talous, and rofaceous or like a rofe. 7. Simple flowers
polypetalous, umbellated. 8. Simple flowers polype¬
talous, caryophyllaceous, clove-form. 9. Simple flowers
polypetalous, liliaceous or lily-form. 10. Simple flowers
polypetalous, papilionaceous, or butterfly form.
II. Simple flowers polypetalous, anomalous or irre¬
gular. 12. Compound flowers, flofculous, tubular or
whole florets. 13. Compound flowers femiftofculous,
flat or half florets. 14. Compound flowers radiated,
like the fpokes of a wheel. 15. Apetalous, having no
petals. 16. No flower, but bearing feed. 17. No
flower nor feed, in the vulgar eftimation. 18. Trees
with no petals, but bare ftamina. 19. Trees with no
petals, bearing catkins. 20. Trees monopetalous.
21. Trees rofaceous. 22. Trees papilionaceous.
The fecondary divifions in Tournefort’s method,
which are 122 in number, have obtained the name of
feftions. Their general diftin&ions are founded princi¬
pally upon the fruit, as thofe of the clafles are upon
the flower.
Tournefort hath been followed by a vaft number of
botanical writers, of whom the moft confiderable are,
Dr William Sherard, an eminent botanift of the laft
and prefent centuries. In 1689, he publifhed the firft
fketch of Tournefort’s method, under the title of Schola
Botanices ; or a catalogue of the plants demonftrated
by Dr Touruefort, in the royal garden at Paris. It
was not till five years after, that the Elementa Botanica,
a work which contains the rudiments and illuftration
of his method, was publifhed by Tournefort himfelf.—
Father Plumier, termed byway of eminence, the Tour¬
nefort of America, publifhed in 1703, at Paris, a de-
fcription of American plants, which he has arranged
according to the fyftem of Tournefort. In this work
he accurately characterized 96 new genera. Falugi, an
Italian, has defcribed, in pretty elegant Latin verfe, all
the genera of Tournefort, in a work intiled Profopo-
pxi<e Botanicee, publifhed at Florence, i2mo, 1705.
Several celebrated French academicians, particularly
Marchant, Dodart, Niffole, Juflieu, and Vaillant, have
alfo occafionally paid their tribute of acknowledgment
to this author, from the year 1700 to 1740. The o-
ther authors of note who have followed Tournefort’s
method, are, M. Petit, an ingenious French botanift;
Johren, a German, author of a treatife publifhed at
Colberg in 1710, entitled Vads mecum Botanicum, feu
Odegus Botanicus; Feuille, in his defcription of the
ANY. Sea. III.
plants of Chili and Peru, publifhed at Paris in quarto,
1714; Chriftopher Valentin, a German, author of a
book intitled Tournefortius Contra Bus, publifhed at
Francfort, in folio, in 1715; Ripa, an Italian, in a
work intitled Hiforix Univerfalis Plantarum Confcri-
bendiPropofitum, publifhed in quarto, at Padua, in 1718;
Michael Valentin, a German, in his Viridarium Ttefor-
matum, publifhed in folio, at Francfort, in 1719; the
celebrated Dillenius, profeflbr of botany at Oxford, and
author of feveral much efteemed publications on botany,
particularly the Hortus Eltkamenfts, and Hiftory of
Mofles, in his Flora Giflenfis, printed at Francfort in
1719; Pontedera, an Italian, author of the delinea¬
tion of a method which combines thofe of Tournefort
and Rivinus, publifhed at Padua, in his botanical dif-
fertations, in 1720; Monti, an Italian, in a work pu¬
blifhed at Bologna in 1724, under the title of Indices
Plantarum Varii-, Lindem, a German, in his Tourne¬
fortius Alfaticus, firft publifhed in 1728; Signior Mi-
cheli, author of feveral curious difcoveries refpe&ing
mofles and mufhrooms, in his Nona Genera Plant arum,
publifhed in folio at Florence, in 1729; Elvebemes, a
Swede, in a work publifhed in the Swedifh language,
at Upfal, in 1730; Fabricius, a German, author of a
work intitled Primiii.e Flora Butijbacenjis, feu fe>: De¬
cades Plantarum Rariorum, publifhed in 1743 ; Sab-
bati, an Italian, in his catalogue of the plants that grow
in the neighbourhood of Rome, printed at Rome in
1 745 ; and the ingenious Dr Charles Alfton, late pro-
feflbr of botany at Edinburgh, in his Tyrocinjum Bo¬
tanicum, publifhed at Edinburgh in 1753.
Of all this numerous liftof writers, Father Plumier and
Pontedera alone have ventured to quit the traft pointed
out by Tournefort. The former, in his arrangement
of American plants, has relinquifhed the diftin&ion
into herbs and trees ; but the latter has attempted more
confiderable variations. His clafles are, 1. Uncertain.
2. Having no flowers. 3. Without buds, imperfe£t
plants. 4. Anomalous or irregular. 5. Labiated.
6. Bell-fhaped. 7. Saucer-fhaped. 8. Wheel-fhaped.
9. Tunnel-fhaped. 10. Flofculous. 11. Semiflofculous.
12. Radiated. 13. Irregular. 14. Papilionaceous.
15. Liliaceous. 16. Caryophillaceous. 17. Cruciform,
or crofs-fhaped. 18. Umbellated. 19. Staminous,
or with naked ftamina. 20. Bearing buds, apetalous,
or without petals. 21. Bearing buds irregular. 22. Bear¬
ing buds bell-fhaped. 23. Bearing buds wheel-fhaped.
24. Bearing buds tunnel-fhaped. 25. Bearing buds,
papilionaceous. 26. Bearing buds, rofaceous.
Befides all thefe methods, there have been invented
two others, founded upon the calix. The firft of thefe
was the invention of Peter Magnol, a celebrated pro-
feffor of botany at Montpelier, and publifhed in 1720,
five years after the author’s death. The other was de¬
lineated by Linnaeus, and publifhed in his Claffes Plan¬
tarum, in 1738, three years after the publication of
the fexual fyftem. Magnol diftinguifhes two kinds of
calix ; one external, which invelops and fuftains the
flower, and is the flower-cup properly fo called ; the
other internal, which is the feed veflel or fruit. Ac¬
cording to this idea, all plants, whether herbaceous or
woody, are furnifhed with either the external calix only,
or with both. His clafles are, 1. Herbs with the calix
external, including a flower unknown. 2. Calix ex¬
ternal, including a flower llaminous. 3. Calix external,
including
I
Sea. III. B O T
including a flower monopetalous. 4. Calix external,
including a flower polypetalous. 5. Calix external,
including a flower compound. 6. Calix external, fup-
porting a flower monopetalous. 7. Calix external,
fupporting a flower polypetalous. 8. Calix internal
only, which is the corolla. 9. Calix external and in¬
ternal, flower roonopetalous. 10. Calix external and
internal, flower with two and three petals. 11. Calix
external and internal, tetrapetaloos. 12. Calix ex¬
ternal and internal, polypetalous. 13. Trees with the
calix external only. 14. Calix internal only. 15. Ca¬
lix external and internal both.
The charafters of the orders, or fecondary divifions,
in Magnol’s method, arederived chiefly from the figure
of the calix, petals, and feeds ; from the difpofition
of the flowers, from the number of petals, and fub-
ftance of the fruit. Fifty-five feftions or orders arife
from the combination of thefe chara&ers with thofe of
the clafles ; and thefe are again fubdivided into genera,
which pofiefs this Angularity, that, in place of diftinc-
tive chara&ers hitherto employed, they exhibit com¬
plete defcriptions of all the parts of fru&ification of
one or two fpecies of each genus. From this improve¬
ment Linnaeus manifdlly borrowed the hint of his ge-
nerical charafters.
Sir John Hill, in his vegetable fyftem, endeavours
Vol. T. to clafs plants according to their internal ftrufture *.
• I30, “ Perhaps, (fays he), upon the foundation of a truea-
natomy of plants a natural method may be eftablilhed:
for it is .certain, the forms of all the external parts of
vegetables depend on the difpofition of the internal;
and all their differences are founded there. On the
different inner ftru&ure of the vegetable body under
certain courfes of its veffels evidently depend the dif¬
ferences which chara&erize the feven firft families, to
the diflinftions of which all claffes are fubordinate ; and
as thefe original diftindtions are truly natural, we may
here begin very fafely.
“ The feven families are thefe, 1. The mufhrooms.
2. The algae, or foliaceous fea and land plants. 3. The
moffes. 4. The ferns. 5. The grafles. 6. The palms.
7. The common race of plants. Their diftindtions one
from another are thefe :
“ 1. The mufhrooms are flefhy ; and are deftitute of
leaves and vifible flowers. 2. The algae are merely
foliaceous, the entire plant confifting of a leafy matter
without other vifible parts. 3. The mofles have pro-
cefles of the inner rhind for leaves. 4. The ferns con-
fift of a fingle leaf raifed on a ftalk; and bear their
flowers upon its back. 5. The grafles have jointed
ftalks and undivided leaves, and hulks to hold the feeds.
6. The palms have a Ample trunk, with leaves only on
the top, and have the flowers and fruit in divided ears.”
Laftly, the feventh clafs, which he calls the common
ANY.
race of plants, are fuch as have their roots, leaves, ftalks,
flowers, and fruits, diftindt and obvious; and have not
the charadters of any of the other fix families.
To this natural method his artificial one, confifting
of 43 clafles, and which takes up the whole of his vo¬
luminous work, is defigned only as an index ; but as
this is univerfally allowed to be inferior to Linnaeus’s,
tho’ he pretends to improve that fyftem, we think it
needlefs to take any farther notice of it.
Befides the fexual fyftem of Linnaeus, which is now
almoft univerfally followed, he formed another, which,
like that of Magnol, had the calix for its bafis; but
greatly fuperior both in the idea and execution, be¬
ing indeed Angularly ferviceable to the novice in bo¬
tany, by familiarizing to him various appearances
of an organ fo important in its nature, and fo diver-
fified in its form, as the calix is. The clafles are,
x. Spathaceous like a flieath or hofe. 2. Glumofe
or chaffy. 3. Amentaceous, or catkins. 4. Umbel-
lated. 5. Common calix or flower-cup. 6. Double
calix. 7. Flowering ; the petals and fiamina infertcd
into the flower-cup. 8. Crowned, or crown-fnaped,
with a radius. 9. Irregular. 10. Difform, or different
fhapes. 11. Caducous, which fall off or fhed their
leaves. 12. Not caducous, uniform and monopetalous.
13. Not caducous, uniform and polypetalous. 14. Not
caducous, difform and monppetalous. 15. Not ca¬
ducous, difform and polypetalous. 16. Incomplete
calix. 17. Apetalous, or a bare calix without petals.
18. Naked, or neither petals nor calix.
Sect. IV. Of the Method of reducing Plants to
ClaJJes, Orders, Genera, and Species, according
Linneeus's Sexual Syflem.
This method of reducing plants to claffes, genera,
and fpecies, is founded upon the fuppofition that ve¬
getables propagate their fpecies in a manner fimilar to
that of animals. Linnxus endeavours to fupport this
hypothefis by the many analogies that fubfift between
plants and animals, which ftiall be more particularly
pointed out in the next fe&ion. It is from this cir-
cumftance that Linnaeus’s fyftem of botany has got the
name of the fexualfyfiem. The names of his claffes,
orders, &c. are all derived from this theory. He calls
the ftamina of flowers the males, or the male parts of
generation ; and the piftils females, or the female parts
of generation. Plants whole flowers contain both male
and female parts, are faid to be hermaphrodites, &c.
His claffes, orders, and genera, are all derived from
the number, fituation, proportion, and other circum-
ftances attending thefe parts, as will appear from the
following
SCHEME
1292
BOTANY.
Sea. IV.
SCHEME of the Sexual System. See Plate LIX.
Either publicly, i. e. have vifible flowers.
' Monoclinia, males and females in the fame bed :—i. e. The flowers are all hermaphrodite, having fta-
mina and piftils in the fame flower.
Diffinitasy the males or ftamina unconnefted with each other.
'Indifferentijfimusy the males or ftamina having no determinate proportion betwixt each other as to
length.
i. e. one male or ftamen in a hermaphrodite flower,
two males or ftamina.
three males,
four males,
five males,
fix males,
feven male*.
8. Octandria,  eight males.
9. Enneandria,  nine males.
10. Decandria  ten males.
11. Dodecandria,  eleven males.
12. Icosandria,  twenty, or more males inferted into the calix, and not into the recep¬
tacle.
13. Polyandria,  all above twenty males inferted into the receptacle.
Subordinatioy two of the males or ftamina uniformly ftiorter then the reft.
14. Didynamia,  four males, two of them uniformly ftiorter than the other two.
15. Tetradynamia, fix males, two of which are uniformly ftiorter than the reft.
Affinitas, the males or ftamina either conne&ed to each other, or to the piftillum.
16. Monodelphia, the males or ftamina united into one body by the filaments.
17. Diadelpaia, the ftamina united into two bodies or bundles by the filaments.
18. Polyadelphia, the ftamina united into three or more bundles by the filaments.
19. Syngenesia, the ftamina united in a cylindrical form by the antherse.
20. Gynandria, the ftamina inferted into the piftillum.
Diclinia, males and females in feparate beds; i. e. plants that have male and female flowers in the
fame fpecies.
21. Monoecia, male and female flowers in the fame plant.
22. Dioecia, male flowers in one plant, and females in another, of the fame fpecies.
i 23. Polygam 1 a, male, female, and hermaphrodite flowers in the fame fpecies.
Or clandeftinely, i. e. whofe parts of fruftification are invifible.
24. Cryptogamia, the flowers invifible, fo that they cannot be ranked according to the parts
of fru&ification.
Thefe 24 claffes comprehend every known genus and
fpecies. It is an eafy matter to clafs a plant belong¬
ing to any of the firft 11 claffes, as they all depend on
the number of ftamina or male parts, without regard to
any other circumftance. The 12th clafs requires more
attention. When the ftamina amount to above 20, a
tyro will be apt to imagine that the plant belongs to
the polyandria clafs. In reducing plants of this kind
to their claflcs, particular regard muft be had to the in-
fertion of the ftamina. If they are inferted into the
calix or cup, the plant belongs to the icofandria clafs;
if to the receptacle or bafis of the flower, it belongs to
the polyandria.
The 14th clafs is likewife in danger of being con¬
founded with the 4tl1. In the 4th, the number of fta¬
mina is the fame with that of the 14th : But, in the
14th, two of the ftamina are uniformly much ftiorter
than the other two; at the fame time each particular
ftamen belonging to the different pairs Hands dire&ly
oppofite to one another.
The 15th clafs may be miftaken for the 6th, as they
confift of the fame number of ftamina. But in the 15th,
four of the ftamina are uniformly longer than the other
two; and thefe two are always oppofite to each other.
ORDERS.
In the firft 13 claffes, the orders, which are inferior
divifions, and lead us a ftep nearer the genus, are ta¬
ken from the piftils or female parts, in the fame man¬
ner as the claffes from the ftamina: monogynia, digy-
nia, trigynia, tetragynia, &c. /. e. one, two, three,
four, &c. female parts: when the piftils or female parts
have no ftalk or filament like the ftamina, they are
numbered by the ftigmata or tops of the piftrls, which
in that cafe adhere to the capfule in the form of fmall
protuberances, as may be obferved in the flowers of the
poppy, &c.
The orders of the 14th clafs are derived from a dif¬
ferent fource. The plants belonging to it have their
feeds either inclofed in a capfule, or altogether unco¬
vered. Hence they naturally admit of a divifion into
the following orders, viz. gymnojpermia, comprehend¬
ing fuch as have naked feeds; and angiofpennia, which
comprehends fuch as have their feeds covered, or inclo¬
fed in a capfule.
The 15th clafs is divided into two orders, viz. the
ftliculofay or thofe which have a ftiort filiqua or pod;
and the filiqiwfay or thofe which have a longer filiqua.
The
Plate XIX.
>:f > >■ = »
Sea. IV. EOT
The orders of the 16th, 17th, 18th, and 20th clafies,
are taken from the number of ftamina ; e- g. monodel-
phia pentandria, dccandria, polyatidria, &c.
The Svngenesia, or ip'1’ clafs, confdts of plants
whofe flowers are compounded of a great number of
fmall flowers or flofcules inclofed in one common calix.
The orders of this clafs are,
Pohvatnia tcqualis, or fuch whofe flofcules are all fur-
niflxed with ftamina and piftils.
Poly lamia fpurl a, comprehends thofe which have
hermaphrodite flofcules in the diik, and female flofcules
in the margin. This circumftance is made the founda¬
tion of the three following orders. 1. Polygamia fu-
perflm, includes all thofe whofe hermaphrodite flowers
in the difk are furnifhed with ftigmata, and bear feed;
and whofe female flowers in the radius likewife produce
feeds. 2. Polygamia fruflranea, include fuch as have
hermaphrodite feed-bearing flofcules in the difk ; but
whofe flofcules in the radius, having no ftigmata, are
barren. 3. Polygamia neceffaria, is the reverfe of the
former : the hermaphrodite flowers in the difle want
ftigmata, and are barren ; but the female flofcules in
the radius are furniftied with ftigmata, and produce
feeds.
Polygamia fegregaia, many flofcules inclofed in one
common calix, and each of the flofcules likewife fur-
nifhed with a perianthium proper to itfelf.
Monogamia. This order confifts only of feven genera,
viz. the ftrumphia, feriphium, corymbium, jafione, lo¬
belia, viola, and impatiens ; none of which have pro¬
perly compound flowers, but are ranked under this clafs
purely from the circumftance of having their ftamina
united by the antherse.
The orders of the 21st clafs are partly taken from
the number of ftamina, and partly from the names and
' charadters peculiar to fome of the other clafies; e. g.
moncecia triandria, monoecia fyngenefia, moncecia gy-
nandria.
The orders of the 23d are all taken from clafiical cha-
radlers; e. g. polygamia moncecia, polygamia dioecia,
and polygamia trioecia.
The 24th, or Cryptogamia clafs, is divided into
the four following orders: 1. Filices, comprehending all
plants that bear their feed in the back or edges of the
leaf, and thofe that are called capillary plants. 2. Muf-
ci, which comprehends all the mofs kind. 3. sllga, in¬
cluding the lichens, fuci, and many others whole parts
of frudlification are either altogether invifible or ex¬
ceedingly obfeure. 4. Fungi, comprehending all the
mulhroom tribe.
Having thus explained the method of reducing plants
to their clafies and orders, we fhall proceed to inform
the young botanift how to inveftigate the genus. Thij
depends upon minuter diftinftions, and requires more
attention. But it is impofiible to inveftigate the ge¬
nera, without being previoufly acquainted with aconfi-
derable number of terms. All the terms neceflary for
this purpofe belong to the parts of fru&ification. To
attempt to give an idea by words of the parts to which
particular terms are applied, would not only be diffi¬
cult, but, in a great meafure, ufelefs, efpecially to fuch
as are totally ignorant of botany. We ftiall therefore
give a lift of the terms themfelves, with proper refe¬
rences to the figures of the things fignified by them,
Vox.. II.
A N Y.
which will both be Ihorter, and more intelligible than
the moft accurate defeription that language is capable
of.
Lijl of Ter ms belonging to the Flowers and Parts of
Fruflifcation. See Plate LX.
Fig. 1. Spatha, a fpecies of calix opening longitudi¬
nally when the flower breaks through it.
2. Spadix, a fpecies of receptacle peculiar to palm-trees,
which confifts of fruit-bearing branches included in
a fpatha.
3. a, Gluma, another fpecies of calix, belonging chiefly
to grafi’es and corns, and confifts of different valves;
b, ari/la, or awn.
4. a a, Umbella univerfalis, comprehends the whole
flowers, &c. arifing from a common centre, and re-
fembling a large fan. b, Umbella partialis, or a
fmaller parcel of the flowers, &c. refembling a fmall
fan. c c, Involucrum univerfale, a fpecies of calix in
which the whole flowers were inclofed before their
blowing, d d, Involucrum partiale, a leffer calix,
which includes a fmaller bundle of flowers, and
which, before their blowing, is inclofed in the invo¬
lucrum univerfale. Examples of thefe are found in
the Hemlock, Carrot, &c.
5. c, Calyptrd; b, operculum; a, capitulum. Thefe
terms are peculiar to moffes.
6. Amentum, a fpecies of calix, e. g. in the Willow,
Birch-tree, &c.
7. Strobilus, a pericarpium or capfule compofed of an
amentum, an example of which occurs in the mag¬
nolia.
8. Fungi, a, Pileus; b, volva; c,JUpes. Thefe terms
are moftly applied to the parts of muihrooms.
9. a, Receptaculum commune nudum, the common re¬
ceptacle, or bafe of the flower, when the ftamina,
pift.il, capfule, &c. are taken off.
• 10. Receptaculum commune paleis imbricatum, or com¬
mon receptacle imbricated or tiled with palese, or
membranaceous lamellae.
11. CorolLe monopetalce. a, Tubus; b, limbus: i. e. a, the
tube; b, the edge or margin of a monopetalous co¬
rolla. The corolla fignifies the flower-leaf, when it
confifts but of one, and the whole flower-leaves,
when it confifts of more.
12. Is a flower laid in a proper pofition for fhewing
its different parts, a, Germen, which includes the
feeds and capfule in which they are inclofed; h,Jly-
lus, which is a continuation of the germen ; c,Jligma,
or top of the ftylus; d d d & &&,fla?nenta, or threads;
e e e e e, anther re. The filamenta and antherae, con-
fidered as a whole, are called ftamina; and the ger¬
men, ftylus, and ftigma, as a whole, are called/>//?//-
lam. f f f f f, Petala, or flower-leaves.
13. a. The ungues, or claws ; b, the laminx, or plates
of a polypetalous corolla, or corolla confifting of fe-
veral flower-leaves.
14. a, NeClarium camparmlatum in narcijfo, or bell-
ftiaped neftarium of the narciffus. Nettarium is ap¬
plied to every glandular part of a flower which fecerns
a fvveet juice. Their ftrudure is very different in
different plants.
15. Neft aria cornuta in aconito, horned ne&aria of the
monkfliood.
16. Horned neftariim in the calix of the tropoeolus.
8 A in.
94
Sed. IV.
B O T
Fig.
7. a a a a, Nettarium in pavnaffia ; the ne&aria of the
parnaflia grafs are fix in number, each of which have
13 ftyli, with round buttons on their tops.
18. a, Perianthium, that fpecies of calix which is con¬
tiguous to the fructification; b, germen; c, Jiylus ;
d, Jlighia ; e e, filament a; f f, antherue dehifcentes,
or anthers fhedding the pollen or duft; g, anther a
Integra, i. e. the appearance of the anthera before
it fheds the pollen.
19. a, The filament, and b, the anthera, feparated from
the flower.
20. a. One grain of the pollen magnified by a micro-
fcope; b, halitus elajlicus, i. e. an elaftic aura f""
pofed to be necefiary for impregnating the feeds.
21. a, Germen; b, fiy/us ; c c, Jligma.
22. Follkulus; i. e. a pericarpium confiding only of one
valve, opening longitudinally, and in which the feeds
do not adhere to the future, but are inclofed in a
particular receptacle a.
23. Legumen, is a double-valved pericarpium, having
the meds fixed only to one of the futures a a.
24. Siliqua, is a double-valved pericarpium with the
feeds fixed to both futures or margins a b.
ANY.
Fig-
36. Panicula, i. e. flowers placed fparfely upon fepa-
rate foot-Aalks; as in Oats, &c.
When thefe terms are underftood, the genus may be
eafily invedigated. But, in order dill further to aflill
the young botanid, we fliall give a fydematic defcrip-
tion of a few common plants belonging to different
claffes.
DIANDRIA MONOGYNIA.
Veronica, or Speedwell.
The Calix is a perianthium (18) divided into four
parts or fegments, and perfident (/. e. does not fall off
till the feeds are ripe); the fegments are fliarp and
lance-fliaped.
The Corolla (ii) confids of one rotated petal;
the tubus (11) is about the fame length with the ca¬
lix; \\se. limbus (11) is plane, and divided into four
oval fegments, the lowed of which is narrower than the
red, and the one immediately oppofite broader.
The Stamina (12) are two, narrower below, and
inclined upwards; the antheras (12) are oblong.
The Pistillum (12) has a compreffed germen (12),
leeas nxea to ootn luimes or margins «o. .rr , ; 1 ° , v '
25. Pomum, a pericarpium without any valve, but made f fil'form or thread-like dylus (12 , about the fame
^ ^ , r r \ n 1  • •  I- 1 •_ leno-th with the itamina, and a little declined to one
"up of a pulpy fubdance, and containing a capfule
which the feeds are inclofed, as in the apple, &c.
a, The pericarpium; b, the capfule, or feed-cafe.
26. a, Drupa, or a pericarpium containing a nut or
done, and having no valve, e. g. plumbs, &c. b, The
nucleus, or done.
27. Bacca, or berry, is a pericarpium containing naked
feeds difperfed through the pulpy part.
28. Capfiula apice dehificens, a capfule opening at the
top to allow the feeds to fall out.
29. Four capfules included in a common pericarpium.
a a. The valves ; b b, the diffepimentum, or parti¬
tion which feparates the different feed-capfules from
one another; c, columella, or central column, by
which the capfules are connefted.
30. A capfule cut open longitudinally, to fhow the re¬
ceptacle of the feeds.
31. Pappus, a kind of corona or crown which is either
hairy or penniform, and conne&ed to the feeds of
fome plants, by means of which they are blown a-
bout by the wind, a, Pappus pilofus, or pappus re-
fembling a hair; b,pappus plumofius, or feathered pap¬
pus; c, femen; A, Jlipes. The Dandelion, and many
length with the damina, and a little declined to one
fide: the digma (12) is Ample.
The Pericarpium (12) is a heart-fhaped capfule,
compreffed at the top, and having two cells or parti¬
tions, and four valves.
The Seeds are roundiih and numerous.
ICOSANDRIA POLYGAMIA.
Fragaria, or Strawberry.
The Calix is a perianthium, confiding of one plain
leaf, divided into ten fegments, each alternately nar¬
rower.
The Corolla has five roundiffi open petals inferted
into the calix.
The Stamina are 20 in number, fubulated or ta¬
pering, fhorter than the corolla, and inferted into the
calix. The antheras are lunulated, or fnaped like a
crefcent.
The Pistillum confids of many fmall germina, col-
lefted into a little head or knob. The dyli are Ample,
and inferted into the fides of their refpedtive germina.
The digmata are Ample.
The Pericarpium is wanting in this plant. But
plants of the fyngenefia clafs, afford examples of the common receptacle of the feeds, which fupplies the
’ ^ place of a pericarpium, is a roundifh oval berry, plain
at the bafe, pretty large, foft, pulpy, coloured, and de¬
ciduous, i. e. falls off before the feeds be ripe.
The Seeds are fmall, pointed, very numerous, and
difperfed through the fuperficial part of the receptacle.
thefe parts.
Terms belongitig to the Pedunculus or Footjlalks of
Flowers. Plate LXI.
32. Corymbus, i.e. flowers upon alternate pedunculi and
foot-dalks, elevated proportionally above each other.
33. Racemus, a pedunculus orfoot-dalk furniffied with
lateral branches.
34. Spica, alternate fefiile flowers [/.<?. flowers without
any particular foot-dalk, but inferted diredly into
one common to the whole], upon a common foot-
dalk ; as in the Scirpus.
35. Verticillus. This term is applied to fuch plants as
DIDYNAMIA ANGIOSPERMIA.
Digitalis, or Fox-glove.
The Calix is a perianthium, divided into four deep-
cut fegments, which are roundifh, (harp at the top,
perfident, and the highefl one is narrower than the
red.
The Corolla confids of one bell-fliaped petal; the
have cluflers of flowers at different didances fur- tubus is large, open, ventricofe or bellied at the back-
rounding the caulis or ffem ; as in feveral fpecies fide; the bafe is cylindrical and narrow: the limbus is
of Mint. fmall, and divided into four fegments; the fuperior
feg-
Plate X,X.
Sea. IV. EOT
fegment is more open and more cmarginated than the
rett.
The Stamina are four, Tubulated (44), inferted in¬
to the bafe of the corolla, and inclined to the fame fide;
two of them are longer than the other two: the antherae
are divided into two parts, and pointed at the top.
The Pistillum confifts of a germen fharp at the
top, a fimple ftylus fituate like the ftamina, and an acute
ftigma.
The Pericarpium has an oval capfule, of the fame
length with the calix, lharp at the top, having two cells,
and two valves which burlt open at both fides.
The Seeds are many and fmall.
TETRADYNAMIA SILI QJJ O S A.
Sinapis, or Mustard.
The Calix is a perianthium confiding of four open
or fpreading leaves; the leaves are linear (43), con¬
cave, furrowed, difpofed in the form of a crois, and de¬
ciduous.
’ The Corolla confids of four cruciform petals: the
petals are roundifli, plain, open, entire or not emargi-
nated, with ere£l linear ungues (13) fcarcely fo long as
the calix.
The Nectaria (14, &c.), or glanduLe nsflariferx,
are four, of an oval figure, ohe of which is fituate on
each fide betwixt the Ihort damina and dylus, and like-
wife one on each fide between the long damina and the
calix.
The Stamina have fix fubulated ereft filaments,
two of which are of the fame length with the calix, and
always oppofite to each other, and the other four are
uniformly longer : the anther# are ereft, and (harp at
the top.
The Pistillum has a cylindrical germen; the dy¬
lus is of the fame length wuth the germen, and the fame
height with the damina; the digma is entire, with a
little knob or button.
The Pericarpium is an oblong, fcabrous, double-
celled, two-valved pod, gibbous, and full of little pro¬
tuberances on the under parts: the diflepimentum (29)
is large, compreffed, and often twice the length of the
valves.
The Seeds are many and round.
MONODELPHIA POLYANDRIA.
Malva, or Common Mallow.
The Calix is a double perianthium: the exteriorone
.confids of three lanceolated, loofe, perfident leaves ;
the interior has but one large, broad, perfident leaf,
divided into five fegments.
The Corolla has five plain leaves, united at the bafe,
heart-fhaped, and premorfe.(54).
The Stamina confid of numerous filaments, united
into a cylindrical form below, loofe above, and inferted
into the corolla: the antherae are kidney-ftiaped.
The Pistillum has an orbicular germen, a cylin¬
drical (hort dylus, and many bridly digmata of an equal
length with the dylus.
The Peruarpium confids of feveral didinft cap-
fules joined by an articulation, refembling a depreffed
globe, and opening from within when ripe: the recep-
taculum is a kind of column binding the capfules toge¬
ther.
The Seeds are folitary, and kidney-ftiaped.
ANY. 1295
SYNGENESIA POLYGAMIA JEQUALIS.
Leontodon, or Dandelion.
The common Calix is oblong, and imbricated: the
interior fcales are linear, parallel, equal, and open at
the top ; the exterior fcales are fewer in number, and
frequently refle&ed at the bafe.
The compound Corolla is uniform and imbricated.
The fmall hermaphrodite coroll# are very numerous
and equal.
The corolla proper to each flofcule confifts of one li-
gulated (/. e. plain and expanded outwards), linear,
truncated (/. e. terminated by a tranfverfe line), and
five-teethed petal.
The Stamina confift of five very fmall capillary fila¬
ments: the antherae areconnefted together,and form a
cylindrical tube.
The Germen of the pijlillum is fituate below the pro¬
per corolla. The ftylus is filiform, and nearly of the
fame length wfith the corolla: the ftigmata are two, and
turned back in a fpiral form.
This plant has no pericarpium.
The Seeds are folitary, oblong, rough, and termi¬
nated by a long pappous ftipes (31).
The receptacle, or common bafe of the flofcules (9),
is naked, and full of fmall hollow points.
GYNANDRIA PENTANDRIA.
Passiflora, or Passion-flower.
The Calix is a perianthium confiding of five plain,
coloured leaves, fimilar to thofe of the corolla.
The Corolla confifts of five plain obtufe femi-lan-
ceolated leaves, of the fame magnitude and figure with
thofe of the calix.
The nedarium is a triple corona, the exterior of which
is longeft, furrounding the ftylus within the petals, and
ftraitened above.
The Stamina are five, fubulated, open, and connec¬
ted to the ftylus at the bafe of the germen: the antherse
are oblong, obtufe, and incumbent.
The Pistillum confifts of an ere& cylindrical fty¬
lus, upon the top of which an oval gtrmen is placed:
the ftyli are three, thicker, and wider above: the ftig¬
mata are roundifh knobs.
The Pericarpium is a fleftiy, fuboval, one-celled
berry, refting upon the ftylus.
The Seeds are numerous, oval, and each of them in-
clofed in a fmall membrane.
MONOECIA TETRANDRIA.
Urtica, or Common Nettle.
The Calix of the male flowers is a four-leaved pe*
nanthium; the leaves are roundifti, concave, and ob¬
tufe.
The Corolla has no petals; but there is a fmall ur-
ceolated (/. e. an inflated (kin, gibbous on each fide)
ne&arium in the centre of the flower. '
Ihe Stamina confifts of four fubulated open fila¬
ments, of an equal length with the calix, and one of
them is placed between each leaf of the calix: the an¬
ther# have no cells.
The Calix of the female flowers is a double-valved,
oval, concave, ereft, perfiftent perianthium.
The Corolla is wanting.
The Pistillum has an oval germen, no ftylus, and
8 A 2 3
1296
Sea. IV.
B O T
a downy ftigma.
They have no pertcarpium.
The Seed is Tingle, oval, fhining, and a little com-
prefied.
Thefe examples will not only illuftrate molt of the
generic terms, but will likewife fix them in the mind
more fuccefsfully than any formal explanation.
But the young botanift, after advancing thus far,
mull ftill be conduced a ftep further. Though he may
be able to reduce plants to their clafles, orders, and ge¬
nera, he is hitherto totally ignorant of the fpecific cha¬
racters. Before he be able to inveftigate the fpecies,
he mult again fubmit to learn a confiderable number of
terms neceflary for that purpofe.
Lift Terms necejfary for inveft 1 gating the Species of
Plants. Plate LXI.
Fig.
37. Orbicnlatum, of a circular figure.
38. Subrot undam, roundilh or nearly circular.
39. Ovatum, ovate; or having its longitudinal diameter
longer than the tranfverfe, with its bafe forming a
fegment of a circle, and the top alfo roundilh, but
narrower.
40. Ovale, free Ellipticum, ov^l or elliptical.
41. Oblonguni, oblong; pr having its longitudinal dia¬
meter exceeding the tranfverfe any number of times,
as twice, thrice, &c.
42. Lanceolatum, lanceolate, or oblong, and drawing
to a point at each end.
43. Lineare, linear, or every where of the fame breadth.
44. Subulatum, Tubulated, linear at the bafe, and after¬
wards tapering to a point, like an awl.
45. reniform, kidney-fiiaped; ;. e. roundilh,
with the bafe hollow, and having no lharp points
behind.
46. Cordatum, cordate, heart-lhaped, i. e. nearly ovate,
with a ftnits, or hollow at the foot-ftalk, but no
fharp points or angles behind.
47. Lunulatum, lunulated, refembling a crefcent or
half-moon.
48. Triangulare, triangular, or three cornered.
49. Sagittatum, fagittated, like an arrow head, i. e.
triangular, with a fnus or hollow betwixt the two
hinder angles or points.
50. Cordato-fagittatum, heart-lhaped behind and lharp
like the point of an arrow before.
51. Haftatum, halberd-lhaped; i. e. like an arrow-head,
with a fnus or hollow betwixt the hinder angles, and
the angles themfelves proje&ing out on each fide.
52. Fiffum, notched, nicked, or cut in at the top, fo
as to have the bottom of the notch or cut lharp, and
its Tides ftraight.
53. Trilobum, three-lobed, or having three (55) lobes.
54. Pnemorfum, fore-bitten, or as if a piece were bit¬
ten out of the fore-part of it.
55. Lobatum, lobed; or divided, down to the middle,
into parts or fegments (landing afunder from one
another.
56. dpuinquangulare, having five points or angles.
57. Erofum, eroded, or as if it had bits irregularly
gnawed out of the fore-part of it.
58. Palmatum, palmated ; divided down, lower than
the middle, into nearly ecju allobes.
ANY.
Fig.
59. Pinnatum, pinnated, or having any number of
feuillets or fmall leaves connedled on each fide to
one Ample petiole.
60. Laciniatum, laciniated; having the difc varioufly
cut, or as it were llit downwards, into parts of no
determinate or regular figure.
61. Sinuatum, finuated; having wide finufes or hollows
in the fides.
62. Dentatofnuatum, finuated fo that the fegments
betwixt the finufes refemble teeth.
63. Retrerfum-fnuatnm; frnuated, with the parts be¬
twixt the finufes turned towards the bafe.
64. Partitum, partite ; divided almoft to the bafe.
65. Repandum, having a ferpentine edge and the difc
plain.
66. Defitatum, dentated ; teethed, or having the tops
of the fegments patent or remote from each other.
67. Serratum, ferrated, or having all the points of the
teeth turned towards the fore-part.
68. Duplicato-ferratum, doubly ferrated, or having
the larger ferratures or teeth furrounded with fmaller
ones.
69., Duplicato-crenatum, doubly crenated, or having
the larger crena or notches furrounded with fmallcr
ones (74).
70. Cartilagineum, cartilaginous, the margin of which
is griftly.
71. fcute-crenatiim, acutely crenated, or having the
crense or notches lharp at the top.
72. Obtuse-crenatum, obtufely crenated, or having the
tops of the crense or notches blunt.
73. Plicatum, plaited, having the difc towards the
edge raifed and depreflcd fo that each turn forms
an angle: Alchemilia.
74. Crenatuvi, crenated, cut in or notched fo that the
notches turn towards neither extremity.
75. Crifpum, curled; when the margin grows larger
than the difc, and runs into irregular waves.
76. Obtafum, obtufe; blunt, or terminated within the
fegment of a circle.
77. Acutum, acute; lharp, or terminated by an acute
angle.
78. Acuminatum, acuminated, or terminated by a
fubulated or fiiarp point.
79. Obtufum cum r.cumine, obtufe with a fharp point
fupCradded.
80. Emarginatum acute, acutely emarginated, or ha¬
ving a lharp notch at the top.
81. Cuneiforme-emarginatiirn, cuneiform, and emar¬
ginated; or. wedge-lhaped, with a notch at the
top.
82. Retufum, retufe, terminated by an obtufe fnus or
notch.
83. Pilofum, hairy; covered with long diftinft hairs.
84. Tomentofum, tomentofe ; covered with fine downy
hairs interwoven together and fcarcely difcernible,
like fialk filk.
85. Hifpidum, briftly, having brittle and hard briflles
fcattered over its difc.
86. Ciliatum, ciliated; having parallel bridles, refem¬
bling eye-lalhes, round the margin.
87. Rugofurn, wrinkly, or full of wrinkles.
88. Venofim, venofe ; having veins or nerves with many
ramifications.
89.
r
1 Sea. IV. HOT
Kg-
89. Nervofum, nervofe, with veins or nerves extending
from the bafe to the top without any branches.
90. Papillofum, papillous, covered with minute flefhy
points convex or elevated above the difc.
91. Linguiformi, linguiform, tongue-fhaped, i. e. flefhy,
linear, obtufe, and convex below.
92. Acinaciforme, cimeter-fhaped; i. e. comprelfed,
flefhy, with the one edge convex and thin, and the
other thicker and ftraighter.
93. Dolabriforme, hatchet-fhaped; comprefied, roundi/h
above, and gibbous on the foreflde with a (harp edge,
and fomewhat cylindrical below.
94. Deltoides, deltoid ; of an irregular rhamboidal fi¬
gure, of which the two fide-angles are nearer the
bafe than the top. See the leaf of the black Po¬
plar.
95. Triquetrum, prifmatical, or having three plain
fides.
96. Canaliculatum, channelled, or having a deep lon¬
gitudinal furrow.
97. Sulcatum, having more deep furrows than one.
98. Teres, cylindrical.
Plate LXII. 99- Binatum, binate, or having a Ample petiole with
two leaves connected to its apex.
100. Ternatum folicl/s petiolatis, ternated with fefllle
feuillets ; or having three feflile leaves (/. e. without
petioles) connected to the apex of one common pe¬
tiole.
101. Ternatum foliolis petiolatis, ternated with petio-
lated feuillets, or having three leaves upon a com¬
mon petiole, and each of thefe having at the fame
time a petiole of its own.
102. Digitatum, digitated, fingered, /. <?. when a Ample
petiole has two, three, four, or more leaves connec¬
ted to its apex.
103. Pedatum, pedated; having a bifid or forked pe¬
tiole, with two or more fmall leaves connedled to the
interior fide of the forks.
104. Pinnatum cum impari, pinnated with an odd feuil-
let, or fmall leaf, at the top.
IOC. Pinnatum abrupte, abruptly pinnated, or pinnated
without any odd leaf or cirrhus at the top.
106.  aiteraiim, pinnated alternately, or
having the feuillets placed alternately on each fide
of the petiole.
107.  — interrupte, pinnated with the feuillets
alternately larger and fmaller.
108.  cirrhofum, pinnated with a cirrhus or
clafper at the end of the petiole.
109.   conjugatum, pinnated with only two
feuillets.
no.    decurfiv'e, pinnated with feuillets run¬
ning down the fides of the petiole in the form of a
web or membrane.
in.   articulate, pinnated with an articulated
or jointed petiole.
WZ. Lyratum, lyre-fhaped; i. e. divided tranfverfely
into oblong horizontal fegments, of which the lower
ones are leffer and more diflant from each other than
the upper ones.
113. Biternatum, or duplicato-ternatum, biternate, or
double ternate, or having three ternated (100) leaves
upon one petiole. See Epimedium.
114. Bipinnatum, or duplicato-pinnatum, bipinnated, or
ANY.
Fig.
double pinnated, i. e. having the primary pinnce pin¬
nated again a fecond time.
115. Triternatum, or triplicato-ternatum, triple ter¬
nated, or confiding of three biternated (113) leaves.
116. TripinnatumJine impari, triple-pinnated without
an odd feuillet, or having the fccondary pinnee pin¬
nated again, and thefe laft pinna not terminated by
an odd feuillet.
117-    cum impari, triple-pinnated with an
odd feuillet.
Terms refpefting the DetenJiination of Leaves.
118. Inflexnm, incurvated ; bending upwards, with the
point leaning towards the ftem.
119. Ere (him, ere&; upright, or making a very acute
angle with the ftem.
120. Patens, patent ; forming any angle with the ftem
greater than the former and lefs than half a right
angle.
121. Horizontale, horizontal, or {landing at a right
angle with the ftem.
122. Reclinatum, or refexum, reclined or reflex, bend¬
ing down arch-wife till the apex be lower than the
bafe.
123. Revolutum, revolute, or rolled backwards in a
fpiral form.
124. Seminole, feminal leaves, or feed-leaves; i. e. the
lobes of the feed, which in many plants arife entirely
out of the ground, are always the firft that appear,
and generally of a form or confiftency different from
thofe that fucceed them.
125. Caulinum, cauline, or rifing immediately from
the ftem or ftalk.
126. Rameum, a branch-leaf, or rifing out of a branch.
127. Florale, floral; leaf next the flower, and differ¬
ing in its form from the other leaves of the plant.
This is alfo termed a braftea, or fpangle.
128. Peltatum, peltated; or having the petiole inferted
not into the bafe, but into the inferior difc, at or
near its centre.
129. Petiolatum, petiolated; connected with the plant
by a petiole, or foot-ftalk, inferted into the margin
of its bafe.
130. Sefile, feffile ; or connc&ed immediately with the
plant, without the intervention of a petiole. .
131. Decurrens, decurrent, or having its bafe running
down along the ftalk; as in the Verbefina, Car-
duus, &c.
132. Amplexicaule, amplexieaule; embracing the ftalk
on all fides with its bafe.
133. Perfoliatum, perfoliate; having its bafe entirely
furrounding the ftalk, or the ftalk perforating, or
appearing to perforate it. See the Thoroughwax.
134. Connatum, connate; having its bafe united, or fo
clofe to its oppofite as to form, or appear to form,
with it but a Angle leaf, with the ftem rifing up
through it.
135. Vaginans, fheathing, or with its bafe forming a
cylindrical tube invefting the ftem. See Polygonum;
Rumex.
136. Articulatim, articulated, or jointed, having one
leaf growing out of the top of another.
137. Stellatum, fteliated, or verticillated, when more
than two leaves furrotind the ftem at the fame height
like:
I297
1298
Sea. IV.
BOTANY.
like a whirl.
138. Quaterna, quina,fena, 8cc. are only different fpe-
cies of ftellated, or verticillated leaves, when there
are four, five, fix, &c. leaves in one verticillus or
whirl.
139. Oppofita, oppofite; or when two leaves Hand ex-
adfly oppofite to each other, and each pair Hands at
right angles with the pairs immediately above and
below it.
140. Alterna, alternate, or rifing one above another
by degrees.
141. Acerofa, linear and perfifting; as in the Pine, Fir,
Juniper, and Yew.
142. Imbricata, imbricated; ereft, and fo thick fet as
partly to cover one another like tiles or Hates on a
roof.
143. Fafciculata, fafciculated, or rifing in a pincil from
the fame point; as in the Larix.
144. From. This term is applied to a fpecies of ftalk or
trunk, confifting of branches and leaves, and fome-
times the fru&ifications, all united together ; and is
peculiar to the Filices or Ferns, and the Palmae.
145. Folium fpatulatum, (Sauv.) fpatulated, orround-
ifli above, with a long linear bafe.
146.    parabolicum, parabolical; having its lon¬
gitudinal diameter longer than the tranfverfe, and
growing narrower from the bafe till it terminate
fomewhat like an oval.
Temrs relating to the Caules or Stems. Plate LXIII.
147. Culmus fquamofus, a fcaly culm or ftalk. Culmus
is peculiarly appropriated to corns and graffes.
148. Caulis repens, a repent or creeping ftalk or ftem,
giving out fmall roots here and there as it runs a-
long the furface of the ground or upon another
plant. Caulis is appropriated to denote the trunk
of an herbaceous plant.
149. Scapus, is a fpecies of trunk, which fupports the
parts of fructification, but has no leaves. See Narcif-
fus, Pyrola, Convallaria, Hyacinthus.
150. Culmus articulatus, a jointed culm (147) or ftalk.
151. Caulis volubilis, a twining ftem, or which afcends
by twilling itfelf like a fpiral round the ftem or bran¬
ches of another plant.
152. —— dichotomus, a dichotomous ftem, or which
is firft divided into two, and each of thefe divifions
into other two, and fo on regularly for any number
of times.
153.  brachiatus •, having each pair of branches
oppofite the one to the other, and Handing at right
angles with the pairs next them, either above or
below ; fo that, when viewed lengthwife, the whole
branches appear to go out at right angles four dif¬
ferent ways.
Terms relating to the Fulcra or Supports of Plants.
154. a, Cirrhus, a clafper, tendril, or fpiral thread, by
%vhich a plant fixes itfelf to any other body, b, Sti-
pulse, or little fcales at the bafe of the petiole, or
foot-ftalk of the leaf, or at the bafe of the peduncle,
or flower-ftalk. c, Glandule concavx, fmall hollow
glands for the fecretion of fome particular fluid.
135. a, Glandule pedicellatee, fmall pedicellate glands.'
136. a, Braftea, a fpangle, or flower-leaf, differing
Fig.
from the other leaves of the plant.
137. a. Spina Jimplex, a Ample or one-pointed fpine.
b. Spina triplex, a triple or three-pointed fpine.
Spina is appropriated to fuch fpines or iharp points
as are protruded from the wood or inner fubftance
of the plant.
138. Aculeus Jimplex, a fimple or one-pointed prickle.
An aculeus, or prickle, differs from a fpine in be¬
ing only fixed to the bark, and ijot protruded from
the wood or internal fubftance.
139. Aculeus triplex, a triple or three-pointed prickle.
160. Folia oppojita, oppofite leaves, a, the Axilla, or
angle betwixt the leaf and the ftalk.
Ter ms relating' to the Roots.
161. Bulbus fquamofus, a fcaly bulb, or a root com-
pofed of fcales imbricated, or lying over one another ;
as in that of the White Lily.
162.  folidus, a folid bulb, or of one uniform fub¬
ftance throughout; as in the Hyacinth.
163. -■ —— tusiicatus, a tunicated or-coated bulb, or
confifting of coats lying above one another; as in the
Onion.
164. Radix tuberofa, a tuberous root, or confifting of
many little knots, or ronndifti bodies, colle&ed into
a bunch ; as in the Filipendula.
163.  fififorme, fufiform, or fpindle-fttaped; i. e.
oblong, thick, and tapering downwards; as in the
Carrot, and Parfnip.
166.  ramofa, a branchy root, or which is divided
into many lateral branches.
167.  repens, a repent or creeping root, or which
runs out to a great length, and fends off fmall roots
at different diftances.
Thefe are the principal terms neceffary for under-
ftanding Linnaeus’s defcription of the fpecific charadters
of plants.—To make the reader acquainted with the
manner in which thefe terms are ufed, we fhall give a
few examples.
Clafs II. D IA N D R I A.
Order, MONOGYNIA.
Genus, Veronica, or Speedwell
Species, Veronica 'arvenjis, has folitary flowers;
cut, fefiile (130), and cordated (46)
leaves.
Veronica agreJUs, has folitary flowers; cut,
cordated (46), and petiolated (129)
leaves.
Clafs XVI. MONO DELPHI A.
Order, POLYGINIA.
Genus, Malva, or Mallow.
Species, Malva fpicata, has tomentofe (84), cre-
nated (74), and cordated (46) leaves,
and oblong hairy fpicse (34).
Malva fylvejlris, has an eredt (119) her¬
baceous caulis (148), with acute (74),
feven-lobed (30) leaves, and hairy pe-
dunculi and petioli (129).
Clafs XIX. SYNGENESIA.
Order, POLYGAMIA iEQUALIS.
Genus, Carduus, or Thistle.
Species, Carduus helenioides, or melancholy thiftle,
has
i’lat.'LXIU.
1’lafe TjXLV.
[Sea:. V.
B O T
has lanceolated (42), teethed (66),
amplexicaule (132) leaves; with un¬
equal, ciliated (86), fmall fpines (157).
ClafsXXIV. CRYPTOGAMIA.
Order, FILICES.
Genus, Asplenium, or Maidenhair.
Species, Afplenium trichomanes, has apinnated
(104) Irons (144) ; the pinnae are
roundifh (38) andcrenated (74).
' To thefe examples we lhall add a complete defcrip-
tion of a plant reduced to its clafs, order, genus, and
fpecies, with figures of all the parts neceffary for that
purpofe.
Plate LXIV RHEUM palmatum, or True Rhubarb.
The flower of this plant has no Calix.
The Corolla dd, confifts of one petal, narrower at
the bafe, not perforated, and divided in the margin
into fix obtufe fegments, one lefs and one larger al¬
ternately ; the petal is marcefcent, i. e. decays, but
does not fall off- till the feeds be ripe.
The Stamina e e, confift of nine capillary filaments
inferted into the corolla, and about the fame length
with it. The anthera are didymous, (;. e. appear to
be double), oblong, and obtufe.
The Pistil-lum f, has a ftiort three-fided germen.
It can hardly be faid to have any ftyli; but has three
refledted plumofe ftigmata.
The Peri carp i um is wanting.
Each flower contains but one large, three-fided,
acute feed g, with a membranaceous edge.
The number of ftamina determines this plant to be¬
long to the Enneandria Clafs-, and the number of
Stigmata fixes its Order to be Trigynia. The
other parts of the above defcription clearly demonftrate
! the genus to be the Rheum or Rubarb, and fufficiently
diltinguirti it from the Laurus, Tinus, Caflyta, and
Butomus; the only other genera belonging to this clafs.
The Specific mark is taken from the leaves, which
are palmated (58), and fliarp and tapering at the
points. There are but five fpecies of Rheum, none of
whofe leaves are palmated, except the fpecies now de-
feribed.
Sect. V. Of the Sexes of Plants.
As many philofophers and botanifts deny that fuch
a thing as the diftindtion of fexes takes place in vege¬
tables, it will be neceffary to give a narration of the
arguments employed by both parties on this fubjedt.
We fltall begin with the arguments in favour of the
fexes.
I. Linnaeus is at great pains in tracing the notion
of fexes in plants to the remoteft periods of antiquity.
He informs us, that Empedocles, Anaxagoras, and o-
ther ancient philofophers, not only attributed the di-
itindtion of fexes to plants, but maintained that they
were capable of perceiving pleafure and pain.
Hippocrates and Theophrattus are next introduced
as diftinguilhing the conyza, the abies, the filix, &c.
into male and female. The latter of thefe writers
affirms that the fruit of the male palm will not germi¬
nate, unlefs the pollen of the male be ffiaked over the
fpatha of the female previous to the ripening of the
feed.
ANY.
Diofcorides takes notice of a male and female man-
dragora, mercurialis, ciftus, &c.
Pliny does not confine his views of fex to animals;
but exclaims, that every thing this earth produces is
charadterized by the diltindtion of fex.
From the days of Pliny to thofe of Csefalpinus, who
lived in the i6rh century, the analogy between the ve¬
getable and animal feems to have been entirely negledled.
Casfalpinus tells us, that the males of the oxycedrus,
taxus, mercurialis, urtica, and cannabis, are barren ;
and that the females of thefe plants only bear fruit.
After Csefalpinus, we find Dr Grew and Sir Thomas
Millington engaged in a converfation concerning the
utility of the ftamina and ftyli of plants. The refult
of this converfation was the mutual Agreement of thefe
two eminent naturalifts, that the ftamina and ftyli of
vegetables were analogous to the organs of generation
in animals, and that they were adapted by nature to
anfwer the fame purpofes. Dr Grew in his anatomy
of plants, after enumerating the analogies between plants
and animals, concludes/ that the pollen probably emits
certain vivific effluvia, which may ferve for the impreg¬
nation of the feeds.
Mr Ray gave a further fandtion to the dodlrine of
fexes, by concurring with Grew, and adding fome fur¬
ther illuftrations from analogy.
In the year 1695, Camerarius attempted to prove
the fexes of plants. But, as he trufted folely to the
palm-tree, and withal feemed to be doubtful as to the
authenticity of the fadl, he cannot be confidered as ha¬
ving done any thing in confirmation of the fexual hy-
pothefis.
Mr Morland, in the year 1703, adopted the fame
hypothefis; but gave it a new modification, by fuppo-
fing that the pollen contained the feminal plant in mi¬
niature, and confequently that one pollen at lead be¬
hoved to be conveyed into dvery feparate feed before it
could be properly impregnated. Analogy and the ftruc-
ture of the parts are the only arguments he employs.
Some years after this, Mr Geoffry wrote a treatife
on the fexes of plants: but as he advanced nothing new,
we fhall take no further notice of him.
Vaillant, in the year 1717, judicioufly confidering
that the canal in the ftylus of moft plants was too nar¬
row to admit the pollen itfelf, republiftied Dr Grevv’s
theory of impregnation by means of a fubtile feminal
aura. •
Thefe are the fentiments of the principal botanifts
with regard to the generation of plants, till the celebra¬
ted Linnaeus made his appearance as a botanical writer,
who has extended the idea fo far as to compofe a com¬
plete fyftem upon it.
Although Linnaeus can have no claim to the fuppoj
fed difcovery of the fexual hypothefis, his being pre-
cifely the fame with that of Dr Grew; yet, as he is the
chief fupporter and improver of this doCfrine, we fliall
give a fuccinA narration of the arguments he makes ufe
of in order to prove that vegetables propagate their
fpecies by a regular commerce of fexes.
In a treatife, infilled Sponfalia Plantaruru, publiflied
as an inaugural differtation by Walhbom, in the firft
volume of the Amxnitates Academic#, all the arguments
made ufe of by Linnaeus in his Fundamenta Botanic#
and other works, are colle&ed and arranged in one
view. But as Wahlbom honeftly attributes all the me-
I299
1.100
Sed, V,
B 0 T
Tit of this differtation to his great mailer, we ftiall here
drop his name altogether, and give the arguments as
the property of Linnaeus, by whom they were origi¬
nally employed.
Linnaeus, then, firft attempts to (how, that vege¬
tables are endowed with a certain degree of life ; and,
fecondly, that they propagate their fpecies in a man¬
ner fimilar to that of animals.
“ That vegetables are really living beings, (fays he),
muft be obvious at firil fight; becaufe they pofiefs all
the properties contained in that accurate definition of
life laid down by the great Dr Harvey, namely, Ftia
eft fpontaneapropttljio humoruni. But univerfal experi¬
ence teaches, that vegetables propel humours or juices:
hence it is plain that vegetables mud be endowed with
a certain degree of life.”
Not trulling folely to a fylfogifm founded on a defi¬
nition, Linnaeus proceeds to fupport the life of vege¬
tables by arguments drawn from the following particu-
culars in their ceconomy; the firft of which he intitles
“ Nutritio.—The very idea of nutrition implies a
propulfion of humours, and, of courfe, the idea of life.
But vegetables derive their nourifhment from the earth,
air, &c. and confequently muft be confidered as living
creatures.
“ 2. JEtas.—Every animal muft not only begin to
exift, and have that exiftence diffolved by death, but
muft likewife pafs through a number of intermediate
changes in its appearance and affettions. Infancy,youth,
manhood, old age, are charafterifed by iinhecility, beau¬
ty, fertility, dotage ; are not all thefe vicifiltudes con-
fpicuous in the vegetable world? Weak, and tender in
infancy, beautiful, and falacious in youth ; grave, ro-
buft, and fruitful, in manhood; and when old age ap¬
proaches, the head droops, the fprings of life dry up,
and, in fine, the poor tottering vegetable returns to that
duft from whence it fprungl
“ 3. Motus.—No inanimate body is capable of felf-
motion. Whatever moves fpontaneoufly, is endowed
with a living principle: for motion depends on the fpon-
taneous propulfionbf humours; and where-ever there is
a fpontaneous propulfion of humours, there alfo is life.
That vegetables are capable of motion, is evident from
the following fafts: plants, when confined within doors,
always bend towards the light, and fome of them even
attempt to make their efcape by the windows. The
flowers of many plants, efpecially thofe of the fynge-
tielia clafs, purfue the fun from eaft to weft, rejoicing
in his beams. Who then can deny that vegetables are
poftefied of living and felf-moving powers ?
“ 4. Morbus.—The term difeafe means nothing more
than a certain corruption of life. It is well known, that
vegetables are fubjedl to difeafes, as well as animals:
when over-heated, they turn thirfty, languifh, and fall
to the ground ; when too cold, they are tormented
with the chilblain, and not unfrequently expire: they
are fometimes afflicted with cancers; and every plant is
infefted with lice peculiar to its fpecies.
“ 5. Mors.—Death is oppofed to life, the former
being only a privation of the latter. Experience fhows,
that every living creature muft die. But, as vegetables
are daily cut off by internal difeafes and external inju¬
ries ; as they are fubjedt to death from the attacks of
hunger, thirrt, heat, cold, &c. with what propriety
£Quld vegetables be thus faid to die, unlefs we allow
ANY.
that they previoufly lived ?
“ 6. Jlnatomia.—Under this article we are referred
to Malpighius and Grew for the organic fibres, mem¬
branes, canals, veficles, &c. of plants, as additional
proofs of their living powers.
“ 7. Organizatio.—Vegetables not only propel hu¬
mours, but alfo prepare and fecern a.numberof differ¬
ent juices for the fruit, the ne&ar, &c. analagous to
the various fecretions in animal bodies.”
From thefe fadts and obfervations, Linnaeus con¬
cludes, that plants are unqueftionably endowed with
life as well as animals; and then proceeds in the fol¬
lowing manner to fhow how thefe animated vegetables
propagate their fpecies.
After difeuffing the long exploded dodlfine of equi¬
vocal generation, he lays hold of another maxim of Dr
Harvey, viz. Omne vivum ex ovo.—“ It being fully
evident, (fays he), from the foregoing chain of reafon-.
ing, that vegetables are endowed with life, it neceffa-
rily follows, agreeable to this maxim of Harvey’s, that
every vegetable m^ft in like manner derive its exiftenee
from an egg. But as vegetables proceed from eggs, and
as it is the diftinguifhing property of an egg to give
birth to being fimilar to that which produced it, the
feeds muft of courfe be the eggs of vegetables.
“ Granting then that the feeds of vegetables are in¬
tended by nature to anfwer the fame end as the eggs
of animals, and confidering at the fame time that no
egg can be fecundated without receiving an impregna¬
tion from the male, it follows, that the feed or eggs of
vegetables cannot be fecundated by any other means.
Hence alfo the neceffity of vegetables being provided
with organs of generation. But where are thefe organs
fituated? The anfwer is eafy:—We have already found
impregnated feeds within the flowers of plants; and it
is natural to expedl that the genitalia fliould not be at
a greater diftance. Now, as copulation always precedes
birth, and every flower precedes the fruit, the genera-
ting faculty muft be aferibed to the flower, and the birth
to the fruit. Again, as the anthera: and Jligmata are
the only effential parts of flowers, thefe parts muft ne-
ceffarily be the organs of generation.”
Being thus far advanced, Linnaeus affirms, that the
antheree are the tefles, and that the pollen performs the
office of the male fernen. Thefe affirmations he at¬
tempts to eftablifh by the following arguments; the
firft of which he terms,
“ 1. Preecedentia.—The anthers, or vegetable te-
ftes, always precede the fruit; and as foon as the an-
therae come to maturity, which conftantly happens be¬
fore the maturity of the fruit, they continue to throw
out their pollen as long as the flower lafts; but decay
and fall off whenever the fruit comes to perfedlion.
“ 2. Situs.—The antberae of all plants are uniformly
fituate in fuch a manner that the pollen may with the
greateft facility fall upon the ftigma or female organ.
“ 3. Tempus.—The antherse and ftigmata always
flouriffi at the fame time, whether the flowers be of the
hermaphrodite or dioicous kind.
“ 4. Loealumenta.—When the antherse are diffec-
ted, they difeover as great a variety or ftru&ure as the
pericarpia or feed capfules: for fome of them have one
cell, as the mercury; fome two, as the hellebore, &c.
“ 5. CaJlratio.—\i all the antherse be cut off from
an hermaphrodite plant, juft before the flowers begin to
expand
i3°i
Sed. V. B O T
expand, taking care at the fame time that no plant of
the fame fpecies grows near it, the fruit will either prove
entirely abortive, or produce barren feeds.
" 6. Figura.—When the pollen of different plants
is examined by the microfcope, it exhibits as great a
variety of figures as is difcoverable in the feeds them-
felves.
“ The accumulated force of thefe arguments (con¬
cludes Linnaeus) amounts to a full demonflration that
the antherae are the teftes, and that the pollen is the
femen or genitura, of vegetables.
“ The male organ being thus inveftigated, we hope,
(fays Linnaeus), that none will hefitate to pronounce
the ftigma to be the female organ, efpeeifllly when the
following obfervations are fufficiently attended to.
“ The piftillum is compofed of the germen, ftylus,
and ftigma. The germen, being only a kind of rudiment
of the future foetus or feed, ceafes to exift as foon as
the flower comes to maturity. Neither is the ftylus an
effential part, as many flowers have no ftylus. But no
fruit ever comes to maturity without the affiftance of the
ftigma. It follows, that the ftigma muft be the female
organ adapted by nature for the reception of the pol¬
len or impregnating fubftance. This will appear ftill
clearer from the following chain of reafoning.
“ i. Situs.—The ftigmata are always fituate fo that
the pollen may with moft eafe fall upon them. Be-
fides, it is remarkable, that in moft plants (though not
in all) the number of the ftigmata exa&ly correfponds
with the loculamenta or cells of the pericarpium.
“ 2. Fempus.—Here the obfervation, that the ftig¬
mata and antherae conftantly flourifh at the fame time,
is repeated.
“ 3. Decidentia.—The ftigmata of moft plants, like
the antherse, decay and fall off as foon as they have dif-
charged their proper fun£tion; which evidently (hows,
that their office is not to ripen the fruit, but folely to
anfwer the important purpofe of impregnation.
“ 4. Abfcifio.—The argument here is precifely the
fame with the caftration of the antherae ; and the re-
fult is likev/ife the fame, namely, the deftrlidtion of the
fruit.
“ Thefe arguments (concludes Linnseus) are fuffi-
cient to demonftrate, that the ftigma is the female or¬
gan of generation, or that organ which is fuited for the
reception and conveyance of the femen to the vegetable
eggs. Hence, plants may be faid to be in attu veneris,
when the antherae, or tefticuli, fpread their pollen over
the ftigma or female vulva."
To fhow how the coitus of vegetables is effefted, is
our author’s next objeft of inveftigation. He affirms,
that the pollen is conveyed, by means of the wind or
infedts, to the moift ftigma, where it remains until it
difeharges a fubtile fluid, which being abforbed by the
veffels of the ftigma, is carried to the feeds or ova, and
impregnates them. His proofs are taken from the fol¬
lowing particulars.
“ 1. Oculus.—When the flowers are in full blow,
and the pollen flying about, every one may then fee the
pollen adhering to the ftigma. This he illuftrates by
mentioning as examples the viola tricolor^ iris, campa¬
nula, &c.
“ 2. Proportio.—The ftamina and piftilla, in moft
plants, are of equal heights, that the pollen, by the in¬
tervention of the wind, may, with the greater facility,
Vol. II.
ANY.
fall upon the ftigma.
“ 3. Locus.—The ftamina of moft plants furround
the piftillum, to give the pollen an opportunity of fall¬
ing upon the ftigma at every breeze of wind. Even in
the moncecia clafs, the male flowers ftand generally a-
bove the female ones, to afford an eafier conveyance of
the pollen to the ftigma.
“ 4. Fempus.—It is remarkable that the ftamina
and piftilla conftantly appear at the fame time, even in
plants belonging to the moncecia clafs.
“ 5. Pluvia:.—The flowers of moft plants expand
by the heat of the fun, and (hut themfelves up in the
evening or in rainy weather. The final caufe of this
muft be to keep the moifture from the pollen, left it
fhould be thereby coagulated, and of courfe prevented
from being blown upon the ftigma.
“ 6. Palmicolce.—That the cultivators of palm-trees
were in ufe to pull off the fpadices from the males, and
fufpend them over the fpathas of the females, is attefted
by Theophraftus, Pliny, Profper Alpinus, Kempfer,
and many others. If this operation happened to be ne-
gledted, the dates were four and deftitute of nuts.
Kempfer adds this fingular circumftance, that the male
fpadix, after being thoroughly dried and kept till next
feafon, ftill retained its impregnating virtue.
“ 7. Flores nutantes.—As the pollen is fpecifically
heavier than air, fuch flowers as have their piftillum
longer than the ftamina, hang down, or incline to one
fide, e.g. the fritillaria, campanula, &c. An eafy ad-
miffion of the pollen to the ftigma is the final caufe of
this appearance.
“ 8. Submerfi.—Many plants that grow below wa¬
ter, emerge when their flowers begin to blow, and fwim
upon the furface till they receive their impregnation,
and then fink down.
“ 9. Omnium Jlorum genuina cosi/idenftio.—Here a
number of particulars are recited. We fhall confine
ourfelves to thofe that are moft ftriking and applicable
to the fubjedt.
“ When the flowers of the male hemp are pulled off
before thofe of the female are fully expanded, the fe¬
males do not produce fertile feeds. But as a male flower
is foraetiiiies found upon a female plant, this may be the
reafon why fertile feeds are fometimes produced even
after this precaution has been obferved.
“ The tulip affords another experiment to the fame
purpofe..—Cut off all the antherae of a red tulip before
the pollen is emitted; then take the ripe antherae of a
white tulip, and throw the pollen of the white one upon
the ftigma of the red; the feeds of the red tulip beino-
thus impregnated by one of a different complexion, will
next feafon produce fome red, fome white, but moft
variegated flowers.”
In the year 1744, Linnaeus publiflied a defeription of
a new genus, which he called peloria, on the fuppofition
of its being a hybrid or mule plant, i. e. a plant pro-'
duced by an unnatural commixture of two different ge¬
nera. The root, leaves, caulis, &c. of this plant are
exceedingly fimilar to thofe of the antirrhinum linaria;’
but the flower and other parts of the fru&ification are
totally different. On account of its fimilarity to the ]i-
naria in every part but the flower, Linnaeus imagined it
to have been produced by a fortuitous commixture of
the linaria with fome other plant, although he has ne¬
ver yet been able to point out the father. This doftrine
SB of
I302
B O T
of the produftion of mule plants has fince been greatly-
prized and carefully propagated by Linnaeus and the
other fupporters of the fexual hypothefis. In the third
volume of the jJmvmitates Academic#, there is a com¬
plete differtation, intitled Plant# Hybrid#, wherein the
doftrine of vegetable mules is much improved and ex¬
tended. This diffeVtation contains a lift of 47 mules,
with their fuppofed fathers and mothers. For example,
The Veronica Spuria is faid to be a mule plant be¬
got by the verbena officinalis upon the veronica mari-
The delphinium hybridum, a mule begot by the aconi-
tum napellus upon the delphinium elatum.
The arftotis calendula, a mule begot by the calendula
pluvialis upon the ar&otis triftis.
The afclepias nigra, & mule begot by the cynanchum
acutum upon the afclepias vincetoxicum, &c.
From the examples given in this differtation, Lin¬
naeus draws this conclufion, that only two fpecies of
each genus exifted ah origine; and that all the variety
of fpecies which now appear have been produced by
unnatural embraces betwixt fpecies of different genera.
Under this head, Linnaeus likewife quotes from Ray
the ftory of Richard Baal gardener at Brentford. This
Baal fold a large quantity of the feeds of the braffica
florida to feveral gardeners in the fuburbs of London.
Thefe gardeners, after fowing their feeds in the ufual
manner, were furprifed to find them turn out to be
plants of a different fpecies from that which Baal made
them believe they had purchafed; for, inftead of the
brafica florida, the plants turned out to be the braffica
longifolia. The gardeners, upon making the difcovery,
commenced a profecution of fraud againft Baal in Weft-
minfter-hall. The court found Baal guilty of fraud,
and decerned him not only to reftore the price of the
feeds, but likewife to pay the gardeners for their loft
time, and the ufe of their ground. “ Had thefe judges
(fays Linnseus) been acquainted with the fexual hy¬
pothefis, they would not have found Baal guilty of any
crime, but would have afcribed the accident to the for¬
tuitous impregn ation of the braffica florida by the pollen
of the braffica longifolia.”
Linnaeus next proceeds to celebrate the utility of in¬
fers, becaufe they convey the pollen of the male to the
ftigma of the female. “ In this way, (fays he), it is
reafonable to think that many dioicous plants are im¬
pregnated. Nay, even the hermaphrodites themfelves
are greatly obliged to the different tribes of infefts,
which, by fluttering and treading in the corolla, are
conftantly fcattering the pollen about the ftigma.
“ Upon the whole, then, (concludes Linnseus), the
coitus of vegetables is evident to a demonftration. This
coitus is nothing more than the conveyance of the pol¬
len to the ftigma, to which it adheres till it burfts and
difcharges a fubtile elaftic fluid. This fluid or aura is
abforbed by the veffels of the ftylus, and carried dire&ly
to the ovarium or germen, where the myfterious work
of impregnation is fully completed.”
These are the arguments employed by Linnaeus and
other advocates for the fexual commerce of vegetables.
—Let us next attend to thofe employed by the oppo-
fers of this hypothefis.
It is admitted by Pontedera, Dr Alfton, &c. that
ANY. Sed. V.
fome of the ancients applied the terms male and fe?nale
to feveral plants. But then they deny that thefe terms
conveyed the fame ideas to the ancients that they do to
the moderns. Male and female, when applied to plants,
were to the ancients mere terms of diftimftion, ferving
only as trivial names to diftinguiffi one fpecies or va¬
riety from another. The ancients were ignorant of the
very characters which conftitute the difference between
what is called a male and female plant among the mo¬
derns. Theophraftus, Diofcorides, Pliny, and, in a
word, the whole ancient botanical writers, confound
the very notion of the modern fexes: they call the real
female, or feed-bearing plant, the male; and the male,
or barren plant, the female. Nay, they have even ap¬
plied the terms male and female to many plants which
bear nothing but hermaphrodite flowers.
Such is the nature of this controverfy, that it cannot
be determined with any degree of certainty, but by ex¬
periments made upon dioicous plants. If a female plant
can produce fertile feeds without having any communi¬
cation with the pollen of the male, the ufe of this pollen
with refpeft to the impregnation of feeds muft of ne-
ceffity be entirely fuperfeded.
Now, both Camerarius and Dr Alfton tried thefe ex¬
periments with the fame fuccefs. Thofe two eminent
botanifts took female plants of the mercury, fpinage,
and hemp; tranfplanted them at a great diftance from
any males of the fame genus, and befides had them in-
clofed by double rows of hedges. The refult was, that
each of thefe plants produced great quantities of fer¬
tile feeds. Tournefort made the fame trial upon the
lupulus, Miller upon the bryony, and Geoffroy upon
the mays; and all of them declare that the feeds of thefe
plants were as fertile as if they had been furrounded by
a thoufand males.
Linnasus, in his firft argument for the coitus of plants,
refers every man to the evidence of his fenfes.
“ Do we not fee (fays he) the ftigma of almoft every
hermaphrodite flower covered over with the pollen or
impregnating fubftance? Do not we fee the parietaria,
the urtica, &c. by violent explofions, difcharging their
pollen in the open air, that it may be carried in that ve¬
hicle to the ftigmata of their refpeftive females?”—All
this is admitted by the oppofers of the fexes: but then
athey deny that thefe explofions, Src. are intended ta
create any intercourfe between the male and the female;
and further allege, that this eje&ion of the pollen is in¬
tended by nature to throw off fomething excrementi-
tious, or at leaft fomething which, if retained, would
prove noxious to the frudlification.
Linnaeus takes his fecond argument from the propor¬
tion which the ftamina bear to the ftylus, alleging that
they are generally of the fame height.—This observa¬
tion (fay the anti-fexualifts) is not only contrary to ex¬
perience, but, allowing it to be univerfal, no conclufion
can be drawn from it either for or againft the fexual
hypothefis.
The third argument is taken from the locus orfitua-
tion of the ftamina with refpeft to the ftylus: “ and
as the male flowers in the moncecia clafs ftand always
above the female flowers, it muft be concluded (fays
Linnaeus) that the intention of nature, in this difpofi-
tion of the parts, is to allow a free and eafy accefs of
the pollen to the ftigma.—But the ftamina cannot be
faid to furround the piftillum in the monandria and di-
andria
Sed.
V. B O T
andria clafles: and the pofitlon of the male flowers in
the moncecia clafs is a mere chimera ; for in the rici-
nus, one of the examples which Linnaeus mentions in
confirmation of his do&rine, the female flowers ftand
uniformly fame inches above the males.
That the ftamina and piftilla generally come to per¬
fection at the fame time, and that this happens even in
the dioicous plants, is Linnaeus’s fourth argument. Bnt,
as it is acknowledged by Linnaeus himfelf, that there
are many exceptions with refpeft to this fa£t, the op-
pofers of the fexual hypothefis allege that it carries the
beft anfwer in its own bofam.
The fifth argument is founded on the circumftance of
fame flowers (hutting up their petals in rainy or motif
evenings.—But many flowers do not ihut themfelves
up, either in the night or moift weather, as the pafiion-
flower, &c. The lychnis no&iflora, mirabilis peruvi¬
anas, &c. open their flowers in the night, and ihut them
at the approach of the fun. Hence this is another fi¬
nal caufe (fay the anti-fexualifts) perverted to fupport
a favourite hypothefis.
We come now to the culture of the palm-tree, which
is the fixth and moil plaufible argument employed by
the fexualiils. Of this, the moil authentic account we
have is the following by Dr Haffclquift, in one of his
letters to Linnaeus, dated Alexandria May i8ch, 1750.
“ The firit thing I did after my arrival was to fee the
date-tree, the ornament and a great part of the riches
of this country. It had already bloflbmed; but I had,
neverthelefs, the pleafure of feeing how the Arabs afiiil
its fecundation, and by that means fecure to themfelves
a plentiful harveft of a vegetable, which was fa impor¬
tant to them, and known to them many centuries be¬
fore any botaniil dreamed of the difference of fexes in
vegetables. The gardener informed me of this before
I had time to inquire; and would ihew me, as a very
curious thing, the male and female of the date or palm-
trees: nor could he conceive how I, a Frank, lately
arrived, could know it before; for, fays he, all who
have yet come from Europe to fee this country, have
regarded this relation either as a fable or miracle. The
Arab feeing me inclined to be further informed, accom¬
panied me and my French interpreter to a palm-tree,
which was very full of young fruit, and bad by him
been wedded or fecundated with the male when both
were in bloflbm. This the Arabs do in the following
manner: When the fpadixhas female flowers, that come
out of its fpatha, they fearch on a tree that has male
flowers, which they know by experience, for a fpadix
which has not yet burfted out of its fpatha: this they
open, take out the fpadix, and cut it lengthwife in fe-
veral pieces, but take care not to hurt the flowers. A
piece of this fpadix with male flowers they put length-
wife between the fmall branches of the fpadix which
hath female flowers, and then lay the leaf of a palm
over the branches. In this fituation I yet faw the
greateft part of the fpadices which bore their young
fruit; but the male flowers which were put between
were withered. The Arab befides gave me the follow¬
ing anecdotes: Firft, unlefs they, in this manner, wed
and fecundate the date-tree, it bears no fruit. Se¬
condly, they always take the precaution to preferve
fame unopened fpathse with male flowers from one year
to another, to be applied for this purpefe, in cafe the
male flowers fliould mifcarry or fuffer damage. Third-
A N Y.
ly, if they permit the fpadix of the male flowers to burfl
or come out, it becomes ufelefs for fecundation : it mud
have its maidenhead, (thefe were the words of the Arab),
which is loft in the fame moment the bloflbms burft out
of their cafe. Therefore the perfon who cultivates
date-trees muft be careful to hit the right time of af-
fifting their fecundation, which is almoft the only ar¬
ticle in their cultivation. Fourthly, on opening the fpa¬
tha, he finds all the male flowers full of a liquid which
refembles the fineft dew ; it is of a fweet and pleafant
tafte, refembling much the tafte of freih dates, but
much more refined and aromatic: this was likewife con¬
firmed by my interpreter, who hath lived 32 years in
Egypt, and therefore had opportunities enough of ta¬
iling both the neclar of the bloflbms, and the freih
dates.”
Now, though this account feems fully to confirm the
fadl, viz. that fuch a practice obtains among the A-
rabs, and that they aflert its efficacy in fecundating the
trees, it is certain (fay the oppofers of this do&rine)
that no intelligent perfon, who is not already wedded
to an hypothefis, will attempt to found an argument
upon the aflertions of a people fa full of ridiculous fu-
perftitions. Before Dr Haflelquift, or any other per¬
fon, can draw any argument from the abovementioned
account, he ought to fee the experiment feveral times
repeated, with his own eyes, and not take it upon the
word of a people who, befides their fuperftition, may
very probably find it their intereft to impofe upon fra'.
vellers.
Mr Milne, author of the Botanical Diftionary, how¬
ever, relates an experiment, near akin to the above-
mentioned, which merits fame attention: “ In the
garden of M. de la Serre, of the Rue S. Jacques at
Paris, was a female turpentine tree, which flowered e-
very year, without furniihing any fruit capable of ve¬
getation. This was a fenfible mortification to the
owner, who greatly defired to have the tree increafed.
Meffieurs Duhamel and Juflieu very properly judged
that they might procure him that pleafure by the afiilt-
ance of a male piftachio tree. They font him one very
much loaded with flowers. It was planted in the gar¬
den of M. de la Serre, very near the female turpentine
tree, which the fame year produced a great quantity of
fruits, that were well-conditioned, and rofe with faci¬
lity. The male plant was then removed; the confe-
quence of which was, that the turpentine-tree of M.
de la Serre in none of the fucceeding years bore any
fruit that, upon examination, was found to germi¬
nate.”
Upon this experiment it is obferved by the antifex-
ualifts, that, though it were a thoufand times repeated,
it never could be decifive. The nature of the contro-
verfy, fay they, is fuch, that one experiment is more
decifive in favour of their opinion, than 10,000 can be
againft them. The reafon is plain: If there is fuch a
thing as a fexual intercourfe in vegetables, it is as won¬
derful that any feeds (hould be perfe&ed without that
intercourfe, as that a virgin ihould have a child; the
laft is not in the leaft more extraordinary than the firft.
One experiment, therefore, which ihews that feeds may
be perfected without fuch fexual intercourfe, is either
to be refolved into a miracle, or muft prove abfolutely
decifive againft the fexual fyftem; while numberlefs ex¬
periments fuch as that abovementioned could prove no-
8 B 2 thing,
1303
1304
ANY. Sed. VI.
The ninth and laft argument is intitled Omnium fio-
rum genuina conjideratio; which (fay the antifexual-
ifts) is nothing more than a colle&ion of vague obfer-
vations upon the ftru&ure and ceconomy of particular
plants, fome of them true, others falfe, but all of them
evidently thruft in as fupports to a favourite hypo-
thefis.
B O T
thing, becaufe we know not what effeft vegetables may
have by growing in each others neighbourhood, inde¬
pendent of any fexual intercourfe.
In Milne’s Botanical Dictionary, under the article
Sexus Plantarum, the author quotes Dr Alfton’s experi¬
ments partially. The faCts recorded by Dr Alfton are as
follow, t. Three fets of fpinach, planted at a great di-
ftance from each other, proved all of them fertile, and
ripened plenty of feeds, which were found to anfwer as
well as other fpinach feed. 2. A plant of hemp grow¬
ing by itfelf, being taken care of, produced about 30
good feeds, though in a fituation very much expofed,
and plucked up too foon, on account of bad weather,
in the autumn. 3. This experiment, which is the molt
remarkable of the three, we fiiall give in the Doftor’s
own words. “ In the fpring of 1741, I carried two
young feedling plants of the French mercury, long be¬
fore there was any in, from the city phyfic-garden, the
only place yvhere it was then to be found in this coun¬
try, to the king’s garden at the Abbey; which are
more than 700 yards diliant from one another, with
many high houfes, trees, hedges, and part of a high hill,
between them: and planted one of them in one inclo-
fure, where it was (haded from the fun the greateft part
of the day; and the other in another, 25 yards diilant,
expofed to the fouth and weft. Both plants ripened fer¬
tile feeds; and the laft (hed them fo'plentifully, that it
proved a troublefome weed for feveral years, though
none of the fpecies was to be found in that garden for
more than 20 years preceding.”
This experiment Mr Milne hath thought proper not
to take any notice of, though he quotes the other two,
and on them has the following remark. “ The refult
of thefe, and fuch like experiments, can be accounted
for, on the principle of the fexes, in no other way than
on the fuppofition that fome male flowers have been in¬
termixed with the female, and operated the fecunda¬
tion in queftion. This appears the more probable, as
only a part of the feeds in the above experiments at¬
tained to perfefi maturity, fo as to be capable of ve¬
getation.”
The feventh argument of Linnaeus is taken from the
flares tint antes.—The piftils of thefe flowers, according
to Linnaeus, are always longer than the ftamina; and
nature has afligned them this penfile pofture, that the
pollen, which is fpecifically heavier than air, may the
more conveniently fall upon the ftigma.—But the pi¬
ftils of the campanula, lilium, and many other flares nu-
tantes, are not longer than the ftamina. Befides, grant¬
ing this were uniformly the cafe; yet, as the pollen is
heavier than air, this pofture muft of necefiity either
make the pollen mifs the piftillum altogether, or, at any
rate, it can only fall upon the back part of the piftil in
place of the ftigma ; and, of courfe, fuch a dire&ion
would rather tend to fruftrate than promote the im¬
pregnation of the feed.
The eighth argument is taken from the plantue fub-
which are faid to emerge as foon as their flowers
begin to blow, left the pollen (hould be coagulated or
wafhed off by the water.—But many fubmarine and
aquatic plants fruftify entirely below water; and, fup-
pofing they did not, the fame argument would equally
prove it to be the intention of nature, that the pollen
(hould be blown away by the winds, as that it (hould
be fubfervient to the impregnation of the feed.
Thus we have given a (hort view of the fundamental
principles of the fexual fyftem; of the arguments made
ufe of, and the faffs adduced to fupport it: to thefe we
have fubjoined the principal arguments brought againft
it; together with the molt noted experiments made by
its oppofers; and (hall now, according to our general
plan, leave the reader to determine for himfelf. Only,
before putting a period to this feftion, we (hall beg leave
to obferve, that, in our humble opinion, the fafts hi¬
therto brought in fupport of the fexual fyftem are, on
the one hand, too few, and thofe not fo fully authenti¬
cated as could be wilhed; and, on the other hand, that
the experiments adduced by its oppofers feem neither to
have been made with fuflicient accuracy, nor perhaps
upon fuch plants as would have been molt proper for de¬
termining the point in difpute. In the mean time, we
make no doubt but the gentlemen on both fides will
continue to make the moft exafl and careful inquiries
and experiments in order to bring it to a final determi¬
nation ; though from the nature of the queftion itfelf,
as well as the remotenefs of place where fome of the
plants grow that may be thought neceffary to be fub-
jefted to experiment, and the difficulty of getting ac-
cefs to perform thofe experiments in a proper manner,
it is not improbable that many years may yet elapfe
before the world be favoured with that determination.
Sedl. \ I. Of the Natural I\lethod of Claffiflcation>
Besides all the abovementioned methods of claffing
and diftributing plants into their different orders, ge¬
nera, &c. which are deduced from the fruftification,
and are therefore called artificial, Linnaeus and moft
other botanifts are of opinion that there is a natural
method, or nature’s fyftem, which we fhould diligently
endeavour to find out. That this fyftem, fay they, is
no chimera, as fome imagine, will appear particularly
from hence, That all plants, of what order foever, (how
an affinity to fome others; and thus, as formerly ob-
ferved, not only the virtues of a great number of fpe¬
cies may be afcertained, but we may know with cer¬
tainty how to find a proper fuccedaneum for plants
which cannot eafily be had.—Linnaeus divides vege¬
tables into the 59 natural orders following.
1. Palma. Thefe are perennial, and moftly of the
(hrub and tree kind. The ftem is in height from 2 to
100 feet and upwards. The roots form a mafs of fibres
which are commonly Ample and without any ramifica¬
tions. The ftem is generally Ample, without branches,
cylindrical, and compofed of ftrong longitudinal fibres.
The leaves, which* are a compafition of a leaf and a
branch, by Linnaeus called frondes, are of different
forms; being fometimes (haped like an umbrella or fan;
fometimes fingly or doubly winged ; the fmall or par¬
tial leaves, which are often three feet in length, being
ranged alternately. The branches, or principal leaves,
are fix, eight, ten, or twelve feet long; the length va¬
rying according to the age and fize of the plant. They
are
Scft. VI. B O T
are covered at firft with a thick brown duft, like thofe
of the ferns. The bafe of the Ifeaves frequently em¬
braces the greater part of the ftem. The flowers are
male and female upon the fame or different roots; ex¬
cept in ftratiotes, which bears hermaphrodite flowers
only ; and palmetto, in which the flowers are herma¬
phrodite and male upon diftindf roots. The flowers are
all difpofed in a panicle or diffufed fpike, except in the
hydrocharis, ftratiotes, and vallifneria ; in which they
proceed fingly from the wings or angles of the leaves.
The common calix, in this order, is that termed a fpa-
tha or Jbeatb, and has either one or two valves. The
fpadix, or head of flowers protruded from the Iheath,
is generally branched. Each flower is generally fur-
nifhed with a perianthium or proper flower-cup, con-
fifting of three leaves or divifions that are fmall and
permanent. The petals are three in number, of a fub-
ftance like leather, and permanent like the leaves of the
calix. The flowers of zamia have no petals. The fta-
mina are from 2 to 20 and upwards, cohering flightly
at their bafe. The feed-buds are from one to three in
number, placed in the middle of the flower, and fup-
porting a like number of ftyles which are very ftidrt.
The feed-veflel is generally a pulpy fruit of the berry
or cherry kind, containing one cell filled with fibrous
flefti, and covered with a fkin which is of a fubftance
like leather. The feeds are in number from one to three
in each pulpy fruit, of a hard bony fubftance, round
or oval, and attached by their bafe to the bottom of
the fruit.—Thefe plants, particularly the feeds, are a-
ftringent, and of efficacy in dyfenteries.
2. Piperita. Thefe plants are moftly herbaceous
and perennial. The (talks of pothos creep along rocks
and trees, into which they (trike root at certain di-
ftances. The greateft height which any of them is
knowm to attain, is 15 feet} the greater part do not
exceed three or four. The flefhy roots of many of
thefe plants are extremely acrid when frelh. They lofe
this pungent quality, however, by being dried, and be¬
come of a foapy nature. The fmell of many of them is
extremely fetid, frequently refembling that of human
excrements. The flowers, however, of an Ethiopian
dracunculus or arum, and the cover in which they are
involved, are faid to emit a very fragrant odour. With
regard to their virtues, thefe. plants are commonly a-
ftringent.
3. Calamaria. In this clafs the bafe of the leaf,
which embraces the ftalk like a glove, has no longitu¬
dinal aperture, but is perfe&ly entire. The ftalk is ge¬
nerally triangular, and without knots or joints. The
roots of fome are long and knotty; in others, they are
compofed of fleftiy fibres which pierce deep into the
ground ; and in others, of a bulb. The flowers are ei¬
ther hermaphrodite, or male and female upon the fame
root. The mode of inflorefcence in this order is gene¬
rally a fpike; fometimes a capitnlum or head. The ca¬
lix is either a gluma or an amentum. The corolla is
wanting. The filaments of the (lamina are three in
number, (hort, (lender like a hair, and fometimes briftly.
The antherse are generally long, (lender, and ere£t.
The feed-bud is very fmall, blunt, and fometimes three-
cornered. The ftyle is thread-(haped, and of the length
of the fcaly calix. The ftigmata are generally three
in number; (lender, hairy, and fometimes permanent.
The virtues, ufes, and fenfible qualities, of this order
ANY.
of plants are the fame with thofe of the following.
4. Gramina. Mod of thefe plants are anuual or pe¬
rennial herbs ; fome of them creep upon the ground,
others are eredl. The roots, in the greateft number,
are creeping, and emit fibres from each knot or joint;
in others they are (imply branching and fibrous. The
Hems and branches are round. The leaves are Ample,
alternate, entire, very long, and commonly narrow.
They form below a fort of (heath, which embraces or
furrounds the ftem, and is generally cleft or divided on
one fide through its whole length. The flowers are ei¬
ther hermaphrodite, male and female on the fame root,
or hermaphrodite and male on the fame root.- They
proceed either fingly from the (heath of the leaves, or
are formed into a panicle or loofe fpike. The calix and
corolla in this order are not fufficiently afeertained; in
fome a fingle fcale or hulk, in others two, fupply the
place of both covers; fome graffes have four hufky
feales, two of which ferve for the calix, and the other
two for the corolla; fome have five; others fix, four of
which conftitute the calix, and the other two are termed
improperly enough the bufky petals. The corolla is
fometimes compofed of one petal with two divifions;
and in general the hulks of the calix are always placed
oppofite to thofe of the corolla. The (lamina are ge¬
nerally three in number, and placed irregularly with re¬
gard to the fituation of the calix and corolla. The an-
therae,are long, furnifhed with two cells, and (lightly
attached to the filaments. The feed-bud is placed upon
the fame receptacle as the calix, corolla, and (lamina.
The ftyle is generally double, and crowned with a hairy
ftigma or fummit. The feed-veflel is wanting. The
feeds are fingle, oval, and attached below to the .bot¬
tom of the flowe.r.—The roots of the grafles are open¬
ing ; fuch as have an aromatic fmell are ftomachic; their
feeds are mealy, mucilaginous, and nourifliing. All the
parts of thefe plants are wholefome.
5. Tripelotoidea, (from/re/, three; and pet alum, a
petal). Thefe plants have no very ftriking chara&ers,
and are nearly allied to the graffes. All the genera of
this order have not the circumftance exprefled in the
title.
6. Enfatee. This order, which is very nearly allied
to the grafies and liliaceous plants, furnifhes a very beau¬
tiful colledlion of perennial herbs, which are of different
heights, from one inch to 15 feet. The roots are tu¬
berous or flefliy, and garnifhed with fibres ; the (talks
are fimple, and commonly flat or compreffed on the fides.
The leaves are fimple, alternate, entire, fvvord-(haped,
and, like the liliaceous plants, form at their origin a
(heath or glove, which in the greateft number is cleft or
divided through the whole length, except at the bafe,
where it is entire, and embraces the (talk like a ring.
The flowers are hermaphrodite, and generally pro¬
ceed from the fummit of the (lalks either fingly, ip
an umbel, a fpike, or in a panicle. In pontederia
they proceed from the wings or angles of the leaves
either fingly or in an umbel. Moll of thefe plants
w’ant the perianthium or flower-cup ; the flowers
burft from a common cover or (heath, termed by Lin¬
naeus fpatha, which in this order is frequently perma¬
nent. The petals are in number from one to fix. The
(lamina are generally three. The feed-bud is placed
fometimes above the flower, fometimes below it. The
(lyle is generally fingle, and drowned with a triple
ftigma.
1306
B O T
fligma. The feed-veffel is a dry capfule, generally of
an oblong fhape, and opens at three valves, difcovering
the fame number of cells, each inclofing a quantity of
roundifh feeds.—Thefe plants refemble the liliaceous in
their powers and fenfible qualities ; very few of them,
however, are ufed in medicine.
7. Orcbidex. The roots of many df thefe plants are
compofed of one or more flefhy tubercles or knobs, at¬
tached to the lower part of the ftem, and fending forth
fibres from the top. Thofe of orchis bear an obvious
refemblance to the fcrotum in animals : from which
circumftance the genus has derived its name. The leaves
are of a moderate fize, infcribed with a number of lon¬
gitudinal nerves or ribs, and without any footftalk. At
their origin they form, round the ftalk, a kind of fheath,
which is long, entire, cylindrical, but not furnifhed, like
the graffes and fome other plants, with a crown at top.
The flowers are hermaphrodite, and placed at the fum-
mit of the ftalk either in a fpike or in a panicle. The
calix is that fort termed by Linnseus a fpatka or Jheath,
-that burfting open protrudes a head or clufter of flowers,
termed the fpadix, which have no perianthium or flower-
cup. The petals are five in number, and very irregular.
The ne&ariumin this order is remarkably confpicuous;
yet fo different in the different genera, that Linnasus has
employed it for his principal charadler, or mark of di-
ftindrion, inftead of the root, which had chiefly engaged
the attention of former botanifts. It has the appearance
of a fixth petal. The filaments are always two in num¬
ber, and placed upon the piftillum or female organ.
The antherae are credit, and generally covered by the
upper lip of the nedtarium. The feed-bud is either ob¬
long or pillar-fhaped, twifted like a ferew, and univer-
fally placed below the receptacle of the flower. The
ftyle is Angle, very fhort, and forms one fubftance with
the inner margin of the nedtarium. The feed-veffel is
generally a capfule with one cavity or cell, and three
valves or openings, which are keel-lhaped, and open
on the angular fides, being jointed both at the bottom
and top. The feeds are numerous; very fmall, like faw-
duft; and attached, without footftalks, to a flender re¬
ceptacle or rib, which extends itfelf lengthwife in the
middle of each inclofure or valve. The plants of this
order are reckoned ftrong aphrodifiacs.
8. Scitawinene. This clafs confifts of beautiful exo¬
tic plants, all natives of very warm countries. Some
of them furnifti exquifite fruits; but though the plants
rife very high, they are perennial only by their roots.
Thofe which have only one filament, have in all their
parts an aromatic odour, and an acrid or poignant tafte;
qualities, however, poffeffed in a much greater degree
by the roots, which are hot and refinous.
9. Spatbacea-, fo called becaufe their flowers are
protruded from a fpatha or fheath. They are nearly
allied in habit and ftru&ure to the liliaceous plants,
from which they are chiefly diftinguifhed by the fpatha
out of which their flowers are protruded.
10. Coronarix. Thefe plants are herbaceous, per¬
ennial, and from one inch to 15 feet high. The roots
are either bulbous, fibrous, or compofed of fmall flefhy
knots, which are jointed at top. The bulbs either con-
fift of feales laid over each other like tiles, orarefolid.
The ftem of the liliaceous bulbous plants is properly
wanting ; what fupplies its place being nothing elfe
than the bafe of the leaves, which, wrapping or enfold-
A N Y. Sea. VI.
ing each other, form at bottom a roundifh flefhy bulb
hitherto diftinguifhed, though perhaps improperly, by
the name of root. In the others the ftem is Ample,
that is, has few branches, and is either furnifhed with
leaves, or rifes naked. The branches are alternate and
cylindrical. The leaves are fimple, alternate, and en¬
tire. Thofe next the root, termed radical leaves, ge¬
nerally form at their origin a fheath, which in a great
number is entire; that is, goes all round; whilft in
others, it is cleft or divided longitudinally on one fide.
The flowers are univerfally hermaphrodite, except in
white hellebore, which has both male and hermaphrodite
flowers mixed together on the fame root. The flowers
are fometimes Angle, and terminate the ftem; fometimes
they form an umbel, fometimes a fpike, and fometimes
a panicle. The calix or flower-cup, in this order, ac¬
cording to Linnaeus, is generally wanting. In ftridl
propriety, however, the Angle cover that is prefent ia
moft of thefe plants, though beautifully coloured, ought
to be denominated a calix ; as its divifions, generally Ax
in number, are placed oppofite to the ftamina. The
petals, or, to fpeak more properly, the coloured leaves
of the flower, are in number from one to Ax. Plants
which have a Angle petal, have the limb or upper part
fplit into Ax diviAons or fegments. The petals in fome
fpecies are rolled or turned back. The ne&arium is
various; in the lily it is a longitudinal line which runs
through each petal, and reaches from the bafe to the
middle. In crown imperial, it is a fmall hollow or
pore, formed at the bafe of each petal; in afphodel it
confifts of fix very fmall valves, which, approaching,
form a globe, and are inferted into the bafe of the pe¬
tal ; in hyacinth, it is compofed of three melliferous
pores, fituated on the top of the feed-bud. In pine¬
apple, it is a fmall fcale lying within the fubftance
of each petal above the bafe; and in albuca, or baftard
ftar of Bethelem, it confifts of two fharp-pointed bodies
proceeding from the furrows of the feed-bud, and co¬
vered by the broader bafe of the three fertile filaments.
In fome fpecies of lily the ne&arium is hairy ; in o-
thers it is naked. The ftamina are fix in number;
ereft, and inferted into the common receptacle, if the
flower confifts of many petals ; into the tube, or divi¬
fions of the corolla, if it confifts of one. The antherae
are long, commonly divided below, andflightly attach¬
ed by their fides to the filaments on which they turn like
a vane or the needle of a compafs. The feed-bud is
fingle, and placed either within the flower-cup, or be¬
low it. The ftyle is fingle, thread-ftiaped, and gene¬
rally of the length of the petals. The ftigma is ge¬
nerally fingle, of a conic form, and ihaggy or hairy at
the extremity. The feed-veffel is generally a capfule,
divided externally into three valves, internally into three
cells.—With refpedt to the powers of the plants of this
order, it may be affirmed in general, that fuch as have
little tafte or fmell, as the roots of tulip, and ftar of
Bethlehem, are perfe&ly innocent; whilft thofe which
have a heavy naufeous fmell, as fquill, hyacinth, crown
imperial, and fpider-wort, are at leaft fufpicious, and
frequently prove noxious.
11. Sarmentofce, (from farmentum, a long ffioot,
like that of a vine). This order confifts of plants
which have climbing ftems and branches, that, like the
vine, attach themfelves to the bodies in their neigh¬
bourhood for the purpofe of fupport. Thefe plants are
far
1307
Sed. VI. BOX
far from being a true natural aflemblage ; in faft they
fcarce agree in a Angle circumftance, except that ex-
prefled in the title, which is far from being peculiar to
this order.
12. Holeracete. This order confifts of plants which
are ufed for the table, and enter into the ceconomy of
domeftic affairs : it contains trees, fhrubs, perennial,
and annual herbs. Some of the woody vegetables retain
their green leaves during the winter. The roots are
very long, and frequently fpindle-fhaped ; from the
knots on the ftems and branches of fuch plants as creep
on the ground, or float on the water, proceed fibrous
and branching roots. The ftems and young branches
are cylindric ; and in the greateft part of the aquatic
plants of this order, the ftalks are hollow within. The
buds are of a conic form, and naked ; that is, not ac¬
companied with fcales. The leaves are generally fimple,
entire, alternate, and attached to the branches by a
cylindric foot-ftalk, which is fometimes very long, but
commonly very ftiort. Some plants of this kind have
two ftipulae or fcales which are attached to the branches
near the origin of the foot-ftalk of each leaf. In many
others, inftead of ftipulae, each leaf bears on its foot-
ftalk a membranaceous {heath, which is cylindric, fre¬
quently fringed on the margin, and pierced or pene¬
trated by the ftem. The flowers are either hermaphro¬
dite ; male and female upon the fame root; male and
female upon different roots ; hermaphrodite and male
on the fame root; hermaphrodite and female on the
fame root; or hermaphrodite and male on different
roots.
13. Succulent*. This order confifts of flat, flelhy,
and juicy plants, moft of them ever-greens. They are
aftringent, refreftiing, and very wholefome.
14. Gruinales, from grus a crane. Thefe confift of
geranium, vulgarly called cranes-bill, and a few other
genera which Linnaeus confiders as allied to it in their
habit and external ftructure. This order furnifties both
herbaceous and woody plants. The roots are fometimes
fibrous, fometimes tuberous. In fome fpecies of wood-
forrel they are jointed. The ftems are cylindric; the
young branches, in fome, nearly fquare. The buds
are of a conic form, and covered with fcales. The
leaves are either fimple or compound. The flowers are
hermaphrodite ; they proceed from the wings of the
leaves either iingly or in clufters. The calix or flower-
cup confifts of five diftinft leaves, or ofone leaf divided
almoft to the bottom into five parts. It generally ac¬
companies the feed-bud to its maturity. The petals
are five in number, fpreading, and frequently funnel-
fhaped. The ftamina are generally ten in number,
awl-fhaped, erecft, and of the length of the petals. The
ftamina are generally oblong ; and frequently attached
to the filaments by the middle, fo as to lie, and fome¬
times to veer about, upon them. The feed-bud is ei¬
ther oblong, or five-cornered. The number of ftyles
is cither one, or five. In tribulus, the ftyle is want¬
ing. The feed-veffel is generally a five-cornered cap¬
fuls, with one, three, five, or ten cells. The feeds
are generally equal in number to the internal divifions
or the cells of the feed-veffel; one feed being placed
in each cell.
15. Inundat*. The plants of this order are aqua¬
tic, oflowftature, herbaceous, and moftly perennial.
The roots are fibrous. The ftem is generally wanting.
ANY.
In its place are an affemblage of leaves, which wrap¬
ping or enfolding each other mutually form a {heath ;
and from the middle of this {heath is produced the foot-
ftalk of the flower. The leaves are fometimes alternate,
fometimes placed in whirls round the ftem. In a great
many genera the foot-ftalk is extended at its origin into
a membranaceous fubftance, which forms a {heath that
is cleft through the whole length, on the fide oppofite
to the leaf. The flowers are hermaphrodite, or male
and female on the fame root. The flower-cup is either
wanting, or confifts of three, four, or five divifions or
leaves, which accompany the feed-bud to its maturity.
The petals are generally wanting. The ftamina are
in number from one to 16 and upwards. The filaments
in fome genera are fo Ihort, that they feem wanting.
The anthers are ftrort, and generally marked with four
longitudinal furrows. The feed-buds are in number
from one to four, the ftyle is frequently wanting. The
feed-veffel is univerfally wanting, except in Elatine,
which has a dry capfule, with four external openings,
and the fame number of cells. The feeds are generally
four in number.
16. Calyciflorx, (from calix the flower-cup, and flos
the flower), confifting of fuch plants as have the fta¬
mina (the flower inferted into the calix). All the
plants of this order are of the fhrub and tree kind.
Some of them rife to the height of 1 2 or 14 feet; o-
thers not above two or three. The roots are branch¬
ing, fibrous, and woody. The ftems are cylindric.
The branches, when young, are cornered; the buds of
a conic form, and without fcales. The leaves are
fimple, alternate, and attached to the branches by a
very fhort foot-ftalk. The flowers are either male or
female upon diftinft roots, or hermaphrodite and male
on the fame root. The calix is a perianthium com-
pofed of one leaf divided into two, three, or four feg-
ments. It is commonly placed upon the germen or
feed-bud, which accompanies it to maturity. The co¬
rolla is univerfally wanting, except in trophis, the male
plants of which, according to Linnaeus, have four ob-
tufe and fpreading petals. The ftamina are generally
four in number, {lender like a hair, ftiort, placed at a
confiderable diftance from the ftyle, and inferted into
the tube of the calix. The piftillum is compofed of a
roundifli germen, crowned with the calix; a fingle
thread-fhaped ftyle; and a cylindric itigma. The feed-
veffel is either an obtufe oval fruit of the cherry kind,
or a globular berry with one cell, containing a roundifli
feed. The plants of this order are aftringent.
17. Calycanthem*, (from calix the flower-cup, and
av0@- the fonver); confifting of plants, which, among
other charaffers, have the corolla and ftamina inferted
in the calix. This order furnifhes trees, fhrubs, and
annual, biennial, and perennial herbs. The herbaceous
annuals are by much the moft numerous. The roots are
branching and fibrous ; the ftems and branches cylin¬
dric, fquare, or four-cornered while young. . The buds
are of a conic form, and without fcales. The leaves are
enerally either alternate, fimple, and attached to the
ranches by a Ihort foot-ftalk, or oppofite at the bot¬
tom of the ftem ; and in fome, alternate towards the
top. They are univerfally feflile; that is, attached to
the branches, without any footftalk. The calix is uni¬
verfally a perianthium, and generally monophyllous, or
compofed of one leaf. The corolla confifts of four, five,
B O T
and fix petals, which are attached to the tube of the
calix, and are fometimes placed alternate, fometimes
oppofite to the divifions of the limb. The flamina,
which are in number from 4 to 20 and upwards, are at¬
tached to the tube of the calix either on its margin, or
lower down. When the number of ftamina is double
the divifions of the calix, the ftamina which (land op¬
pofite to thefe divifions are a little longer than the reft.
The antherae are generally of a hemifpherical figure ;
frequently cleft or flit below; and by that aperture at¬
tached flightly to the filaments, on which they often
veer about like a vane or needle. They are furrounded
longitudinally, and open on the fides into two loculi
or cells. The pollen, or male duft, confifts of a num¬
ber of minute particles, of an oval figure, yellow and
tranfparent. The germen or feed-bud is placed either
above or under the receptacle of the flower. The ftyle
is Angle, thread-draped, and of the length of the fta-
niina. The ftigma is generally Angle and undivided.
The feed-veflel is a capfule, which is generally divided
internally into four loculi or cells. The feeds are nu¬
merous, minute, and frequently three-cornered. The
plants of this order are reckoned aftringent.
18. Biconies, (from bis twice, and cornu a horn),
plants whofe antherse have the appearance of two horns.
This appearance, however, is not very confpicuous,
unlefs in a few genera. The plants of this order are
all of the flirub and tree kind. The roots are branch¬
ing and fibrous. The items and branches are cylin-
dric. The buds conic, fometimes covered with fcales,
and fometimes naked. The leaves are generally alter¬
nate. In moil plants of this order they are either feffile,
or fupported by a very ihort foot-ftalk, which is femi-
eylindric, and flat above. The flowers are univerfally
hermaphrodite, except in one genus, the Indian date-
plumb, where hermaphrodite and male flowers are pro¬
duced in the fame fpecies upon diftimft roots. They
proceed either folitary, or in a corymbus from the
angles formed by the leaves and branches ; or hang
down in fpikes and clufters at the end of the branches;
each flower having a fmall fcale or floral leaf placed
under it. In moil plants of this order the calix is
placed around or below the’germen. The calix is uni¬
verfally a perianthium, and generally monophyllous or
of one piece, deeply divided into four or five fegments,
■which are permanent, that is, accompany the germen
to its maturity. The fegments are often acute, and
fometimes coloured. The corolla is generally monbpe-
talous, and bell or funnel ftiaped; the figure, however,
is not very conftant, even in plants of the fame genus.
The limb, or upper part of the petal, is generally di¬
vided into four or five fegments, which are fonaetimes
rolled back, fometimes bent inwards. The limb too is
fometimes flightly cut, fometimes divided almoft to the
bottom. The tube, or lower part of the petal, is cy-
lindric, and generally of the fame length with the calix.
The number of ftamina is from 4 to 20. Thefe are ge¬
nerally eredt, and attached to the lower part of the tube
of the corolla. The antherse are bifid or forked below,
and, being flightly attached to the filaments, are fre¬
quently inverted in fuch a manner as to exhibit the ap¬
pearance of tvvo horns at top. The germen or feed-
bud is generally roundifti, and feated above the recep¬
tacle. The ftyle is Angle, thread-ftiaped, of the fame
length with the corolla, and in a few genera permanent.
ANY. Sea.
The feed-veffel is either a capfule with five cells, a round¬
ifti berry, or an oblong four-cornered nut with two
cells.—The plants of this order are aftringent.
19. Hefperidetc, (from the Hefperides, whofe orchards
are faid to have produced golden apples). The plants
of this order are of the flirub and tree kind, and moftly
evergreen. The bark of the ftalks is flender, and comes
off in thin plates. The leaves are generally oppofite,
and covered with fmall tranfparent points. In fome,
the leaves are placed oppofite at the bottom of the
ftalks, and alternate above. The buds are of a conic
form, the flowers generally hermaphrodite ; they pro¬
ceed from the wings of the leaves either fingly, or in
clufters like ivy-berries. The calix is placed above the
feed-bud, and accompanies it to its maturity. The
petals are three, four, or five in number, and ftand
upon the brims of the tube of the calix. The feed-
bud is large, oblong, and placed below the receptacle
of the flower. The ftyle is Angle, awl-ftiaped, of the
length of the ftamina, and terminated with a Angle
ftigma. The feed-veffel in fome genera is a berry fur-
nifhed with one or three cells; a capfule with four cells,
or of the nature of a cherry, containing a ftone. The
feeds are generally numerous, fmall and oblong. The
leaves and fruits are aftringent, the berries efculent.
20. Rot ace se, (from rota, a wheel), confiding of plants
with one wheel-ftiaped petal without a tube. Thefe
refemble in quality thofe of the order of preciae, to
which they are in all refpefts very nearly allied ; but
very few of them can be faid in drift propriety to pof-
fefs the charafter fpecified in the title.
zi. Precise, (from precius early). Thefe confift of
primrofe, an early flowering plant, and fome others
which agree with it in habit and ftrufture, though not
always in the charafter or circumftance expreffed in the
fitle. Thefe plants, which poffefs no ftriking uniform
charafters, are, in general, innocent in their quality;
yet the root of fow-bread is dangerous, if taken inter¬
nally.
22. Caryophyllese. All the plants of this order are her¬
baceous, and moftly annual. Some of the creeping
kinds do not rife above an inch, and the tailed exceed
not feven or eight feet. The roots are branching,
fibrous, and of a moderate length. The ftems are cy¬
lindrical. The branches proceed from the wings or
angles of the leaves, and are generally oppofite, and
as it were jointed at each knot. In fome fpecies of
ceraftium the branches are fquare. The leaves are ge¬
nerally placed oppofite in pairs, fo as to refemble a
crofs ; and are flightly united at the bottom by their
foot-ftalks, which form a fort of glove round the ftem.
The hairs are Ample, like filk. The flowers are her¬
maphrodite ; but fome have male and female flowers
upon diftinft roots. They either ftand fingle on their
foot-ftalks, and proceed from the wings or angles of
the leaves and branches, or are difpofed in a fpike,
corymbus, umbel, or panicle. The calix is permanent,
and compofed either of one piece with five indentments,
or of four or five diftinft leaves. The Jterolla generally
confifts of five petals, which have claws of the length
of the calix; and a fpreading limb, fometimes entire,
but oftener cleft or divided in two. The ftamina are
in number from 3 to 15, and of a moderate length.
When their number is double the divifions of the calix,
they are attached alternately to the claws of the petals,
thofe
Sea. VI. BOTANY.
thofe fo attached being fhorter than the reft ; the re- extinguifhes the flames of love.
maining ftamina are infertedinto the common receptacle, 26. Multijiliqua, (from multus many, and Jtliqua
and ftand oppofite to the fegments of the calix. In a pod) ; confiding of plants which have more feed-
fome genera of this order the number of ftamina is found veflels than one. From the etymology of the term, one
to vary, even in the different flowers of the fame plant, would naturally imagine that the feed-veflels in queftion
The antherse are flrort, hemifpherical, marked with were of that kind called by Linnaeus Jiliqtia, or pod :
four longitudinal furrows, frequently divided or cleft but the fa<ft is, that not a Angle plant of this order
below, moft commonly ereft 5 fometimes, however, in- bears pods ; the greater part having many dry capfules,
cumbent, that is, faftened to the filaments by the fides. and the remainder being furniftied properly with no
The pointal is compofed of a Angle feed-bud, which is feed-veflel, but bearing numerous diftincft feeds. Plants
generally roundifti, fometimes cornered. The ftyles of this order are moftly perennial herbs ; the ftems o!
are thread-fhaped, of the length of the ftamina, fome are ereft; others creep upon the ground, and
and crowned with a fimple ftigma, which is fleek produce roots near the origin of each leaf; laftly, others
or fmooth externally, and flightly hollow'ed or vaulted climb, and attach themfelves to the bodies in their
within. The feed-veflel is a dry capfule, of an oval neighbourhood, either by the footftalk of the leaves,
form, of the length of the calix, and confifts of one or by tendrils and clafpers which terminate the foot¬
er three cells. The plants of this order are innocent ftalk. The greattft height of thofe which rife ereft,
in their quality; theyaboundin a watery fort of phlegm, feldom exceeds eight feet. Thofe which climb rarely
and have bitter feeds. With refpeft to their virtues, exceed 15 or 20 feet. The roots are generally flefliy.
they are reckoned aftringent, attenuating, and deterfive. In fome they are hand-fhaped ; in others fitiger-fliaped,
23. Trihilatie, (from tres three, and hilum an ex- or cylindric. In fome fpecies of hellebore and ranun-
ternal mark on the feed) ; confifting of plants with cuius they are divided into fpherical knobs. Laftly, in
three feeds, which are marked diftimftly with an exter- forae plants of this order, the roots are fibrous. The
nai cicatrix or fear, where they were faftened within ftems and young branches are cylindric. The leaves,
to the fruit. which are of different forms, being fometimes fimple and
24. Corydales, (from a helmet) ; confifting of entire, fometimes hand-ffiaped or winged, are generally
plants which have irregular flowers, fomewhat refem- alternate. The footftalk, which is fometimes cylindric,
bling a helmet or hood. Thefe plants are moftly her- fometimes angular, is membranous, and very large at
baceous and perennial. The roots are tuberous or its origin, furrounding a great part of the ftem from
knobby. The ftems are generally branching. The which it proceeds. The flowers are hermaphrodite,
leaves are alternate, fometimes fimple, but moft com- They proceed either fingly from the wings of the leaves
monly winged. The foot-ftalk of the leaves is ftrait or termination of the branches, or terminate the bran-
or narrow, except in cpimedium, where it is large, ches in a fpike, panicle, or head. The calix in fome
and has a membranaceous edge or border. The flowers is wanting ; in others it is generally compofed of five
are univerfally hermaphrodite. They proceed either pieces, which fall off with the petals. The petals are ia
fingly from the wings or angles of the leaves, or are number from 4 to 15; generally equal, and fome-
collefted in clufters at the end of the branches. The times difpofed in two or three feries; five is the pre-
calix confifts of two, four, five, or fix leaves, which are vailing number. The ftamina are in number from 5
frequently coloured, and commonly fall off immediately to 300, diftinft, and attached generally in feveral row's
before or very foon after the expanfion of the petals, or feries to the receptacle. The feed-buds are gene-
The corolla is generally irregular; of one, or many rally numerous ; the ftyle is frequently wanting. In
pieces ; gaping ; and furnifhed with a nedarium, which fome the feed-veflel is wanting; in others it is compofed
is very different in the different genera. The ftamina of feveral dry capfules, each containing a Angle cell,
are in number from tw<? to fix, and of a proportionate The feeds are numerous, and frequently angular. Moft
length, except in honey-flower, which has two ftiorter of thefe plants are acrid, and many of them poifonous.
than the reft. The filaments are diftind, except in In general, plants that have a great number of ftamina
two genera, fumitory and monnieria, which have two are noxious in their quality. When burnt, thefe plants
fets of firings or filaments united in a cylinder. The furniih a fixed alcali; by diftillation there is drawn
antherse are univerfally diftind, except in impatiens, from them a kind of nitrous and aluminous fubftance.
where they are formed into a cylinder divided at the With refped to their virtues, they are cauftic and pur-
bafe. The feed-bud is generally roundifti, but fome- gative.
times \ngular or cornered. The ftyle is commonly 27. confifting of poppy, and a few genera
tingle, extremely fhort, flender, or thread-fliaped, and which refemble it in habit and ftrudure. Thefe plants,
crowned with a fimple ftigma. The feed-veffel is ei- upon being cut, emit plentifully a juice, vyhich is white
ther a hollow blown-up berry, a capfule of one cell, in poppy, and yellow in the others. With refped to
a longifh, or a roundifti pod. The feeds are generally their virtues, they feem to operate principally upon the
numerous and round. nerves. Their juice is foporific and narcotic, their
25. Putaminea:, (from/^wr^ a fhell) ; confifting feeds lefs fo, their roots aperient. Applied externally,
of a few genera of plants allied in habit, whofe fleftiy they are (lightly corrofive.
feed-veflel or fruit is frequently covered with a hard 28. Lurid#, confifting of plants whofe pale and o-
woody ftiell. Moft of thefe plants are acrid and pe- minous appearance feems to indicate fomething baleful
netrating ; and yield, by burning, a great quantity of and noxious in their nature and quality. Moft of thefe
fixed alcali. With refped to their virtues, they are plants are herbaceous and perennial. Many of them
powerful aperients. The Indians pretend that the are of the mafqued tribe of flowers ; others refemble
fruit of a fpecies of caper-bufh, which they call baducca, thefe in their general appearance, but differ from them
Vot. II. ‘ 8 C effentially
I309
JS10
B O T
eflentially in the equality of their ftamina. The roots
are generally branched, fometimes tuberous. The
ftems and branches are cylindric. The leaves are ge¬
nerally fimple, and placed alternate. The flowers are
hermaphrodite. They proceed either finglyor in cluf-
ters from the angle formed by the leaves and branches.
In fome fpecies of lycium, they terminate the bran¬
ches. The calix is generally of one piece deeply di¬
vided into five parts. The corolla confifts of one pe¬
tal, which is either bell, funnel, or wheel lhaped. The
ftamina are four or five in number; and thofe either of
equal lengths, as in the greater, or unequal. The feed-
bud is placed above the receptacle of the flower. The
ftyle is Angle; and is terminated by a fummit which is
hemifpherical, and frequently channelled or furrowed.
The feed-veflel, in fuch as have equal ftamina, is a berry^
in the reft, it is generally a capfule. The feeds are nu¬
merous, and frequently kidney-fhaped.—Thefe plants
In general are poifonous. They have an infipid tafte,
and a naufeous difagreeable fmell.
29. Campanacea (from campana a bell) ; plants with
bell-fhaped flowers- The plants of this order are her¬
baceous and perennial. The roots are either fpindle-
fhaped, or branching and fibrous. The ftems are round.
The branches are generally alternate. The leaves are
Ample, alternate, and commonly attached to the bran¬
ches by a femi-cylindric foot-ftalk, which is furrowed
above. The indentments are terminated by a fmall
white tubercle or knob, which renders them confpicu-
ous. The flowers are hermaphrodite ; and proceed ei¬
ther folitary from the wings of the leaves, or are col-
lefted into a fpike and head at the end of the flower*
ftalk. The calix is univerfally a perianthium fituated
upon or round the germen, and generally compofed
of one leaf deeply divided into five fegments. The
corolla is monopetalous, and of the bell, funnel, or wheel
fhape. The tube, in flowers of the bell and wheel ihape,
is very fhort ; in thofe of the funnel-ftiape, very long.
In Greek valerian, the tube is (hut with five valves,
which are placed on its apex or top. The limb or up¬
per part of the corolla is deeply divided into five feg¬
ments, which fpread, and are alternate with the divifions
of the calix. The corolla is generally permanent. The
ftamina are five in number, attached to the bafe of the
tube of the corolla, alternate with its divifions, and
oppofite to thofe of the calix. The filaments are dif-
tin£t ; very large at their origin ; and frequently ap¬
proach fo as to form a fort of vault, which covers the
fummit of the germen. They are flender and awl-
ftiaped above. The antherse are very long; oval; marked
with four longitudinal furrows, either diftinft, or united
in a cylinder. The pollen is compofed of very fmall,
fpherical, white, fliining, and tranfparent particles.
The germen is roundiih, and fituated either wholly or
in part under the flower. The ftyle is generally
Angle, and of the length of the ftamina or corolla.
The ftigma is commonly Angle, but deeply divided.
The feed-veflel is a roundifli capfule, generally divided
into three cells, and furniftied externally with the fame
number of valves. The feeds are fmall, numerous, at¬
tached to a receptacle in the centre of the fruit, gene¬
rally rounded, and fometimes cornered.—This order
furnilhes many excellent medicines. The plants abound
with a white milky juice, which, upon the ftalk being
cut, flows out in great quantities.
ANY. Sea. vr.
30. Contort(from eon together, and torqueo to
twift); confifting of plants which have a Angle petal
that is twifted, or bent towards one fide. This order
furnifties trees, (hrubs, and fat fucculent plants, fome
of which retain their leaves during the winter. The
herbaceous vegetables in this order are generally peren¬
nial. The roots are fometimes branching, but com¬
monly fleftiy, fucculent, and garnifhed with fibres or
firings like thofe of turnip. The ftems are round, and
in fome genera pulpy and fucculent. The branches
are fometimes placed alternate, and fometimes oppofite.
The buds are of a conic form, and naked or without
feales. The leaves are fometimes alternate, fometimes
placed oppofite in pairs, and not feldom furround the
ftem in whirls. They are attached to the branches by
a cylindrical foot-ftalk, which is fhort, and frequently
united to the foot-ftalk of the oppofite leaf. The de-
fenfive and offenfive weapons in this order are a downy
fort of pubefcence, and Ample, or forked prickles,
which, in fome genera, ifiue from the wings of the
leaves. The flowers are hermaphrodite ; and ftand ei¬
ther fingly upon their foot-ftalks, or are colledted into
umbels and clufters. Thefe bunches or colleftions of
flowers fometimes terminate the branches, fometimes
proceed from the angles of the branches, and<fometime&
ftand at the fide of the wings without iffuing from
them. The flower-cup is compofed of one leaf divided
almoft to the'bafe in five unequal fegments, which em¬
brace each other, and are permanent, or accompany
the feed-bud to its maturity. The corolla confifts of
one petal, which in the different genera is bell, falver,
funnel, or wheel fhaped. The limb, or upper fpread-
ing part of the petal, is generally divided into five
equal parts, which are flightly bent or twifted to the
left, and embrace or enfold each other like the petals
of the mallow tribe. The tube is generally long and
cylindrical ; fometimes club-fhaped, and often wanting.
In feveral flowers of this order the petal is accompanied
with that fpecies of fuperfluity termed a neftarium. In
the different genera, however, it affumes very differ¬
ent appearances. The ftamina are five in number, fhort,
equal, attached at the fame height to the tube of the
petal, alternate with it* divifions, and oppofite to thofe
of the calix. The antherae are generally ere<ft, and
frequently aproach fo as to form a compadt body in
the middle of the flower. The feed-bud is either Angle
or double. In forfie the ftyle is wanting. The ftigma
is frequently double. The feed-veffel in fome genera
is a pulpy fruit, of the berry and cherry kind ; but
moft frequently that fpecies termed by Linnaeus con-
ceptaculum, and follicnlus, which has one valve or ex¬
ternal inclofure, opens lengthways on one fide,-and
has not the feeds faftened to it. Two of thefe dry
fruits, with a fingle cell, compofe the feed-veffel of moft
plants of this order. The feeds are generally numei-ous,
and in feveral genera crowned with a long pappus or
downy wing like that of the compound flowers, by
means of which they eafily difperfe and fow themfelves.
—The plants of this order being cut, emit a juice which
is generally milky, and fometimes of a greenilh white.
From the circumftance of their abounding in this milky
joice, the greater part are deemed poifonous ; repeated
obfervations having eftablifhed this aphorifm, That
milky plants, except thofe ofthe plain compound flowers,
are generally of a baneful deftrudivc nature, and ought
at
Sed. VI.
BOTANY.
at leaft to be adminitlered with caution. With refpeft
to their fenfible qualities, they are bitter; particularly
the feeds, roots, and bark, in which refides their prin¬
cipal virtue.
31. Veprecula, (from vepres a briar or bramble),
contifting of plants refembling the daphne, dirca, gni-
dia, &c. but which, however, do not conftitute a true
natural alfemblage.
32. Papilicnace, plants that have papilionaceous
flowers, i.e. fomewhat refembling a butterfly in lhape;
of which number are all the leguminous plants. The
plants of this order are of very different duration; fome
of them being herbaceous, and thofe either annual or
perennial; others woody vegetables of the ffirub and
tree kind, a few of which rife to the height of 70 feet
•and upwards. The herbaceous plants of this order ge¬
nerally climb ; for, being weak and as it were help-
lefs of themfelves, they are provided by nature with
tendrils, and even fliarp-pointed hooks, at their extre¬
mities, to fatten upon the neighbouring trees or rocks;
or the ftalks are endowed with a faculty of twitting
themfelves, for the purpofe of fupport, around the bo¬
dies in their neighbourhood. The pea, vetch, and kid¬
ney-bean, afford familiar examples of this appearance.
The fhrubs and trees of this order are moftly armed with
ftrong fpines. The roots are very long, and furnifhed
with fibres; but fome genera have flelhy knobs or tu¬
bercles placed at proper intervals along the fibres. The
ftems are cylmdric, as likewife the young branches,
which are placed alternately: thofe which climb, twift
themfelves from right to left, in a direftion oppofite to
the apparent motion of the fun. The bark of the large
trees is extremely thick and wrinkled, fo as to refemble
a net with long mefhes; the wood is very hard in the
middle, and commonly coloured or veined. The buds
are hemifpherical, without fcales, and proceed from the
branches horizontally a little above the angle which
they form with the leaves. The leaves are alternate,
and of different forms, being either fimple, finger-fha-
ped, or winged. This laft form is very common; the
lobes or leffer leaves are entire, and fometimes placed
in pairs, but moft commonly the winged leaf is termi¬
nated by an odd lobe. The winged or pinnated leaves
of this order have a daily or periodical motion, de¬
pending upon the progrefs of the fun in his diurnal
courfe. The common footftalk of the winged and com¬
pound leaves is marked on the upper furface with a ca¬
vity or furrow which runs through its whole length.
The flowers are hermaphrodite; and proceed either from
the wings of the leaves, or from the extremity of the
branches. The calix is a perianthium of one leaf, bell-
fhaped, bunching out at the bottom, and cut on its brim
or margin into five irregular divifions or teeth; the lower-
moft of which, being the odd one, is longer than the
reft: the other four ftand in pairs, of which the upper-
moft is Ihorteft, and Hands fartheft afunder. The bot¬
tom of the calix is moiftened with a fweet liquor like
honey, fo may be deemed the neftarium of thefe plants.
The petals are four or five in number, very irregular,
and from their figure and pofition bear an obvious re-
femblance to a butterfly expanding its wings for flight.
Thefe petals have been chara&erized by diftindl names:
the upper one, which is commonly the largeft, is termed
the Jiandard, (vexillum); the two fide petals, the wings,
(alaJs and the lowermoft, which is generally united
at top, and divided at bottom, the fee/, (carina). The
ftamina are generally ten : thefe are either totally di-
ftinft, or united by the filaments into one or two bun¬
dles involving the feed-bud. In the latter cafe, where
there are two fets of united filaments, one of the fets is
compofed of 9 ftamina, which are united into a crooked
cylinder, that is cleft on one fide thro’ its whole length:
along this cleft lies the tenth filament or ftamen, which
conftitutes the fecond fet, and is often fo clofely at¬
tached to the fecond bundle, that it cannot be fepara-
ted without fome difficulty. The antherae are fmall,
round, marked with four longitudinal furrows, and
flightly attached to the filaments. In lupine, the an¬
therae are alternately round and oblong. The feed-bud
is tingle, placed upon the receptacle of the flower, ob¬
long, cylindrical, flightly compreffed, of the length of
the cylinder of the united ftamina by which it is invol¬
ved, and fometimes elevated by a flender footftalk
which iffues from the centre of the calix. The ftyle is
Angle, flender, and generally crooked or bent. The
ftigma is commonly covered with a beautiful down, and
placed immediately under the antherae. The feed-vef-
fel is that fort of pod termed a legumen, which is of an
oblong figure, more or lefs comprefled, with two valves,
and one, two, or more cavities. Thefe cavities are of¬
ten feparated, when ripe, by a fort of joints. The feeds
are generally few in number, round, fmooth, and flefhy.
Jointed pods have generally a Angle feed in each arti¬
culation. The feeds are all fattened along one future,
and not alternately to both, as in the other fpecies of
pod termed Jiliqua.—The plants of this family are, in
general, mucilaginous. From the inner bark of moft of
them flows, either naturally or by incifion, a clammy
liquor, which dries and hardens like gum ; the juice of
others is fweet like fugar; fome tafte bitter, and are
purgative, emetic, or even mortal. A fpecies of eaftern
aftragalus, with goats-rue leaves, is faid to be remark¬
ably cauftic, and to burn the tongue excelfively when
chewed. In general, however, thefe plants are foft
and clammy. With refpedt to their virtues, the plants
of this order are highly emollient; fome of them are
vulnerary and aftringent; and the root of anonis, or
reft-harrow, is diuretic.
33. Lament ace a ; (from lo?nentum, a colour ufed by
painters). Many of thefe plants furnifh beautiful tinc¬
tures, and fome of them are much ufed in dyeing. They
very much refemble the laft order, differing only in the
following particulars. 1. In all plants of this order,
except milk-wort, the ftamina are diftindt. The flower
is not ftiaped like a butterfly, but is lefs irregular, and
frequently confifts but of one petal. The leaves are
fometimes fimple, but moft commonly winged. The
feeds are generally marked with a circular furrow on
both fides. Like thofe of the leguminous tribe, the
plants of this order are generally mucilaginous. From
the inner bark of the greater number exfudes, either
naturally or by incifion, a mucilaginous liquor, which
fometimes dries upon the plant, and becomes a gummy
fub fiance.
34. Cucurbitacea, (from cucurbit a a gourd); con¬
fiding of plants which refemble the gourd in external
figure, habit, virtues, and fenfible qualities.—The
plants of this order, which generally climb, and have
long diffufed branches, are moftly herbaceous and pe¬
rennial. The roots in the perennial plants of this or-
8 C 3 der
I3II
1312
B O T
der are fhaped like thofe of the turnip; in the annuals,
they are branching and fibrous. The {terns are cyltn-
dric and fucculent. The young branches have gene¬
rally five corners. In fome fpecies of paffion-flower
they are fquare. The leaves are alternate, angular, and
fometimes hand-fhaped. They are attached to the
branches by a foot-ftalk, which is pretty long and cy¬
lindrical, without any furrow. From the wing or angle
of each of the upper leaves proceeds a tendril, which is
either Ample, or branching, and twifis itfeif fpirally
round the different bodies in its neighbourhood, for
the purpofe of fupporting and training of the branches.
The lower leaves have no tendril. The flowers are ei¬
ther hermaphrodite, or male and female. In this laft,
the male flowers are generally feparated from the female
upon the fame root; and that either in the fame wing
or angle of the leaves, or in differen t angles. The flower-
cup, in the female flowers, is placed upon the feed-
bud ; and generally confifis of one bell-fhaped leaf,
that is deeply divided into five unequal fegments, and,
unlike the other plants which have the calix feated up¬
on the fruit, falls off with the petals and the other
parts of the flower. The corolla confifts of one petal,
with five equal divifions, which adhere to the tube of
the calix, as if glued to it. A fpecies of paffion-flower,
termed by Linnaeus pajfiflora fuberofay wants the petals.
The (lamina are in number from one to five, (hort, and
generally inferted into the calix. The filaments are di-
ftindt ; the antherse of many genera are united in a cy¬
linder. In the paffion-flower they are {lightly attached
to the filaments, on which they turn like a vane or the
needle of a compafs. The feed-bud is fingle, and pla¬
ced below the receptacle of the flower. The ftyle is ge¬
nerally fingle, cylindrical, of the length of the calix,
and crowned with a triple ftigma. The feed-veffel is
generally pulpy, of the apple or berry kind, and con¬
fifts of one, two, or three cells. The feeds are nume¬
rous, generally flat or compreffed, and fometimes co¬
vered with that kind of proper coat called by Linnasus
arillus.—The fruit of thefe plants is generally purga¬
tive and refreftting; that of fome of them proves a very
violent emetic when ufed too freely.
35. Senticofa, (from fsntis a briar or bramble); con¬
fiding of the rofe, bramble, and other plants which re-
femble them in port and external ftru&ure. Thefe
plants are fo nearly allied in form, habit, and ftruc-
ture, to thofe of the natural order Pomace#, that they
ought never to have been feparated from it. The leaves
have a ftyptic tafte ; the fruits are acid and cooling.
With refpeft to their virtues, the leaves are vulnerary
and aftringent, the roots are diuretic. The acid fruits,
as ftrawberry and rafpberry, are ufed with fuccefs in pu¬
trid and bilious fevers, as likewife in contagious and
epidemic dyfenteries, which prevail in fummer and au¬
tumn, and are occafioned by a fudden tranfition from a
hot to a cold air, or by the acrid humour which flows
into the inteftines.
36. Pomace#, (from pomuman apple); confiding of
thofe which have a pulpy efculent fruit, of the apple,
berry, or cherry kind. The plants of this order, which
furnifhes many of our mod efteemed fruits, are moftly
of the Ihrub and tree kind. The roots are branched,
fibrous, and in the greater part very long. The ftems
and branches are cylindric. Thefe laft are placed al¬
ternate ; and when young, are, in fome genera, angu-
A N Y. Sed. VI.
lar. The bark is thick and wrinkled. The buds are
of a conic form, placed in the angles of the leaves, and
covered with teales which lie over each other like tiles.
The leaves, which differ in form, being in fome genera
fimple, in others winged, are, in the greater number,
placed alternate. Tht footftalk of the leaves is fur¬
rowed above, and frequently accompanied by a number
of knobs like glands. Moll of thefe plants are fur-
nifhed with two ftipula; at the origin of the young foot-
ftalks of the leaves. Thefe, in fome genera, are pretty
large ; in others, they are fo (mail as fcarce to be per¬
ceived ; and in cocoa-plumb in particular, they by their
minutenefs refemble hairs. The flowers are univerfally
hermaphrodite, except in fpir#a aruncus, in which male
and female flowers are produced on dillincl plants. In
the greater number of genera they are produced in clu-
fters or heads at the end of the branches. The calix is
of one piece, with five fegments or divifions, which are
permanent, and placed above the feed-bud in fome; in
the reft, they either fall off with the flower, or wither
upon the ftalk. The petals are five in number, and are
inferted into the tube of the calix. The (lamina are
generally 20 and upwards, and attached like the petals'
to the margin of the tube of the calix. The antherse-
are ftiort, and (lightly attached to the filaments. The
feed-bud is fingle; and in thofe genera which have the
calix permanent, it is placed below the receptacle of
the flower. The feed -veffel is a pulpy fruit of the apple,
berry, or cherry kind. Thofe of the apple kind are di¬
vided internally into a number of cavities or cells. The
feeds are numerous.—The pulpy fruits of this order are
acid, efculent, and of great efficacy in putrid and bili¬
ous fevers.
37. Columnifer#, (from colnmna a pillar, and ftro to
bear); confiding of plants whofe (lamina and piftil have
the appearance of a column or pillar in the centre of
the flower. This order furnifhes a choice collecSion of
herbs both annual and perennial, fhrubs, and trees.
Thefe are very different in fize and height, from the
creeping mallows, and low (hrubby tea-tree, to the
flefhy limes, and the more lofty filk-cotton trees, which
by fome modern writers are affirmed to be io large as
not to be fathomed by 16 men, and fo tall that an ar¬
row cannot reach their top. The (hrubs and trees of
this order are deciduous, pretty thick, of a beautiful
appearance, with an ere# ftem, which is formed by its
branches and foliage into a round head. The roots are
extremely long, branch but little, and either run per¬
pendicularly downwards, or extend themfelves horizon¬
tally below the furface. The ftems are cylindric. The
young branches, though commonly of the fame figure,
are fometimes angular. The bark is thick and pliant.
The wood, in general, very foft and light. The buds
are of a conic form, naked, or without feales; and fitu-
ated either at the extremity of the branches, or in the
angle formed by the branch and leaf. The leaves are
alternate, fimple, divided into feveral lobes, and fre¬
quently hand or finger (haped. The ribs or nerves on
the back of the leaf, in fome genera of this order, are
provided near their origin with a number of hollow fur¬
rows or glands, which, being filled with a clammy ho¬
ney like liquor, have been confidered as fo many veffels
of fecretion. The footftalk of the leaves is cylindric,
fwelled at its origin, and appears jointed at its junftion
with the branch. The flowers are univerfally herma¬
phrodite.
Sea. vr. BOTANY.
phrodite, except in higgeleria, and a fpecies of Virgi- placed alternate. The flowers are hermaphrodite, and
nian marflimallow, called by Linnaeus napjea dioica ; in the greater number difpofed in a fpike at the extre-
the former of which bears male and female, the latter mity of the branches. The flower-cup is compofed of
male and hermaphrodite, flowers on different roots. In four leaves, which are oblong, hollow, blunt, bunched
many plants of this order, the flowers generally open at the bafe, and fall with the flower. Thefe leaves
about nine in the morning, and remain expanded till are fometimes ereft, and fometimes fpread horizontally,
one in the afternoon. The flowers either terminate the The petals, which are four in number, fpread at top, and
branches, proceed from the angles of the leaves, or are difpofed like a crofs: the claws or lower part of
are difpofed either lingly or in a corymbus along the the petals are ere£f, flat, awl-fhaped, and fomewhat
branches or llcrn. In moft of thefe genera the calix is longer than the calix. The upper part widens out-
fingle, but in others frequently double. In thefe laft wards. The ftamina are fix in number ; two of which
the inner calix is always of one piece, generally divided are of the length of the calix, and the remaining four
into five fegments; the outer confifts either of one leaf, fomew’hat longer, but fhorter than the petals. The
of three diftinft leaves, or of many. The calix, when anthers are of an oblong figure, pointed, thicker at
Angle, is fometimes compofed of one leaf which is per- the bafe, and eredl. Betwixt the ftamina, in plants of
manent, or of feveral diftinft leaves which are generally this order, are generally lodged one, two, or four,
coloured, and fall off with the petals. In plants that round greenifti knots, which in fome genera are fo
have a double calix, both flower-cups are generally per- fmall as to elude the fight. Thefe glands, called by
manent. The petals in this order are from four to nine; Linnaeus glandulx neftariferx, and ufed very impro-
five is the prevailing number. The ftamina, which are perly by that author as an effential chara&er in dif-
in number from 5 to 20 and upwards, are generally in- criminating the genera, feem to be prominences of the
ferted into the common receptacle of the calix, or into receptacle of the flower, occafioned by the ftamina be-
the piftillum or feed-bud. The filaments are either di- ing deeply lodged in its fubftance. The feed-bud is
ftinft, or united in a cylinder, which, proceeding from Angle, and ftands upon the receptacle of the flower,
the receptacle of the calix, furrounds the feed-bud, and The ftyle, which is either cylindric or flat like a fcale,
attaches itfelf to the bafe of the petals, wdth which it is of the length of the four longer ftamina in fomege-
flightly unites. The antheras are frequently roundilh, nera ; in others it is very (hort, or even wanting. It
and placed eredl on the filament; moft commonly, how- accompanies the feed-bud to its maturity. The ftigma
ever, they are oblong or kidney-lhaped, and (lightly at- is blunt, and fometimes deeply divided into two parts,
tached by the middle, or fides, to the filaments, on The feed-veflel is either a long pod, or a fliort and
which they turn like a vane or needle. This laft is par- round one. Either fort has two valves or external o-
ticularly the charafteriftic of all the mallow tribe. The penings, and in a great many genera the fame num-
feed-bud is generally roundifti or conic; and fometimes, ber of internal cavities or cells, the partition of wriiich
as in the tea-tree, angular. The feed-veflel is gene- projects at the top beyond the valves. The feeds are
rally a capfule; fometimes a pulpy fruit of the ben-y roundifti, fmall, and attached alternately by a (lender
or cherry kind. In fome, it is a woody or membra- thread to both futures or joinings of the valves. Thefe
nous capfule, divided into as many cells internally as plants have a watery, (harp, lixivia! tafte ; and are
there were partitions in the feed-bud. The feeds are ge- charged with a fixed alcaline fait, which is drawn from
generally folitary, fometimes angular, and fometimes them by burning, and being diftilled without any addi-
kidney-ftiaped.—Thefe plants are mucilaginous and lu- tion produces a volatile alcali. Moft of them have a
bricating. (linking fmell. With refpedl to their virtues, they are
38. Tricoccea, (from three, and x™*®- a grainy, diuretic, attenuating, deterlive, andantifcorbutic. Thefe
confifting of plants with a Angle three-cornered cap- qualities, however, are moft eminently pofFeffed by the
fule, having three cells or internal divifions, each con- live plants; w'hen dried, they either entirely difappear,
taining a Angle feed. The Angle feed-veflel of thefe or are greatly diminifhed. Applied externally, thefe
plants is of a Angular form, and refembles three cap- plants are ufeful in difeafes of the (kin, as the itch, le-
fules, which adhere to one common footftalk as a centre, profy, &c.
but are divided externally into three pretty deep parti- 40. Perfonatx, (from perfona, a mafque); confifting
tions. This family is not completely natural. It muft of a number of plants whofe flowers are furniftied with an
be obferved, however, that the charafter exprefled in irregular, gaping, or grinning petal, in figure fomewhat
the title is a ftriking one; and that tho’ the plants which refembling the fnout of an animal. This order furrtifhes
poflefs it are not connedled by fuqh numerous relations both herbaceous and woody vegetables of the (hrUb and
as to form a true natural afiemblage, yet they are by treekind. The roots are generally fibrous and branched,
that circumftance diftinguifhed from all other plants The ftems and branches are cylindric when young, ex-
with as great, nay greater facility, than by any artifi- cept in fome fpecies of figwort, in which they are
cial chara&er yet known. But all the genera of this fquare. The leaves are fimple, generally placed op-
order have not the ftriking chara&er juft mentioned. pofite in pairs at the bottom of the branches, but in
39. Siliquofje, (from Jiliqua a pod), confifting of many genera (land alternate towards the top. The
plants which have a pod for their feed-veflel. This flowers are univerfally hermaphrodite ; they proceed
order chiefly furnilhes biennial and perennial herbs of an either fingly or in clufters from the wings of the leaves,
irregular figure. The roots are long, branched, crooked, or terminate the branches in a fpike, panicle, or head,
and fibrous. In fome they are fucculent and flefliy, The calix is of one leaf, which is cut into two, three,
in others jointed. The ftems and young branches are four, or five fegments, or divifions, that are permanent,
cylindric. The leaves, which differ in point of form, The corolla is compofed of one irregular petal, with
beingfometimesfimple, fometimes winged, are generally two lips refembling, as was already obferved, the head
i3H
B O T
or fnout of an animal. In fome plants the ftamina are
two or four in number, and of an equal length ; in
others they are univerfally four in number, two of
which are long, and two fliort. The feed-bud is fingle,
and placed above the receptacle of the flower. The
ftyle is fingle; thread-fhaped ; bent in the direction of
the ftamina ; and crowned with a ftigma, which is ge¬
nerally blunt, and fometimes divided in two. The
feed-veffel is a capfule, generally divided internally into
two cavities or cells, and externally into the fame num¬
ber of valves or inclofures. The feeds are numerous,
and affixed to a receptacle in the middle of the cap¬
fule.—Thefe plants pofiefs nearly the fame qualities
with the lip-flowers, though in a lefs degree. With
refpedt to their virtues, many of them are aperient,
anodyne, purgative, and even emetic. The internal ufe
of many of them is extremely pernicious ; applied ex¬
ternally, they are anodyne, and powerful refolvents.
41. slfperifoliie, rough-leafed plants. The greateft
part of thefe are herbaceous and perennial. The roots
are branching and fibrous ; the Items and branches
rounded; the buds of a conic form, naked or with¬
out fcales. The leaves are fimple, alternate, commonly
very rough to the touch, and in moft of the herbaceous
plants feffile or attached to the Item and branches
without any foot-ftalk. In the few trees, however, of
this order, the leaves have a foot-ftalk, the lower part
of which, after the fall of the leaves, remains like a
fpine or thorn. The hairs are fimple, and generally
very rough to the touch. The flowers are in fome
genera folitary ; but commonly collefted into a fpike
or corymbus. They do not proceed from the angle
formed by the ftem or branch with the leaf, as in
many plants ; but from the fide of the leaf, or from
that part of the ftem which is oppofite to the leaf.
Theyarealmoft univerfally hermaphrodite: in a few fpe-
cies of cordia, male and female flowers are produced
upon different roots. The calix is compofed of one
leaf, which is divided from three to ten equal or unequal
parts. Thofe with four naked feeds have the calix
deeply divided into five parts which are permanent.
The corolla is monopetalous, or compofed of one pe¬
tal, which in different plants is bell, funnel, falver, and
wheel fhaped. The divifions of the limb or upper part
of the petal are generally five, alternate with thofe of
the calix ; equal and regular, except in echium. The
ftamina are five in number, alternate with the divifions
of the corolla. They are equal, attached to the tube
of the, corolla a little above its origin, and of the
fame height. The antherae are in fome genera conni-
vent; that is, approach, and form a compadt body
above the filaments. The piftillum is generally com¬
pofed of a flender ftyle of the fame length with the
ftamina, and crowned with a fimple ftigma. It pro¬
ceeds from a germen or feed-bud, which in fome plants
is undivided, but generally fplit into four. The feeds
are generally four in number, and lodged in the bot¬
tom of the calix.—Moft of the rough-leafed plants are
ufed in medicine : the flowers are efteemed cordial, the
leaves and roots vulnerary and aftringent; and the
hard bony feeds are reckoned powerful promoters of
urine. Externally, thefe plants are ufed for burnings and
poifonous bites ; they extirpate warts, and relieve dif-
orders of the Joins.
42. Verticillata, confifting of herbaceous vegetables,
any. Sea. vi.
having four naked feedg, and the flowers placed in
whorls round the ftalk. The roots are branched and
fibrous. The ftems are round when old, but fquare
when young ; as are likewife the young branches, which
ftand opofite. The leaves are oppofite, and in the
greater number covered with tranfparent points. Thofe
which are placed next the flower, generally differ from
the ftem-leaves. In the greater number of plants of
this kind, the leaves are fupported upon a long cylin¬
drical foot-ftalk that is furrowed above. The flowers
are univerfally hermaphrodite, except in a fpecies of
thyme mentioned by Mr Adanfon, which appears to
have male or barren flowers on one root, and female or
fertile flowers on the other. They are difpofed round
the ftem in whorls or fmall heads with (hort foot-ftalks.
The calix is of one piece, that is generally cut into five
unequal divifions, whofe difpofition fometimes reprefents
two lips ; the uppermoft of which has commonly a lefs
number of divifions: it accompanies the feeds, which it
nourifties in its bofom, to their maturity. The petal
is of the gaping or lip kind, and in the different ge¬
nera is more or lefs irregular or unequal, either in its
tube, or in the divifions of the lips ; the number of
which varies from two to five. Thefe divifions fre¬
quently form tv/olips ; of which the uppermoft, termed
the crejl and the helmet., is fometimes entire, fometimes
more or lefs deeply cut into two ; the lowermoft, termed
the heard, generally into three. The ftamina are two
or four in number. In the greater part there are four
ftamina of unequal length, two of them being long,
and two fliort. Thefe four unequal ftamina are fre¬
quently diffimilar, and approach by pairs; they are
inclined towards the back of the petal, and parallel;
the two innermoft being ftiorteft, and attached fome-
what lower than the two others to the tube of the
flower. The feed-bud, which confifts of four diftinft
ovaries, is placed upon the feat of the flower, and ele¬
vates from their centre a common ftyle, which is flen¬
der, bent in the fame manner as the filaments, which it
fomewhat exceeds in length, and terminated by a double
ftigma or fummit, the divifions of which are unequal,
and turned backwards. The feed-veffel in this order
is wanting. The leeds are four in number, and lodged
in the bottom of the calix as in a matrix or feed-veffel.
Each feed has two covers ; the one external, of a car¬
tilaginous or leathery fubftance ; the other internal,
membranaceous, of a very fine texture, and placed
immediately above the radicle or embryo plant.—The
plants of this order are fragrant, warm, penetrating,
and accounted cordial and cephalic. Their chief vir¬
tue refides in the leaves.
43. Dumofee, (from dumus a bufti) ; confifting of a
number of ffirubby plants, which are thick fet with ir¬
regular branches, and bufhy. The plants of this order
are all of the ftirub and tree kind, thick and buftiy,
rifing from 6 to 25, 30, and even 40 feet high. Many
of them too, as baftard (alaternus, holly, iron-wood,
New-Jerfey-tea, liar-apple, viburnum, winter-berry,
and fome others, retain their beautiful leaves during
the whole year. The roots are branched and fibrous.
The ftems are cylindric ; the young branches fometimes
angular. The buds are naked, that is, without fcales,
in the evergreen ftirubs of this order; covered with
fcales in moft of the others. The leaves, which in fome
genera are fimple, in others compound, are placed al¬
ternate
Sea. VI. B O T
ternate In fame, and oppofite in others. The flowers
are moftly hermaphrodite. They proceed from the
wings of the leaves either fingly or in clutters ; or they
terminate the ftem in that fort of flowering head called
a corymbus. The calix is generally very fmall, placed
below or around the feed-bud ; and confifts of one
leaf, with four, five, or fix divifions, which are per¬
manent. The rhamnus has no calix. The petals are
in number from one to five. The ftamina are either
four, five, fix, or ten. The feed-bud is generally
roundifh, and placed within the flower. The ftyle is
commonly fingle, and forpetimes wanting. The ftigma
is either fingle or triple. The feed-veffel is generally
a berry, fometimes a dry capfule ; the feeds are gene¬
rally fingle and egg-fhaped. The berries, bark, and
flowers of many of thefe plants are purgative, and aft
particularly on the lymph and bile.
44. Sepiaria, (from Jcpes a hedge), confifting of a
beautiful colleftion of woody plants, feme of which
from their fize, elegance, and other circumftances, are
very proper furniture for hedges. This order furniflies
woody plants both of the flirub and tree kind, moft of
which do not drop their leaves till nearly the time when
the new leaves begin to appear.
45. Umbellate, (from umbella an umbel); confift¬
ing of plants whofe flowers grow in umbels, with five
petals that are often unequal, and two naked feeds
that are joined at top and feparated below. Thefe
plants are herbaceous, and chiefly perennial. The
roots are either tuberous or fpindle-lhaped, and fome-
time's forked. The Items are cylindric, full of pitch,
and frequently hollow. The branches are alternate.
The leaves, which like the branches are put on alter¬
nately, are very different in point of form ; being Ample
and entire in fome ; target-fhaped, in a fpecies of na¬
vel-wort ; finger or hand ftiaped, in fome others ; and
winged or pinnated with numerous minute divifions,
as in the greater number. They are fupported by a
foot-ftalk, which is very broad and membranous at its
origin, and commonly embraces the whole contour of
the ftem and branches. The flowers are in general
hermaphrodite. There are, however, fome that have
male or barren flowers in the fame umbel. This is parti¬
cularly the cafe with thofe umbelliferous plants which
have the petals in the flowers of the circumference large
and unequal. In thefe plants the flowers in the cir¬
cumference only prove fertile ; thofe-in the centre, or
dife, proving abortive. Oenanthe and imperatoria, on
the contrary, have the flowers in the circumference
abortive. In ginfeng, hermaphrodite and male flowers
are produced upon diftinft plants. The flowers are
difpofed in an umbel, which is either Ample or com¬
pound. The common calix in this order is that fort
termed very improperly by Linnaeus involucrum, or
the flower-cover ; which in the greater number con¬
fifts of one or more leaves placed under the partial or
univerfal umbel, or both, for the purpofe of fupport.
The prefence or abfence of one or both of thefe covers
affords excellent marks in diferiminating the genera of
this very fimilar order of plants. The proper calix of
each flower, in the aggregate, confifts of five minute in-
dentments placed upon the feed-bud, which it enve¬
lops,^and accompanies to its maturity. The petals are
five in number, and difpofed upon the fides of the
flower-cup in form of a rofe. In the florets of the
ANY.
centre, the petals are generally pretty equal and fmall;
in thofe of the circumference, they are frequently un¬
equal and larger; in the greater number, they are heart-
fliaped, and cut almoft to the middle in two. The
ftamina are five in number, placed oppofite to the di¬
vifions of the flower-cup, and alternate with the petals.
The feed-bud is univerfally placed under the feat of the
flower, and fupports two ftyles which are turned back¬
wards, and crowned with Ample fummits which do not
differ in appearance from the ftyles. The feed-veffel
in this order is wanting. The feeds are two in num¬
ber, which, when ripe, feparate below, but remain
clofely attached at top. The plants of this order, which
grow in dry places, are fudorific, ftomachic, and warm¬
ing. Their virtue refides chiefly in the feeds and leaves.
Thofe which grow in marfhy places are generally poi-
fonous ; but, notwithftanding the extremely warm and
even cauftic quality of moft of thefe plants, many of
them are employed in the kitchen, and in the oeconomy
of domeftic affairs.
46. Hederaceoe, (from hedera ivy), confifting of ivy
and a few other genera that feem nearly allied to it.
This order furnifties both herbaceousandfhrubbyplants;
moft of which, particularly ivy and vine, have creeping
branches, which attach themfelves by roots or tendrils
to the bodies in their neighbourhood. The roots are
long, with few branches. The ftems and young bran¬
ches are cylindric. In fome fpecies of vine they are
fquare. The leaves are alternate ; fometimes Ample,
fometimes winged, in which the furface of the leaves is
covered with points. The foot-ftalk of the leaves is cy¬
lindrical, and without any furrow. The buds are of a
conic form, and without any feales. The flowers are
either hermaphrodite, male and female upon different
roots, or hermaprodite and male upon different roots.
In fome, they terminate the branches in an umbel; in
others, they proceed in clufters from the fide oppofite
to the leaves; and in fome, they are produced a-
long the branches. The calix confifts of one leaf
divided into five parts, which are fmall and generally
permanent. The petals in this order are generally five.
The ftamina are in number five ; awl-ftiaped, eredt, and
generally of the length of the petals. Ciffus has only
four ftamina, which are inferted into the nedlarium, a
fort of border furrounding the feed-bud. The anther*
are roundifh, and fometimes, as in ivy, attached to the
filaments by the fides. The feed-bud is fometimes
round, fometimes ftiaped like a top or pear, and ends
in one, two, or five awl-ftiaped ftyles, which arecrowned
with a fimple ftigma. The flowers of the vine have no
ftyle. The feed-veffel is of the berry kind, with onr,
two, or five ftyles. The feeds are from one to five in
number; placed either in diftindl cells, or difperfed
through the pulp without any partition.
47. Stellate, (from Jiella a ftar) ; confifting of plants
with two naked feeds, and leaves difpofed round the
ftem in form of a radiant ftar. This order contains,
herbs, fhrubs, and trees. The herbs, which are mofl
numerous, are chiefly annual, and creep along the fin-
face of the ground. The ftirubs and trees are moftly
evergreens, which rife ere6I, and are of an agreeable
conic form.—Thefe plants are opening ; fome of their
feeds, particularly thofe of coffee, are bitter and cordial ;
fome of them are ufed in dyeing, and others in medi¬
cine.
48.
1316
B O T
4S. Aggregate, (from aggregate, to affemble or col-
left); comprehending thofeplants which have aggregate
flowers, confifting of a number of florets or fmall flowers,
each of which have a proper and common calix.
49. Compofitx, confifting of plants with compound
flowers. In this order Linnaeus has conftrufted his
firft or primary divifions from the different fexes of the
florets, which he terms polygamy', the fubaltern divi¬
fions are conftru&ed from the figure of the petals, the
difpofition of the flowers, the pappus or crown of the
feed, the common receptacle, and other circumftances
which chara&erize the fubaltern divifions in other au¬
thors.
50. Amentacene, (from amentum a catkin), plants
bearing catkins; as falix, populus, platanus, &c.
51. Conifer#, (from conus a cone, and fero to bear);
confifting of plants, whofe female flowers, placed at a
diftance from the male, either on the fame or diftindt
roots, are formed into a cone. In this character, the
only one expreffed in the title, the plants in queftion
feem to be nearly allied to the family of moffes; from
which, however, they are eafily diftinguiftied by their
habit, as well as by the ftrufture of the fmall flowers,
in which the ftamina are united below into a cylinder,
and diftinft at top. The plants of this order are moftly
of the ftirub and tree kind, and retain their leaves all
the year. The form of thefe plants is generally conic,
and extremely beautiful, from the difpofition of the
branches, which cover the ftems even to the roots, ex¬
tending themfelves horizontally and circularly like fo
many rays. The height of fome genera of this order
does not exceed half a foot, that of others approaches
to a hundred. The roots are fhort, branching, not very
fibrous, and extend horizontally. The ftems and
branches are cylindric. The bark is thin, and fplit into
flender fcales. The wood, except that of the yew-tree,
poffeffes little hardnefs. The buds are of a conic form,
and naked, or without fcales. The leaves are entire,
fmall, and thick, frequently triangular, and generally
pointed. Juniper has a prickly and thorny leaf. With
refpe6t to fituation, they admit of great variety, being
either alternate, oppofite, placed in whirls round the
Item, or colleited into fmall bundles which proceed
from a Angle point. They are placed on the branches
without any fenfible footftalk. The flowers in this or¬
der are univerfally male and female. In fome genera,
the male flowers are collefled into a fpike or cone at
the end of the branches; in others, they proceed fingly
from the wings of the leaves, or termination of the
branches. The female flowers are generally collefted
into a cone; but in yew-tree and Ihrubby horfe-tail
they are Angle, and terminate the branches. The ca¬
lix of the male flowers is a catkin ; of the female, a
cone. The petals of this order are wanting; except in
the female flowers of juniper, which have three fliarp,
rigid, and permanent petals. The ftamina are in num¬
ber from 3 to 20 and upwards; united by their fila¬
ments into a cylinder or pillar, which rifes out of the
centre of the calix. The antherse are ereft, diftimft,
of a roundilh form, and divided into internal partitions
or cells, which, in the different genera, are in number
from two to ten. The feed-buds are generally nume¬
rous, and placed betwixt the fcales of the cone, which
ferve for a calix. From each feed-bud arifes a very
fhort cylindrical ftyle, crowned with a Ample ftigma,
A N Y* Se&. VI,
of a conic form. Thefe plants have probably no feed-
veffel or fruit; the feeds being naked, and involved only
by the fcales of the calix. In fome genera, thefe fcales
are of a bony nature, and almoft united; in others, they
are of a fubftance like leather ; in juniper, they are uni¬
ted, and become flefliy and fucculent like a berry. The
feeds in this order, being nourifhed, as in a feed-veffel,
by the fcales of the cone, or common calix, differ in no¬
thing from the germina or feed-buds.—Moft of the
cone-bearing plants are refinous, or gummy; and the
gums proceeding from them have a bitter tafte, but ge¬
nerally a very agreeable fmell.
52. Coadunatx, (from coadunare, to join or gather
together); fo termed from the general appearance of
the feed-veffels, which are numerous, and, being flight!/
attached below, form all together a Angle fruit in the
ftiape of a fphere or cone; the parts of which, however,
are eafily feparated from one another. This order, which
confifts of exotic plants, furnifties a beautiful and choice
colleftion of flirubs and trees, both evergreen and deci¬
duous. The trees are often 60 feet high, and garnifhed
from the bottom to the top with fpreading branches
and leaves of a bright green colour, which affume a very
agreeable conic form. The roots are branching and
fibrous. The ftems are cylindric, and the wood very
hard. The buds are conic, flat, and generally without
fcales. The leaves are univerfally Ample and alternate.
The footftalk is cylindric, without furrows, frequently
fwelled at its origin, and appears jointed at its infertion
into the branch. The flowers are hermaphrodite, and
are generally produced either along or at the end of
the branches. The calix generally confifts of three ob¬
long plain lea ves, like petals, which fall off with the
flower. The petals arc in number from 6 to 18, ob¬
long, concave, and frequently difpofed in two or three
feries or rows, the outermoft of which are largeft.
The ftamina are numerous, ftiort, and inferted into the
common receptacle in fome, and into the feed-bud in
others. The filaments are very fliort and flender, fome
genera having fcarce any at all. The antherae are nu¬
merous, flender, and placed round the feed-bud. The
piftillum generally confifts of a number of feed-buds
difpofed in the form of a cone, and feated upon a recep¬
tacle wduch rifes like a fmall pillar above the receptacle
of the calix. From each feed-bud generally arifes a cy¬
lindric ftyle, which is yery ftiort. The ftigma is com¬
monly blunt. The feed-veffel is commonly a berry;
but in magnolia it is an oval cone, confifting of a num¬
ber of roundifh capfules laid over each other like tiles.
The fruits, or feed-veffels, whether of the berry, cap-
fule, or cherry kind, are equal in number to the feed-
buds, and generally flightly attached below. The feeds
arc numerous, hard, roundifti, and fometimes cornered.
The plants of this order have a ftrong, agreeable, and
aromatic fmell; the fruits and feeds have a pungent
tafte like pepper; the bark and wood are bitter.
53. Scabrid#, (from fcaber rough, rugged,or briftly),
confifting of plants with rough leaves. There feems to
be fome impropriety in charadterizing thefe plants by
a name exprellive of the roughnefs of their leaves, as
that circumftance had previoufly furniftied the claflic
charadler of the Afperifolia. The degree of roughnefs,
however, is much greater in the plants which make the
fubjedl of the prefent article.—The plants of this or¬
der are in general of an aftringent nature; their tafte
I3I7
Sea. VI, B O T
is bitter and ftyptic.
54. Mifcellanea, mifcdlanee»iis plants. This order
contifts of fitch genera as are not connefled together
by very numerous relations. They are, dattfca, pote-
rium, refeda, fanguiforba, lemna, piftia, coriaria, em-
petrum, achyranthes, amaranthus, celofia, gomphrena,
irefine, phytolacca, nymphaea, farracenia, cedrela, fwie-
tenia, corrigiola, limeum, telephium,
55. Filices, ferns; confifting of plants which bear
their flower and fruit on the back of the leaf or (talk.
Thefe plants, in figure, approach the more perfect ve¬
getables ; being furnifhed, like them, with roots and
leaves. The roots creep, and extend themfelves hori¬
zontally under the earth, throwing out a number of
very flender fibres on all fides. The item is not to
be diftinguifhed from the common footftalk, or rather
middle rib of the leaves: fo that in ftrift propriety the
greater number of ferns may be faid to be acaules ; that
is, to want the ftem altogether. In fome of them, how¬
ever, the middle rib, or a ftalk proceeding from the
root, overtops the leaves, and forms a ftem upon which
the flowers are fupported. The leaves proceed either
fingly, or in greater numbers from the extremities of
the branches of the main root. They are winged or
hand-fhaped in all the genera, except in adders-tongue,
pepper-grafs, and fome fpecies cf fpleen-wort. The
flowers, whatever be their nature, are, in the greater
number of genera, faftened, and as it were glued, to
the back of the leaves ; in others, they are fupported
upon a ftem which rifes above the leaves ; but in fome,
are fupported on a flovver-ftalk, as already mentioned.
The ftamina are placed apart from the feed-bud in a ge¬
nus termed by Mr Adanfan palma filix ; in the other
ferns, where we have been able to difcover the ftamina,
they are found within the fame covers with the feed-
bud. Moft of the ferns have a heavy difagreeable fmell:
as to their virtues, they are opening and attenua-
ting.
56. Mufa, mofles. Thefe plants refemble the pines,
firs, and other evergreens of that clafs, in the form
and difpofition of their leaves, and manner of growth of
the female flowers, which are generally formed into a
cone. They frequently creep, and extend themfelves
like a carpet upon the ground, trees, and ftones, being
generally colledled into bunches and tufts; the fmalleft
are only one third of an inch in height, and the lar-
geft do not exceed five or fix. Few of the mofles are
annual; fmall as they are, the greater number are per¬
ennial and evergreens. Their growth is-remarkably
flow, as may be judged by the time that the anthers
take to ripen. This, reckoning from the firft appear¬
ance of the anthers, to the difperfion of its powder or
male duft, is generally four or fix months. Although
preferved dry for feveral years, thefe plants have the An¬
gular property of refuming their qriginal verdure, upon
being moiftened. It would be worth while to determine
whether they do not alfo refume their vegetative quality.
The roots of plants of this order are fibrous, flender,
branched, and (hort. The ftems are cylindric and weak,
as are alfo the branches; they creep upon the ground,
and ftrike root on every fide. The leaves are very fmall
and undivided. They differ with refpeft to fituation;
being either alternate, oppofite, or placed by fours round
the ftalk. They have no perceptible footftalk nor middle
Von. II.
A N Y.
rib, and are feated immediately upon the ftem. The
flowers are univerfally male and female: in fome, the
male flowers are produced upon the fame plants with
the female, and ftand before them ; in others, they are
produced fometimes on the fame, and fometimts on di-
ftindl plants. The male flowers confift entirely of an¬
thers, and their covering; proceed either fingly, or in
clufters, from the extremity of the branches, or angles
of the leaves; and are either feated immediately upon
the branches, or fupported by a long footftalk. The
female flowers, which generally refemble capfules or
cones, are all placed immediately upon the ftem or
branches, without any footftalk; and proceed fingly,
either from the wings of the leaves, or fummit of the
branches; when produced upon the fame plant with the
male, they are always placed under them. The female
cones of the moffes greatly refemble thofe of the pines,
and evergreen trees of that clafs; the feales which form
them are true leaves, each containing in its wing or
angle a fingle feed. When the feeds are ripe, the cones
probably open for their difperfion. When fliut, they
refemble buds, and have fometimes been ignorantly mi-
ftaken for fuch. The calix, in this order, if it can be
called fuch, is that appearance refembling a veil or
monk’s cawl, which in the male flowers covers or is
fufpended over the tops of the ftamina like an extin-
guiftier, and is termed by Linnaeus calyptra. The pe¬
tals are univerfally wanting. The moffes in general are
almoft taftelefs, have few juices, and being once dried
do not readily imbibe moifture from the air. Thofe
which grow in water, being thrown into the fire, grow
red, and are reduced to allies without receiving or com¬
municating any flame ; on which account fome fuper-
ftitious people, the Siberians in particular, place water
mofs in their chimnies as a prefervative againft fire.
Moft of the moffes are purgative ; fome violently fo,
and even emetic. They are all of wonderful efficacy in
preferving dry fuch bodies as are fufceptible of moi¬
fture ; and in retaining, for a long time, the humidity
of young plants without expofing them to putrefa&ion.
For this reafon, fuch plants as are to be fent to any
confiderable diftance, are generally wrapped up in
them.
57. Alga^ flags; confifting of plants whofe root,
leaf, and ftem, are all one. Under this defeription are
comprehended all the fea-weeds, and fome other aqua¬
tic plants.
58. Fungi, mulhrooms. Thefe plants are rarely
branched, fometimes creeping, but moft commonly e-
reft. Such as are furnilhed with branches have them
of a light fpongy fubftance like cork. Mulhrooms
differ from the fuci, in that thofe which, like the fuci,
have their feeds contained in capfules, are not branch¬
ed, as that numerous clafs of fea-weeds are. The
greateft part of mulhrooms have no root; fome, inftead
of roots, have a number of fibres, which, by their in-
ofculations, frequently form a net with unequal mefhes,
fome of which produce plants fimilar to their parent
vegetable. The ftamina in thefe plants are ftill unde¬
termined. The feeds are fpread over the furface of the
plant, or placed in open holes or cavities, refembling
the open capfules of fome of the fuci. In muftirooms
which are branched, the feeds are frequently vifible by
the naked eye, and always to be diftin&ly obferved by
.8 D the
I3l8
B O T
the affiftanee of a good tnicrofcope. Thefe plants are
very aftringent, and fome of them are ufed for ftopping
violent hasmorrhages. As a vegetable food, they are at
beft fufpicious: fome of them are rank poifon.
59. Dubii ordinis. Under this name Linnaeus glafles
ANY. Sea. VI.
all the other genera which cannot be reduced to any of
the abovementioned orders, and which are near 120 in
number.— In the following Table, the number placed at
the end of each generic defcription points out the na¬
tural order to which the genus belongs.
TABLE
B O T
Batargo BOTARGO.'a kind of faufage, made with the eggs
Eotile anc^ of the mullet, a large filh common in the Me-
0 diterranean. The heft kind comes from Tunis in Bar¬
bary : It muft be chofen dry and reddifh. The people
of Provence ufe a great deal of it, the common way of
eating it being with olive oil and lemon juice. There
is alfo a great confumption of it throughout the Le¬
vant.
BOTE, (Sax.), fignifies a recompence, fatisfa&ion,
or amends: hence comes manbote, compenfation or a-
mends for a man (lain, &c. In king Ina’s laws is de¬
clared what rate was ordained for expiation of this of¬
fence, according to the quality of the perfon flain.
From hence likewife we have our common phrafe, to-
boot, i. e. compenfationis gratia. There are houfe-bote,
plough-bote, See. privileges to tenants in cutting of wood,
See.
BOTELESS, (fine remedio). In the charter of
Hen. I. to Tho. archbifhop of York, it is faid, “ that no
judgment, or fum of money, (hall acquit him that com¬
mits facrilege; but he is in Englith called bctelefs, viz.
without emendation.” We retain the word dill in com¬
mon fpeech: as, It is booilefs to attempt fuch a thing;
that is, It is in vain to attempt it.
BOTH (John and Andrew), Flemifh painters, and
pupils of Bloemart. The union of thefe brothers was
very Angular; they were infeparable in their ftudies,
travels, and paintings. John painted the landfcape part
of their pi&ures in the manner of Lorrain, and Andrew
the figures and animals in the ftyle of Bamboche. They
both died in 1650. John’s tafte in landfcape is ele¬
gant ; his ideas are grand ; his compofition beautiful;
and his execution rich and majlerly in the higheft de¬
gree. His light is not always well diftributed; but his
figures are excellent. It is to be regretted that we have
not more of his works; for they are certainly, upon the
whole, among the bed landfcapes we have.
BOTHNIA, a province of Sweden, at the end of
the gulph of the fame name. It is divided into two
parts called eajl and ive/l Bothnia, the former of which
belongs to Finland. Wed Bothnia is full of mountains;
the earth is fandy, and yet a fcarcity of provifions is
feldom known. Cattle and game are fo common, fal-
mon and a fort of herrings fo plenty, and the trade of
(kins is fo gainful, that the inhabitants can command
what they want from their neighbours. There are only
two towns worth mentioning, viz. Tornea and Uma.
The inhabitants of this province are Protedants; and
are a civil well-behaved people.
BOTT, among bone-lace weavers, a kind of round
cudiion of light matter placed on the knee, whereon
they work or weave their lace with bobbins, &c.
Bott, in zoology. See Botts.
BOTTLE, a veffel proper to contain liquors, made
of leather, glafs, or done. There are bottles of boiled
leather which are made and fold by the cafe-makers.
Thofe amongd the ancient Hebrews were generally
made of goat-fldn, with the hair on the infide, well
pitched and fewed together ; the mouth of the bottle
was through the animal’s paw that furnidied the matter
of it.
There are now in ufe bottles of fine glafs, which are
commonly covered with ofier'; and others of thick glafs,
which are not covered. Formerly all thefe bottles made
in France held exaftly a pint Paris meafure, (about a
B O T
quart of EnglHh wine meafure); but fince the tavern- Hottem,
keepers fell mod of their wine in fuch bottles, notwith- Bottomry,
danding an ordinance to the contrary, fo that one would " 7.
think the glafs-makers had entered into an agreement
with them not to make any bottles that hold the full
meafure, there are none but hold lefs, and fome confi-
derably fo.
Hr Percival cautions againd the pradh'ce of cleaning
of wine-bottles with leaden (hot. It frequently hap¬
pens (bethinks), through inattention, that fome of the
little pellets are left behind; and when wine or beer is
again poured into the bottles, this mineral poifon will
flowly difiblve, and impregnate thofe vinous liquors with
its deleterious qualities. The fweetnefs which is fome-
times perceived in red port wine, may arife from thi*
caufe, when fuch an adulteration is neither defigned
nor fufpe&ed.
BOTTOM, in a general fenfe, denotes the lowed
part of a thing, in contradidin&ion to the top or up-
permod part.
Bottom, in navigation, is ufed to denote as well the
channel of rivers and harbours, as the body or hull of
a (hip. Thus, in the former fenfe, we fay, a gravelly
bottom, clayey bottom, fandy bottom. Sec. and in the lat¬
ter fenfe, a Britifh bottom, a Dutch bottom. Sec.—By
datute, certain commodities imported in foreign bot¬
toms pay a duty called petty cufloms, over and above
what they are liable to if imported in Britifh bottoms.
BOTTOMRY, in commerce, (a pra&ice which o-
riginally arofe from permitting the mader of a (hip in Comment.
a foreign country to hypothecate the fliip in order to
raife money to refit), is in the nature of a mortgage of
a (hip; when the owner takes up money to enable him
to carry on his voyage, and pledges the keel or bot¬
tom of the (hip (pars pro toto) as a fecurity for the re¬
payment. In which cafe it is underdood, that if the
(hip be lod, the lender lofes alfo his whole money; but
if it return in fafety, then he (hall receive back his prin¬
cipal, and alfo the premium or intered agreed upon,
however it may exceed the legal rate of intered. And
this is allowed to be a valid contraft in all trading na¬
tions, for the benefit of commerce, and by reafon of
the extraordinary hazard run by the lender. And in
this cafe, the (hip and tackle, if brought home, are an-
fwerable (as well as the perfon of the borrower) for
the money lent. But if the loan is not upon the veffel,
but upon the goods and merchandize, which mud ne-
cefiarily be fold or exchanged in the courfe of the
voyage, then only the borrower, perfonally, is bound,
to anfwer the contraft; who therefore, in this cafe, is
faid to take up the money at refpondentia. Thefe terms,
are alfo applied to contrads for the repayment of mo¬
ney borrowed, not on the (hip and goods only, but on
the mere hazard of the voyage itfelf; when a man lend^
a merchant 1000/. to be employed in a beneficial trade*
with condition to be repaid with extraordinary intered*
in cafe fuch a voyage be fafely performed: which kind
of agreement is fometimes called faenus nauticum, and(
fometimes ufura maritima. But as this gave an open¬
ing for ufurious and gaming contra&s, efpecially upon
long voyages, it was enadted by the datute 19 Geo. IT.
c. 37. that all monies lent on bottomry, or at refpon¬
dentia, on veflels bound to or from the Ead Indies*
(hall be exprefsly lent only upon the (hip, or upon the;
merchandize; that the lender (hall have the benefit of
8 D 2 falvage;
[ I3'9 1
B O T [ 1320 ] B O T
Bottony falvage; and that if the borrower has not on board ef-
Botts t0 t^ic va^ue l^e ^um korrowed> re'
° s* fponfible to the lender for fo much of the principal as
hath not been laid out, with legal intereft and all other
charges, though the flu'p and merchandize be totally
loft.
BOTTONY. A crofs bottony, in heraldry, termi¬
nates at each end in three buds, knots, or buttons, re-
fembling, in fome meafure, the three-leaved grafs; on
which account Segoing, in his T'ref&r Heraldique, terms
it croix trefflee. It is the badge of the order of St Mau¬
rice. See Heraldry Plates.
BOTTRIGARO (Hercole), a perfon eminently
Ikiiled in the fcience of mufic, though not a mufician
by profeffion. He was a man of rank in Bologna; and
appears, from feveral letters to him that have been print¬
ed, to have had the title of count. He publifhed feve¬
rs! controverfial pieces on the fubje& of mufic. It feems
that he entertained ftrong prejudices in favour of the
ancient mufic ; and that he attempted, as Vincentino
and others had done, to introduce the chromatic ge¬
nus into pra&ice, but with no better fuccefs than had
attended the endeavours of others. He corredled Go-
gavino’s Latin verfion of Ptolemy in numberlefs *in-
ftances; and that to fo good a purpofe, that Dr Wallis
has in general conformed to it in that tranflation of the
fame author which he gave to the world many years
after. He alfo tranflated into Italian Boetius d; Mu-
Jica, and as much of Plutarch and Macrobius as relates
to rauuc: befides this, he made annotations upon Ari-
ftoxenus, Franchinus, Spataro, Vicentino, Zarlino, and
Galiflei; and, in fhort, on almoft every mufical trea-
t-ife he could lay his hands on, as appears by the copies
which were once his own, and are now repofited in
many libraries in Italy. Of Bottrigaro’s works it is
laid, that they contain greater proofs of his learning
and Ikill in mufic, than of his abilities as a writer, his
ftyle being remarkably inelegant: neverthelefs, he af-
fe&ed the charafter of a poet; and there is extant a
colle&ion of poems by him, in 8vo, printed in 1557.
t Mufical Walther j- reprefents him as an able mathematician.
Lexicon. anc] a collector of rarities; and fays that he was poflef-
fed of a cabinet, which the emperor Ferdinand II. had
a great defire to purchafe. He died in 1609.
BOTTS, in zoology, a fpecies of worms which can
be produced and nouriftied only in the inteftines of a
horfe. It is there alone they can enjoy the proper tem¬
perature of heat, and receive the nourilhment neceflary
for them.
Befides the long worms which have been obferved in
idie bodies of horfes, there are alfo fhort ones.—By
thefe are to be undc-rftood what we call botts.
All authors, both ancient and modern, who have
treated of the difeafes of horfes, have taken notice of
tshefe worms; but M. Valifnieri is the firft who has tra¬
ced them to the laft ftage of their transformation, and
has feen them change into a hairy kind of fly like the
drone.
The flies from which thefe botts are produced inha¬
bit the country, and do not come near houfes, at leaft
not near thofe of great towns; and therefore horfes are
never liable to have thefe worms (/. e. botts) in their
bodies, if they have been kept in the houfe, efpecially
in a town, during the fummer and autumn.
It is in the former of thefe feafons, and perhaps too
in the beginning of the latter, that the females of thefe Bottr.
flies apply themfelves to the anus of horfes, and en-  
deavour to gain admittance, in order there to depofit
their eggs, or perhaps their worms.
The precife initant of their entrance will fcarce ad¬
mit of an eye-witnefs, but by the mereft chance ; yet
M. Vallifnieri fays, that Dr Gafpari had attained this
very uncommon light. The Do&or (he tells us) was
one day looking at his mares in the field ; and from be¬
ing very quiet, he obferved, that on a fudden they be¬
came very rdllefs, and ran about in great agitation,
prancing, plunging, and kicking, with violent motions
of their tails. He concluded, that thefe extraordinary
effedts were produced by fome fly buzzing about them,
and endeavouring to fettle upon the anus of one of
them; but the fly not being able to fucceed, he obfer¬
ved it to go oft’ with lefs noife than before, towards a
mare that was feeding at a’diftance from the reft; and
now the fly taking a more effedtual method to obtain
its defign, palfed under the tail of the mare, and fo
made its way to the anus. Here at firft it occafioned
only an itching, by which the inteftine was protruded
with an increafed aperture of the anus; the fly taking
the advantage of this, penetrated further, and feeured¬
it fe If in the fold of the inteftine:—this effedted, it was
in a fituation proper for laying its eggs. Soon af¬
ter this, the mare became very violent, running about,
prancing, and kicking, and throwing herfelf on the
ground; in Ihort, was not quiet, nor returned to feed¬
ing, till after a quarter of an hour.
The fly then, vve fee, can find means of depofiting its
eggs, or perhaps its worms (/. e. botts), in the funda¬
ment of the horfe; which once effedlcd, it has done all
that is neceflary for them. If thefe bott worms are not
hatched when firft depofited in the horfe, but are then
only eggs, it will not be long before it happens, from
the nutritive heat they there receive.
Thefe bott worms foon make their way into the in-
teftines of the horfe : they occupy fuch parts of this
region, as are to them moft convenient; and fometimes
(as we fhall fee prefently) they penetrate even to the
ftomach. All the hazard they appear to be expofed
to, is that of being carried away from the places they
have fixed on by the excrement, which may feem likely
to drive all before it. But nature has provided for all
things; and when we (hall have further deferibed thefe
bott worms, it will be feen that they are able to main¬
tain their fituation, and to remain in the body of the
horfe, as long as they plsafe.
There is a time when thefe bott worms are of them¬
felves defirous to leave this their habitation, it being no
longer convenient for them after the purpofes of their
growth are anfwered. Their transformation to a fly
muft be performed out of the horfe’s body: and accord-
ingly, when the time of their transformation draws near,
they approach towards the anus of the horfe; and then
leave him of their own accord, or with the excrement,
with which they then fuffer themfelves to be carried a-
long.
According to Mr de Reaumur’s obfervations, the
bott worms have two unequal claw's, by which they are
enabled to remain in the inteftines of the horfe in op-
pofition to all efforts of the excrement to force them
out.—Thefe claws are a fort of anchor, differently dif-
pofed from thofe of common anchors, but contrived to
pro-
B O T [ 1321 j B O U
Sous, produce the fame effeft. Befiues thefe two daws, na-
Botwar. twre ijas given them a very great number of triangular
fpines or briftles, very fufficient to arm them againft
the coats of the inteftines, and to refift the force em¬
ployed to drive them towards the anus, provided the
head be direded towards the ftomach of the horfe.
It will be alked, no doubt, if thefe bott worms are
not dangerous to herfes ?—The mares which afforded
Mr de Reaumur, for feveral years, thofe on which he
made his obfervations, did not appear to be lefs in
health than thofe which had none; but it may fome-
times happen, that they are in fo great a quantity in
the body of the horfe as to prove fatal to him. M.
Vallifnieri fuppofes thefe bott-worms to have been the
caufe of an epidemical difeafe that deflroyed a great
many horfes about Verona and Mantua in the year 1713.
—The obfervations communicated to him by Dr Gaf-
pari fufficiently confirm his fuppofition. This gentle¬
man, upon differing fome horfes that died of this dif-
temper, found in their flomachs a furprifing quantity
of fhort worms ; of which to give us fome idea, he
compares them to the kernels of a pomegranate opened:
each of thefe, by gnawing on the coat of the ftomach,
had made for itfelf a kind of cellule therein, each of
which would eafily contain a grain of Indian wheat. It
is eafy to imagine by this means the ftomach muft be
reduced to a wretched condition ; the outer membranes
were inflamed, and the inner ones ulcerated and cor¬
rupted ; a very fmall quantity of thefe worms were found
in the fmall inteftines, and only a few in the larger, to
which laft they were found affixed, but had not corro¬
ded them. It is only perhaps when thefe bott worms
are in great numbers, and thereby incommode each o-
tber in the inteftines of the horfe, that they make their
way towards the ftomach ; and indeed a very few flies
muft be enough to overftock the infide of a horfe, pro¬
vided they fbould depofit all their eggs, and fuch fliould
all be animated, M. Vallifnieri having counted 700 and
odd in the body of one fingle fly.
When one of thefe bolts has left the anus of the
horfe, it falls on the ground; and immediately feeks out
for fome place of fafety, where it may retire, to pre¬
pare for the laft ftage of its transformation, by which it
is to become a fly. And now by degrees the fkin har¬
dens and thickens; and at length forms a folid fhell or
cod, the form of which fcarce differs from that of the
worm. It is firft of a pale red colour, which changes
into chefnut; and at length, by the addition of gra¬
dual and fuccelfive (hades of brown, the (hell is rendered
black. The worm or bott, before it paffes into a
nymph, is of the form of an oblong ball; it remains in
this form much longer than worms of the fle(h fly kind.
M. de Reaumur met with worms that retained this fi¬
gure five or fix days; as yet, one can perceive no traces
of the legs, wings, and head of the nymph. Hence
he firft learned, that thofe bott worms do not become
nymphs immediately upon their firft change; but that,
in order to become flies, they muft undergo one change
more than caterpillars ordinarily do to become butter¬
flies.
For the cure of horfes troubled with botts, fee Far-
RtERY, § XV.
BOTWAR, a town of Germany, in the circle of
Suabia, and fubject to the duke of Wirtemberg. E.
Long. 9. 15. N. Lat. 49. Q.
BOTZENBURG, a town of Germany, in the duchy Botzenburg-
or Mecklenburg. It had a caftle, which was deftroyed II.
by the Danes in 1202. It is feated on the Elbe, and °llgie'
the veffels that pafs by are obliged to pay a confider-
able toll. E. Long. xo. 48. N. Lat. 53. 34.
BOVA, an epifcopal town of Italy, in the kingdom
of Naples, feated near the Apennine mountains. E.
Long. 16. 15. N. Lat. 37. 15.
BOUGH A IN, a fortified town of the French Ne¬
therlands, in the province of Hainault. It is divided
into two parts by the river Scheld. It was taken by
the French in 1676; and by the allies under the duke
of Marlborough in 1711, which was the laft military
atchievement of that great general; but the following
year it was retaken by the French. E. Long. 3. 15.
N. Lat. 50. 17.
BOUCHE of court, the privilege of having meat
and drink at court fcotfree. This privilege is fome-
timesonly extended to bread, beer, and wine; and was
anciently in ufe as well in the houfes of noblemen, as
in the king’s court.
BOUCHET (John), a French poet and hiftorian,
flouriflied in the id'1' century. The moft confiderable
of his writings are the Annals of Aquitaine,, and his
Chapelet des Princes.
BOUDRY, a fmall town of Swifferland, in the pro¬
vince of Neufchatel, and capital of a chatelainry of the
fame name. E. Long. 7. 5. N. Lat. 47. 11.
BOUFLERS (Lewis Francis, duke of), a peer and
marlhal of France, was horn in 1644. He diftinguilhed
himfelf by his valour and conduit in feveral fieges and
battles, and had the command of the right wing when
the French were defeated at the bloody battle of Mal-
plaquet. He died at Fountainbleau in 1711.—Marftial
Bonders, his fon, died at Genoa, after having delivered
that republic.
BOUGEANT (William Hyacinth), a famous Je-
fuit, firft taught humanity at Caen and Nevers, and
afterwards fettled at the college of Lewis the Great,
where he employed himfelf in writing feveral works;
the principal of which were, 1. A colle&ion of phyfi-
cal obfervations, extracted from the heft authors. 2. An
hiftory of the wars and negociations which preceded
the treaty of Weitphalia. 3. The female do&or, a
philofophical amufement on the language of heads, &c.
He died in 1 743.
BOUGH, denotes much the fame with branch.—
Green boughs anciently made part of the decoration
of altars and temples, efpecially on feftival occafions.
Oaken boughs were offered to Jupiter; thofe of laurel,
to Apollo; of olive, to Minerva; myrtle, to Venus;
ivy, to Bacchus; pine, to Pan; and cyprefs, to Pluto.
Some make them the primitive food of mankind before
acorns were invented.
BOUGIE. In the French language it fignifies a
wax candle, and is applied to a machine which (as the
wax candle formerly was) is introduced into the urethra
for removing obftrutUons there. Monf. Daran, a
French furgeon, lately boafted of his introducing them
as an improvement in his art, and acquired confiderable
profit by making and felling them. Scultetus, about
the middle of the 17th century, ufed bougies in difenfes
of the urethra, and Monf. Daran probably took the
hint from him. Different compofitions have been ufed,
and generally mercury was a part of them. Riverius
made
B O U [ 1322 ] B O U
Bougie, tnadc a plafter as follows: & ol. oKv. lb iv^ cerse ci*
liouhoui's. trjn> Ik m[n” & ceru{i; 5^ lb ifs tereb. venet. & rez.
alb. aa ^ m. Whether the bougies are made up of
this or any other compofition, they muft be of different
fizes, from the bignefs of a knitting needle, to that of
a goofe quill. They are made of linen rags, fpread
with a proper matter, and then rolled up as follows.
Having fpread any quantity of the linen rag with the
compofition that is chofen for the purpofe, cut it into
flips from fix to ten inches long, and from half an inch
to an inch broad: then dextroufly roll them on a glazed
tile into the form of a wax candle; and, as the end of
the bougie that is to be entered firft into the urethra
fhould be fomewhat fmaller than the reft, it would be
as well to cut the flips a little tapering. It ftiould alfo
be obferved, that when the bougies are rolled up, that
fide muft be outward on which the plafter is fpread.
Monf. Daran, and fome others, attributed the adion
of their bougies to the compofition they made ufe of in
forming them. Mr Sharp apprehended, that as much
of their efficacy was owing to the compreffion they
made on the affeded part, as to any other principle;
and Mr Aiken very juftly fays, As it is evident that
bougies of very different compofitions fucceed equally
well in curing the fame diforders in the urethra, it is
plain that they do not ad by means of any peculiar
qualities in their compofition, but by means of fome
property common to them all. This muft be their me¬
chanical form and texture, therefore their mode of ac¬
tion muft be fimple compreffion. The efficacy of mere
compreffion in many cafes of conftridion is well known,
from the ufe of fponge tents for widening parts that are
ftraitened by cicatrices; and admitting obftrudions in
the urethra to be from a conftridion formed by cica¬
trized ulcers, or a projedion of the fpongy fubftance
of the urethra into the canal, we may eafily conceive,
that a gentle continued elaftic compreffion will in time
overcome the difeafe. We may alfo readily account
for the inferior efficacy of metallic and whalebone bou¬
gies, from their not having the property of fwelling
with moifture, and therefore not making fo equal a com¬
preffion. As to bougies procuring a difeharge of mat¬
ter, there is no doubt but the mechanical ftimulus of a
foreign body in fuch a tender part, though free from
difeafe, muft produce it in fome degree; and that this
will be varied according to the chemically irritating
quality of the compofition, and the irritable ftate of the
urethra: but it feems an abfurdity to apply a topic,
made uniform throughout, to the whole length of a ca¬
nal, with a view of producing extraordinary effeds upon
a particular part of it, by means of fome powerful qua¬
lity in the ingredients. A.s to that part of the bougie
which was in contad with the difeafed part, being par¬
ticularly covered with matter; this circumftance is pro¬
bably owing to the greater irritation of that part of the
urethra where the diforder is, than any other.
BOUHOURS (Dominic), a celebrated French cri¬
tic, was born at Paris in 1628; and has been by fome
eonfidered as a proper perfon to fucceed Malherbe, who
died about that time. He was entered into the fociety
of Jefuits at the age of 16 ; and was appointed to read
ledures upon polite literature in the college of Cler¬
mont at Paris, where he had ftudied: but he was fo in-
ceffantly attacked with the head-ach, that he could not
purfue the deftined talk. He afterwards undertook the
education of two fons of the duke of Longueville,
which he difeharged with great applaufe. The duke
had fuch a regard for Bouhours, that he would needs die
in his arms; and the “ Account of the pious and Chri- ■
ftian death” of this great perfonage was the firft work
which Bouhours gave the public. He was fent to Dun¬
kirk to the Popilh refugees from England; and, in the
midft of his milfionary occupations, found means to
compofe and publifh books. Among thefe were, En~
tretiens d'Arijle 6" d’Eugene, or “ Dialogues between
Ariftus and Eugenius;” a work of a critical nature,
and concerning the French-language. His book was
printed no lefs than five times at Paris, twice at Gre¬
noble, at Lyons, at Brufiels, at Amfterdam, at Ley¬
den, See. and embroiled him in quarrels with a great
number of cenfors, with Menage in particular, who,
however, lived in friendlhip with our author before and
after. The fame of this piece, and the pleafure he took
in reading it, recommended Bouhours fo effeftually to
the celebrated minifter Colbert, that he trufted him
with the education of his fon the marquis of Segnelai.
He wrote afterwards feveral other works ; the chiet of
which are, 1. Remarks and doubts upon the French
language. 2. Dialogues upon the art of thinking well
in works of genius^ 3. The life of St Ignatius. 4. The
art of pleafing in converfation. 5. The life of St Fran¬
cis Xavier, apoftle of the Indies and of Japan. This
laft work was tranflated from the French into Englilh
by Mr Dryden, and publilhed at London in the year
1688, with a dedication prefixed to James II.’s queen.
BOUILLON, a town of France, in the duchy of
the fame name, and in the county of Luxemburg, with
a fortified caftle. The French took it in 1676; upon
which it was given to the duke of Bouillon ; but -the
king keeps the caftle to hitnfelf, which is feated on a
rock that is almoft inacceffible. E. Long. 5. 20.' N.
Lat. 49. 45.
Bouillon, in the menage, a lump or excrefcence of
flelh that grows either upon or juft by the frulh, info-
much that the frufti (hoots out, juft like a lump of flelh,
and makes the horfe halt; and this is called the fiejh
blowing upon the frujh. Menage horfes, that never wet
their feet, are fubjeeft to thefe excrefcences, which make
them very lame. See Frush.
BOVINA affectio, a diftemper of black cattle,
caufed by a worm lodged between the Ikin and the
flelh, and perforating the fame. This diftemper is not
mentioned by the ancient Greeks, and is but little known
in Europe.
BOVINES, a fmall town of the Auftrian Nether¬
lands, in the province of Namur, feated on the river
Maefe or Meufe, in E. Long. 4. 50. N. Lat. 49. 45.
BOVINO, an epifcopal town of Italy, in the Capi-
tanata, feated at the foot of the Apennine mountains,
in E. Long. 16. 15. N. Lat. 41. 17.
BOULAINVILLIERS (Henry de), Lord of St
Saife, and an eminent French writer, was defeended
from a very ancient and noble family, and born at St
Saife in 1658. His education was among the fathers of
the oratory; where he difeovered from his infancy thofe
uncommon abilities for which he was afterwards diftin-
guilhed. He applied himfelf principally to the ftudy
of hiftory; and his performances in this way are nu¬
merous and confiderable. He was the author of a hi¬
ftory of the Arabians; Fourteen letters upon the an¬
cient
Bouhours
B O U [ 1323 ] B O U
. Boulay eient parliaments of France; a Hiftory of France to the
H reign of Charles VIII; the State of France, with hiftori-
pou ogne, caj memo;rs concern;ng the ancient government of that
monarchy, to the time of Hugh Capet, “ written (fays
Mr Montefquieu) with a fimplicity and honeft free¬
dom worthy of that ancient family from which their
author was defcended.” Mr Boulainvilliers died at Pa¬
ris in 1722 ; and after his death was publilhed his Life
of Mahomet.
BOULAY (Caefar Egafle du), in Latin Bulteus, was
born at St Ellier, a village of Maine in France ; and
became profefibr of humanity at the college of Navarre,
regitler, reftor, and hiftiographer of the univerfity of
Paris. He died in 1678, after having publifhed feve-
ral works. The principal of them are, A Hiflory of
the Univerjity of Paris, in Latin, 6 vols folio; and the
Treafure of Roman Antiquities, in 1 vol. folio.
BOULDER-wall, a kind of wall built of round
flints or pebbles, laid in ftrong mortar, and ufed where
the fea has a beach call up, or where there are plenty
of flints.
BOULETTE, in the menage. A horfe is called
loulette, when the fetlock, or paftern-joint, bends for¬
ward, and out of its natural fituation, whether thro’
violent riding, or by reafon of being too (hort-jointed,
in which cafe the lead fatigue will bring it.
BOULLONNE (Lewis), painter to the French
king, and profeflbr of the academy of painting, diftin-
guilhed himfelf by his art; and died at Paris in 1674,
aged 65. There are three of his pidures in the church
of Notre Dame.—He left two fans who were admired
for their fleill in painting. The elder, who is well known
under the name of Bon Boullonne, was firfl: inftruded
by his father; after which he went to perfed himfelf
in Italy, and for that purpofe the king allowed him a
penfion: at his return, he was made profefibr of the a-
cademy of painting. Lewis XIV. employed him in
adorning feveral of his palaces ; and there are a great
number of his pidures at Paris. He died in 1717.—
Lewis Boullomie his brother, after being alfo inltruded
by his father, gained the prize of painting at 18 years
of age; upon which he obtained the king’s penfion.
He fet out for Italy at his brother’s return, and acqui¬
red great Ikill in defigning and colouring. At Ijis re¬
turn to Paris, he was much employed; and at length
became diredor of the academy of painting, knight of
the Order of St Michael, and firft painter to the king.
Lewis XIV. allowed him feveral penlions, and railed
him and his pofterity to the rank of nobility. He em-
belliflied the church of the Invalids, the chapel of Ver-
failles, &c. and died at Paris in 1733.
BOULOGNE, a large and handfome town of Pi¬
cardy in Fr.ance, and capital of the Boulognois, with a
harbour, and a biflAp’s fee. It is divided into two
towns ; the higher, and the lower. The former is
ftrong both by nature and art; and the latter is only
furrounded with a Angle wall. The harbour has a mole
for the fafety of the Ihips, which at the fame time pre¬
vents it from being choaked up. The lower town is in¬
habited by merchants, and has three large ftreets, one
of which leads to the high town, and the other two run
in a line on the fide of the river. Many of the Englilh
and Scots refide here, who, from a rebellion, or any o-
ther caufe, are obliged to fly from their native country.
E. Long. x. 42. N. Lat. 50. 42.
BOULOGNOIS, a territory of France, in the north 8011,0
part of Picardy, about 30 miles in length, and 20 in K,'"
breadth. The chief town is Boulogne, and the chief
trade is in pit-coal and butter.
BOULTER (Dr Hugh), was born in or near Lon¬
don, of reputable and wealthy parents. He was edu¬
cated at Merchant-taylor’s fchool; and, before the Re¬
volution, was from thence admitted a commoner of
Chrift-church in Oxford. Some time after, he was cho-
fen a demy of Magdalen-college, at the fame ele&ion
with Mr Addifon and Dr Wilcox. From the merit and
learning of the perfons eledled, this wa.f commonly called
by Dr Hough, prefident of the college, the golden elec¬
tion. He afterwards became fellow of the fame col¬
lege ; in which ftation he continued in the univerfity
till he was invited to London by Sir Charles Hodges,
principal fecretary of ftate, in the year 1700, who
made him his chaplain, and recommended him to Dr
Tenifon archbifliop of Canterbury; but his firft prefer¬
ments were owing to the earl of Sunderland, by whofe
intereft and influence he was promoted to the parfonage
of St Olave in Southwark, and the archdeaconry of
Surry. Here he continued difcharging very faithfully
and diligently e\sery part of his paftoral office, till he
was recommended to attend George L as his chaplain,
when he went to Hanover in 17x9. He had the ho¬
nour to teach prince Frederic the Englifh language;
and by his conduit he fo won the king’s favour, that
he promoted him to the deanery of Chrift-church, and
the bifliopric of Briftol, in the fame year. As he was vi-
fiting his diocefe five years afterwards, he received a let¬
ter from the fecretary of ftate, acquainting him that his
majefty had nominated him to the archbiffiipric of Ar¬
magh and primacy of Ireland. This honour he would
gladly have declined; and defired the fecretary to ufe
his good offices with his majefty to excufe him from ac¬
cepting it. Ireland happened to be at this jundture in
a great flame, occafioned by Wood’s ruinous project;
and the miniftry thought that the biftiop would greatly
contribute to-quench it by his judgment, moderation,
and addrefs. The king therefore laid his abfolute
commands upon him: to which he fubmitted, but with
fome reluctance. As foon as he had taken pofleffion
of the primacy, he began to confider that country, in
which his lot was call for life, as his own; and to pro¬
mote its true intereft with the greateft zeal and affi-
duity. Accordingly, in innumerable inftances, he ex¬
erted himfelf in the nobleft ails of beneficence and pu¬
blic fpirit. In feafons of the greateft fcarcity, he was
more than once inftrumental in preventing a famine
which threatened that nation. On one of thefe occa-
fions he diftributed vaft quantities of corn throughout
the kingdom, for which the Houfe of Commons pafled
a vote of public thanks; and at another time 2500 per¬
fons were fed at the poor-houfe in Dublin, every morn¬
ing, and as many every evening, for a confiderable time
together, moftly at the primate’s expence. When
fchemes were propofed for the advantage of the coun¬
try, he encouraged and promoted them not only with
his counfel but his purfe. He had great compaffion for
the poor clergy of his diocefe, who were difabled from
giving their children a proper education ; and he main¬
tained feveral of the children of fuch in the univerfity.
He eredled four houfes at Drogheda for the reception
of clergymens widows, and purchafed an eftate for the
endow-
B O U [ 1324 ] B o ur
Boultinc endowment of them. His charities for augmenting /
II fmall livings and buying glebes amounted to upwards
Bounty’ 0f 30,000/. befides what he devifed by will for the like
purpofes in England. In fliort, the inftances he gave
of his generality and benevolence of heart, his virtue,
his piety, and his wifdom, are almoft innumerable, and
• the hiftory of his life is his nobleft panegyric. This ex¬
cellent prelate died at London, on the 2d of June 1742 ;
and was interred in Weftminfter abbey, where a beau¬
tiful monument of finely polilhed marble is erefted to
his memory.
BOULTINE.r, a term which workmen ufe for a
moulding, the convexity of which is jult one fourth of
a circle ; being the member juft below the plinth in the
Tufcan and Doric capital.
BOUNCE, in ichthyology, the Englilh name of a
fpecies offqualus. See Squalus.
BOUND-bailiffs, are Iheriffs officers for execu¬
ting of procefs. The Iheriffs being anfwerable for their
mifdemeanors, the bailiffs are ufually bound in a bond
for the due execution of their office ; and thence are
called bound-bailiffs, which the common people have
corrupted into a much more homely appellation.
BOUNDS of lands. See Abuttals.
BOUNTY, in commerce, a premium paid by go¬
vernment to the exporters of certain Britilh commodi¬
ties, as fail-cloth, gold and filver lace, filk-ftockings,
fifli, corn, &c. The happy influence which bounties
have on trade and manufadures is well known : nor can
there be a more convincing proof of the good inten¬
tions of the government under which we live, than the
great care that is taken to give all poffible encourage¬
ment to thofe who fltall eftablilh, or improve, any ha¬
zardous branch of trade.
Campleirs All undertakings, in refpeft either to mercantile en-
Survcy of terprizes, or in the eftablilhment of manufa&ures, are
Britain. J weak and feeble in their beginnings ; and if unfuccefsful,
either fink entirely, or at leaft are feldom revived in
the fame age. Accidents of this nature are not only
deftru&ive to private perfons, but exceedingly detri¬
mental to the public intereft. On this principle, more
efpecially fince trade, for which Providence defigned
us, hath been attended to, fuch attempts have been
thought deferving, and have been favoured with, pub¬
lic fupport. This in former times ufually flowed from
the crown, in the form of letters-patent, charters, or
other grants of privileges, which, however requifite
they might be, were notwithftanding very frequently
obje&s of cenfure. If fuch as obtained them failed in
their endeavours, they were reputed projectors ; if, on
the other hand, they fucceeded, they were confidered
as monopolizers. Corporations, which imply the uni¬
ting certain individuals into a body, that they may
thereby become more ufeful to the community, are
created by the crown. Many of thefe were formed for
promoting trade ; and, according to the old fyftem of
our government, were neceffary and ufeful. On the
fame principle, privileges were granted to private per¬
fons, on a fuggeftion, that what was immediately of
ufe to them, would terminate in public utility. Thefe
alfo did good in bringing in many arts and manufac¬
tures ; though, in fome cafes, tending to private in¬
tereft more than public emolument, they were liable
to legal corre&ion. In later times, and in concerns of
moment, a much better method has been adopted, as
often as it hath been found pra&icable, by rejefting Bounty,
private or particular intereft, and propofing the de- '
figned advantages to fuch as ftiould perform the ftipu-
lations on which they are granted. Thefe bounties, as
they are paid by the public, fo they are folely calcu¬
lated for the benefit of the public. They are fometimes
given to encourage induftry, and application in railing
a neceffary commodity; which was intended by the
bounty on exporting corn. The intention of this
bounty was to encourage agriculture; and the confe-
quence hath been, that we now grow more than twice
as much as we did at the eftablifliment of the bounty;
we even confume twice as much bread as we then grew;
yet in A. D. 1697, we exported a fifteenth part of
what we grew, of late years a twenth-ninth part only.
The bounty on this twenty-ninth part amounted to
fomewhat more than L 50,000, and the produce to
more than L 400,000. It is evident that all this is
fo much clear gain to the nation. But this is far from
being all that we have annually gained. For if our
cultivation is doubled, as indeed it is, then the rent
of lands, the fubfiftence of working hands, the profits
of the tradefmen fupplying them with utenfils, clothes,
the value of horfes employed, &c. muft all be taken
into the account. Befides this we muft add the freight
(amounting to half the bounty), to make the idea of
the advantages complete.
Sometimes bounties are given with a view to promote
manufactures, as in the cafe of thofe made of filk. Many
laws are to be found in our ftatute-books in favour of
the filk manufacture, made with great wifdom and pro¬
priety, for the encouragement and fupport of many
thoufands of induftrious perfons employed therein. By
ftatute 8 Geo. I. cap. 15. $ 1. a bounty was given on
the due exportation of ribbons and ftufts, of filk only,
of three ihillings upon a pound weight; filks, and rib¬
bons of filk, mixed with gold and filver, four (hillings
a pound; on filk gloves, filk ftockings, filk fringes,
filk laces, and fewing filk, one fliilling and threepence
a pound; on (tuffs of filk and grogram yarn, eight
pence a pound; on filks mixed with incle or cotton,
one fliilling ; on fluffs of filk mixed with worded, fix-
pence a pound, for three years : and, from experience
of their utility, thefe were continued by fubfequent
ftatutes.
Sometimes bounties are given to fupport a new ma¬
nufacture againit foreigners already in poffeffion of it,
as in making linen and fail-cloth. The promoting of
the manufacture of Britifli fail-cloth was undoubtedly
a very important national objeCt, as the confumption
was very large, and of confequence the purchafe of it
from foreigners an heavy expence on the public. Ma¬
ny methods were therefore devifed, and countenanced
by law, both here and in Ireland, for introducing and
encouraging our own in preference to that of ftrangers,
more efpecially in the royal navy. By flat. 12. Ann<e,
cap. 16. $ 2. a bounty was given of one penny per ell
on all that was exported for a term, and continued by
fubfequent ftatutes. By 4 Geo. II. cap. 27. $ 4. an
additional bounty of another penny an ell is granted.
Thefe bounties were to be paid out of an additional
duty on imported fail-cloth By the fame ftatute every
ftiip built in Britain, or in the plantations, is, under the
penalty of L 50. to be furniftied with a complete fuit
of fails of Britilh manufaCiure. The amount of thefe
bounties
B O U [ 13:
Bounty, bounties mark the progrefs of the manufacture, which is
 alfo affifted by the fund on which the payment is
affigned.
Thefe afiiftances, however, are never beftowed but
on mature deliberation, in virtue of ftrong proofs, and
with a moral certainty of a rational benefit. The great
intention of bounties is to place the Britiflt trader on
fuch ground as to render his commerce beneficial to his
country. In order to this, fome profit muft accrue to
himfelf, otherwife he would not embark therein ; but
this, whatever it be, muft prove inconfiderable in com-
parifon of what refults to the public. For if, by the
help of fuch a bounty, one or many traders export to
the value of 1000, 10,000, or 100,000 pounds worth
of commodities or manufactures, whatever his or their
profit or lofs (for the latter, through avidity and over¬
loading the market, fometimes happens) may be, the
nation gains the L 1000, L to,000, or L 100,000 ;
which was the objeft of the legiflature in granting the
bounty. Upon this confideration, that the entire pro¬
duce of what is exported accrues to the nation, the le¬
giflature, when an alteration of circumftances required
it, have made no fcruple of augmenting a bounty; as
in the cafe of refined fugar exported, from three to nine
fliillings per hundred weight. In like manner, the ori¬
ginal bounty of one pound per ton in favour of veflels
employed in the whale-fiftiing hath been doubled, and
many newregulations made, in order to render this fifhery
more advantageous to the public. As a bounty is
given on malt when allowed to be exported, fo an
equivalent of 30 fliillings per ton hath been granted on
all Britifli made malt-fpirits when exported, which is
a common benefit to land, manufa&ure, and com¬
merce.
It is indeed true, that on whatever'account, or to
whatever amount, this reward is given, the public feem
to pay, and private perfons feem to receive. But thefe
private perfons receive it as the hire from the public,
for performing a fervice which otherwife they would
not perform, the benefit of which accrues to the public,
and who can therefore very well {afford to pay that
reward in reality, which, as we have ftated it, ftie
only feems to do. For, looking a little clofer, we
cannot help obferving, that the bounty is paid to in¬
dividuals, who, as fuch, make a part of the public.
But the commodities or manufactures exported are
fold to foreigners ; and the whole produce of them,
be it what it will, comes into the purfe of the public.
By attending to this felf-evident do&rinc, every reafon-
able and public-fpirited man will be eafily reconciled to
bounties; and the three following confiderations will be
fufficient to obviate the moll common objections that
have been made to the practice of giving them. 1. That
no bounty can be defired but on the plea of national uti¬
lity, which always deferves notice, and cannot bemif-
taken. It muft likewife be alleged and proved, that
this is the only means whereby the national benefit can
be attained. 2. The fums iffued on this account not
only (hew the clear expence of the bounty, but alfo
indicate the profit gained by the public; for as the one
-cannot exift without the other, that amount muft be
the inconteftable index of both. 3. It muft be remem¬
bered, (and of this too fome inftances might be given),
that if bounties (hould be improperly beftow’ed, they
will of courfe prove ineffectual, and after a few fruit-
Vol. II.
25 I B O U
lefs trials will remain unclaimed, and confequently pro- Bounty,
duce no expence. There is indeed another objection otir pn’
which hath been made againft the giving of bounties.
This is grounded on the frauds to which they are fup-
pofed to be liable ; and particularly the relanding of
the goods on which the bounty hath been paid, and
thereby deceiving and cheating the public. But who¬
ever perufes the laws made on this head, and attentively
confiders the numerous precautions taken to fix every
circumftance relative to the obtaining the bounty, the
checks on the (hipping of goods, the fecurities taken
for their due exportation, the certificates required to
afcertain their being aClually delivered and fold in a
foreign market, muft be convinced, that to difcharge
all thofe fecurities, in cafe of an intended fraud, is a
thing very difficult, if not impoffible.
To thefe remarks we may add, that bounties arc
uftially granted only for a limited time, and then expire;
are always liable to be fufpended ; and of courfe can
never be the caufe of any great national lofs. There
is no doubt that, exclufive of frauds, the immoderate
third of gain may tempt interefted men to aim at con¬
verting what was calculated for public benefit toils
detriment, for their own private advantage. Thus, on
a profpeCl of (hort crops in other countries, men may
take meafures within the letter, but directly againft
the fpirit, of the law, to fend fo much of our corn a-
broad as to endanger a famine at home. For this the
wifdom of parliament provides, not barely by fufpend-
ing the bounty, but by prohibiting exportation and o-
pening the ports for foreign fupplies. We cannot with
any fhadow of juftice afcribe fcarcity to the bounty on
the exportation. If this was the cafe, fufpenfions
'w'ould be frequent, whereas there have been but five
in a courfe of 70 years. If the bounty had any (hare,
the larger the exportation, the greater would be the
fcarcity. In A. D. 1750 we exported more than one
fifth of our growth of wheat, wdiich was notwithftanding
but at four (hillings per buftiel; whereas a century be¬
fore, A. D. 1650, when we had neither bounty nor ex¬
portation, wheat was at nine (hillings and fixpence per
bufliel. The caufes of fcarcity are unkindly feafons ;
which though human policy cannot prevent, yet their
fad effefts have been evidently leffened by our increafed
growth, fince the taking place of bounty and ex¬
portation.
BOURBON, or Mascarenhas, (ifleof), an ifland
in the Indian ocean, lying to the eaft of Madagafcar,
in E. Long. 58. 30. S. Lat. 21. 23. This ifland has
no port, and is in fome places inacceffible. Its length
and breadth have not been well determined ; but the
circumference, according to the account of a perfon
who redded there fome time, is about 57 leagues. It
is for the moft part mountainous, but in fome places
there are very beautiful and fertile plains. In thefouth
part of the ifland there is a burning mountain, which
has thrown out vaft quantities of bitumen, fulphur, and
other combuftible materials; neither does it ceafe
throwing them out ftill, fo that the country about it
is ufelefs, and is called by the inhabitants pays Irule,
that is, burnt land. The (hore is high and rocky all
round ; but though on this account it hath no ports,
there are feveral good roads, .particularly one on the
weft, and another on the north-eaft. As to its
form, this ifland is irregular, fo that it is difficult to
8 E judge
Bourbon.
B O U [132
jgdge from the maps whether it is round or long. The
air is equally pleafant and wholefome, infomuch that
the people live to a great age without feeling either
infirmities or difeafes. This is occafioned by the hur¬
ricanes, of which they have one or two every year.
Thefe purge and cleanfe the air, fo as to render it highly
falubrious; the certainty of which is thus diftinguifhed,
that when they fail of making their annual vifits, as
fometimes they do, difeafes and death find an entrance
into the ifland, which otherwife would foon be over-
ftocked with inhabitants. The climate is hot, but not
to fuch a degree as might be expefted from its fituation,
the breezes from the mountains being cqnftant and
very refrelhing. The tops of thefe mountains are in
winter covered with fnow; which, melting in the fum-
mer, furnifhes abundance of rivers and rivulets, with
which the country is plentifully watered : fo that the
foil, though not very deep, is wonderfully fruitful, pro¬
ducing Turky corn and rice twice a-year, and the
latter in great abundance. Mod forts of cattle are
found here, good in their kind, and are very cheap; wild
goats and wild hogs are found in the woods and on
the tops of the mountains; here alfo are vad quanti¬
ties of wild fowl of different kinds, fifh, and land tor-
toifes, affording at once the moft delicate and whole¬
fome food. As to fruits, they have bananas, oranges,
citrons, tamarinds, and other kinds; neither does it
want valuable commodities, particularly ebony, cotton,
white pepper, gum benzoin, aloes, and tobacco; all
excellent in their kind, when compared with thofe of
other countries. This ifland is alfo happy in its defi-
ciences; for no animals that are venomous are to be
found therein, and only two forts that are difagreeable
to the fight, viz. fpiders of the fize of a pigeon’s egg,
which weave nets of a furprifing ftrength, reckoned by
fome capable of being treated fo as to become as va¬
luable as filk ; and bats of a mofl enormous fize, which
are not only fkinned and eaten, but efteemed alfo the
greatefl delicacy that they have.
The ifland of Bourbon was difcOvered by the Por-
tuguefe in 1545, as appears by a date infcribed by
them upon a pillar when they firft landed ; but when
the French fettled in Madagafcar, this ifland was to¬
tally defolate. Three Frenchmen being banifhed thither,
and left there for three years, made fuch a report of it
at their return as furprifed their countrymen. They
lived moll of that time upon pork ; and though they
were in a manner naked, yet they affirmed that they
never had the leaft pain or ficknefs whatever. This
tempted one Anthony Taureau to go over thither in
1654, accompanied by feven French and fix negroes,
who carried with them the cattle from which the ifland
has been flocked ever fince. The firfl thing they did
was to ere<5t the arms of France, by order of Mr Fal-
court who was governor of Madagafcar, and to bellow
upon the illand a new name. Then they fet up huts,
and laid out gardens, in which they cultivated melons,
different forts of roots, and tobacco ; but juft as the
laft became ripe, the wdiole plantation was deftroyed
by a hurricane. The French, however, went to work
again $ and by having fome acquaintance with the cli¬
mate, fucceeded better, and added aloes to the reft of
their plantations : but receiving no fuccour from Ma¬
dagafcar, and being tired of living by themfelves in
the ifle of Bourbon, they very readily embraced the
6 ] B O U
offer of an Englilh captain, and in the year 1658 em- Bourbon,
barked for Madrafs. When the lall great blow was
given to the French at Madagafcar by the natives, who
furprifed and cut them olf in one night, there efcaped
as many men, as with their wives, who were natives,
filled two canoes; and thefe being driven by the wind
on the ille of Bourbon, were the next fet of people
who inhabited it. This lall colony, for want of an op¬
portunity to remove, were conltrained to cultivate this
new country of theirs, and to remain in it. It was
not long before a further Hock of inhabitants arrived. A
pirate that had been committing depredations in the
Indies, returning to Europe, ran alhore and was fplit
to pieces upon the rocks, fo that the crew were forced
to join themfelves to the former inhabitants ; and as
they had on board their vefiel a great many Indian
women whom they had made prifoners, they lived with
them, and in procefs of time had a numerous pollerity.
As Eaft India Ihips touched frequently here, when too
late to double the Cape, many of the failors, for the
fake of the women, deferred at the time of their de¬
parture, and Haying behind became planters in the ille
of Bourbon. As the place grew more populous, the
people naturally became more civilized, and defirous
of living in a more commodious manner; which induced
them to build fmall veflels, that in thefe they might
fometimes make a trip to Madagafcar, in order to pur-
chafe Haves, whom they employed in their plantations
to cultivate aloes, tobacco, and other things, with
which they drove a fmall trade, when Ihips of any na¬
tion anchored in their roads for the fake of refrelhments.
In this fituation they were, when the French Eaft
India company put in their claim; and afluming the
property of the illand, fent thither five or fix families
and a governor. At firft the inhabitants expedled to
reap fome benefit from their new mailers; but finding
very little, and thinking the governor took too much
upon him, they revolted at the inftigation of a prieft,
feized their governor, and put him into a dungeon,
where he died of hunger and grief. For this fome of
the ringleaders were puniihed, a kind of fort was e-
re£led, fome guns placed on it, and the French flag
kept flying ; but, in other refpefts, fo little care was
taken, that, till within thefe 40 years, the illand was
in no Hate of defence.
The number of inhabitants, in the year 1717, was
computed at 2000; viz. 900 free, and 1100 Haves. A-
mongft thefe people the ufual dillindlion of whites and
blacks entirely fails: for even the free are of different
colours; and a French writer allures us, that he faw in
a church one family, confiding of five generations, of all
complexions. The eldeft was a female, 108 years of age,
of a brown black, like the Indians at Madagafcar; her
daughter,a mulatto; her grand-daughter, a meftizo; her
great-grand-daughter, of a dufky yellow; her daugh¬
ter, again, of an olive colour ; and the daughter of this
lall, as fair as any Englilh girl of the fame age. Thefe
people are, generally fpeaking, of a gentle quiet difpo-
lition ; very induftrious ; and iubmilfive enough to au¬
thority, provided it is exercifed with a tolerable degree
of equity and decency ; for otherwife the whole of them
are apt to rife in rebellion at once; and the Haves have
fo little reafon to complain of their mailers, that they
are always on the fame fide. The ifiand is divided into
four quarters. The firft js that of St Paul, which is the
large ft
B O U [ 1327 ] B O U
Bourbon, largeft and beft peopled : their houfes are built at the
' foot of a fteep mountain, on both fides of a frefli-water
lake. As for the plantations, they are on the top of a
mountain, which they afcend by a very rough and
troublefome paffage. On the fummit there is a fpacious
plain, a great part of which is divided into plantations
of rice, tobacco, corn, fugar, and fruits. The quarter
of St Denis lies feven leagues from that of St Paul,
towards the eaft ; and there the governor refides. It is
not fo well peopled as the former ; but the country is
more pleafant, and the fituation better. At two leagues
diftance, proceeding along the fea-coaft, is the quar¬
ter of St Mary’s, which is but thinly peopled. The
laft and moft fertile quarter is that of St Sufannah,
which is at the didance of four leagues from St De¬
nis. The road between thefe two quarters is tolerable,
though part of it has been cut with much difficulty
through a wood : but the pafiage from St Denis to
St Paul is only by fea.
When the prefent company of India became, by
their perpetual eftablifhment, poflefled of the ifland of
Bourbon, they began to improve it exceedingly : rai-
fing new forts and batteries, fo as to render it in a man¬
ner inacceffible ; and importing coffee-trees from Ara¬
bia, which have fucceeded fo well, that it is believed
they produce an eighth, according to fome a fixth, part
as much coffee as is railed in the kingdom of Yemen in
Arabia, and it is likewife held next in goodnefs to that.
— In 1763, the population amounted to 4627 white
people, and 15149 blacks; the cattle confided of 8702
beeves, 4084 fheep, 7405 goats, and 7619 hogs. Upon
an extent of 125,909 acres of cultivated land, they ga¬
thered as much caffava as would feed their flaves,
1,135,000 pounds weight of corn, 844,100 pounds of
rice, 2,879,100 pounds of maize, and 2,535,100
pounds of coffee ; which lad the company bought up
at about 3 d. per pound.
In 1748, Admiral Bofcawen appeared before this
ifland with a Britifli fleet; but found it fo well for¬
tified both by nature and art, that he was obliged, af¬
ter fome cannonading to very little purpofe, to purfue
his voyage.
Bourbon (Nicholas), a famous Latin poet in the
16th century, was a native of Vandeure near Langres,
and the fon of a wealthy man who was mafler of feveral
forges. Margaret de Valois appointed him preceptor
to her daughter Jane-d’Albret of Navarre, the mother
of king Henry IV. At length he retired to Conde,
where he had a benefice, and died about the year 1550.
He wrote eight books of Epigrams; and a poem on
the forge, which he has intitled Ferrarict. He had
great knowledge of antiquity and of the Greek lan¬
guage. Erafmus praifes bis epigrams.
Bourbon (Nicholas), a celebrated Greek and Latin
poet, was nephew of the preceding. He taught rheto¬
ric in feveral colleges of Paris; and the cardinal de
Perron caufed him to be nominated profelfor of elo¬
quence in the Royal College: he was alfo canon of
Langres, and one of the 40 of the French academy.
At length he retired to the fathers of the oratory, where
he died in 1644, aged 70. He is efteemed one of the
greateft Latin poets France has produced. His poems
were printed at Paris in 1630.
BouRBON-A<7»ry, a town of France, in the duchy of
Burgundy, and in the Autunnois. It is remarkable for
its caftle and baths; and there is a large marble pave- Bourbon
ment, called the great bath, which is a work of the Ro- II
mans. It is feated near the river Loire, in E. Long. Cotirdeaux'
3. 46. N. Lat. 46. 37.
Bourbon L1 Archambaud, a final] town of France,
remarkable for its baths, which are exceedingly hot.
E. Long. 3. 28. N. Lat. 46. 35.
BOURBONE-LE-BAiNS,a town of France in Cham¬
pagne, and in the Baffigni, famous for its hot baths.
E. Long. 5. 45. N. Lat. 47. 54.
BOURBONNOIS, a province of France, with the
title of a duchy; bounded on the north, by Nivernois
and Berry; on the weft, by Berry and a fmall part of
upper Marche; on the fouth, by Auvergne; and on the
eaft, by Burgundy and Forez. It abounds in corn,
fruits, paftures, wood, game, and wine. Its principal
town is Moulins; and the rivers are the Loire, the Al-
lier, and the Chur.
BOURBOURG, a town in French Flanders, whofc
fortifications are demoliftied. It is feated on a canal that
goes to Dunkirk, in E. Long. 2. 15. N. Lat. 50.55.
BOURCHIER (John), lord Bemars, grandfon and
heir of a lord of the fame name, who was defcended
from Thomas of Woodftock, duke of Gloucefter, and
had been knight of the Garter, and conftable of Wind-
for-caftle, under Edward IV. Our lord John was
created a knight of the Bath at the marriage of the
duke of York fecond fon of Edward IV. and was firft
known by quelling an infurreftion in Cornwall and De-
vonfliire, railed by Michael Jofepb, a blackfmith, in
1495, which recommended him to the favour of Hen¬
ry VII. He was captain of the pioneers at the fiege
of Therouenne, under Henry VIII. by whom he was
made chancellor of the exchequer for life, lieutenant of
Calais and the Marches, appointed to conduft the lady
Mary the king’s lifter into France on her marriage
with Lewis Xll. and had the extraordinary happinefs
of continuing in favour with Henry VIII. forthefpace
of 18 years. He died at Calais in 1532, aged 63. He
tranflated, by king Henry’s command, Froiffart’s Chro¬
nicle; which was printed in 1523, by Richard Pinfon,
the fcholar of Caxton, and the fifth on the lift of En-
glilh printers. His other works were a whimfical med¬
ley of tranflations from French, Spanifti, and Italian
novels, which feem to have been the mode then, as they
were afterwards in the reign of Charles II. Thefe were.
The life of Sir Arthur, an Armorican knight; The
famous exploits of Sir Hugh Bourdeaux; Marcus Au¬
relius ; and, The caftle of love. He compofcd alfo a
book, Of the duties of the inhabitants of Calais; and
a comedy entitled Ite in Vineam, which is mentioned in
none of our catalogues of Englifli plays. Anthony
Wood fays it was ufually afted at Calais after vefpers.
BOURDALOUE (Lewis), a celebrated preacher
among the Jefuits, and one of the greateft orators
France has produced, was born at Bourges, on the 20'**
of Auguft 1632. After having preached at Provence,
he, in 1699, went to Paris ; and there met with fuch
applaufe, that the king refolved to hear him: on which
he was fent for to court, and frequently preached be¬
fore Lewis XIV. He affifted the fick, viiited the pri-
fons and hofpitals, and was Very liberal in giving alms.
He died at Paris on the 13th of May 1704. The beft
edition of his fermons is in oftavo.
BOURDEAUX, an ancient, large, handfome, and
8 E 2 rich
B O U [ 1328 J B O U
Bourdines rich town of France, capital of Guienne, an archbiftiop’s
E U fee; hasanuniverfityandanacademyofartsandfciences.
lir^‘ It is built in the form of a bow, of which the river Ga¬
ronne is the firing. This river is bordered by a large
key, and the water rifes four yards at full tide, for which
reafon the larged veffels can come up to it very readily.
The cadle called the Trumpet, is feated at the entrance
of the quay, and the river runs round its walls. Mod
of the great dreets lead to the quay ; but are all very
narrow except one. The town has 12 gates; and near
another cadle are fine walks under feveral rows of trees.
The mod remarkable antiquities were, an ancient temple
dedicated to the tutelary gods, now entirely demolith-
ed, to make room for the fortifications ; the palace of
Gallienus built like an amphitheatre; and feveral aque-
du&s in different places. It is a town of very confi-
derable trade, and they fhip every year 100,000 tons
cf wine and brandy. This is the place where Edward
the Black Prince refided feveral years; and hisfon, af¬
terwards Richard II. was born here. There is a hand-
fome fquare near the river, with an equedrian datue of
Lewis XV. W. Long. o. 39. N. Lat. 44. 50.
BOURDINES, a town of the Audrian Nether¬
lands, in the province of Namur. E. Long. 5. o. N.
Lat. 50. 35.
BOURDELOT (John), a learned French critic,
who lived at the clofe of the 16th and beginning of the
17th centuries. He didinguifhed himfelf by writing
notes on Lucian, Petronius, and Heliodorus ; by an
Univerfal Hidory ; Commentaries on Juvenal; aTrea-
tife on the Etymology of French words; and by fome
other works which were never publifhed.—There was
alfo an abbe Bourdelot, his fider’s fon, who changed
his name from Peter Michon to oblige his uncle. He
was a celebrated phyfician at Paris, who gained great
reputation by a Treatife on the Viper, and other works.
He died in 1685.
. BOURDON (Sebadian), a famous painter, born at
Montpelier, in 1619. He dudied feven years at Rome;
and acquired fuch reputation, that at his return to
France he had the honour of being the fird who was
made re&or of the academy of painting at Paris. He
fucceeded better in his landfcapes than in his hidory-
painting. His pieces are feldom finifhed; and thofe that
are fo, are not always the fined. He once laid a wager
with a friend, that he fhould paint 12 heads after the
life, and as big as the life, in one day. He won it, and
thefe are faid not to be the word things he ever did.
He drew a vad number of pi&ures. His mod confi-
dcrable pieces are, The gallery of M. de Bretonvjlliers,
in the ifle of Notre Dame; and, The feven works of
mercy, which he etched by himfelf. But the mod e-
jdeetned of all his performances is, The martyrdom of
St Peter, drawn for the church of Notre Dame : It is
kept as one of the choiced rarities of that cathedral.
Bourdon was a Calvinid; much valued and refpecled,
however, in a Popidi country, becaufe his life and man¬
ners were good. He died in 1673, aged 54.
BOUDONE'E, in heraldry, the fame with fomee.
BOURG, the capital of the ifland of Cayenne, a
French colony on the coad of Guiana, in South Ame¬
rica.; in W. Long. 52. o. N. Lat. 5.0.
l!>QVKG-eti-Breffe, a town of France, and capital of
Breffe, in the province of Burgundy. It is feated on
the river Refouffe, almod in the centre of Breffe, in
E. Long. 4. 19. N. Lat. 46. 13. Bourg
Bourg-y«r-/Her, a fea port town of France in II
Guienne, and in the Bourdelois, with a tolerable good ^)Urg°gne‘
harbour; feated at the confluence of the rivers Dor¬
dogne and Garonne, in W. Long. 3. 35. N. Lat. 45. o.
BOURGES, an ancient and large town of France,
the capital of Berry, an archbifhop’s fee, and a famous
univerfity. The archbifhop affumes the title of Patri¬
arch of the A quit ains, and ertjoys the rights of primacy
with regard to Albi. It is feated between two fmall
rivers, the Evry and the Orron, upon a hill that has a
gentle defcent down to thefe rivers, by which it is al¬
mod furrounded, for there is but one avenue to it by
land, which is that of Port Bourbonnoux. It dands
upon a great deal of ground : but one part of it is with¬
out houfes; and the red is but thinly peopled with
gentlemen, dudents, and ecclefiaflics, the whole num¬
ber of fouls amounting only to about 1800. They have
no manner of trade but for their own neceffaries. It is
divided into the old and new town. The walls of the
old are almod entire, and the new town is almod as
large as the old. There are feveral churches, convents,
and nunneries. The parifli church, dedicated to St Ste¬
phen, is a fine old Gothic drudlure: it is feated on the
highed part of the city, and on each fide of the front
are two handfome high towers. The new one, which
is built in the room of one which fell down, is almod
200 feet high. Bourbon fquare is the larged in the city,
where there was formerly an amphitheatre, and now a
market. There is a fine walk from St MiehaePs-gate
into the fields, and three alleys, formed by four ranks
of trees, the middlemod of which is fpacious; befides
which, there is a very long mall. The univerfity is fa¬
mous for the dudy of the law. This city dands almod
in the centre of France. E. Long. 2. 30. N. Lat.
47. 10.
BOURGET, a town of §avoy, fubjedl to the king
of Sardinia, feated at the fouthern extremity of a lake
of the fame name. E. Long. 5. 55. N. Lat. 45. 45'.
BOURGOGNE, or Burgundy, as we call it; a
confiderable province of France with the title of a duchy.
It is 130 miles in length, and 75; in breadth. It is
bounded on the eafl, by the Franche Compte; on the
wed, by Bourbonnois and Nivernois ; on the fouth, by
Lyonnois; and on the north, by Champagne. It is
very fertile in corn and fruit, and produces excellent
wine. It is watered by the rivers Seine, Dehunc, Bre-
bince, Armangon, Ouche, Souzon, Tille, and Saone.
There are four mineral fprings at Apoigny, Premeau,
Bourbon-Lancy, and St Reine. The fird are obfcure,
and the two lad in high reputation. In the canton of
Breffe, there are two fubterranean lakes which often
overflow in times of the greated drought, and lay a
large traft of ground underwater: one of them has no
apparent fpring or opening; and yet in a dry feafon, it
throws out water e; ough to overflow the meadow-land
near it. The grottos or caves of Arcy are feated about
18 miles from Auxerre, and over them is foil about
10 feet deep. The entrance into thefe cavities is 200
paces long, but narrow. There are arches which form
feveral vaults, from whence drop clear water, which
turns into a brilliant hard (lone. Twenty paces from
the entrance is a lake, which feems to be formed by that
part of the water that will not petrify. The highed of
thefe vaults is not above eight feet. About 80 paces
from
SBooiguig-
nons,
iourignon.
B O U [ 1329 ] BOW
from the entrance there is a kind of hall, with a coffee- gan and inftrument by which God would communicate
coloured ceiling, wherein there are a thoufand odd fi- himfelf externally to men : This is Chrift the firft born
gures, which have a very agreeable effedt. Dijon is united to human nature, both God and man.” Befides
the capital town. thefe and fuch like extravagancies, fhe had other for-
BOURGUIGNONS, or Burgundians, one of the bidding qualities: her temper was morofe and peevifh,
northern nations who over-ran the Roman empire, and in which, however, fhe was not much unlike other de-
fettled in Gaul. They were of a great ftature, and very votees; but, contrary to the generality of fuch perfons,
warlike; for which reafon the emperor Valentinian the fhe was extremely avaricious and greedy of amaffing
Great engaged them in his fervice againft the Germans, riches. She dreffed like an hermit, and travelled to
They lived in tents which were clofe to each other, that France, Holland, England, and Scotland. In the lafl
they might the mere readily unite in arms on any un- fhe made a ftrong party, and fome thoufand fedtarills,
forefeen attack: Thefe conjunctions of tents they called known by the name of Bourignonijis, She died at Fa-
burghs; and they were to them what towns are to us. neker in the province of Frife, O&ober 30th, 1680.
Sidonius Apollinaris tells us, that they wore long hair. Her works have been printed in 1 8 vols oftavo.
took great pleafure in linging, and were fond or praife BOURN, a town of Lincolnfhire in England, feated
for their vocal talents. He adds, that they ate great in E. Long. r. 17. N. Lat. 52. 40. It is a pretty
quantities; and anointed their hair with butter, deem- large place, has a good market for corn and provifions,
ing that undtion very ornamental. Their crown was and is noted for the coronation of king Edmund,
at firft ele&ive, and the authority of their kings expi- BOURO, an ifland in the Eaft Indian ocean, be-
red with their fuccefs. They were not only account- tween the Moluccas and Celebes. It is well cultivated;
able for their own mifeondudf, but likewife for the ca- and is now fubjedl to the Dutch, who have built a for-
lamities of nature, and the caprice of fortune. They trefs here. Some mountains in it are exceeding high,
weredepofed if they had loft a battle; if they fucceeded and the fea on one fide is uncommonly deep. It pro-
ill in any enterprize.; or if, in fhort, any great event duces nutmegs and cloves, as well as cocoa and banana
had not correfponded with the hopes of the public, trees; befides many vegetables introduced by the Dutch.
They were not more favourably treated in cafe of a bad It is about 50 miles in circumference. E. Long. 1290.
harveft or vintage, or if any epidemical diftemper had S. Lat. 4. 30.
ravaged the ftate. At firft they were governed by many BOUT ANT, or Arch-Boutant, in archite&ure,
kings, and kendin was the title of the royal dignity, an arch, or part of an arch, abutting againft the reins
But in latter times they were fubjedted to one fove- of a vault to prevent its giving way.
reign; and they grew humane and civilized, efpecially A Boutant, is a large chain or pile of ftone,
when Chriftianity was propagated in their country. Be- made to fupport a wall, terrace, or vault,
fore that epocha, their religion was much the fame with BOUTE', in the menage. A horfe is called loute\
that of the other northern nations. They had many when his legs are in a ftraight line from the knee to the
priefts, the chief of whom was diftinguifhed by the name coronet: fhort-jointed horfes are apt to be boute', and
offinijlrus. He was perpetual, and they paid him great on the other hand long-jointed horfes are not.
refpedl and veneration. BOUTON, an ifland in the Eaft Indian ocean, a-
BOURIGNON (Antonietta), a famous enthufiaftic bout 12 miles diftant from the fouth-eaft part of the
preacher and pretended prophetefs, was born at Lifle ifland of Macaflar, or Celebes. The inhabitants are
in 1616. At her birth file was fo deformed, that it was fmall, but well fhaped, and of a dark olive complexion,
debated fome days in the family whether it was not The principal town is Callafujung, which is about a
proper to ftifle her as a monfter : but her deformity di- mile from the fea, on the top of a fmall hill, and round
minifhing, fhe was fpared; and afterwards obtained fuch it a ftone wall. The houfes are not built upon the
a degree of beauty, that fhe had her admirers. From ground, but on pofts. The religion of the inhabitants
her childhood to her old age fhe had an extraordinary is Mahometanifm. E. Long. 122. 30. S. Lat. 4. 30.
turn of mind. She fet up for a reformer, and publifhed BOUVILLON, a city of Luxemburg in the Au-
a great number of books filled with very fingular no- ftrian Netherlands, fituated in E. Long. 5. o. N. Lat.
tiohs; the moft remarkable of which are intitled The 49. 55.
Light of the Worldt and The tefimony of Truth. She BOW, a weapon of offence made of fteel, wood,
was an enemy to reafon and common fenfe, which fhe horn, or other elaftic fubftances, which after being bent
maintained ought to give place to the illumination of by means of a firing fafteped to its two ends, in return-
divine faith ; and afferted, that whenever any one was ing to its natural ftate, throws out an arrow with pro-
born again by embracing her doftrines, fhe felt the digious force.
pains and throes of a woman in labour. Of her pre- The ufe of the bow is, without all doubt, of the ear-
tended vifions and revelations we fhall give one inftance Heft antiquity. It has likewife been the moft univerfal
as a fample. In one of her eeftafies fhe faw Adam in of all weapons, having obtained among the moft bar-
the fame form in which he appeared before his fall, and barous and remote people, who had the leaft commu-
the manner in which he was capable of procreating o- nication with the reft of mankind,
ther men, fince he himfelf poffeffed in himfelf the prin- The figure of the bow is pretty much the fame in all
'• ciples of both fexes*. Nay, fhe pretended it was told countries where it has been ufed ; for it has generally
• her that he had carried this procreating faculty fo far two inflexions or bendings, between which, in the place
as to produce the human nature of Jefus Chrift. “ The where the arrow is drawn, is a right line. The Gre-
firft man (fays fhe), whom Adam brought forth without cian bow was in the figure of a 3, of which form we
any concurrent affiftance in his glorified ftate, was cho- meet with many, and generally adorned with gold or
fen by God to be the throne of the Divinity; the or- filv-er. The Scythian bow was diftinguifhed from the
bows
BOW
BOW [ 1330 ]
Bow. bows of Greece and other nations, by its incurvation,
which was fo great as to form a half moon or femi-
circle.
Though it does not appear that the Romans made
ufe of bows in the infancy of the republic, yet they af¬
terwards admitted them as hoftile weapons, and em¬
ployed auxiliary archers in all their wars.
In drawing back the bow, the primitive Grecians
did not pull back -their hand towards their right ear,
according to the falhion of modern ages, and of the an¬
cient Perfians; but, placing their bow dire&ly before
them, returned their hand upon their right breaft. This
was alfo the cuftom of the Amazons.
The bow is a weapon of offence among the inhabi¬
tants of Afa, Africa, and America, at this day; and
in Europe, before the invention of fire-arms, a part of
the infantry were armed with bows. Lewis XI. firft
abolilhed the ufe of them in France, introducing in their
place the halbard, pike, and broad-fword. The long
bow was formerly in great vogue in England, and many
laws were made to encourage the ufe of it. The par¬
liament under Henry VII. complained of the difufe of
long bows, heretofore the fafeguard and defence of this
kingdom, and the dread and terror of its enemies.
Bow, is alfo an inftrument ufed at fea, for taking the
fun’s altitude ; confifting of a large arch of 90° gra¬
duated, a fkank or ftaff, a fide vane, a fight vane, and
-an horizon vane. It is now out of ufe.
Bow, among builders, a beam of wood or brafs, with
three long ferews that direft a lathe of wood or fteel
to any arch ; chiefly ufed in drawing draughts of (hips
and proje&ions of the fphere, or wherever it is requi-
fite to draw large arches.
Bow, in mufic, a fmall machine, which, being drawn
over the firings of a mufical inftrument, makes it re¬
found. It is compofed of a fmall flick, to which are
faftened 80 or 100 horfe-hairs, and a ferew which ferves
to give thefe hairs a proper tenfion. In order that the
bow may touch the firings brifkly, it is ufual to rub the
hairs with rofin. The ancients do not appear to have
been acquainted with bows of hair: in lieu hereof they
touched their inftruments with a pleftrum; over which
our bows have great advantage, for giving long and
fhort founds, and other modifications which a plectrum
cannot produce.
Bow, among artificers, an inftrument fo called from
its figure; in ufe among gunfmiths, lockfmiths, watch¬
makers, &c. for making a drill go. Among turners it
is the name of that pole fixed to the cieling, to which
they faften the cord that whirls round the piece to be
turned.
Bow, a town of Devonfhire in Wales, fituated in W.
Long. 4. o. N. Lat. 50. 45.
Bows of a Saddle, are two pieces of wood laid arch¬
wife to receive the upper part of a horfe’s back, to give
the faddle its due form, and to keep it tight.
The fore-bow which fuftains the pommel, is compo¬
fed of the withers, the breafts, the points or toes, and
the corking. See Withers, &c.
The hind-bow bears the troufequin or quilted roll.
The bows are covered with finevvs, that is with bull’s
pizzles beaten, and fo run all over the bows to make
them ftronger. Then they are ftrengthened with bands
of iron to keep them tight; and on the lower fide are
nailed on the faddle ftraps, with which they make fall
the girths. Bow |
Bow, Epaule, in (hip-building, the rounding part of ii
a (hip’s fide forward, beginning at the place where the — - ■
planks arch inwards; and terminated where they clofe,
at the ftem or prow. It is proved by a variety of ex¬
periments, that a (hip with a narrow bow is much bet¬
ter calculated for failing fwiftly, than one with a broad
bow ; but is not fo well fitted for a high fea, into
which (he always pitches, or plunges her fore-part very
deep, for want of fufficient breadth to repel the volume
of water which (he fo eafily divides in her fall. The
former of thefe is called by feamen a lean, and the o-
ther a bluff bow. “ The bow which meets with the
Jeaft refiftance in a direft courfe, not only meets with
the lead refiftance in oblique courfes, but alfo has the
additional property of driving the leaft to leeward ;
which is a double advantage gained by forming the
bow fo as to give it that figure which will be leaft re- * BouZKfrs '
fifted in moving through any medium *
On the Bow, in navigation, an arch of the horizon av,re‘
comprehended between fome diftant objed and that
point of the compafs which is right a-head, or to which
the (hip’s (tern is dire&ed. This phrafe is equally ap¬
plicable when the objed is beheld from the (hip, or dif-
covered by trigonometrical calculation : As, we faw a
fleet at day-break bearing three points on the Jlarboard-
bo*w; that is, three points from that part of the hori¬
zon which is right a-head, towards the right hand *. * Seethear- -
Bow-Legged, or Bandy-legged. Some children are ticle Bcar~
bow-legged from their birth ; others become fo from
fetting them on their feet too early. The tibia of fome
is crooked-; the knees of others are diftorted ; from a
fault in the ankle, the feet of fome are turned inwards.
Thefe are called vari; and in others, who are called
valgi, they are turned outwards. The bed method of
preventing thefe diforders in weakly children is to ex-
ercife them duly, but not violently, by dancing or tof-
fing them about in one’s arms; and hot fetting them
much upon their feet,_at leaft not without properly
fupporting them : if the diforder attends at the birth,
or increates after it is begun, apply emollients, then
apply boots of ftrong leather, wood, &c. fo as gradu¬
ally to difpofe the crooked legs to a proper form ; or
other inftruments may be ufed inftead of boots, which,
when not too coftly, are ufnally to be preferred.
Slighter inftances of thefe diforders yield to careful
nurfing, without inftruments.
Bow-Line. See Bowling.
Bow-Pieces, are the pieces of ordnance at the bow
of a (hip.
Rain-Bow. See Rmn-^w.
Bow-Bearer, an inferior officer of the foreft, who
is fworn to make inqnifition of all trefpaffes againft vert
or venifon, and to attack offenders.
Bow-China. See China.
BOWELS, in anatomy, the fame with inteftines *. "SeeAnaio-
BOWER, in gardening, a place under covert o{mL n° 354-
trees, differing only from an arbour, as being rounder
fquare, and made with a kind of dome or ceiling at
top ; whereas the arbour is always built long and arched.
Bower, in the fea-language, the name of an anchor
carried at the bow of a (hip. There are generally two
bowers, called firjl and fecond, great and little, or bejl
andbower. See Anchor.
BOWESS, or Bowet, in falconry; a young hawk,
when
BOW [ 1331 J BOX
Bowl when flie draws any thing out of her neft, and covets
II to clamber on the boughs.
*iox’ BOWL, denotes either a ball of wood,'for the ufe
of bowling; or a veffel of capacity, wherein to hold li¬
quors.
BOWLDER-stones, fmall ftones, of a roundifh fi¬
gure, and no determinate fize, found on the fea-ihore,
and on banks or rather channels of rivers.
BOWLING, the art of playing at bowls. The firft
thing to be obferved in bowling is, the right chufing
your bowl, which muft be fuitable to the ground you
defign to run on. Thus, for clofe alleys, the flat bowl
is the beft; for open grounds of advantage, the round
biafled bowl; and for plain and level fwards, the bowl
that is as round as a ball. The next is to chufe your
ground; and, laftly, to diftinguifti the rifings, fallings,
and advantages of the places where you bowl.
Bowling, or Bow-Line, a rope faftened near the
middle of the leech, or perpendicular edge of the fquare
fails, by three or four fubordinate parts called bridles.
It is only ufed when the wind is fo unfavourable that
the fails muft be all braced fideways, or clofe-hauled to
the wind: in this fituation the bow-lines are employed
to keep the weather or windward edges of the principal
fails tight forward and fteady, without which they
would always be fhivering, and rendered incapable of
fervice. To check the bow-line is to flacken it, when
the wind becomes large.
BowLiNG-^r/^r, are the ropes by which the bow¬
line is faftened to the leech of the fail.
BOWSE, in the fea-language, fignifies as much as
to hale or pull. Thus bowjing upon a tack, is haling
upon a tack. Bowfe away, that is, Pull away all to¬
gether.
BOWSPRIT, or Boltsprit, a kind of maft, reft-
ing flopewife on the head of the main ftern, and having
its lower end faftened to the partners of the fore-maft,
and farther fupported by the fore-ftay. It carries the
fprit-fail, fprit-top-fail, and jak-ftaff; and its length
is ufually the fame with that of the fore-maft.
BOWYERS, one of the ancient companies of the
city of London. A bowyer dwelling in London, was
always to have ready 50 bows of elm, hazle, or afh,
well made and wrought, under the penalty of 10 s.
for every bow wanting ; and to fell them at certain
prices, under the penalty of 40s. And parents and ma¬
tters were to provide for their fons and fervants, a bow
and two ftiafts, and caufe them to exercife (hooting, on
pain of 6 s. 8d. &c. by our ancient ftatutes.
BOX, in its moft common acceptation, denotes a
fmall cheft or coffer for holding things.
Z)/Ve-Box, a narrow deep cornet, channelled within,
wherein the dice are (haken and thrown. This anfwers
to what the Romans called fritillus ; whence, crepitan-
tes fritilli; and, in Seneca, refonante fritillo. The fame
author ufes alfo concutere fritillum, figuratively, for
playing.—Befides the fritillus, the Romans, for greater
fecurity, had another kind of dice-box called pyrgus,
xvpy®-, and fometimes turricula. It was placed im¬
moveable in the middle of the table, being perforated
or open at both ends, and likewife channelled within;
over the top was placed a kind of funnel, into which
the dice were caft out upon the fritillus; whence de-
fcending, they fell through the bottom on the table;
by which all pra&ifing on them with the fingers was
effe&ually prevented. For want of fome contrivance b°k
of this kind, our (harpers have opportunities of playing „ l
divers tricks with the box, as palming, topping, flab- - oxing' ..
bing, &c.
Box, is alfo ufed for an uncertain quantity or mea-
fure: thus a box of quickfilver contains from one to two
hundred weight; a box of prunellas only 14 pounds;
a box of rings for keys, two grofs, &c.
'Box. Tree, in botany. See Buxus.
BOXERS, a kind of athleta, who combat or con¬
tend for viftory with their fifts. Boxers amount to the
fame with what among the Romans were called pugiles.
The ancient boxers battled with great force and fury,
infomuch as to dafh out each others teeth, break bones,
and often kill each other. The ftrange disfigurements
thefe boxers underwent were fuch that they frequently
could not be known, and rendered them the fubjeft of
many railleries. In the Greek anthology there are four
epigrams of the poet Lucilius, and one of Lucian,
wherein their disfigurements are pleafantly enough ex-
pofed.
BOXHORNIUS (Marc Zuerius), a learned critic,
born at Bergen-op-Zoom in 1612, was profeffor of elo¬
quence at Leyden, and at length of politics and hiftory
in the room of Heinfius. He publiftied, t. Theatru7n
urbium Hollandia;. 2. Scriptores bijiorict /lugujla, cum
notis. 3. Poet a fatyrici minores, cum comment. 4. Notes
on Juftin, Tacitus; and a great number of other works.
He died in 1653, aged 41.
BOXING, the exercife of fighting with the fifts,
either naked, or with a (lone or leaden ball grafped in
them. In this fenfe, boxing coincides with the xvyfxnn
of the Greeks, the pugillatus of the Romans, and what
on our amphitheatres is fometimes called the trial of
manhood. When the champions had a-faigai, or balls, ei¬
ther of lead or (tone, it was properly denominated
B-faiSor,axtx. The ancient boxing differed from the
pugna cafluum, in which the combatants had leathern
thongs on their hands, and balls, to offend their anta-
gonifts ; though this diftindlion is frequently overlook¬
ed, and fighting with the ceftus reckoned a part of the
bufinefs of pugiles: in which view we may difcover
three fpecies of boxing ; the firft, where both the hands
and the head are abfolutely naked, as is praftifed among
us ; the fecond, where the hands were armed with fphe-
ra:, but the head naked ; and the third, where the head
was armed with a kind of cap or cover called amphoti-
dcs, chiefly to defend the ears and temples, the hands
being alfo armed with ceftufes. Boxing is an ancient
exercife, having been in ufe in the heroic times before
the invention of iron or other weapons. Thofe who
prepared themfelves for it, ufed all the means that
could be contrived to render themfelves fat and fleftiy,
that they might be better able to endure blows; whence
corpulent men or women were ufually called pugiles.
Mr Burette f has given the hiftory of the ancient pu- •(■ Mem.
gilate, or boxing, with great exailnefs. Acad. ln-
Boxing, among failors, is ufed to denote the re-fcr‘lv" 3*1’
hearfing the feveral points of the compafs in their pro¬
per order.
Boxing is alfo ufed for the tapping of a tree to
make it yield its juice. The boxing of maple is per¬
formed by making an hole with an ax or chiffel into
the fide of the tree about a foot from the ground; out of
it flows a liquor of which fugar is made.
BOX-
BOY [ 1332 ] BOY
Boxtehmlc BOXTEHUDE, a town orGermany, in the circle
ll of Lower Saxony, fubjedl to the Danes. It is feated
_ Boyer- on the rivulet Effe, which falls into the Elbe, in E.
Long. 9. 35. N. Lat. 53. 40.
BOXTEL, a town in Dutch Brabant, with fluices,
feated on the river Bommel. E. Long. 5.15. N. Lat.
51* 3°-
BOYAR, a term ufed for a grandee of Ruffia and
Tranfylvania. Becntan fays, that the boyars are the
upper nobility ; and adds, that the Czar of Mufcovy,
in his diplomas, names the boyars before the way-
wodes. See Waywode.
BOYAU, in fortification, a ditch covered with a
parapet, which ferves as a communication between two
trenches. It runs parallel to the works of the body of
the place ; and ferves as a line of contravallation, not
only to hinder the fallies of the befieged, but alfo to
fecure the miners. But when it is a particular cvit that
runs from the trenches to cover fome fpot of ground,
it is drawn fo as not to be enfiladed or fcoured by the
{hot from the town.
BOYD (Mark Alexander), an extraordinary genius,
was fon of Robert Boyd, who was eldeft fon of Adam
Boyd of Pinkhill, brother to Lord Boyd. He was born
in Galloway on the I3ch of January 1562, and came
into the world with teeth. He learned the rudiments of
the Latin and Greek languages at Glafgow under two
grammarians ; but was of fo high and intradable a fpi-
rit, that they defpaired of ever making him a fcholar.
Having quarrelled with his mailers, he beat them both,
burnt his books, and forfwore learning. While he was
yet a youth, he followed the court, and did his utmoil
to puih his intereft there ; but the fervour of his tem¬
per foon precipitated him into quarrels, from which he
came off with honour and fafety, though frequently at
the hazard of his life. He, with the approbation of his
friends, went to ferve in the French army, and carried
his little patrimony with him, which he foon difiipated
at play. He was (hortly after roufed by that emulation
which is natural to great minds, and applied himfelf to
letters with unremitted ardour, till he became one of
the moft confummate fcholars of his age. He is faid to
have tranfiated Caefar’s Commentaries into Greek in the
llyle of Herodotus, and to have written many Latin
poems which were little inferior to the firft produ&ions
of the Augullan age. He alfo left feveral manufcripts
on philological, political, and hiftprical fubje&s, in La¬
tin and French, which languages were as familiar to
him as his native tongue. He could with facility dic¬
tate to three amanuenfes at the fame time, in diffe¬
rent languages, and on different fubjeAs. He was alfo
one of the beft Scottifh poets of the age. To all this
we mull add, that his perfonal beauty and accomplilh-
ments were equal to his mental fuperiority. He died
at Pinkhill in Scotland, in 1601. The following works,
which are all that have been printed, were publilhed
in Dciicia Poet arum Scotorum; Amftel. 1637. izmo.
1. Epigrammata, lib. ii. 2. Heroidum EpifloU XIV.
lib. i. 3. Hymni XIV.
BOYER (Abel), a well known gloffographer and
hiftoriographer, born at Caftres in France, in 1664.
Upon the revocation of the edi£t of Nantz, he went firit
to Geneva, then to Franeker, where he finifhed his flu-
dies; and came finally to England, where he applied
himfelf fo clofely to the ftudy of the Englifh language,
and made fo great a proficiency therein, that he became Boyer
an author of confiderable note in it, being employed in 11
the writing of feveral periodical and political works. Boy e'
He was for many years concerned in, and had the prin¬
cipal management of, a newfpaper called the Pie
likewife publifhed a monthly w'ork intitled the Political
Jlate of Great Britain. He wrote a life of queen Anne
in folio, W'hich is efteemed a very good chronicle of
that period of the Englifh hiflory. But what has ren¬
dered him the mofl known, and eflablifhed his name to
the lateft poflerity, are the excellent Di&ionary and
Grammar of the French language, which he compiled,
and which have been and flill are reckoned the beft in
their kind. He alfo wrote, or rather tranfiated from
the French of M. de Racine, the tragedy of Iphigenia,
which he publifhed under the title of the Viftirti. It
w’as performed with fuccefs at the theatre of Drury-lane,
and is far from being a bad play.— Nor can there per¬
haps be a ftronger inftance of the abilities of its author,
than fuccefs in fuch an attempt; fince writing with
any degree of corrednefs or elegance, even in profe, in
a language w'hich we were not born to the fpeaking of,
is an excellence not very frequently attained ; but to
proceed fo far in the perfe&ion of it as to be even fuf-
ferable in poetry, and more efpecially in that of the
Drama, in which the didion and manner of expreffion
require a peculiar dignity and force, and in a language
fo difficult to attain the perfed command of as the En¬
glifh, is what has been very feldom accomplifhed. He
died in 1729.
Boyer, in navigation, a kind of Flemifh floop, or
fmall veffel of burden, having a boltfprit, a caftle at
each end, and a tall mail; chiefly fit for the navigation
of rivers, and in many of its parts refembling a fmack.
BOYES, idolatrous priefts among the favages of
Florida. Every prieft attends a particular idol, and
the natives addrefs themfelves to the prieft of that idol
to which they intend to pay their devotion. The idol
is invoked in hymns, and his ufual offering is the fmoke
of tobacco.
BOYLE (Richard), one of the greateft ftatefmen
of the laft century, and generally ftyledthe Great earl
of Cork, was the youngeft fon of Mr Roger Boyle, and
was born at Canterbury, on the 3d of Odtober, 1566.
He ftudied at Bennet college, Cambridge ; afterwards
became a ftudent in the Middle Temple. Having loft
his father and motherland being unable to fupport
himfelf in the profecution of his ftudies, he became
clerk to Sir Richard Manhood, one of the chief barons
of the exchequer; but finding that by his employment
he could not raife his fortune, he went to Ireland, in
1588, with fewer pounds in his pocket than he after¬
wards acquired thoufands a year. He was then about
22, had a graceful perfon, and many accomplifhments,
which enabled him to render himfelf ufeful to feveral of
the principal perfons employed in the government, by
drawing up for them memorials, cafes, and anfwers. In
1595, he married Joan the daughter and coheirefs of
William Anfley, who had fallen in love with him; and
file dying in labour of her firft child, who was born dead,
in 1599, left him an eftate of 500/. a year in land. In
confequence of various fervices, and the great abilities
he difplayed, he gradually rofe to the higheft offices,
and even to the dignity of the peerage of Ireland; to
which he was railed by king James I. on the 29th of
BOY
September, i6t6,by the ftyle and title ollaron of Toug~
hall, in the county of Cork : four years after, he was crea¬
ted vifeount Dungarvan and earl of Cork; and, in 1631,
was made lord treafurer of Ireland, an honour that was
made hereditary to his family. He particularly diftin-
guilhed himfelf by the noble Hand he made, when the
fatal 5'ebellion broke out in that kingdom, in the reign of
Charles L; and in his old age afted with as much bra¬
very and military (kill, as if he had been trained from
his infancy to the profeflion of arms. He turned the
caftle-of Lifmore, his capital feat, into a fortrefs ca¬
pable of demanding refpedl from the Iriftu He imme¬
diately armed and difciplined his fervants and Protdftant
tenants; and by their affiftance, and a fmall army rai¬
led and maintained at his own expence, which he put
under the command of his four fons, defended the pro¬
vince of Munlter, and in the fpace of a year took fe-
veral ftrong caftles, and killed upwards of 3000 of the
enemy: during which time he paid his forces regularly;
and, when all his money was gone, like a true patriot,
converted his plate into coin. This great man died on
the i5rh of September, 1634.
Boyle (Richard), earl of Burlington and Corke,
fon to the former, was a nobleman of unblemifhed
loyalty in rebellious times, and of untainted integrity
in times of the greateft corruption. He was born at
Youghall, O&ober 20th, 1612, while his father was in
the beginning of his profperity, and only Sir Richard
Boyle. He diftinguiihed himfelf by his loyalty to king
Charles I. He not only commanded troops, but railed
and for a long time paid them, and continued to wait
upon the king as long as any one place held out for
him in England, and then was forced to compound for
his eftate. He contributed all in his power to the Re-
ftoration; on which king Charles II. raffed him to the
dignity of earl of Burlington, or Bridlington, in the
county of York, in the year 1663. He died Jan. 15.
1697-8, in the 86th year of his age.
Boyle (Roger), earl of Orrery, younger brother of
the former, and the fifth fon of Richard, fiyled the Great
earl of Cork, was born April 25th, 1621; and, by the
credit of his father with the lord deputy Faulkland, rai¬
led to the dignity and title of baron Broghill, when only
feven years old. He was educated at the college of
Dublin, where he foon diilinguifhed himfelf as an early
and pronjiling genius. He afterwards made the tour of
France and Italy; and at his return affifted his father
in oppofing the rebellious Irilh, in which he behaved
with all the fpirit of a young, and all the difcretion of
an old, officer. Upon the murder of the king, he re¬
tired to Marfton in Somerfetffiire, and hid himfelf in
the privacy of a clofe retirement: but being at length
affiamed to fit the tame fpe&ator. of all the mifchief
that appeared round him, he refolved to attempt fome-
thing in favour of the king; and, under the pretence
of going to the Spa for the recovery of his health, he
determined to crofs the feas, and apply himfelf to king
Charles II. for a commiffion to raife what forces he
could in Ireland, in order to reftore his majefty, and re¬
cover his own etlate. To this purpofe, he prevailed on
the earl of Warwick to procure a licence for his going
to the Spa; and having raifed a confiderable fum of
money, came up to London to profecute his voyage:
but he had not been long in town when he received a
meflage from Cromwell, who was then general of the
' Vol. II.
B O Y s
parliament’s forces, that he intended to wait upoti him.
The lord Broghill w^as furprifed at this meffage, ha¬
ving never had the lead acquaintance with Cromwell ;
and defired the gentleman to let the general knbw, that
he would wait upon his excellency. But while he was
waiting the return of the meffinger, Cromwell entered
the room ; and, after mutual civilities had paffed be¬
tween them, told him in few words, that the committe
of date were apprized of his defign of going over and
applying to Charles Stuart for a commiffion to raife
forces in Ireland-; and that they were determined to
make an example of him, if he himfelf had not diverted
them from that refolution. The lord Broghill interrup¬
ted him, by affuring him that the intelligence which
the committee had received was falfe, and that he nei¬
ther was in a capacity nor had any inclination to raife
difturbances in Ireland: but Cromwell, inllead of ma¬
king any reply, drew fome papers out of his pocket,
which were the copies of feveral letters which the lord
Broghill had fent to thofe perfons in whom he mod con¬
fided, and put them into his hands. The lord Brog¬
hill, upon the perufal of thefe papers, finding it to no
purpofe to diffcmble any longer, alked his excellency’s
pardon for what he had faid, returned him his humble
thanks for his prote&ion againd the committe, and in-
treated his diredfion how to behave in fuch a delicate
cflnjundlure. Cromwell told him, that though till this
time he had been a firanger to his perfon, he was not
fo to his merit and charafter: he had heard how gal¬
lantly his lordlhip had behaved in the Iriffi-wars; and
therefore, fince he was named lord lieutenant of Ireland,
and the reducing that kingdom was now become his
province, he had obtained leave of the committee to of¬
fer his lordffiip the command of a general officer, if he
would ferve in that war ; and he ffiould have no oaths
or engagements impofed upon him, nor be obliged to
draw his fwotd againil any but the Iriffi rebels.
The lord Broghill was infinitely furprifed at fo ge¬
nerous and unexpefted an offer. He faw himfelf at li¬
berty, by all the rules of honour, to ferve again!! the
Iriffi, whofe rebellion and barbarities were equally de-
tefted by the royal party and the parliament. He de¬
fined, however, fome time to confider of what had been
propofed to him. But Cromwell briffily told him, that
he muff come to fome refolution that very inftant: that
he himfelf was returning to the committee, who were
ftill fitting ; and if his lordffiip reje&ed their offer,
they had determined to fend him to the tower. Up¬
on this, the lord Broghill, finding that his liberty and
life were in the utmoit danger, gave his word and ho¬
nour that he would faithfully ferve him againft the
Iriffi rebels: on which Cromwell once more affured
him, that the conditions which he had made with
him ffiould be punctually obferved; and then ordered
him to repair to Briftol, adding, that he himfelf
would foon follow him into Ireland. Lord Broghill,
therefore, having fettled the bufinefs of his command,
went over into that country; where, by his conduCl and
intrepidity, he performed many important fervices, and
fully juftified the opinion Cromwell had conceived of
him. By his own intereft he now'raifed a gallant troop
of horfe, confiding chiefly of gentlemen attached to him
by perfonal friendffiip ; which corps was foon increafed
to a complete regiment of 15,000 men. Thefe he led
into the field againft the Iriffi rebels; and was fpeedily
8 F joined
[ '333 1
BOY [ 1334 ] BOY
Boyle, joined by Cromwell, who placed the higheft confidence
in- his new ally, and found him of the greateft coufe-
quence to tfre intereil of the commonwealth.
Among other confiderable exploits performed by
lord Broghill, the following deferves to be particularly
mentioned. Whilll Cromwell laid fiege to Clenwell,
Broghill being detached to difperfe a body of 5000 men
who had affembled to relieve the place, he, with zooo
horfe and dragoons, came up with the enemy at Mae-
croomson the 10th of May 1650; and, without waiting
for the arrival of his foot, immediately attacked and
routed them, making their general prifoner. Then pro¬
ceeding to the caftie of Carrigdroghid, he fent a fum-
mons to the garrifon to furrender before the arrival of
his battering cannon, otherwife they were to expedt no
quarter. His own army was furprifed at this fummons,
as knowing he had not one piece of heavy cannon: but
Broghill had ordered the trunks of feveral large trees
to be drawn at a diltance by his baggage horfes; which
the befieged perceiving, and judging from the flownefs
of the motion that the guns muit be of a vaft bore,
immediately capitulated. He afterwards relieved Crom¬
well himfelf at Clonwell, where that great commander
happened to be fodangeroufiy fituated, that he confef-
fed, nothing but the feafonable relief afforded him by
lord Broghill could have faved him from deftru&ion.
When Ireton fat down before Limeric, he gave Brog¬
hill 600 foot and 400 horfe, with orders to prevent lord
Mufkerry's joining the pope’s nuncio, who had got to¬
gether a body of 8000 men, and was determined to at¬
tempt the relief of Limeric. Mufkerry was at the head
of 1000 horfe and dragoons, and about 2000 foot: not-
withftanding which, lord Broghill fell refolutely upon
him. The Irifh, having the advantage of the ground
and numbers, would have conquered, but for a ftrata-
gem of lord Broghill. In the heat of the adlion he de-
fired thofe about him to repeat what he faid; and then
cried out as loud as he could, “ They run, they run.”
The firft line of the Irifh looked round to fee if their
rear broke, and the rear feeing the faces of their friends,
and hearing the fhouts of the enemy, imagined that the
firll line was routed, and fled. The taking of Limeric,
which put an end to the w-ar in Ireland, was the con-
fequence of this defeat.
When Cromwell became prote&or, he fent for lord
Broghill, merely to take his advice occafionally. And
we are told, that, not long after his coming to England,
he formed a project for engaging Cromwell to reftore
the old conftitution. The bails of the fcheme was to
be a match between the king (Charles II.) and the
proteftor’s daughter. As his .lordfhip maintained a
fecret correfpondence wuth the exiled monarch and his
friends, it was imagined that he was beforehand pretty
fure that Charles was not averfe to the fcheme, or he
would not have ventured to have propofed it ferioufly
to Cromwell; who at firfl. feemtd not to think it not un-
feafible. He foon changed his mind, however, and
told Broghill that he thought his project imprafticable :
“ For (faid he) Charles can never forgive me the death
of his father.” In fine, the bufinefs came to nothing, al-
tho’hislordfhiphadengaged Cromwell’s \yife and daugh¬
ter in the fcheme; but he never durft let the protedtor
.know that he had previoufly treated with Charles about it.
On the death of the proteftor, lord Broghill contin ued
attached to his fon Richard, till, when he faw that
the honefty and good nature of that worthy man would
infallibly render him a prey to Lis many enemies, he Boyle,
did not think it advifeable to fink with a man that he
could not fave. The dark clouds of anarchy feemed
now to be hovering over the Britifh ifland. Lord Brog¬
hill faw the ftorm gathering, and he deemed it prudent
to retire to his command in Ireland, w-here he fhortly
after had the fatisfadlion of feeing things take a turn
extremely favourable to the defign he had long been
well-wifher to, viz. that of the king’s reftoration. In
this great event Lord Broghill was not a little inftru-
mental ; and, in confideration of his eminent fervices
in this refpedt, Charles created him earl of Orrery by
letters-patent bearing date Sept. 5th, 1660. He was
foon after made one of the lords juft ices of Ireland ;
and his conduft, while at the head of affairs in that
kingdom, was fuch as greatly added to the general e-
fteem in which his chara&er was held before.
His lordfhip’s adive and toilfome courfe of life at
length brought upon him fome difeafes and infirmities
which gave him much pain and uneafinefs ; and a fever
which fell into his feet, joined to the gout with which
he was often afflided, abated much of that vigour which
he had fhewn in the early part of his life : but his in-
duftry and application were ftill the fame, and bent to'
the fame purpofes ; as appears from his letters, which
fhew at once a capacity, and an attention to bufinefs,
which da honour to that age, and may ferve as an ex¬
ample to this.
Notwithftanding his infirmities, on the king’s de-.
firing to fee his lordfhip in England, he went over in
1665. He found the court in fome diforder ; where
his majefty was on the point of removing the great
earl of Clarendon, lord high chancellor ; and there was
alfo a great mifunderftanding between the two royal
brothers. Lord Orrery undertook to reconcile the king
with the duke of York ; which he effeded by prevail¬
ing on the latter to afk his majefty’s pardon for fome
fteps he had taken in fupport of the lord chancellor.
On his return to Ireland, he found himfelf called to
a new fcene of adion. The Dutch war was then at
its height ; and the French, in confederacy with the
Hollanders, were endeavouring to ftir up the allies of
rebellion in Ireland. The duke de Beaufort, admiral
of France, had formed a fcheme for a defeent upon Ire¬
land ; but this was rendered abortive by the extraor¬
dinary diligence, military fkill, and prudent meafures,
of lord Orrery.
But in midft of all his labours, a difpute arofe,
founded on a mutual jealoufy of each other’s greatnefs,
betwixt him and his old friend the duke of Ormond,
then lord lieutenant; the bad effe&s of which were foon
felt by both difputants, who reforted to England to
defend their refpe&ive interefts and pretenfions, both
having been attacked by fecret enemies who fuggefted
many things to their prejudice. This quarrel, though
of a private beginning, became at laft of a public na¬
ture ; and producing firft an attempt to frame an im¬
peachment again!! the duke of Ormond, occafioned in
the end, by way of revenge, an adlual impeachment
again!! the earl of Orrery. He defended himfelf, how¬
ever, fo well again!! a charge of high crimes, and e-
ven of treafon itfelf, that the profecution came to no¬
thing. He neverthelefs loft his public employments;
but not the king’s favour: he ftill came frequently to
court, and fometimes to council. After this revolution
in his affairs, he made feveral voyages to and from Ire¬
land}
BOY
land ; was often confulted by bis majeily on affairs of
the utmoft confequence ; and on all occafions gave his
opinion and advice with the freedom of an honeft plain¬
dealing man and a fincere friend ; which the king al¬
ways found him, and refpefted him accordingly.
In 1678, being attacked more cruelly than ever by
his old enemy the gout, he made his laft voyage to
England for advice in the medical way. But his dif-
order was beyond the power of medicine ; and having,
in his laftillnefs, given the ftrongeft proofs of Chriftian
patience, manly courage, and rational fortitude, he
breathed his laft on the 16th of O&ober 1679, in the
59th year of his age. His lordfliip wrote, 1. A work
intitled The art'of war. 2. Partheniffa, a romance,
in one volume folio. 3. Several poems. 4. Dramatic
pieces, two volumes. 5. State-tra&s, in one volume
folio, &c. Mr Walpole, fpeaking of this nobleman,
fays, he never made a bad figure but as a poet. As
a foldier, his bravery was diftinguilhed, his ftratagems
remarkable. As a ftatefman, it is fuflicient to fay, that
he had the confidence of Cromwell. As a man, he was
grateful, and would have fupported the fon of his friend:
but, like Cicero, and Richelieu, he could not be con¬
tent without being a poet; though he was ill qualified,
his writings of that kind being flat and trivial.
Boyle (Robert), one of the greateft philofophers
as well as beft men that our own or indeed any o-
ther nation has produced, was the feventh fon and
the 14th child of Richard earl of Cork, and born at
Lifmorein the province ofMunfterin Ireland, Jan. 25th,
1626-7. Before he went to fchool, he was taught to
'write a very fair hand, and to fpeak French and La¬
tin, by one of the earl’s chaplains, and a Frenchman
that he kept in the houfe. In the year 1635, ^a*
ther fent him over to England, in order to be educated
at Eaton fchool, under Sir Henry Wotton, who wasthe
earl of Cork’s old friend and acquaintance. Herehefoon
difcovered a force of underftanding which promifed
great things,, and a difpofit.ion to cultivate and improve
it to the utmoft. While he remained at Eaton, there
were feveral very extraordinary accidents that befel him,
of which he has given us an account ; and three of
which were very near proving fatal to him. The firft
was, the fudden fall of the chamber where he was
lodged, when himfelf was in bed ; when, befides the
danger he run of being crufhed to pieces, he had cer¬
tainly been choaked with the duft during the time he
lay under the rubbiih, if he had not had prefence of
mind enough to have wrapped his head up in the ftieet,
which gave him an opportunity of breathing without
hazard. A little after this, he had been cruftied to
pieces by a ftarting horfe that rofe up fuddenly, and
threw himfelf backwards, if he had not happily dif-
engaged his feet from the ftirrups, and call himfelf
from his back before he fell. A third accident pro¬
ceeded from the careleffnefs of an apothecary’s fervant,
who, by miftaking the phials, brought him a ftrong
vomit inftead of a cooling julep.
He remained at Eaton, upon the whole, between three
and four years ; and then his father carried him to his
own feat at Stalbridge in Dorfetlhire, where he re¬
mained for fome time under the care of one of his chap¬
lains who was the parfon of the place. In 1638, he
attended his father to London ; and remained with
him at the Savoy, till his brother Mr Francis Boyle
B O Y
efpoufed Mrs Elifabeth Killigrew ; and then, towards Boyle,
the end of O&ober, within four days after the marriage,
the two brothers Francis and Robert were fent abroad
upon their travels, under the care of Mr Marcombes.
They embarked at Rye in Suflex, and from thence
proceeded to Dieppe in Normandy : then they travel¬
led by land to Rowen, fo to Paris, and from thence to
Lyons ; from which city they continued their journey
to Geneva, where his governor had a family ; and there
the two gentlemen purfued their ftudies without inter¬
ruption. Mr Boyle, during his ftay here, refumed his
acquaintance with the mathematics, or at leaft with the
elements of that fcience, of which he had before gained
fome knowledge. For he tells us in his own memoirs,
that while he was at Eaton, andaffli&ed with an ague,
before he was ten years old, by way of diverting his
melancholy, they made him read Amadis de Gaul, and
other romantic books, which produced fuch a reftlefs-
nefs in him, that he was obliged to apply himfelf to the
extraftion of the fquare and cube roots, and to the
more laborious operations of algebra, in order to fix
and fettle the volatile operations of his fancy.
In September 1641, he quitted Geneva, after having
fpent 21 months in that city; and pafling through
Switzerland and the country of the Grifons, entered
Lombardy. Then, taking his rout through Bergamo,
Brefcia, and Verona, he arrived at Venice; where
having made a fhort ftay, he returned to the continent,
and fpent the winter at Florence. Here he employed
his fpare hours in reading the modern hiftory in Italian,
and the works of the celebrated aftronomer Galileo,
who died in a village near this city during Mr Boyle’s
refidence in it. It was at Florence that he acquired
the Italian language ; which he underftood perfedlly,
though he never fpoke it fo fluently as the French.
Of this indeed he was fuch a mafter, that as occafion
required he paffed for a native of that country in more
places than one during his travels.
About the end of March 1642, he began his jour¬
ney from Florence to Rome, which took up but five
days. He furveyed the numerous curiofities of that
city; among which, he tells us, “ he had the fortune
to fee Pope Urban VIII. at chapel, with the cardinals,
who, feverally appearing mighty princes, in thataflem-
bly looked like a company of common friars.” He
vifited the adjacent villages which had any thing curious
or antique belonging to them ; and had probably made
a longer ftay, had not the heats difagreed with his
brother. He returned to Florence ; from thence to
Leghorn; and fo by fea to Genoa: then pafling through
the county of Nice, he crofted the fea to Antibes,
where he fell into danger from refufing to honour the
crucifix : from thence he went to Marfeilles by land.
He was in that city, in May 1642, when he received
his father’s letters, which informed him that the rebel¬
lion had broken out in Ireland, and how difficultly he
had procured the L 250 then remitted to them in order
to help them home. They never received this money;
and were obliged to go to Geneva with their governor
Marcombes, who fupplied them with as much at leaft
as carried them thither. They continued there acon-
fiderable time, without either advice or fupplies from
England ; upon which, Marcombes was obliged to
take up fome jewels upon his own credit, which were
afterwards difpofed of with as little lofs as might be;
8 F 2 and
[ >335 ]
BOY [ 1336 ] BOY
Boyle. and with the money thus railed, they eontinued their
—  journey for England, where they arrived in the year
1644. On their arrival, Mr Boyle found his father
dead ; and though the earl had made an ample provi-
vifion for him, by leaving him his manor of Stal-
bridge in England, as well as other confiderable eftates
in Ireland, yet it was fome time before he could receive
any money. However, he procured prote&ions for
his eftates in both kingdoms from the powers then in
being; from which he alfo obtained leave to go over
to France for a ftiort fpace, probably to fettle accounts
with his governor Mr Marcombes.
In March 1646, he retired to his manor at Stal-
bridge, where he refided for the moft part till May
1650. He made excurfions fometimes to London, fome-
times to Oxford ; and in February 1647, he went over
, to Holland : but he made no confiderable ftay any
where. During his retirement at Stalbridge, he applied
himfelfwith incredible induftiy to ftudiesofvarious kinds,
to thofe of natural philofophy and chemiitry in parti¬
cular. He omitted no opportunity of obtaining the ac¬
quaintance of perfons diftinguiftied for parts and learn¬
ing ; to whom he was in every refpeft a ready, ufeful,
generous affiftant, ancP with whom he held a conftant
correfpondence. He was alfo one of the firft members
of that fmall but learned body of men which, when all
academical ftudies were interrupted by the civil wars,
fecreted themfelves about the year 1645; and held pri¬
vate meetings, firft in London, afterwards at Oxford,
for the fake of canvaffing fubjedfts of natural knowledge
upon that plan of experiment which Lord Bacon had
delineated. They ftyled themfelves then The pbilofophi-
cal college; and, after the Reftoration, when they were
incorporated and diftinguilhed openly, they took the
name of the Royal Society.
In the fummer of 1654, he put in execution a defign
he had formed for fome time of refiding at Oxford,
where he chofe to live in the houfe of one Mr Crofie,
an apothecary, rather than in a college, for the fake of
his health, and becaufe he had more room to make ex¬
periments. Oxford was indeed the only place at that
time in England where Mr Boyle could have lived with
much fatisfa&ion ; for here he found himfelf furrounded
with a number of learned friends, fuch as Wilkins,
Wallis, Ward, Willis, Wren, &c. fuited exaftly to his
tafte, and who had reforted thither for the fame reafons
that he had done, the philofophical fociety being now
removed from London to Oxford. It was during his
refidence here that he improved that admirable engine
the air-pump ; and by numerous experiments was en¬
abled to difcover feveral qualities of the air, fo as to lay a
foundation for a complete theory. He was not, however,
fatisfied with this; but laboured inceflantly in collefting
and digefting, chiefly from his own experiments, the ma¬
terials requifite for this purpofe. He declared againft the
philofophy of Ariftotle, as having in it more of words
than things ; promifing much, and performing little ;
and giving the inventions of men for indubitable proofs,
inftead of building upon obfervation and experiment.
He was fo zealous for, and fo careful about, this true
method of learning by experiment, that, though the
Cartefian philofophy then made a great noife in the
world, yet he would never be perfuaded to read the
works of Des Cartes, for fear he Ihould be amufed and
led away by plaufible accounts of things founded on
conjecture, and merely hypothetical. But philofophy, Boyle,
and inquiries into nature, though they engaged his at- '
tention deeply, did not occupy it entirely; fince we
find that he ftill continued to purfue critical and theo¬
logical ftudies. In thefe he had the alliftance of fome
great men, particularly Dr Edward Pocock, Mr Thomas
Hyde, and Mr Samuel Clarke, all of great eminence
for their (kill in the oriental languages. He had alfo a
ftridf intimacy with Dr Thomas Barlow, at that time
head keeper of the Bodleian library, and afterwards
biftiop of Lincoln, a man of various and extenfive
learning. In the year 1659, Mr Boyle, being ac¬
quainted with the unhappy circumftances of the learned
Sanderfon, afterwards biftiop of Lincoln, who had loft
all his preferments on account of his attachment to the
royal party, conferred upon him an honorary (Upend
of 50I. a-year. This (Upend was given as an encourage¬
ment to that excellent mafter of reafoning to apply
himfelf to the writing of “ Cafes of Confcience and
accordingly he printed his leCIures De obligatione con-
fcienti.-c, which he read at Oxford in 1647, anft dedi¬
cated them to his friend and patron.
Dpon the reftoration of Charles II. Mr Boyle was
treated with great civility and refpeft by the king, as
well as by the two great minifters the lord treafurer
Southampton and the lord chancellor Clarendon. He
was folicited by the latter to enter into holy orders,
not only out of regard to him and his family, but
chiefly with a view to ferve the church itfelf; for*Mr
Boyle’s noble family, his diftinguiftied learning, and
above all his unblemiftied reputation, induced Lord
Clarendon to think that any ecclefiaftical preferments
he might attain would be worthily difeharged, fo as to
do honour to the clergy, and fervice to the eftablidled
communion. Mr Boyle confidered all this with due at¬
tention : but, to balance thefe, he refleifted, that, in
the fituation of life in which he was, whatever he
wrote with refpedl to religion would have fo much the
greater weight as coming from a layman; fince he well
knew that the irreligious fortified themfelves againft
all that the clergy could offer, by fuppofing, and fay¬
ing, that it was their trade, and that they were paid
for it. He confidered likewife, that, in point of for¬
tune and chara&er, he needed no acceflions; and indeed
he never had any appetite for either. He chofe, there¬
fore, to purfue his philofophical ftudies in fuch a man¬
ner as might be moft effeflual for the fupport of reli¬
gion ; and began to communicate to the world the
fruits of thefe ftudies.
The firft of thefe was printed at Oxford in 1660, in
8vo, under the title of, 1. New experiments, phyfico-
mechanical, touching the fpring of the air and its ef-
fefts. 2. Seraphic love; or fome motives and incen¬
tives to the love of God, pathetically difeourfed of in a
letter to a friend. 3. Certain phyfiological effays and
other tra&s, 1661, 410. 4. Sceptical chemilt, 1662,
8vo; a very curious and excellent work, reprinted a-
bout the year 1679, 8vo> with the addition of divers
experiments and notes about the produciblenefs of che¬
mical principles.
In the year 1663, t^ie roya^ fociety being incorpo¬
rated by king Charles II. Mr Boyle was appointed one
of the council; and as he might be juftly reckoned
among the founders of that learned body, fo he conti¬
nued one of the moft ufeful and induftrious of its mem¬
bers
Boyle.
BOY [ 1337 ] BOY
bers during the whole courfe of his life. In June 1663,
he publifhed, 5. Confiderations touching the ufefulnefs
of experimental natural philofophy, 410. 6. Experi¬
ments and confiderations upon colours ; to which was
added a' letter containing Obfervations on a diamond
that Ihincs in the dark, 1663, 8vo. This treatife is full
of curious and ufeful remarks on the hitherto unex¬
plained doftrine of light and colours ; in which he
Ihews great judgment, accuracy, and penetration; and
may be faid to have led the way to that mighty genius
the great Sir Ifaac Newton, who has fince fet that
point in the cleareit and moft convincing light. 7. Con¬
fiderations on the ftyle of the Holy Scriptures, 1663,
8vo. It was an extraft from a larger work, intitled
An effay on feripture; which was afterwards publifhed
by Sir Peter Pett, a friend of Mr Boyle’s.
In 1664, he was elefted into the company of the
royal mines ; and was all this year taken up in the pro-
fecution of various good defigns, which probably was
the reafon why he did not fend abroad any treatifes
either of religion or philofophy. The year following,
came forth, 8. Otyafional refleftions upon feveral fub-
je&s; whereto is prefixed a difeourfe about fuch kind
of thoughts, 1665, Rvo. This piece is addreffed to So-
phronia, under whofe name he concealed that of his be¬
loved fifter the vifeountefs of Ranelagh. The thoughts
themfelves are on a vaft variety of fubjedts, written
many years before ; fome indeed upon trivial occafions,
but all with great accuracy of language, much wit,
more learning, and in a wonderful drain of moral and
pious refleftion. Yet this expofed him to the only fe-
vere cenfure that ever was pafled upon him ; and that
too from no lefs a man than the celebrated Dean Swift,
who, to ridicule thefe difeourfes, wrote A pious medita¬
tion upon a broov/JUck, in tbejiyle of the Honourable Mr
Boyle. But, as his noble relation the late Lord Orrery
has faid, “ to what a height muft the fpirit of farcafm
arife in an author, who could prevail on himfelf to ri¬
dicule fo good a man as Mr Boyle? The fword of wit,
like the feythe of time, cuts down friend and foe, and
attacks every objedt that lies in its way. But, (harp
and irrefiflible as the edge of it may be, Mr Boyle will
always remain invulnerable.”
The fame year, he publilhed an important work in-
titled, 9. New experiments and obfervations upon cold,
1665, 8vo. In the year 1666, he publifhed, 10. Hy-
droftatical paradoxes made out by new experiments,
for the moft part phyfical and eafy, in 8vo. 11. The
origin of forms and qualities, according to the cor-
pufcular philofophy, illuftrated by confiderations and
experiments. This treatife did great honour to Mr
Boyle, whether we confider the quicknefs of his wit,
the depth of his judgment, or his indefatigable pains in
fearching after truth. We muft not forget to obferve,
that, both in this and the former year, he communi¬
cated to his friend Mr Oldenburgh, who was fecretary
to the royal fociety, feveral curious and excellent fhort
treatifes of his own, upon a great variety of fubjedts,
and others tranfmitted to him by his learned friends
both at home and abroad, which are printed and pre-
ferved in the Pbilofophical Tranfadtions.
In the year 1668, Mr Boyle refolved to fettle in
London for life ; and removed for that purpofe to the
houfe of his fifter, the lady Ranelagh, in Pall-Mall.
This was to the infinite benefit of the learned in gene¬
ral, and particularly to the advantage of the royal fo¬
ciety, to whom he gave great and continual affiftance, ~
as the feveral pieces communicated to them from time
to time, and printed in their Tranfadtions, do abun¬
dantly teftify. Thofe who applied to him, either to de¬
fire his help, or to communicate to him any new dif-
coveries in fcience, he had his fet hours for receiving;
otherwife, it is eafy to conceive that he would have had
very little of his time for himfelf. But, befides thefe,
he kept a very extenfive correfpondence with perfons
of the greateft figure, and moft famous for learning, in
all parts of Europe. In the year 1669, he publiftied,
12. A continuation of new experiments touching the
weight and fpring of the air; to which is added, A dif¬
eourfe of the atmofpheres of confiftent bodies: and the
fame year he revifed and made many additions to fe¬
veral of his former tra&s, fome of which were now
tranflated into Latin, in order to gratify the curious
abroad. 13. Trafts about the cofmical qualities of
things ; cofmical fufpicions; the temperature of the
fubterraneous regions; the bottom of the fea : to which
is prefixed an introdudlion to the hiftory of particular
qualities. This book occafioned much fpeculation, as it
feemed to contain a vaft treafure of knowledge which
had never been communicated to the world before; and-
this too grounded upon adfual experiments, and argu¬
ments juftly drawn from them, inftead of that notional
and cOnjeftural philofophy which in the beginning of
the 17th century had been fo much in fafhion.
In the year 1671, he publiftied, 14. Confiderations
on the ufefulnefsof experimental and natural philofophy;
thefecond part; 410. And, 15. A colle&ion of trads
upon feveral ufeful and important points of pradical
philofophy, 410. Both of which works were received
as new and valuable gifts to the Learned world. 16. An
eflay about the origin and virtues of gems, 1672, 8vo.
17. A colledion of trads upon the relation between
flame and air; and feveral other ufeful and curious
fubjeds; befides furnifhing, in this and the former
year, a great number of fhort differtations upon a vaft
variety of topics, addreffed to the royal fociety, and
inferted in their Tranfadions. 18. Effays on the
ftrange fubtilty, great efficacy, and determinate nature,
of effluvia; to which were added a variety of experi¬
ments on other fubjeds ; 1673, ^V0, 19* A colledion
of trads upon the faltnefs of the fea, the moifture of
the air, the natural and preternatural ftate of bodies;
to which is prefixed a dialogue concerning cold; 1674,
8vo. 20. The excellency of theology compared with
philofophy, 1673, This difeourfe was written in
the year 1665, while Mr Boyle, to avoid the great
plague which then raged in London, was forced to go
from place to place in the country', and had little or no
'opportunity of confulting his books. It contains a
great number of curious and ufeful, as well as juft and
natural, obfervations. 21. A colledion of trads con¬
taining fufpicions about hidden qualities of the air;
with an appendix touching celeftial magnets ; animad- '
verfions upon Mr Hobbes’s problem about a vacuum;
a difeourfe of the caufe of attradion and fudion ; 1674,
8vo. 22. Some confiderations about the reconcileable-
nefs of reafon and religion. By T. E. a layman. To
which is annexed a difeourfe about the poffibility of the
refurredion. By Mr Boyle. i<575> ^V0, The reader
muft be informed, that both thefe pieces were of his
writing •>
Boyle,
Boyle.
BOY [ 1338 ] BOY
writing ; only he thought fit to mark the former with
the final letters of his name. Among other papers that
he communicated this year to the royal fociety, there
w'ere two conne&ed into one difcourfe: the firft was
xntitled An experimental difcourfe of quickfilver grow¬
ing hot with gold ; the other related to the fame fub-
je&; and both of them contained difcoveries of the ut-
moft importance.
In the year 1676, he publifhed, 23. Experiments and
notes about the mechanical origin or produ&ion of
particular qualities, in feveral difcourfes on a great va¬
riety of fubje&s, and among the reft on ele&ricity.
In 1678, he communicated to Mr Hooke a fhort me¬
morial of fome obfervations made upon an artificial
fubftance that ftiines without any preceding illuftration ;
which that gentleman thought fit to publifh in his Lee-
tiones Cutleriana:. 24. Hiftorical account of a degra¬
dation of gold made by an anti-elixir. This made a
great noife both at home and abroad, and is looked
upon as one of the moft remarkable pieces that ever fell
from his pen ; fince the fa&s contained in it would have
been efteemed incredible, if they had been related by a
man of lefs integrity and piety than Mr Boyle. The
regard which the great Newton had for Mr Boyle, ap-
. pears from a very curious letter, which the former wrote
to him, at the latter end of this year, for the fake of
laying before him his feritiments of that etherial medi¬
um, which he afterwards confidered, in his Optics, as
the caufe of gravitation. This letter is to be found in
the life of our author by the reverend Dr Birch.
In the year 1680, Mr Boyle publifhed, 25. The
aerial noftiluca; or fome new phenomena, and a pro-
cefs of a fa&itious felf-fhining fubftance, 8vo. This
year the Royal Society, as a proof of the juft fenfe of
his great worth, and of the conftant and particular fer-
vices, which through a courfe of many years he had
done them, made choice of him for their prefident; but
he being extremely, and, as he fays, peculiarly tender
in point of oaths, declined the honour done him, by a
letter addrefled to “ his much refpedted friend Mr
“ Robert Hooke, profeffor of mathematics at Grefham
“ College.26. Difcourfe of things above reafon;
inquiring, whether a philofopher fhould admit any fuch,
1681, 8vo. 27. New experiments and obfervations up¬
on the icy nodfiluca: to which is added a chemical
paradox, grounded upon new experiments, making it
probable that chemical principles are tranfmutable, fo
that out of one of them others may be produced, 1682,
8vo. 28. A continuation of new experiments, phyfico-
mechanical, touching the fpring and weight of the air,
and their effeefts, ,1682, 8vo. In 1683, publifhed
nothing but a (hort letter to Dr Beale, in relation to
the making of frefh water out of fait. In 1684, puk-
liflied two very confiderable works, viz. 29. Memoirs
for the natural hiftory of human blood, efpecially the
fpirit of that liquor, 8vo; and, 30. Experiments and
confiderations about the porofity of bodies, 8vo.
In 1685, Mr Boyle obliged the world with, 31. Short
memoirs for the natural experimental hiftory of mine¬
ral waters, with directions as to the feveral methods of
trying them ; including abundance of new and ufeful
remarks, as well as feveral curious experiments. 32. An
effay on the great effedts of even languid and unheeded
motion; whereunto is annexed an experimental dif¬
courfe of lome hitherto little regarded caufes of the fa-
lubrity and infalubrity of the air, and its effedts. None
of his treatifes, it is faid, were ever received with greater
or more general applaufe than this. 33. Of the re-
concileablenefs of fpecific medicines to the corpufcular
philofophy; to which is annexed a difcourfe about the
advantages of the ufe of fimple medicines ; 8vo. Be-
fides thefe philofophical tradls, he gave the world, the
fame year, an excellent theological one, 34. Of the
high veneration man’s intelledf owes to God, peculiarly
for his wifdom and power, 8vo.
At the entrance of the fucceeding year, came abroad
his, 35. Free inquiry into the vulgarly received notion
of nature ; a piece which was then, and will always be,
greatly admired by thofe who have a true zeal and relifii
for pure religion and philofophy. In 1687, he publiftied,
36. The martyrdom of Theodora and Didymia; a work
he had drawn up in his youth. 37. A difquifition about
the final caufes of natural things; wherein it is inquired,
whether, and (if at all) with what caution, a naturalift
ftiould admit them ; with an appendix about vitiated
light; 1688, 8vo. In the month of May this year, our
author, though very unwillingly, was conftrained to
make his complaint to the public, of fome inconveni-
encies under which he had long laboured; and this he
did by an advertifement, about “ the lofs of many of
his writings addreffed to J. W. to be communicated to
thofe of his friends that are virtuofi; which may ferve
as a kind of preface to moft of his mutilated and unfi-
nifhed writings.” He complains in this advertifement
of the treatment he had met with from plagiaries both
at home and abroad ; and though it might have been
difficult in any other man to have done fo without in¬
curring the imputation of felf-conceit and vanity, yet
Mr Boyle’s manner is fuch as only to raife in us an
higher efteem and admiration of him. This advertife¬
ment is inferted at length in his life by Birch.
He began now to find that his health and ftrength,
notwithftanding all his care and caution, gradually de¬
clined, as he obferves in a letter to Mr Le Clerc, da¬
ted May 30th, 1689; which put him upon ufing every
poffible method of hufbanding his remaining time for
the benefit of the learned. It was with this view that
he no longer communicated particular difcourfes, or
new difcoveries, to the royal fociety; becaufe this could
not be done without withdrawing his thoughts from talks
which he thought of ftill greater importance. It was
the more fteadily to attend to thefe, that he refigned
his poll of governor of the corporation for propagating
the gofpel in New-England; nay, he went fo far as to
fignify to the world that he could no longer receive vi-
fits as ufual, in an advertifement which begins in the fol¬
lowing manner: “ Mr Boyle finds himfelf obliged to
intimate to thofe of his friends and acquaintance, that
are wont to do him the honour and favour of viliting
him, 1. That he has byfome unlucky accidents, namely,
by his fervant’s breaking a bottle of oil of vitriol over
a cheft which contained his papers, had many of his
writings corroded here and there, or otherwife fo maim¬
ed, that without he himfelf fill up the lacunse out of
his memory or invention, they will not be intelligible.
2. That his age and ficklinefs have for a good while ad-
moniffied him to put his fcattered and partly defaced
writings into fome kind of order, that they may not
remain quite ufelefs. And, 3. That his ikilful and
friendly phyfician, Sir Edmund King, feconded by Mr
Boyle’s
BoyleJ
BOY [ ,339 ] BOY
Boyle. Boyle’s beft friends, has prefiingly advifed him againft
fpeaking daily with fo many perfons as are wont to vi-
fit him, reprefenting it as what cannot but wafte his
fpirits. See. He ordered likewife a board to be placed
over his door, with an infeription lignifying when he
did, and when he did not, receive viiits.”
. Among the other great works, which by this means
he gained time to finifh, there is great reafon to believe,
that one was, a colle&ion of elaborate procefl’es in che-
miftry 5 concerning which he wrote a letter to a friend,
which is dill extant; wherein we read, that “ he left
it as a kind of hermetic legacy to the ftudious difciples
of that art.” Befides thefe papers committed to the
care of one whom he efteemed his friend, he left very
many behind him at his death, relating to chemiftry;
which, as appears by a letter dire&ed to one of his ex¬
ecutors, he defired might be infpedted by three phyfi-
cians whom he named, and that fome of the mod valu¬
able might be preferved.
In the mean time, Mr Boyle publi/hed fome other
works before his death; as, 3 8. Medicina Hydrqftatica;
or, Hydroftaticks applied to the materia medica, (hew¬
ing, how by the weight that divers bodies ufed in phy-
lic have in water, one may difebver whether they be
genuine or adulterated. To which is fubjoined a pre¬
vious hydroftatical way of eftimating ores. 1690, 8vo.
39. The Chriftian virtuofo; (hewing, that by being
addicted to experimental philofophy, a man is rather
affifted than indifpofed to be a good Chriftian. To
which are fubjoined, t. A difeourfe about the diftinc-
tion that reprefents fome things as above reafon, but
not contrary to reafon. 2. The firft chapters of a dif¬
eourfe intitled Grsatnefs of mind promoted by Chrifia-
nity. The laft work which he publilhed himfelf, was
in the fpring of 1691 ; and is intitled, 40. Experi-
menta et Obfervationes Phyficx: wherein are briefly
treated of feveral fubjebfs relating to natural philofophy
in an experimental way. To which is added a fmall
colle&ion of (Irange reports. 8vo.
About the entrance of the fummer, he began to feel
fuch an alteration in his health as induced him to think
of fettling his affairs ; and accordingly, on the 18th of
July, he figned and fealed his laft will, to which he af¬
terwards added feveral codicils. In Odtober, his diftem-
pers increafed; and on the laft day of December 1691,
he departed this life, in the 65th year of his age. He
was buried in St Martin’s church in the Fields, Weft-
minfter, on the 7th of January following; and his fu¬
neral fermon was preached by Dr Gilbert Burnet, bi-
(hop of Salilbury. The bi(hop made choice upon this
occafion of a text very appoiite to the fubjeft; namely,
<s For God giveth to a man that is good in his fight,
• xi- wifdom, knowledge, and joy After explaining the
meaning of the words, he applies the doftrine to the
honourable perfon deceafed; of whom, he tells us, he
was the better able to give a charafter from the many
happy hours he had fpent in conveffation with him, in
the courfe of 29 years. He gives a large account of
Mr Boyle’s fincere and unaffected piety ; and more e-
fpecially of his zeal for the Chriftian religion, without
having any narrow notions concerning it, or miftaking,
as fo many do, a bigotted heat in favour of a particu¬
lar fed, for that zeal which is an ornament of a true
Chriftian. He mentions, as a proof of this, his noble
foundation for le&ures in defence of the gofpel againft
infidels of aH forts ; the effeds of which have been fo
confpicuous in the many volumes of excellent difeourfes
which have been publifhed in confequence of that noble
and pious foundation. He was at the charge of the
tranflation and impreffion of the New Teftament into
the Malayan tongue, which he fent over all the Eaft
Indies. He gave a noble reward to him that tranfia-
ted Grotius’s incomparable book, “ Of the truth of
the Chriftian religion” into Arabic ; and was at the
charge of a whole impreffion, which he took care fhould
be difperfed in all the countries where that language
was underftood. Fie was refolved to have carried on the
impreffion of the New Teftament in the Turkifh lan¬
guage ; but the company thought it became them to be
the doers of it, and fo fuffered him only to give a large
(hare towards it. He was at 700/. charge in the edi¬
tion of the Irifti bible, which he ordered to be diftri-
buted in Ireland; and he contributed liberally, both to
the impreffion of the Wellh bible, and of the Erfe bible
for Scotland. He gave, during his life, 300/. to ad¬
vance the defign of propagating the Chriftian religion
in America; and as foon as he heard that the Eaft In¬
dia company were entertaining propofitions for the like
defign in the eaft, he fent 100/. for a beginning, as an
example, but intended to carry it much farther when
it (hould be fet on foot to purpofe.
In other refpe&s his charities were fo bountiful and
extenfive, that they amounted, as this prelate tells us,
from his own knowledge, to upwards of 1000/. a year.
But as our limits will not allow us to follow the biihop
in the copious and eloquent account he has given of this
great man’s abilities, we muft therefore content bur-
felves with adding the (hort eulogium by the celebra¬
ted phyfician, philofopher, and chemift, Dr Herman
Boerhaave ; who, after having declared lord Bacon to
be the father of experimental philofophy, afferts, that
“ Mr Boyle, the ornament of his age and country,
fucceeded to the genius and inquiries of the great chan¬
cellor Verulam. Which (fays he) of all Mr Boyle’s
writings (hall I recommend? All of them. To him we
owe the fecrets of fire, air, water, animals, vegetables,
foffils: fo that from his works may be deduced the
wftiole fyftem of natural knowledge.” The reader per¬
haps may here be pleafed to know, that Mr Boyle w^as
born the fame year in which lord Bacon died.
As to the perfon of this great man, we are told, that
he was tall, but (lender; and his countenance pale and
emaciated. His conftitution was fo tender and delicate,
that he had divers forts of cloaks to put on when he
went abroad, according to the temperature of the air ;
and in this he governed himfelf by his thermometer.
He efcaped indeed the fmall-pox ; but for almoft forty
“years he laboured under fuch feeblenefs of body, and
fuch lownefs of ftrength and fpirits, that it was afto-
niffiing how he could read, meditate, make experiments,
and write, as he did. He had likewife a weaknefs in
his eyes; which made him very tender of them, and ex¬
tremely apprehenfive of fuch diftempers as might affeft
them. He imagined likewife, that if ficknefs (hould
confine him to his bed, it might raife the pains of the
(tone to a degree w'hich might be above his ftrength to
fupport; fo that he feared his laft minutes (hould be too
hard for him. This was the ground of all the caution
and apprehenfion with which he was obferved to live;
but as to life itfelf, he had that juft indifference for it
which
Boyle.
BOY [ 1340 ] BOY
Boyle. which became a philofopher and a Chriftian. However,
his fight began to grow dim not above four hours be¬
fore he died; and when death came upon him, he had
not been above three hours in bed, before it made an
end of him with fo little pain, that the flame appeared
to go out merely for want of oil to maintain it.
Mr Boyle was never married; but Mr Evelyn was
affured, that he courted the beautiful and ingenious
daughter of Cary earl of Monmouth, ai\d that to this
pafiion was owing his “ Seraphic Love.” In the me¬
morandum of Mr Boyle’s life fet down by bilhop Bur¬
net, it is remarked that he abftained from marriage, at
firft out of policy, afterwards more philofophically ; and
we find by a letter of Dr John Wallis to him, dated at
Oxford, July 17th, 1669, that he had an overture made
him with refpeft to the lady Mary Haftings, filler to
the earl of Huntingdon: But it does not appear from
any of his papers, that he had ever entertained the leaft
thoughts of that kind ; nay, there is a letter of his, wrote
when he was young, to the lady Barrymore his niece,
who had informed him of a report that he was a&ually
married, which almoft (hows that he never did. The
letter is written with great politenefs, and in the true
fpirit of gallantry; and is a clear proof, that though
Mr Boyle did not chufe to marry, yet it was no mifan-
thropic cynical humour which reftrained him from it.
It is impoffible to entertain the reader better than by
prefenting him with that part of it which concerns the
point in queftion. “ It is high time for me to haften
the payment of the thanks I owe your lady fhip for the
joy you are pleafed to wiflr me, and of which that wilh
poffibly gives me>more than the occafion of it would.
You have certainly reafon, madam, to fufpend your be¬
lief of a marriage, celebrated by no priell but Fame,
and made unknown to the fuppofed bridegroom. I
may pofiibly ere long give you a fit of the fpleen upon
this theme ; but at prefent it were incongruous to blend
fuch pure raillery, as I ever prate of matrimony and a-
mours with, among things I am fo ferious in as thofe
this fcribble prefents you. I fliall therefore only tell
you, that the little gentleman and I are ftill at the old
defiance. You have carried away too many of the per-
feftibns of your fex to leave enough in this country for
reducing fo ftubborn a heart as mine; whofe conqueft
were a talk of fo much difficulty, and fo little worth it,
.that the latter property is always likely to deter any
that hath beauty and merit enough to overcome the
former. But though this untamed heart be thus infen-
iible to the thing itfelf called /we; it is yet very accef-
lible to things very near of kin to that paffion; and
efteem, friendfhip, refpeft, and even admiration, are
things that their proper objefts fail not proportionably
to exadt of me, and confequently are qualities which
in their higheft degrees are really and conftantly paid
my lady Barrymore by her moil obliged humble fer-
vant, and affeftionate uncle, Robert Boyle.”
We ffiall conclude this account of Mr Boyle with
the mention of his poflhumous works, which are as fol¬
low. 1. “ The general Hiftory of the air defigned and
“ begun.” 2. “Generalheadsforthenatural hiftory of a
“ country, great or final 1; drawn out for the ufe of tra-
“ vellers and navigators.” 3. “ Apaper of thehonourable
“ Robert Boyle’s, depofited with the fecretaries of the
“ Royal Society, Oftober 14th, 1680, and opened
“ fince his death ; being an account of his making the
“ phofphorus, September 30th, 1680.” Printed in tlie Boyle. ;
Philofophical Tranfa&ions. 4. “ An account of a way
“ of examining waters, as to freftmefs or faltnefs.”
5. “ A free difcourfe againft cuftomary fwearing, and
“ a diffuafive from curling,” 1695, ^vo* “ Medi-
“ cinal experiments,' or a colledlion of choice remedies,
“ chiefly fimple and eafily prepared, ufeful in families,
“ and fit for the fervice of the country people. The
“ third and laft volume, publilhed from the author’s
“ original manufcript; whereunta is added feveral ufe-
“ ful notes explicatory of the fame.” 1698, i2mo.
Beautiful editions of all his works have been printed
at London, in 5 volumes folio, and 6 volumes 410.
Boyle (Charles) earl of Orrery in Ireland, and
baron of Marfton in the county of Somerfet, was the
fecond fon of Roger the fecond earl of Orrery, and
was born in Augull 1679. was educated at
Chrifl-church in Oxford, and foon diftinguilhed him-
felf by his learning and abilities. Like the firft earl of
Orrery, he was an author, a foldier, and a ftatefman.
He tranflated the life of Lyfander from the Greek of
Plutarch ; and publilhed a new edition of the epiftles
of Phalaris, which engaged him in a literary difpute,
in which he defended the genuinenefs of thefe epiftles
againft Dr Bently. He was three times member for
the town of Huntingdon; but his elder brother, Lio¬
nel earl of Orrery, dying on the 23d of Auguft 1703
without iffue, he fucceeded to that title; and, entering
into the Queeen’s fervice, had a regiment given him,
when he behaved with fuch bravery, that in 1709 he
was raifed to the rank of major-general, and fworn one
of her majefty’s privy council. At the famous battle
of the wood, he gave the ftrongeft proofs of his intre¬
pid courage, remaining at the head of his regiment in
the warmed part of the adlion, till the victory was
emmplete, which, as it was one of the mod glorious, fo
it was the deareft bought, of any of that war. His
lordfhip had the honour of being appointed the Queen’s
envoy to the ftates of Brabant and Flanders; and having
honourably difcharged that trull, was raifed to the
dignity of a Britilh Peer, by the title of lord Boyle,
baron of Marfton, in SomerfetIhire. He enjoyed feve-
ral other additional honours in the reign of King
George I.; but having the misfortune to fall under the
fufpicion of the government, his lordlhip was commit¬
ted to the tower: he was, however, at length admitted
to bail; and nothing being found that could be efteem-
ed a fufficient ground for a profecution, he was dif¬
charged. His lordlhip died Auguft 28th 1731, in the
66th year of his age. To his tutor, Mr Atterbury, he
probably owed a good part of that fine relilh he had
for the writings of the ancients. He made thefe his
conftant ftudy, and exprefled a high contempt, fays
Budgell, for the greater part of our modern wits and
authors. He was delighted with the company of two
forts of perfons; either fuch as were re,fly geniufes of
the firft rank, who had fine underftandings, itrong
judgements, and true taftes ; or fuch as had a few foi¬
bles, and an eye of ridicule in them, which ferved to
make him laugh. He would rally thefe in fo agreeable,
and yet in fo tender a manner, that, though it diverted
himfelf and others, it was never offenfive to the perfon
rallied. The inftrument which was invented by him,
and bears his name, reprefenting the folar fyftem ac¬
cording to the fentiments of the new aftronomers, is an
undeniable
BOY [ i34i J BOY
undeniable proof of his mechanic genius. His lordlhip lowance but his commons. He was alfo one of the fix
had alfo a turn for medicine; which led him not only who met at Stationers Hall to revife the whole ; which
to buy and read whatever was publifhed on that fub- tafk they went through in nine months, having each
je&, but alfo to employ his friends to fend him ac- from the company of flationers, during that time, 30 s.
counts of herbs and drugs in foreign countries. a-week. He afterwards aflifted Sir Henry Saville in
Boyle (John), eail of Cork and Orrery, a noble- publifhing the works of St Chryfoftom. In 1615, Dr
man diftinguifhed by his learning and genius, was the Lancelot Andrews, biihop of Ely, beftowed on him,
only fon of Charles earl of Orrery, and was born on the unafked, a prebend in his church. He died on the ia1'1
2d of January 1707. He was educated at Chrifl-church
college in Oxford : but, as he himfelf declares, early
difappointments, indifferent health, and many untoward
accidents, rendered him fond of retirement, and of im¬
proving his talents for polite literature and poetry ; of
which la ft art he gave feveral excellent fpecimens. He.
alfo wrote a Tranflation of Pliny the Younger’s letters,
with various notes, for the fervice of his eldeft fon the
lord Boyle, in two volumes 410. This was firft publifh¬
ed in 1751. The year following, he publifhed the Life
of Dean Swift, in feveral letters, addreffed to his fe-
cond fon Hamilton Boyle ; and afterwards - printed
Memoirs of Robert Cary earl of Monmouth, a manu-
feript prefented to him by a relation, with explanatory
notes. He died in 1762.
BOYNE, a river in Ireland, which rifes in Queen’s
county in the province of Leinfter, and runs north-eaft
(jy Trim and Cavan, falling at laft into the Irifh chan¬
nel a little below Drogheda. It is memorable for a
battle fought on its banks between James II. and king
William III. in which the former was defeated.
BOYSE, Boys, or Bois (John), one of the tranf-
lators of the Bible in the reign of James I. was fon of
William Bois, re&or of Weft Stowe, near St Ed-
mundfbury Suffolk, and born at Nettleftead in Suffolk
on the 3d of January 1560. He was taught the lirft
rudiments of learning by his father ; and his capacity
was fuch, that at the age of five years he read the Bible
in Hebrew'. He went afterwards to Hadley fchool;
and at 14 was admitted of St John’s college, Cam¬
bridge, where he diftinguifhed himfelf by his fkill in
Greek. Happening to have the fmall-pox when he
was ele&ed fellow, he, to preferve his feniority, caufed
himfelf to be carried in blankets to be admitted. He ap¬
plied himfelf for fome time to the ftudy of medicine; but,
fancying himfelf affected with every difeafe he read of,
he quitted that fcience. He was ten years chief Greek
lefturer in his college, and read every day. .He volun¬
tarily read a Greek lecture for fome years at four in
the morning, in his own chamber, which w'as frequent¬
ed by many of the fellows. On the death of his father,
he fucceeded him in the reftory of Weft Stowe. At
the age of 36, he married the daughter of Mr Holt,
reftor of Boxworth in Cambridgefhire ; whom he fuc¬
ceeded in that living, O&ober 13th 1596. On his
quitting the univerfity, the college gave him U)ol. His
young wife, who was bequeathed to him with the li¬
ving, which w as an advowfon, proving a bad oecono-
mift, and he himfelf being wholly addi&ed to his ftu-
dies, he foon became fo much involved in debt, that he
was obliged to fell his choice colleftion of books, con¬
fiding of almoft every Greek author then extant. When
a new tranflatioa of the Bible was by king James I.
diredted to be made, Mr Bois was elected one of the
Cambridge tranflators. He performed not only his
own, but alfo the part affigned to anotherf with great
reputation ; though with no profit, for he had no al-
Vol. II.
of January 1643, in the 84th year of his age. He left
a great many manuferipts behind him, particularly a
Commentary on almoft all the books of the New Tefta-
ment.—When he was a young (Indent at Cambridge,
he received from the learned Dr Whitaker three rules
for avoiding thofe diftempers which ufually attend a
fedentary life, to which he adhered with equal con-
ftancy and fuccefs. The firft was, To ftudy always
Handing; the fecond, Never to ftudy in a window; and
the third, Never to go to bed w ith his feet cold.
Boyse (Jofeph), a late eminent diffenting minifter
in Dublin, much refpefted not only for learning and
abilities, but his extenfive humanity and undiffembled
piety. During his minifterial charge at Dublin, he
publiftied many fermons which compofe feveral folio
volumes, a few poems, and other tra&s; but w'hat chiefly
diftinguiflred him as a writer, was the controverfy he
carried on with Dr King, archbifhop of Dublin, and
author of the Origin of Evil, concerning the office of a
fcriptural biftiop. This controverted point was mana¬
ged on both fides with great force of argument and
calmnefs of temper. The biffiop aflerted, that the epi-
fcopal right of jurifdi&ion had its foundation in the
New Teftament: Mr Boyfe, confident with his prin¬
ciples, denied that any ecclefiaftical fuperiority ap¬
peared there, with the greateft candour and good man¬
ners. He was father to
Boyse (Samuel), the poet, a man remarkable for
the finenefs of his genius, the lownefs of his manners,
and the wretchednefs of his life. He was born in 1708,
and received the rudiments of his education in a pri¬
vate fchool in Dublin. When he was but 18 years old,
his father, w'ho probably intended him for the miniftry,
fent him to the univerfity of Glafgow, that he might
finifti his education there. He had not been a year at
the univerfity,when befell in love with the daughter of
a tradefman in that city, and was imprudent enough to
interrupt his education by marrying her before he had
entered into his 20cil year. The natural extravagance
of his temper foon expofed him to want; and as he had
now the additional charge of a wife, his reduced cir-
cumftances obliged him to quit the univerfity, and go
over with his wife (who alfo carried a fifter with her)
to Dublin, where they relied on the old gentleman for
fupport. Young Boyfe was of all men the furtheft re¬
moved from a gentleman ; he had no graces of perfon,
and fewer ftill of converfation. Never were three people
of more libertine chara&ers than young Boyfe, his wife,
and fifter-in law; yet the two ladies wore fuch a malic
of decency before the old gentleman, that his fondnefa
was never abated. The eftate his father pofielfed in
Yorklhire was fold to difeharge his debts; and when
the old man lay in his laft ficknefs, he was entirely
fupported by prefents from his congregation, and bu¬
ried at their expence. We have no further account of
Mr Boyfe, till we find him foon after his father’s death
at Edinburgh. At this place his poetical genius raife4
8 G hnn
Koyie.
Boyfe.
BOY [ 1342 ] BOY
him many friends, and feme patrons of very great emi¬
nence. He publifhed a volume of poems in 1731, to
which is fubjoined The Tablature of Cebes, and /J let¬
ter upon liberty, inferted in the Dublin journal in26 ;
and by thefe he obtained a very great reputation. They
are addreffed to the countefs of Eglinton. This ami¬
able lady was thepatronefs of all men of wit, and very
much diftinguiftied Mr Boyfe while he relided in that
country. Upon the death of the vifeountefs Stormont,
Mr Boyfe wrote an elegy, which was very much ap¬
plauded by her ladyfliip’s relations. This elegy he
intitled The tears of the mufes, as the deceafed lady was
a woman of the moft refined tafte in the fciences, and
a great admirer of poetry. The lord Stormont was fo
much pleafed with this mark of efteem paid to the me¬
mory of his lady, that he ordered a very handfome pre-
fent to be given to Mr Boyfe by his attorney at Edin¬
burgh. The notice which lady Eglington and the lord
Stormont took of our poet, recommended him likewife
to the patronage of the duchefs of Gordon, who was fo
folicitous to raife him above neceflity, that fhe em¬
ployed her interefl in procuring the promife of a place
for him. She gave him a letter, which he was next day
to deliver to one of the commiflioners of the cuftoms at
Edinburgh. It happened that he was then fome miles
diftant from the city ; and the morning on which he
was to have rode to town with her Grace’s letter of re¬
commendation proved to be rainy. This flender cir-
cumftance was enough to difeourage Boyfe, who never
looked beyond the prefent moment: he declined going
to town on account of the rainy weather ; and while he
let flip the opportunity, the place was bellowed upon
another, which the commiffioner declared he kept for
fome time vacant, in expe&ation of feeing a perfon re¬
commended by the" duchefs of Gordon. Boyfe at laft,
having defeated all the kind intentions of his patrons
towards him, fell into contempt and poverty, which
obliged him to quit Edinburgh. He communicated his
defign of going to London to the duchefs of Gordon ;
who, having ftill a very high opinion of his poetical
abilities, gave him a letter of recommendation to Mr
Pope, and obtained, another for him to Sir Peter King
the lord chancellor of England. Lord Stormont recom¬
mended him to the folicitor-general his brother, and
many other perfons of the firft fafhion. Upon receiving
thefe letters, he, with great caution, quitted Edinburgh,
regretted by none but his creditors. Upon his arrival in
London, he went to Twickenham, in order to deliver
the duchefs of Gordon’s letter to Mr Pope; but that
entleman not being at home, Mr Boyfe never gave
imfelf the trouble to repeat his vifit. He wrote poems;
but thofe, though excellent in their kind, were loft to
the world, by being introduced with no advantage.
He had fo ftrong a propenlity to groveling, that his ac¬
quaintance were generally of fuch a caft as could be of
no fervice to him ; and thofe in higher life he addreffed
by letters, not having fufficient confidence or politenefs
to converfe familiarly with them. Thus Unfit to fup-
port himfelf in the world, he was expofed to variety of
diftraffes, from which he could invent no means of ex¬
tricating himfelf but by writing mendicant letters. It
will appear amazing, that this man, of fo abjeft a fpi-
rit, was voluptuous and luxurious: he had no tafte for
any thing elegant, and yet was to the laft degree ex-
penfive. Can it be believed, that often when he had
received but a guinea, in confequence of a fupplicating
letter, he would go into a tavern, order a fupper to be ~
prepared, drink of the richeft wines, and fpend all the
money that had juft been given him in charity, with-
out having any one to participate the regale with him,
and while his wife and child were ftarving at home ?
It was about the year 1740, that Mr Boyfe, reduced
to the laft extremity of human wretchednefs, had not a
ftiirt, a coat, or any kind of apparel, to put on ; the
the fheets in which he lay were carried to the pawn¬
broker’s, and he was obliged to be confined to his bed
with no other covering than a blanket. He had little
fupport but what he got by writing letters to hi#
friends in the moft abjeift ftyle ; but was perhaps a(ha-
med to let this inftance of his diftrefs be known, which
probably was the occafion of his remaining fix weeks
in that fituation. During this time he had fome em¬
ployment in writing verfes for the Magazines; and
whoever had feen him in his ftudy, muft have thought
the objeft lingular enough : he fat up in bed with the
blanket wrapt about him, through which he had cut a
hole large enough to admit his arm, and, placing the
paper upon his knee, fcribbled in the beft manner he
could the verfes he was obliged to make : whatever he
ot by thofe, or any other of his begging letters, was
ut juft fufficient for the prefervation of life. And per¬
haps he would have remained much longer in this
diltrefsful (late, had not a compaffionate gentleman,
upon hearing this circumftance related, ordered his
clothes to be taken out of pawn, and enabled him to
appear again abroad.
About the year 1745, Mr Boyfe’s wife died. He
was then at Reading, and pretended much concern
when he heard of her death. His bufinefs at Reading
was to compile a Review of the moft material tranfac-
tions at home and abroad during the laft war: in which
he has included a (hort account of the late rebellion.
Upon his return from Reading, his behaviour was more
decent than it had ever been before ; and there were
fome hopes that a reformation, though late, would be
wrought upon him. He was employed by a bookfeller
to tranflate Fenelon on the exijlence of God; during
which time he married a fecond wife, a woman in low
circumftances, but well enough adapted to his tafte.
He began now to live with more regard to his charac¬
ter, and fupported a better appearance than ufual; but
while his circumftances were mending, and his irregular
appetites lofing ground, his health vifibly declined. He
had the fatisfa&ion, while in this lingering illnefs, to
obferve a poem of his, intitled The Deity, recommended
by two eminent writers, the ingenious Mr Fielding,
and the reverend Mr James Hervey author of The Me¬
ditations.
Mr Boyfe’s mind was often religioufly difpofed ; he
frequently talked upon that fubje£t, and probably fuf-
fered a great deal from the remorfe of his confcience.
The early impreffions of his good education were never
entirely obliterated ; and his whole life was a continued
ftruggle between his will and reafon, as he was always
violating his duty to the one, while he fell under the
fubjedlion of the other. It was in confequence of this
war in his mind, that he wrote a beautiful poem called
The Recantation. In May 1749, he died in obfeure
lodgings near Shoe-lane ; but in fentiments, there is
the greateft reafon to believe, very different from thofe
Boyfe.
BRA [ 1343 ] BRA
Boyfe in which he had fpent the greatefi: part of his life. An
II. old acquaintance of his endeavoured to colleft money
Brahejum. to (jefray tj)e eXpence6 Qf his funeral, fo that the fcan-
dal of being buried by the parilh might be avoided :
but in vain ; the remains of this fon of the mufes were,
with very little ceremony, hurried away by the pariflr-
officers.
Never was a life fpent with lefs grace than that of
Mr Boyfe, and never were fuch dillinguiftied abilities
given to lefs purpofe. His genius was not confined to
poetry only: he had a tafte for painting, mufic, and
heraldry; with the latter of which he was very well ac¬
quainted. His poetical pieces, if colle&ed, would make
fix moderate volumes. Many of them are fcattered in
The Gentleman's Magazine, marked with the letter T,
and Alceus. Two volumes were publiihed in London.
An ode of his in the manner of Spenfer, intitled The
Olive, was addrefied to Sir Robert Walpole, which pro¬
cured him a prefent of ten guineas. He tranflated a
poem from the High Dutch of Van Haren, in praife
of peace, upon the conclufion of that made at Aix la
Chapelle; but the poem which procured him thegreateft
reputation was that upon the attributes of the Deity.
He was employed by Mr Ogle to tranflate fome of
Chaucer’s tales into modern Englilh, which he per¬
formed with great fpirit, and received at the rate of
three pence a line for his trouble. Mr Ogle publiihed
a complete edition of that old poet’s Canterbury Tales
modernized; and Mr Boyfe’s name is put to fuch tales
as were done by him. In 1743, Mr Boyfe publifhed,
without his name, an ode on the battle of Dettingen,
intitled Albion's Triumph.
BOZOLO, a town of Italy, in the duchy of Man¬
tua, capital of a territory of the fame name, and fubjedt
to the houfe of Auftria. E. Long. 10. 25. N. Lat.
45. 9.
B QUADRO, Quadrato, or Duralc, in mufic,
called by the French b quatre, from its figure^ . This
is what we call B natural or Jharp, in diitindtion to B
mol or flat. See Flat, and Sharp.
If the flat ^ be placed before a note in the thorough
bafs, it intimates, that its third is to be minor; and if
placed with any cypher over a note in the bafs, as^6,
or^j, &c. it denotes, that the fifth or fixth thereto
art to be fiat. But if the quadrojj] be placed over any
note, or with a cypher, in the thorough bafs, it his the
contrary effedt; for thereby the note or interval thereto
is raifed to its natural order.
BRABANT, a large province of the Netherlands,
W’ith the title of a duchy. It is bounded on the north
by the province of Holland and the duchy of Guclder-
land; on the eaft, by the fame duchy and the bifhop-
ric of Lie'ge ; cm the fouth, by the province of Namur
and Hainhalt; and on the welt, by Zealand. It is di¬
vided into Dutch Brabant and Auftrian Brabant; wa¬
tered by feveral rivers, of which the Scheld, the Rup-
pel, and the Dommel, are the chief. The foil is very
fertile; and it contains 26 fortified towns, of which
Bruffels is the capital.
BRABEJUM, the African almond; a genus of
the monogynia order, belonging to the tetrandria clafs
of plants. Of this genus there is but one fpecies, viz.
the ftcllatifolium, which is a native of the Cape of Good
Hope'. In Europe it feldom grows above eight or nine
feet high, but in its native foil is a tree of a middling
growth. It rifes with an upright ftem, which is foft, Brabeutes
and full of pith within, and covered with a brown bark. j}r.Jejet
The leaves come out all round the branches at each —L
joint: they are indented at their edges, Handing on
very fliort. foot-ftalks. The flowers are produced to¬
wards the end of their flroots, which are of a pale co¬
lour inclining to white. This may be propagated,
though with difficulty, by layers made in April ; but
they are often two years before they produce roots
ftrong enough to be taken from the plants. When the
branches are laid down, it will be proper to (lit them
at the point (as is pradtifed in laying carnations), which
will promote their taking root. In winter, the plants
(hould have a good greenhoufe ; but in fummer they
(hould be placed abroad in a (heltered fituation.
BRABEUTES, or Brabeuta, in antiquity, an of¬
ficer among the Greeks, who prefided at the public
games, and decided controverfies that happened among
the antagonifts in the gymnaftical exercifes. The num¬
ber of brabeutae was not fixed; fometimes there was
only one, but more commonly they amounted to nine
or ten.
BRACCIANO, a town of St Peter’s patrimony,
about 12 miles north of Rome, fituated on the weft fide
of a lake to which it gives name. E. Long. 130.
N. Lat. 420.
BRACCIOLINI (Francis), an Italian poet, a na¬
tive of Poftoia, and the friend of Pope Urban VIII.
died about the year 1644, aged 80. He wrote, 1. An
epic poem, intitled, The crofs reconquered, under the
emperor Heraclius. 2. An heroic poem, intitled, The
mockery of the Pagan gods. 3. The eledtion of Pope
Urban VIII. in 23 books.
BRACE is commonly taken for a couple or pair,
and applied by huntfmen to feveral beafts of game, as
a brace of bucks, foxes, hares, &c.
Brace, oxBraffe, is alfo a foreign meafure, anfwer-
ing to our fathom. See Fathom.
Brace, in architedlure, a piece of timber framed in
with bevil joints, the ufe of which is to keep the build¬
ing from fwerving either way. When the brace is fra¬
med into the kingleffes or principal rafters, it is by
fome called a Jlrut.
Brace, in writing or printing, a crooked line inclo-
fing a paffage, as in a triplet.
Braces, in the fea-language, are ropes belonging
to all the yards of a (hip, except jhe mizen, two to
each yard, reeved through blocks that are faftened
to pennants, feized to the yard-arms. Their ufe is ei¬
ther to fquare or traverfe the yards. Hence to brace
the yard, is to bring it to either fide. All braces come
aftward on; as, the main brace comes to the poop, the
main-top-fail brace comes to the mizen-top and thence
to the main ffirouds, the fore and fore-top-fail braces
comedown by the main and main-top-fail (lays, and fo
of the reft. But the mizen-bowline ferves to brace to
the yard, and the crofs-jack braces are brought for¬
wards. to the main (hrouds, when the (hip fails clofe by
a wind.
Braces of a Coach, thick (traps of leather on which
it hangs.
BRACELET, an ornament worn on the wrift,
much ufed among the ancients : it was made of dif¬
ferent materials, and in different faftiions, according to
the age and quality of the wearer.
8 G 2
Bracelets
BRA [ 1344 ] BRA
Brachixus Bracelets are dill worn by the favagcs of Africa, who
'I are fo excefiively fond of them, as to give the richeft
Brachypy- commo(]ities, and even their fathers, wives, and chil-
   dren, in exchange for thofe made of no richer materials
than fhells, glafs-beads, and the like.
BRACHUIUS, the name of a mufcle. See Ana¬
tomy, Table of the Mufcles.
Curara-BRACHIAL IS. See Anatomy, ibid.
BRACHIUM, or Arm. See Anatomy, n° 48, &c.
BRACHMINS, or Brachmans, a branch of the
ancient Gymnofophills, or philofophers of India, re¬
markable for the feverity of their lives and manners.
See the article Gymnosophists.
Some fay they derive their name from the patriarch
Abraham, whom they call in their language Brachma,
or Brama. Others deduce it from the name of their
god Brackrna ; which fome again take to be the fame
with Abraham: whence PoRel calls them Abrachmanes.
F. Thomaffin derives the word from the Hebrew barach,
to fly or efcaps', becaufe the Brachmans retire into the
country and live in defarts. The fame author gives us
another derivation, viz. from the Hebrew barach, (bene-
dicere, orare), to blefs or pray ; in regard this is their
principahoccupation.—The Greeks afcribe to them the
doclrine of the immortality of the foul, and certain no¬
tions concerning the nature of the Supreme Being, and
future rewards and punifliments. To this fpecies of
knowledge the Brachmans added an infinite number of
religious obfervances, which were adopted by Pytha¬
goras in his fchool; fuch as falling, prayer, filence, and
contemplation. They were looked upon as the friends
of the gods, becaufe they affefted to pay them fo much
regard ; and as the proteftors of mankind, becaufe they
paid them no regard at all. No bounds were therefore
fet to the refpeft and gratitude that were (hewn them:
princes themfelves did not fcruple to confult thefe re-
clufes upon any critical conjuncture, from a fuppofition,
no doubt, that they were infpired; fince it was impof-
fible to imagine that they had the advantages of expe¬
rience. We can fcarcely, however, deny, that there
might be among them fome men of real virtue, whofe
minds relifhed the pure and ingenuous delights of
fludy and fcience; and who, by nobly raifing their
thoughts to the contemplation of the Firft Being, muft
have had more powerful incitements to render themfelves
worthy of his care, and none to juftify them in decei¬
ving and tyrannizing over their fellow-creatures.
There appear Hill fome remains of the ancient brach-
f See 25ra- mans jn the eaft, under the denomination of Bramins f.
BRACHYGRAPHY, the art of (hort-hand wri¬
ting. See Short-Hand.
BRACHYLOGY, in rhetoric, the ex-
preffing any thing in the moft concife manner. This,
as far as is confiftent with perfpicuity, is a beauty and
virtue of the ftyle; but if obfcnrity be the confequence,
which is often the cafe, it becomes a blemifh, and in-
excufeable defeft. Quintilian gives us an inftance of
brachylogy from Sallult: Mithridates corpore ingenti
ferinde armatus; “ Mithridates armed, as it were, with
the hugenefs of his ftature.” See Brevity.
BRACHYPTERA, a term ufed by Willoughby,
to denote thofe hawks which have their wings fo fhort,
as not to reach to the end of the tail: Of this kind are
the gofs-hawk, fparrow-hawk,
BRACHYPYRENIA, in the hiftory of foflils, a
genus of feptariae, with a fhort roundifh nucleus *. Eraclirtd#.
BRACHYTELOSTYLA, in natural hiftory, the
name by which Dr Hill calls thofe cryftals which are Brafton. T
compofed of a fhort hexangular column terminated at —^
each end by an hexangular pyramid. See Crystal. * flee Sepi*^_
BRACKET, among carpenters, 6c. a kind of
wooden flay, ferving to fupport fhelves, and the like.
Brackets, in a {hip, the fmall knees, ferving to fup¬
port the galleries, and commonly carved. Alfo the
timbers that fupport the gratings in the head, are cal¬
led brackets.
Brackets, in gunnery, are the cheeks of the car¬
riage of a mortar: they are made of ftrong planks of
wood, of almoft a femicircular figure, and bound round
with thick iron plates; they are fixed to the beds by
four bolts, which are called bed-bolts; they rife up on
each fide of the mortar, and ferve to keep her at any
elevation, by means of fome ftrong iron bolts, called
bracket-bolts, which go through thefe cheeks or
brackets.
BRACKLAU, a ftrong town in Poland, capital of
a palatinate of the fame name. The houfes are built
of wood. It was taken by the Turks in 1672, but
retaken three years afterwards. It is feated on the
river Bog, in E. Long. 29. 20. N. Lat. 48. 5.
BRACKLAW, a palatinate of that name, which
is the eaftern part of Podolia ; it is alfo called Lower
Podolia, and is of greater extent than Upper Podolia,
but is more defolate, on account of the neighbourhood
of the Tartars.
BRACKLEY, a borough-town in Northampton-
ftiire, in England, feated on the edge of the county,
next Buckinghamftiire, on a branch of the river Oufe.
It is an ancient and large corporation-town, containing
two pariftirchurches; is governed by a mayor and al¬
dermen; and fends two members to parliament. It had
formerly a college, which is turned into a free fchool.
W. Dong. 1. 15. N. Lat. 52. o.
BRACTEA, in natural hiftory, denotes a fpangle,
or thin flake of any fubftance.
Bractea, in botany, a thin leaf or plate of any
folium florale, ranged by Linnaeus among the fulcra of
plants. Thefe floral leaves differ in (hape and colour
from the o'ih.erfolia of the plant; are generally fituated
on the pedunculus, and often fo near the corolla as to
be eafily miftaken for the calix; than which, however,
the brattece are generally more permanent. Examples
of the floral leaves are feen in the tilia, fumaria bul-
bofa, lavendula, and horminum. Seep. 1297. n° 127.
B R ACTE A RI A, in natural hiftory, a genus of
talcs, compofed of fmall plates in form of fpangles, each
plate either being very thin, or fiflile into very thin
ones.
Of this genus there are a great many fpecies, called,
from their different colours, mica aitrea, or gold-glim-
mer; and mica argcntea, filver-glimmer, or cats-filver,
<bc.
BRACTON (Henry), lord chief juftice of Eng¬
land in the reign of Henry III. was probably a native
of Devonftiire. He was educated at Oxford, where he
took the degree of doftor of laws, and was made one
of the itinerant judges about the year 1244. Ten
years after, he became chief juftice, and had the earl of
Derby’s houfe in London afligned him for his town
refidence, during the minority of that nobleman. He
BRA [ 1345 ] BRA
12 rid
| I!
Bradforrh.
is faid to have filled this important office with Angular
reputation during 20 years. When he died is not
- known; probably it was in the reign of Edward I.
He wrote De legibus tt confuetudinibus JlngHxy which
is one of the moft ancient, and alfo molt methodical
books on our laws. His method is copied from Jufti-
nian. This work was printed at London in 1569, fo¬
lio ; and in 4640, 4'0. The firft is very incorreft.
BRAD, a town of Sclavonia, feated on the north
fide of the river Save, in E. Long. j8. 40. N. Lat.
45. 20.
BRADFIELD, a town of Effex in England, in
E. Long. o. 30. N. Lat. 51. J4.
BRADFORD, a town of Wiltlhire in England,
feated in W. Long. 2. 40. N. Lat. 51. 20.
Brabford (John), a divine, and martyr to the re¬
formation, was born in the former part of the reign of
Henry VIII. at Manchefter in Lancafliire. Being a
remarkable penman and accountant, he became fecre-
tary to Sir John Harington, who wasfeveral times em¬
ployed by king Henry, and his fucceflbr Edward VI.
as paymalter to the troops abroad. Bradford at this
time was a gay man, and to fupport his extravagance
made free with the king’s money ; but being at laft
unable to fupport the reflexion of his guilt, he deter¬
mined to make reftitution, and actually repaid the
money. Quitting his employment of fecretary, about
the year 1547, he took chambers in the inner temple,
and for feme time ftudied the law ; but finding in him-
felf an inclination to preach the gofpel, in the follow¬
ing year he removed to Catherine-hall in Cambridge,
where he applied with fuch uncommon afiiduity to the
ftudy of divinity, that in a much Ihorter time than ufual
he was admitted to the degree of mailer of arts, and
foon after made fellow of Pembroke-hall. Bilhop Rid¬
ley, who, in 1550, was traufiated to the fee of Lon¬
don, charmed with Bradford’s application and zeal,
now fent for him to the metropolis, ordained, and ap¬
pointed him his chaplain. In 1553, he was alfo made
chaplain to Edward VI. during which time he became
one of the moft popular preachers in the kingdom.
Such a reformer was too dangerous to be fuffered in
the fucceeding reign. Mary was hardly in poffeffion
of the crown, before Bradford’s perfecutions began.
He was firft confined in the tower for fedition, where
he continued a year and an half; during which time
he wrote feveral epiftles that were difperfed in various
parts of the kingdom. He was afterwards removed to
other prifons, and at laft brought to his trial before
that infernal court of inquifition in which Gardiner fat
as chief inquifitor, where he defended his principles to
the laft, in contempt of their utmoft power. They
condemned him to the flames; and he was accordingly
burnt alive in Smithfield, on July 1. 1555. His works
are, 1. Seventy-two letters, written to various people,
whilft the author >vas in prifon ; printed in bilhop Co-
verdale’s colledlion. 2. Ten letters, printed in Fox’s
acts and monuments. 3. Complaint of verity, 1559,
8vo. 4. Three examinations before the commiflioners,
and his private talk with the priefts, with the original
of his life, 1561, oftavo. 5. Two notable fermons,
1574, oftavo, 1631. 6. Godly meditations and prayers,
1614, 24to. 7. Treatife ofij-epentance, 1622. With
feveral tranflations and other pieces.
BRADFORTH, a town in the weft of Yorklhire,
feated on a branch of the river Are, in W. Long. l. 35.
N. Lat. 53. 40.
BRADLEY (Dr James), a famous Englilh aftro-
nomer, was the third fon of William and Jane Bradley,
and was born at Sherborne in Dorfetlhire in the year
1692.
He was fitted for the univerfity at North Leach by
Mr Egles, and Mr Brice, who kept a boarding fchool
there ; and from North Leach he was fent to Oxford.
His friends intended him for the church, and his
ftudies were regulated with that view ; and as foon as
he was of fufficient age to receive holy orders, the bi¬
lhop of Hereford, who had conceived a great efteem
for him, gave him the living of Bridftow, and foon
after he was indudled to that of Welfriein Pembroke-
Ihire. But notwithHanding thefe advantages, from
which he might promife himfelf Hill farther advance¬
ment in the church, he at length refigned his livings,
that he might be wholly at liberty to purfue his fa¬
vourite ftudy the mathematics, and particularly aftro-
nomy.
He was nephew to Mr Pound, a gentleman who is
well known in the learned world by many excellent
obfervations, and who would have enriched it with more,
if the journals of his voyages had not been burnt at
Pulo Condor, when the place was fet on fire, and the
Englilh who were fettled there cruelly malfacred, Mr
Pound himielf very narrowly efcaping with his life.
With this gentleman, Mr Bradley pafled all the time
that he could fpare from the duties of his funftion ;
and perhaps he fometimes trepaffed upon them : he
was then fufficiently acquainted with the mathematics
to improve by Mr Pound’s converfation ; yet it does
not appear that, in this ftudy, he had any preceptor
but his genius, or any afiiftant but his labour.
It may be eafily imagined, that the example and
converfation of Mr Pound did not render Bradley more
fond of his proteffion than he was before ; be continued,
however, as yet to fulfil the duties of it, though at
this time he had made fuch obfervations as laid the
foundation of thofe difeoveries which afterwards dif-
tinguiflied him as one of the greateft aftronomers of
his age.
Though thefe obfervations were made as it were by
Health, they gained him at firft the notice, and then
the friendlhip, of the lord chancellor Macclesfield,
Mr Newton afterwards Sir Ifaac, Mr Halley, and
many other members of the royal fociety, into which
he was foon defied a member.
About the fame time, the chair of Savilian profef-
for of aftronomy became vacant by the death of the
celebrated Dr Keil ; and Mr Bradley was defied to
fucceed him on the 3ist of Oftober 1721, being then
juft 29 years old; and his colleague was Mr Halley,
who was profefibr of geometry on the fame foundation.
Bradley, upon his being eleded into this profefibr-
fliip, gave up both his livings, and with great joy
quitted a fituation in which his duty was direftly op-
pofite to his inclination.
From this time, he applied himfelf wholly to the
ftudy of bis favourite fcience ; and in the the year 1727
he publiflitd his theory of the aberration of the fixed
ftars, which is allowed to be one of the moft ufeful and
ingenious difeoveries of modern aftronomy.
Three years-after this difeovery, by which Mr Brad¬
ley
Bradley.
BRA [ 1346 ] BRA
Bradley. ]ey acquired very great reputation, he was appointed
lecturer in aitronomy and phyfxcs, at the mufeum at
Oxford.
He purfued his ftudies with equal application and
delight; and in the courfe of his obfervations, which
were innumerable, he difcovered that the inclination of
the earth’s axis upon the plane of the ecliptic was
not always the fame, but that it varied backwards and
forwards fome feconds, and that the period of thefe
variations was nine years. This period feemed alto¬
gether unaccountable, as it could not be fuppofed to
have any thing in common with the revolution of the
earth, which is performed in one year. Mr Bradley,
however, difcovered the caufe of this phenomenon in
the Newtonian fyftem of attra&ion.
He publilhed this difcovery in 1737, fo that in the
fpace of about ten years he communicated to the world
two of the fineft difcoveries in modern aftronomy, which
will for ever make a memorable epocha in the hiitory
of that fcience.
Mr Bradley always preferred the efteem and friend-
fhip of Mr Halley ; who, being worn out by age and
infirmities, thought he could do nothing farther for
the fervice of aftronomy, than procure for Mr Bradley
the place of regius profefibr of aftronomy at Green¬
wich, which he had pofTefied himfelf many years with
the greateft reputation. With this view, he wrote many
letters, which have been fince found among Mr Brad¬
ley’s papers, defiring his permiffion to apply for a grant
of the reverfion of it to him, and even offering to re-
fign in his favour, if it fhould be thought neceffary :
but before Mr Halley could bring this kind projeft to
bear, he died. Mr Bradley, however, obtained the
place afterwards, by the favour and intereft of my lord
Macclesfield, who was afterwards prefident of the royal
fociety.
As foon as the appointment of Mr Bradley to this
place was known, the univerfity of Oxford fent him a
diploma creating him dodtor of divinity.
The appointment of aftronomerat Greenwich placed
Mr Bradley in his proper element, and he purfued his
obfervations with unwearied diligence.
However numerous the colledfion of aftronomical
inftruments at the obfervatory at Greenwich, it was
impofiible that fuch an obferver as Dr Bradley fhould
not defire to increafe them, as well to anfwer thofe par¬
ticular views, as in general to make obfervations with
greater exadtnefs. In the year 1748, therefore, he
took the opportunity of the annual vifit made by the
royal fociety to the obfervatory, in order to examine
the inftruments and receive the profeffor’s obfervations
for the year, to reprefent fo ftrongly the neceffity of
repairing the old inftruments, and purchafing new,
that the fociety thought proper to reprefent it to his
majefty, and his majefty gave them 10001. for that
purpofe. This fum was laid out under the diredtion
of Dr Bradley, who, with the affiftance of the late
celebrated Mr Graham and Mr Bird, furnifhed the ob¬
fervatory with as complete a colledtion of aftronomical
inftruments, as the moft fkilful and diligent obferver
could defire.
Dr Bradley, furnifhed with fuch afliftance, purfued
his obfervations with new affiduity, an incredible num¬
ber of which were found after his death, and put into
the hands of the royal fociety.
It has been already obferved, that when Dr Brad* Brlfkljr.
ley was eledted to the profeffor’s chair at Oxford, he “
gave up his two livings, which were at fuch adiftance,
that he could not poffibly fulfil the duties of them him¬
felf ; but it happened that after he was fettled at Green¬
wich, the living of that parifh became vacant, which
is very confiderable, and which was offered to him, as
he was upon the fpot to perform the duty, and had
the claim of uncommon merit to the reward. This
living, however, Dr Bradley, very greatly to his ho¬
nour, refufed, fearing the duties of the aftronomer would
too much interfere with thofe of the divine. His ma¬
jefty, however, hearing of the refufal, was fo pleafed
with it, that he granted him a penfion of 250 1. a year
in confideration of his great abilities and knowledge in
aftronomy and other branches of the mathematics,
which had procured fomuch advantage to the commerce
and navigation of Great Britain, as is particularly
mentioned in the grant which is dated the 15th of Fe¬
bruary 1752.
Dr Bradley, about the fame time, was admitted into
the council of the royal fociety. In the year 1748, he
was admitted a member of the royal academy of fciences
and belles lettres of Berlin, upon the death of M. Cre-
vier, firft phyfician to his catholic majefty; in the
year 1752, a member of the imperial academy at Pe-
terfburgh ; and in 1757, of that inftituted at Bologna.
Dr Bradley was ftill indefatigable in his obfervations,
and whatever honour he received became an incitement
to obtain new diftindlion ; his corporeal abilities, how¬
ever, at length declined, though his intelledlual fuf-
fered no abatement. In the year 1760, he became
extremely weak and infirm ; and towards the end of
June 1762, he was attacked with a total fuppreffion
of urine, caufed by an inflammation of the reins, which
on the I2th of July following put an end to his life,
in the 70th year of his age. He was buried at Mit-
chin-Hampton in Gloucefterlhire, in the fame grave
with his mother and his wife.
1 In the year 1744, he married Sufannah Peach, the
daughter of a gentleman of that name in Gloucefter¬
lhire, by whom he had only one daughter, now living.
As to his charafter, he was remarkable for a placid
and gentle modefty, very uncommon in perfons of an
active temper and robuft conftitution. It was ftill more
remarkable, that, with this untroubled equanimity of
temper, he was compaffionate and liberal in the higheft
degree. Although he was a good fpeaker, and pof-
feffed the rare but happy art of expreffing his ideas
with the utmoft precifion and perfpicuity, yet no man
was a greater lover of filence, for he never fpoke but
when he thought it abfolutely neceffary. He did in¬
deed think it neceffary to fpeak when he had a fair
opportunity to communicate any ufeful knowledge in
his own way ; and he encouraged thofe that attended
his le&ures to alk him queftions, by the exadlnefs with
which he anfwered, and the care he took to adapt him¬
felf to every capacity.
He was not more inclined to write than to fpeak,
for he has publilhed very little: he had a natural dif¬
fidence, which made him always afraid that his works
Ihould injure his chara&er; and therefore fuppreffed
many, which probably were well worthy of the pub¬
lic attention. He was even known, as it were, in fpite
of himfelf; and, in fpite of himfelf, he was known
much,
BRA [ 1347 ] BRA
; Bradninch much, and confequently much dleemcd. He was ac-
Eradw rdin lIua*nte^ wlt^ many of the firft perfons in this king-
  dom, perfons eminent as well for their rank as their
abilities: he was honoured by all men of learning in
general; and there was not an aftronomer of any emi¬
nence in the world, with whom he had not a literary
correfpondence.
Upon the whole, it may be faid of Dr Bradley, that
no man cultivated great talents with more fuecefs, or
had a better claim to be ranked among the greateft
aftronomers of his age.
BRADNINCH, a town of Devonfhire, once a con-
fiderable place, but fome time ago totally deftroyed by
fire. W. Long. 3. 35. N Lat. 50. 45.
BRADS, among artificers, a kind of nails ufed in
building, which have no fpreading heads as other nails
have. They are diftinguifiied by iron-mongers, by
fix names; as, joiner’s-brads, flooring-brads, batten-
brads, bill-brads, or quarter-heads, &c. Joiner’s-
brads are for hard wainfcot, batten-brads are for foft
wainfcot; bill-brads are ufed when a floor is laid in
halte, or for (hallow joifts fubjeft to warp. See Nail.
BRADSHAW (Henry), a Benedi&ine monk, was
born at Chefter, about the middle of the 15th century.
Difcovering an early propenfity to religion and litera¬
ture, he was received while a boy into the monaitery
of St Werberg in that city ; and having there imbibed
the rudiments of his education, he was afterwards fent
to Gloucefter college, in the fuburbs of Oxford, where
for a time he ftudied theology with the novices of his
order, and then returned to his convent at Chefter;
here, in the latter part of his life, he applied himfelf
chiefly to the ftudy of hiftory, and wrote feveral books.
He died in the year 1513, the fifth of Henry VIII.
His poetry is not inferior to that of any of his cotem¬
poraries. His works are, 1. De antiquitate et mag-
nificentia urbis Cejlria. 2. Chronicon. 3. The life
of the glorious virgin of St Werberg. Printed Lond.
1521, 410, in verfe. The life of St Werberg makes
only part of this work ; for it contains alfo a defcrip-
tion of the kingdom of Mercia, life of St Etheldred,
the life of St Sexburg, the foundation and hiftory of
Chefter, and the chronicles of fome kings. Poffibly
this work may include the two firft. Bifhop Tanner
fays, that he wrote a chronicle in Englifli verfe, ex-
trafted from Bede, Malmlbury, Geraldus, and others.
Probably this is the chronicle abovementioned.
BRADWARDIN (Thomas), archbifhop of Can¬
terbury, was born at Hartfield in Suflex, about the
clofe of the 13th century. He was educated at Merton
College, Oxford, where he took the degree of do&or
of divinity; and acquired the reputation of a profound
fcholar, a flcilful mathematician, and confummate di¬
vine. Authors are not agreed as to his firft prefer¬
ments. Pits fays he was profefibr of divinity at Oxford.
They agree, however, in afferting that from being
chancellor of the diocefe of London, he became a cour¬
tier and confeflbr to Edward III. whom he conftantly
attended during his war with France, affifting that vic¬
torious prince with his advice, animating the troops,
and fervently praying for their fuccefs. After his re¬
turn from the war, he was made prebendary of Lincoln,
and afterwards archbiftiop of Canterbury. He died at
Lambeth in the year 1349, forty days after his confe-
cration; and was buried in St Anfelm’s chapel, near
the fouth wall. His works are, 1. Be caufa Dei, Brady,
printed London, 1618, publiflied by J. H. Savil. 2. Bradypus.
De geometr/a fpeculativa, &c. Paris, 1495, 1512, '
153°. 3. De arithmetica praftica, Paris, 1502, 1512.
4. De proportionibus, Paris, 1495. Venice, 1505, folio.
5. De quadratura circuit, Paris, 1495, folio.
BRADY (Robert), born in Norfolk in 1643, was
mafter of Caius college, Cambridge, regius profeflbr
there, and twice reprefentative of that univerfity in par¬
liament. In 1685, he was made keeper of the records
in the tower, and was phyfician in ordinary to James II.
He wrote, An introduftion to the Old Englifli hiftory;
An hiftory of England from the time of the Romans,
to the end of the reign of Richard II.; and, Atreatife
on Englifli boroughs. He died in 1700.
Brady (Nicholas), an excellent divine and poet,
born at Bandon, in the county of Cork, Oftober 28th,
1659. He ftudied at Weftminfter-fchool, and after¬
wards at Oxford and Dublin college. He was a zea¬
lous promoter of the Revolution; and, in 1690, when
the troubles broke out in Ireland, by his intereft with
M'Carty, king James’s general, he thrice prevented
the burning of the town of Bandon. Having quitted
feveral preferments in Ireland, he fettled in London,
where he was fucceflively promoted to feveral.livings;
and at the time of his death was redlor of Clapham,
minifter of Richmond, and chaplain to the duke of Or¬
mond’s troop of horfe-guards. He wrote part of the
new verfion of the Pfalms, now fung in many churches
in England and Ireland; the iEneids of Virgil, i*
4 vols; and 3 vols of fermons. He died May 20th, 1726.
BRADYPUS, or Sloth, a genus of quadrupeds
belonging to the order of bruta. The charafters are
thefe : They have no fore-teeth in either jaw; the dog¬
teeth are blunt, folitary, and longer than the grinders;
they have five grinders on each fide. The body is co¬
vered with hair. There are only two fpecies of brady-
pus, viz.
I. The trida&ylus, or American floth, has a ftiort
tail, and only three toes on each foot. It is about the
fize of a fox. The body is covered over with hair of
a grey colour ; the face is naked ; the throat is yel-
lowifti; the fore-feet are longer than the hind-feet;
the claws, which are three on each foot, are comprefled,
and very ftrong; and they have no mammie on the
bread; they have no external ears, but only two wind¬
ing holes. It is the moft fluggifh and moft flow of all
animals, and feems to move with the utmoft pain. Its
food is fruit, or the leaves of trees. If it cannot find
fruit on the ground, it looks out fora tree well loaded,
and with great pain climbs up : to fave the trouble of
defcending, it flings off the fruit; and, forming itfelf
into a ball, drops from the branches, continues at the
foot till it has devoured all, nor ever ftirs till compelled
by hunger. It never drinks, and is terrified at rain *. * See Plate
The following wonderful account of this animal, from LXV1II.
Kircher’s Mufurgia, is quoted by Mr Stillingfleet in % *•
his mifcellaneous trafts. “ The defcription (fays Kir-
cher) I had from father Torus, who refided in Ame¬
rica, who had animals of this kind in his pofleffion, and
made many experiments in relation to their nature and
qualities. Its figure is extraordinary; it is about the
bignefs of a cat, of very ugly countenance, and has
claws extended like fingers. The hinder part of the
head and neck are covered with hair. It fweeps the
ground
BRA [1^48] BRA
Srailypm ground with its fat belly, never rifes upon its feet, and
II moves fo flowly, that it would fcarce go the length of
ra£‘ a bow-fhot in 15 days, though conftantly moving, and
it is therefore called the Jlotb. It lives generally upon
tops of trees, and employs two days to crawl up, and
as many to get down again. Nature has doubly guarded
this animal againft its enemies. Firft, by giving it fuch
ftrength in its feet, that whatever it feizes, it holds fo
fail, that it never can be freed from its claws, but muft
there die of hunger. Secondly, in giving it fuch a mo¬
ving afpeft, when it looks at any man who ftiould be
tempted to hurt it, that it is impoflible not to be touched
with compaffion; befides, that at the fame time it fheds
tears, and upon the whole perfuades one, that a crea¬
ture fo defencelefs, and of fo unhappy a body, ought
not to be tormented. To make an experiment of this,
the abovementioned father procured one of thefe ani¬
mals to be brought to our college at Carthagena. He
put a long pole under its feet, which it feized upon very
firmly, and would not let go again. The animal there¬
fore thus voluntarily fufpended was placed between two
beams along with the pole, and there it remained with¬
out meat, drink, or fleep, 40 days; its eyes being al¬
ways fixed on people that looked at it, who were fo
touched, that they could not forbear pitying it. At
lad being taken down, they let loofe a dog on it, which
after a little while the doth feized with his feet, and
held him four days, till lie died of hunger. This was
taken from the mouth of the father. They add, (con¬
tinues Kircher), that this creature makes no noife but at
night, but that very extraordinary. For by interrup¬
tions, that lad about the length of a figh or femipaufe,
it goes through the fix vulgar intervals of mufic Ut, re,
mi, fa, fol, la, La, fol, fa, mi, re, ut, afcending and
defcending, and thefe perfe&ly in tune. So that the
Spaniards, when they fird got pofleflion of this coad,
and heard thefe notes, they imagined that fome people
brought up to our mufic were finging. This animal
is called by the natives baut; certainly becaufe, going
through thefe mufical intervals, it repeats Ha, ha, ha,
ha, ha, Sec.” To this account Linmeus feems, in his
Syftenia Nature, to give credit. For he fays, in his
diort way of defeription, among other things, “ It ut¬
ters an afcending hexachord : its noife is horrible; its
tears are piteous.” He quotes Mufgrave, Clufius, Gef-
ner, &c.
2. The didadtylus has two toes on each foot, and no
tail: The head is round; the ears are large; and it has
two mammie on the bread: The body is covered with
adi-coloured hair. It is a native of Ceylon.
BRAE-mar, a mountainous territory of Scotland,
in the fhire of Aberdeen, where the lad earl of Mar
began to raife a rebellion in 1715. It is 27 miles north-
wed of Aberdeen.'
BRAE-Afar/vyi, a mountainous and woody trail of
land, lying in the (hires of Elgin and Nairn in Scot¬
land.
BRAG, an ingenious and pleafant game at cards,
where as many may partake as the cards will fupply 5
the elded hand dealing three to each perfon at one time,
and turning up the lad card all round. This done,
each gamelter puts down three dakes, one for each
card.—The fird dake is won by the bed card turned
up in the dealing round; beginning from the ace, king,
queen, knave, and fo downwards. When cards of the
fame value are turned up to two or more of the game- Braga
ders, the elded hand gains ; but it is to be obierved, II
that the ace of diamonds wins, to whatever hand it be Hrahe‘
turned up.—The fecond dake is won by what is called
the brag, which confids in one of the gametlers chal¬
lenging the red to produce cards equal to his: Now it
is to be obferved, that a pair of aces is the bed brag,
a pair of kings the next, and fo on; and a pair of any
fort wins the dake from the mod valuable tingle card.
In this part confids the great diverfion of the game ;
for, by the artful management of the looks, gedures,
and voice, it frequently happens, that a pair of fives,
treys, or even duces, out-brags a much higher pair, and
even fome pairs royal, to the no fmall merriment of the
company. The knave of clubs is here a principal fa¬
vourite, making a pair with any other card in hand,
and with any other two cards a pair royal.—The third
dake is won by the perfon who fird makes up the cards
in his hand one and thirty; each dignified card going
for ten, and drawing from the pack, as ufual in this
game.
BRAGA, the capital of the province of Entre-min-
hoduro, in Portugal, fituated on the river Cavado, in
W. Long. 8. 40. N. Lat. 41. 20.
BRAGANZA, a city of Portugal, and capital of
a duchy of the fame name. It is feated on an eminence,
by a brook called Fervenca; and is divided into two
parts, the old city, and the town. The former is upon
an eminence, and fortified with a double wall. That
part next the town has five badions, but no ditch; the
citadel is on the oppofite fide joined to the wall. The
town is in a plain, and defended by a fort with four
badions.. It is feated near the river Sabor on the fron¬
tiers of Galicia, in W. Long. 6. 15. N. Lat. 41. 27*
BRAGGET, a kind of drink made of malt, honey,
and fpices, much ufed in Wales.
BRAHE (Tycho), a celebrated adronomer, de-
feended of. an illudrious family originally of Sweden
but fettled at Denmark, was born December 14th
1546, at Knuddorp in the county of Schonen. He
was taught Latin when feven years old, and dudied five
years under private tutors. His father dying, his uncle
lent him, in April 1559, to dudy philofophy and rhe¬
toric at Copenhagen. The great eclipfe of the fun on
the 2isr of Augud 1560, happening at the precifetime
the adronomers had foretold, he began to look upon
adronomy as fomething divine ; and purchafing the
tables of Stadius, gained fome notion of the theory of
the planets. In 1562, he was fent by his uncle to
Leipfic to dudy law; but adronomy wholly engrotfed
his thoughts, and in purchafing books on that fcience
he employed all his pocket-money. Having procured a
fmall celedial globe, he was wont to wait till his tutor
was gone to bed, in order to examine the condellations
and learn their names; and when the Iky was clear, he
fpent whole nights in viewing the dars. In 1565, a
difference arifing between Brahe and a Danith noble¬
man, they fought, and the former had part of his nofe
cut off; which defeft he fo artfully fujxplied with one
made of gold and filver, that it was not perceivable. It
was about this time that he began to apply to chemi-
dry, propofing nothing lefs than to obtain the philo-
fopher’s done. In 1571, he returned to Denmark; and
was favoured by his mother’s brother, Steno Belle, a
lover of learning, with a convenient place at his cadle
BRA [ 1349 ] BRA
Brahf. of Hem'tzvad near Knudftorp, for making his obfer-
vations, and building a laboratory. His marrying a
country girl, beneath his rank, occafioned fuch a vio¬
lent quarrel between him and his relations, that the
king was obliged to interpofe to reconcile them. In
1574, by his majefty’s command, he read ledlures upon
the theory of the comets at Copenhagen. The year
following he began his travels through Germany, and
proceeded as far as Venice: he then refolved to remove
his family, and fettle at Bafd; but Frederic II. king
of Denmark being informed of his defign, and unwil¬
ling to lofe a man that was capable of being fuch an
ornament to his country, prornifed to enable him to
purfue his ftudies, to beftow upon him for life the ifland
of Huen in the found, to ere& an obfervatory and la¬
boratory there, and to defray all the expences necef-
fary for carrying on his defigns. Tycho Brahe readily
embraced this propofal; and accordingly the firft itone
of the obfervatory was laid Auguft 8th 1576. The
king alfo gave him a penfion of 2000 crowns out of his
treafury, a fee in Norway, and a canonry of Rofhild,
which brought him in 1000 more. James VI. of Scot¬
land, afterwards raifed to the crown of England, go¬
ing to Denmark in order to marry the princefs Anne,
paid a vifit to our author in his retirement at Urania-
burg, made him feveral prefents, and with his own hand
wrote a copy of verfes in his praife: but, foon after the
death of king Frederic, he was deprived of his penfion,
fee, and canonry; upon which, finding himfelf incapa¬
ble of bearing the expences of his obfervatory, he went
to Copenhagen, whither he brought fome of his inftru-
ments, and continued his aftronomical obfervations in
that city, till Valkendorf, chamberlain to the houfhold of
Charles IV. commanded him by the king’s order to dif-
continue them. He then removed his family to Roftock,
and afterwards to Holftein, in order to folicit Henry
Ranzou to introduce him to the emperor; and that gen¬
tleman complying with his requeft, he was received by
the emperor at Prague with the utmoft civility and re-
fpedl. That prince gave him a magnificent houfe, till
be could procure one for him more fit for allronomical
obfervations; affigned him a penfion of 3000 crowns;
and promifed, upon the firft opportunity, a fee for him
and his defcendants: but he did not long enjoy this
happy fituation; for, upon the 24th of Oftober 1601,
he died of a retention of urine, in the 55th year of his
age, and was interred in a very magnificent manner in
the principal church at Prague, where a noble monu¬
ment was erefted to him.—His Ikill in aftronomy is uni-
verfally known, and he is famed for being the inventor
* See dftrc- of a new fyftem*, which he endeavoured, tho’ without
Komy, n°75. fuccefs, to eftablifn upon the ruins of that of Coperni¬
cus. He was very credulous with regard to judicial
aftrology, and prefages. If he met an old woman when
he went out of doors, or an hare upon the road on a
journey, he ufed to turn back immediately, being per-
fuaded that it was a bad omen. When he lived at U-
raniabourg, he had at his houfe a madman, whom he
placed at his feet at table, and fed himfelf. As he ima¬
gined that every thing fpoken by mad perfons prefaged
fomething, he carefully obferved all that this man faid;
and becaufe it fometimes proved true, he imagined it
might always be depended on. A mere trifle put him
in a paflior ; and againft perfons of the firft rank, with
whom it was his duty to keep on good terms, he openly
Von. II.
difcovered his refentment. He was very apt to rally c,a,jlnia
others, but highly provoked if the fame liberty was
taken with himfelf. His principal works are, 1. Pro-  
gynmafmata ajironomine. 2. De mundi atherei reccn~
tioribus phanomcnis. 3. Epifiularurn ajlronomicarum
liber.
BRAHMA. See Brama.
BRAIDALBIN, a diftrift of Perthfhire in Scot¬
land,'ftretching 32 miles from eaft to weft, and 13
where broadeft from fouth to north; is a mountainous
country, lying among the Grampian hills, fuppofed to
be the country anciently known by the name of Albanii;
whence the Highlanders to this day call themfelves Al-
binich. It is bounded on the weft by Lochaber, Lorn,
and Knapdale; on the north and call, by part of Lo¬
chaber and part of Athol; and on the fouth, by Stra-
thern and Montieth. It produces plenty of game and
black cattle; is inhabited by Highlanders faid to be
the moft ferocious in all Scotland; and gives the title
of earl to a branch of the Campbell family, which is
pofleffed of a noble and magnificent feat in this divifion.
Much flax is cultivated here. Some years ago, when
premia were given for the greateft crops, from 70 to 120
hoglheads of lintfeed were annually fown, each peck
yielding two ftones of dreft flax ; and when the yarn
fold higheft, 2000/. worth has been fold out of the
country. Oats and potatoes are the other crops. Oats
yield from four to fix fold at the moft, oftener lefs ;
bear, from eight to ten, at an average fix. The corn
raifed feldom fufficesithe number of inhabitants, fo they
are often obliged to have recourfe to importation.
From their potatoes fome have diftilled a very ftrong
fpirit, which has been found cheaper than what is di¬
ftilled from any grain. Starch is alfo made from them;
and, in fome places, bread. Corcur, or the lichen om-
phaloides, is an article of commerce; great quantities
have been feraped from the rocks, and exported for the
ufe of the dyers, at the price of is. or i6d. per ftone.
A good many flieep are reared here, and much wool is
fent out of the country. There are few' horfes raifed
in this country: fuch as feed on the tops of the higher
hills are often afflifted with a diftemper that commonly
proves fatal, if a remedy is not applied within 24 hours.
It attacks them in the months of July and Auguft, u-
fually after a fall of rain, or before the dew rifes in the
morning. An univerfal fwelling fpreads over the body:
the remedy is exercife, chafing, or any method that
promotes urine and perfpiration. The common people
attribute this evil to a certain animal that fcatters its
poifon over the grafs ; but, more probably, it arifes
from fome noxious vegetable hitherto unobferved. Be¬
fore the year 1745, lord Braidalbin was obliged to keep
a conftant guard for the protedlion of his vaflals cattle,
or to retain fpies among the thievifli clans, having too
much fpirit to fnbmit to pay an infamous tax* called
llacbneal, to the plundering chieftains as the price of
their fafety.
BRAIL, or Brails, in a Ihip, arefmall ropes made
ufe of to furl the fails acrofs: they belong only to the
two courfes and the mizen-fail; they are reeved thro*
the blocks, feized on each fide the ties, and come down
before the fail, being at the very Ikirt thereof faftened
to the cringles; their ufe is, when the fail is furled a-
crofs, to hale up its bunt, that it may the more eafily
be taken up or let fall. Hale up the brails, or brail
8 H up
BRA [ 1350 ] BRA
Brailow Up the fail; that is, Hale up the fail, in order to be furl-
V, t, ed or bound clofe to the yard.
. -—I a BRAILOW, a town of Poland, in the province of
Podolia, feated on the river Bog, in E. Long. 29. o.
N. Lat. 43. 50.
BRAIN. See Anatomy, n° 16, 394, 400; alfo
Comparative Anatomy, n° 68, feq. and n° 128,
153.
Brain le Comte, a town of the Auftrian Nether¬
lands, in the province of Hainault. E. Long. 4. 11.
N. Lat. 50. 35.
BRAINTREE, a large town of Effex in England,
fituated in E. Long. o. 35. N. Lat. 51-50.
BRAKE, denotes female fern, or the place where it
grows.—Alfo a fharp bit or fnaffle for horfes; and a
baker’s kneading-trough.— Alfo an inftrument with
teeth to bruife flax or hemp; fee Y^^x-Dreffing.
BRAKEL, a town of Germany, in the circle of
Weftphalia, and in the bifliopric of Paderborn, feated
on the rivulet Brught, in E. Long. 9. 8. N. Lat. 51.
46.
BRAMA, or Bruma, a pagan deity of the Eaft
Indies. He is the firft perfon of a kind of trinity in
their theology ; is the great progenitor of mankind ;
and has created as many worlds as there are conllder-
f See the ar-ahle parts in his body f.
™2BBri BRAMA, in ichthyology, the trivial name of a
^.,4 fpecies of cyprinus. See Cyprinus.
In doji an. BRAMANT, a town of Savoy, in the valley of
Maurich, feated on the river Arck, in E. Long. 4. 15.
N. Lat. 45. o.
BRAMBER, a town of Suflex in England, for¬
merly of fome account, but has neither market nor fair;
however, it fends two members to parliament. W.
Long. o. 15. N. Lat. 50. 50.
BRAMBLE, in botany, the Englilh name of the
RUBUS.
Bramble-A7?/, otherwife called b a liter, is a net to
catch birds in of feveral fizes: the great maflies mud
be four inches fquare; thofe of the lead fixe are three
inches fquare; and thofe of the bigged, five. In the
depth they fhould not be above three or four inches:
but as for the length, they may be enlarged at plea-
fure; the (horted being 18 feet long.
Bramble, or Brambling, in ornithology, the trivial
name of a fpecies of fringilla.
BRAMHALL (Dr John), archbifhop of Armagh,
» was born of an ancient family at Pontefraft in York-
fhire, about the year 1593. He was invited over to
Ireland by the lord deputy Wentworth ; and foon after
obtained the aKch-deaconry of Meath, the bed in that
kingdom. In 1634, he was made biihop of London¬
derry, which fee he improved very much ; but the
greated fervice he did to the church of Ireland, was by
getting, with the deputy’s afiiftance, feveral afts pafied
for abolilhing fee-farms, recovering impropriations, &c.
by which and by other means he regained to the church
in the fpace of four years 30,000 or 40,000/. a year. In
the convocation he prevailed upon the church of Ireland
to unite in the fame faith with the church of England,
by adopting the 39 articles of that church ; and would
willingly have introduced the Englifli canons, but could
only prevail on their accepting fuch as they deemed
proper. Articles of treafon were exhibited againd
him in the Irifli parliament; and at the treaty of Ux¬
bridge in 1644, the Englifli parliament made it a pre- Bramins,
liminary article, that bifliop Bramhall, with archbifhop  ~
Laud, and others, fliould be excepted from the general
pardon. He went abroad; but on the redoration was
appointed archhiffipp of Armagh, primate and metro¬
politan of all Ireland, and was chofen fpeaker of the
houfe of lords. He died in 1663 ; and was the author
of feveral works, which are colleided in one vol. folio.
BRAMINS, the name of the priefts among the i-
dolatrous Indians; the fuccefibrs of the ancient Brach-
mans. See the title Brachmans.
Their name is formed from Bratna, their particular
deity. They are found in Siam, Malabar, China, Co¬
romandel, and mod other eadern nations any wife civi¬
lized ; but their chief feat is in Indodanf, or the Mo- f See Inde*
gul’s country. They have a language peculiar to them- /hj«.
felves; in which they have feveral ancient books, written
(as is alleged) by their great prophet Brama, and
dictated by God himfelf.
There are feveral orders of Bramins. Thofe who
mix in fociety are for the mod part very corrupt in
their morals: they believe that the water of the Ganges
will wafli away all their crimes ; and, as they are not
fubjeft to any civil jurifdiftion, live without either re-
draint or virtue, excepting that chara&erof compaflion
and charity which is fo commonly found in the tr.iid
climate of India. The others, who live abflrafted
from the world, are either weak-minded men or enthu-
fiads; and abandon themfelves to lazinefs, fuperdition,
and the dreams of metaphyfics. We find in their dif-
putes the very fame ideas that occur in the writings of
our mod celebrated metaphyficians; fuch as, fubdance,
accident, priority, pofleriority, immutability, indivifibi-
lity, &c.
Their religion, which was anciently of the allegori¬
cal and moral kind, hath degenerated into a heap of
extravagant and obfeene fuperditions, owing to their
having realized thofe fictions which were intended mere¬
ly as fo many fymbols and emblems. Were it poffible
to obtain a fight of their facred books, the only re¬
mains there are of the Indian antiquities, we might in
fome meafure be enabled to remove the veil that envelops
thofe numerous myderies; but the following dory will
{how how little reafon there is to hope that W'e fliall
ever be intrufted with fuch a communication.
The emperor Mahmoud Akbar had an inclination RoynaFs
to make himfelf acquainted with the principles of all of the
the religious fe£ts throughout his extenfive provin- n tes‘
ces. Having difearded the fuperditious notions with
w'hich he had been prepoflefled by his education in the
Mahometan faith, he refolved tojudge for himfelf. It
was eafy for him to be acquainted wdth the nature of
thofe fyflems that are formed upon the plan of making
profelytes; but he found himfelf difappointed in his
defign when he came to treat with the Indians, who
wall not admit any ptrfon whatever to the participation
of their myfteries. Neither the authority nor promifes
of Akbar could prevail with the Bramins to difclofe
the tenets of their religion; he was therefore obliged
to have recourfe to artifice. The flratagem he made
ufe of was to caufe a boy, of the name of Feizi, to
be committed to the care of thefe prieds, as a poor or¬
phan of the facerdotal line, who alone could be initiated
into the facred rites of their theology. I(eizi, having
received the proper indrudions for the part he was to
BRA [ 1351 ] BRA
Bramins, aft, was conveyed privately to Benares, the feat of
Brampour, knowledge Jn Indoftan ; he was received into the houfe
of a learned Bramin, who educated him with the fame
care as if he had been his own fon. After the youth
had fpent ten years in-ftudy, Akbar was Sefirous of
recalling him ; but he was llruck with the charms of
the daughter of his preceptor. The women of the fa-
cerdotal tribe are looked upon as the greateft beauties
in Indoftan. The old Bramin laid no reftraint upon
that growing paffion of the two lovers: he was fond of
Feizi, who had gained his affe&ion by his addrefs and
docility; and offered him his daughter in marriage.
The young man, divided between love and gratitude,
refolved to conceal the fraud no longer; and falling at the
feet of the Bramin, difcovered the impofture, and aiked
pardon for his offence. The prieft, without reproaching
him in the leaft, feized a poniard which hung at his
girdle, and was going to plunge it in his breaft, if Fei¬
zi had not prevented him by taking hold of his arm.
The young man ufed every means to pacify him, and
declared himfelf ready to do any thing to expiate his
treachery. The Bramin, burfting into tears, promifed
to pardon him on condition that he fttould fwear never
to tranflate the Bedns, or facred volumes, or difclofe to
any perfon whatever the fymbol of the Bramin creed.
Feizi readily promifed all that the Bramin required:
.how far he kept his word is not known; but the facred
books of the Indians have never been tranflated by him,
or any one elfe, to this day. As the Bramins are the
only perfons who underftand the language of the facred
book, their comments on the text are the fame as thofe
that have ever been made on religious books; all the
maxims which fancy, intereft, paffion, or falfe zeal can
f See thear- fuggeft, are to be found in thefe volumes f.
ticles Shaf- They own a fupreme God, who created Brama, and
!fcw»and Ve~ £ave ^im a Power to create ^ world. They have alfo
their fubaltern deities, their pagods or temples, afrd i-
dols, whom they fan to defend from flies, dancing be¬
fore them. They alfo hold a feaft in honour of the
fun, confidered as the fource of light and heat, whereby
all nature is fecundified.
Their pagods or temples confift of three parts. The
firft is a vaulted roof, fupported on ftone columns: it
lies open, and all perfons, without diftindtion, are al¬
lowed to enter into it. It is adorned with fymbolical
figures, made of wood, as elephants, oxen, and horfes.
The fecond part is open in the day-time, and Ihut at
night. It is filled with grotefque and monftrous figures,
as men with many heads and arms. The third, which
is a kind of chancel, is kept always (hut, with a very
flrong gate. In this is placed the ftatue of the deity,
to whom the pagod is dedicated. A great number of
lamps burn day and night before the idol. The Bra¬
mins, before they go into the pagod, pull oft' their
ffioes, and leave them at the door.
BRAMPOUR, or Brampore, a city of Afia, in
the dominions of the great Mogul, and capital of Can-
difh. It formerly flood on as much ground as Lon¬
don ; but is now greatly decayed, and chiefly inhabited
by Banians. The ftreets are numerous, but narrow,
with low thatched houfes made of earth, though a few
are covered with varnifhed tiles. In rainy weather
many of the ftreets are overflowed. In the market
place is the ftatue of an elephant in red ftone, as big as
the life. On the other fide of the river they have built
a new town, which is in a better fituation. A great Bramptort
trade is carried on in this town, and throughout all II
the province, where there is made a prodigious quan- ,raiic '
tity of cotton-cloths, as cotton is in greater plenty here
than in any other place of the empire. E. Long. 77.
25. N. Lat. 21. 10.
BRAMPTON, a town of Cumberland in England,
feated not far from the Pi&s wall, and on the river
Irthin. It is a very ancient place, but at prefent is
very fmall. W. Long. 2. 40. N. Lat. 54. 50.
BRAN, the fkins or hulks of corn, efpeciaily wheat
ground, feparated from the flour by a fieve or boulter.
It contains, befides, a portion of the farinaceous mat¬
ter ; this is lefs glutinous than the finer flour, and is
fuppofed to have a detergent quality; infufions of bran
are not unfrequently employed in this intention exter¬
nally, and fometimes likewiie taken inwardly.
Among the ancients, bran was ufed as an erotic,
to excite love. Bran boiled, purges feurf, dandreff, and
cleanfes the hands in lieu of foap. The dyers reckon
it among the not-colouring drugs; and ufe it for ma¬
king what they call the four ’waters, with which they
prepare their feveral dyes. Bran is alfo ufed as a me¬
dicine for horfes ; fee Farriery, $1.6.
BRANCH, in botany, an arm of a tree, or a part
which, fprouting out from the trunk, helps to form the
header crown thereof. Branches do not fpring out of the
mere furfaee of the trunk, but are profoundly rooted
therein, fo as not only to penetrate the cortical, but
alfo the woody fubftance, and even the pith. The
conftituent parts therefore of a branch are the fame as
of the trunk, viz. fkin, bark, wood, and pith*. * Seethear-
Branches of a Bridle, in the menage, are two piece? ticie F/cKti.
of iron bended, which, in the interval, between the one •
and the other, bear the bit-mouth, the crofs-chains,
and the curb; fo that on one end they anfwer to the
head-ftall, and on the other to the reins, in order to
keep the horfe’s head in fubjeftion. With regard to
their form and ftrufture, branches are either ftrait, in
form of a piftol, for young horfes to form their mouth;
or after the conftable of France’s fafhion, proper for a
horfe that carries his head well. Some are in form of
a gigot or leg, which will prevent horfes from carrying
too low: Some are in form of a bent knee, contrived for
horfes that arm themfelves againft the operation of the
bit; and others after the French fafhion, which is hard¬
ly above y of an inch at the fevile hole, and kneed
inch, at the jarret or ham.
It is to be obferved, x. That the farther the branch
is from the horfe’s neck, the more effedl it will have.
2. That fhort branches, aeteris paribus, are ruder, and
their effedts more fudden, than thofe of longer. 3.
That the branch is to be proportioned to the length
of a horfe’s neck; and one may fooner err in chufing
one too fhort than too long.
Branches of Ogives, in architecture, are the arches
of Gothic vaults. Thefe arches, traverfing from one
angle to another diagonal-wife, form a crgfs between
the other arches, which make the fides of the fquare,
of which the arches are diagonals.
Branch of a Trench. See Boyau.
Branch of a Mine. See Gallery.
Branch-C/^w^, with falconers, a term ufed to fig-
nify the making a hawk leap from tree to tree, till the
dog fprings the game.
8 H 2
BRANCH-
P,rancher
■ 11
Branden¬
burg.
BRA [ 1352 ] BRA
BRANCHER, among fportfmen, a young hawk,
newly taken out of the neft, that can hop from bough
to bough.
BRANCHIiE, or Gills, in the anatomy of fifties,
the parts correfponding to the lungs of land-animals,
AH fifties, except the cetaceous ones, and the pteromy-
zum, which have lungs, are furniftied with thefe organs
of refpiration. See Comparative Anatomy, n° 152.
BRANCHIDiE, in Grecian antiquity, priefts of
the temple of Apollo, which was at Didymus in Ionia,
a province of ieffer Afia, towards the iEgean fea, upon
the frontiers of Caria. They opened to Xerxes the
temple of Apollo, the riches whereof he took away.
After which, thinking it unfafe to ftay in Greece, they
fled to Sogdiana, on the other fide of the Cafpian fea,
upon the frontiers of Perfia, where they built a city,
called by their own name: but they did not efcape the
punifhment of their crime; for Alexander the Great
having conquered Darius king of Perfia, and being in¬
formed of their treachery,, put them all to the fword,
and razed their city, thus puniftiing the impiety of the
fathers in their polterity.
BRANCHON, a town of the Auftrian Nether¬
lands, in the province of Namur, feated on the river
Mehaigne. E. Long. 4. 40. N. Lat. 50. 32.
BRANDEIS, a town of Bohemia, feated on the
river Elbe. E. Long. 14.25. N. Lat. 50. 15.
BRANDENBURG (Marquifate of), a large coun¬
try of Germany, having Mecklenburgh and Pornera-
. nia on the north ; Poland, on the call; Silefia, with
the Lufatias, the eledforate of Saxony, Anhalt, and
duchy of Magdebourg, on the fouth ; and part of the
fame duchy, and that of Lunenburg, oh the weft. Its
greateft length is near 200 miles, and its greateft
breadth near too. Its northern fituation makes it very
cold for feven or eight months in winter. The foil in
general is far from being fruitful, a great part of it
confifting of fand: yet there are feveral fruitful fpots in
it; and the whole, under the laft and prefent reign, has
been greatly improved, and much better peopled. In
fome parts there is great plenty of potatoes and tur¬
nips; in others of buck-wheat, millet, and flax; in o-
thers of tobacco, woad, and other herbs for dyeing.
All forts of colour earths, together with alum, faft-
petre, amber, iron, ftone, and medicinal fprings, are
found in it. Abundance of cattle, efpecially (heep, are
bred here; and the woods not only fupply the inhabi¬
tants with fuel, but with timber, charcoal, tar, and
wood-afhes, both for domeftic ufes and for exporta-
■ tion. The culture of filk alfo is carried on in this country
with great fuccefs. The principal rivers by which it is
watered are the Elbe, the Oder, the Prignitz, the Ha¬
vel, the Warte, and the Spree. Some of the rivers and
lakes abound in fifh, and are united by canals, for the
benefit of navigation. They reckon in the whole Mark
120 towns, above 2500 villages, and about 800,000
inhabitants. The ftates here confift of the nobility and
towns, whofe afiembly-houfe is in the Spandau-ftreet at
Berlin, and who ftill enjoy fome fmall remains of their
ancient privileges. The hereditary officers of the mar¬
quifate are a marfhal, chamberlain, cup-bearer, pur¬
veyor, fewer, treafurer, and ranger. The king of
Pruffia, who is alfo ele6lor of Brandenburg, with his
whole court, are Calvinifts; but the religion of moft of
the inhabitants is Lutheranifm. The churches of both
perfuafions are well endowed, and the laity jointly em- Branden.
ployed by the government. The Roman-catholics are
alfo tolerated here. In ftiort, every inhabitant enjoys
full liberty of confcience. A great variety of manu-
faftures, moft of which were introduced by the French
refugees, are carried on in the marquifate, efpeciallyat
Berlin and Potfdam; where are alfo excellent painters,
ftatuaries, and engravers. By-means of thefe manufac¬
tures, fabrics, and arts, not only large fums are kept
in the country, but alfo imported from other parts, to
which conliderable quantities of the manufaftures, and
natural produ&ions, are exported. For the education
of youth, and the advancement of learning, befides La¬
tin fchools in feveral places, and gymnafia, there is an
univerfity at Frankfort on the Oder, and an academy
of fciences at Berlin. This marquifate, together with
the arch-chamberlain’s office, and the eleftoral dignity,
was conferred, in 141J, heriditarily on Frederic V. or
VI. burgrave of Nuremberg, in whofe family it ftill re¬
mains, with the addition of many other territories and
dignities. The prefent king of Pruffia and eleffior of
Brandenburg, Frederic III. is one of the greateft and
moft powerful princes of Europe, as well as one of the
moft defpotic. He hath greatly enlarged his domi¬
nions, by the addition of all the lower, together with
the greateft part of the upper Silefia, and the county
of Glatz. In 1744, he alfo took poffeffion of eaft Frief-
land; but in 1754, difpofed of his (hare of the fuccef-
iion of the late king William, prince of Orange, to the
prefent prince and ftadtholder. The qualifications and
talents of this prince are great, and he hath performed
many. Angular adlions; but his ambition w’ould have
proved his ruin, had he not been fupported in the laft
war by the troops and treafures of Great Britain. It
is hard to fay, whether his fubjeifts have been greater'
gainers by his encouraging and promoting commerce,
manufa&ures, agriculture, population, order, and the
regular diftribution of juftice; or fufferers by the wars
in which his ambition hath involved them, and the pro¬
digious Handing army he keeps conftantly on foot, to
maintain his conquefts, and extend them, as opportunity
oflers. Such an army muft be a great burden, befides
their labour being loft in a great meafure to the coun¬
try., Among the ele&ors he poffefies the feventh place.
As arch-chambevlain, he carries the feeptre before the
emperor at his coronation, and brings him water in a
filver bafon to wafti with. In the college of princes
of the empire, he has five voices. His afiefiment, as
eledlor, is 60 horfe and 277 foot, or 1828 florins in
lieu of them. To the chamber of Wetzlar, his quota
is 811 rix-dollars, 58 kruitzers, each term. As to the
orders of the knights of the Black Eagle, and of Merit,
it is fufficient here to obferve, that the former was in-
ftituted by Frederic I. at his coronation, and the other
by the prefent king. For the government of this coun¬
try and the adminiftration of juftice, there are feveral
fupreme colleges and tribunals; particularly for the de¬
partments of war, foreign affairs, and the finances, there
are diftindl boards. Here is a fupreme ecclefiaftical
council and confiftory for the Lutherans; a fupreme
direffiory of the Calvinift church ; a fupreme medicinal
college ; a fupreme mine-office ; a college or board of
trade, &c. Thofe of the French nation, fettled in this
country, are allowed particular courts of their own.
The amount of the yearly revenues of the Mark, ari-
BRA
BRA [ 1353 ]
Br*n<kn- fing from the domains, prate&ion-money paid by the
b“r8 Jews, toils, land-tax, mines, forefts, duties on ftamp-
Brandt. PaPer» anc^ variety °f other imports and excifes, is
—   computed at about 2,500,000 crowns; but the money
is faid to be much inferior in goodnefs to that of Saxony
and the dominions of Hanover. During the late war
it was extremely debafed. Some eftimate the whole
number of the inhabitants of the royal and ele&oral
dominions at 5,000,000, and the revenues at about
2,000,000 fterling. The prefent king and elector keeps
upwards of 100,000 men on foot in time of peace,
which are faid to coft him.more than half of his whole
revenue. Thefe troops are under rtridb difcipline, very
expert at their exercife, always in readinefs to march,
and always complete. Each regiment has a particular
canton or dirtridt allotted it for its quarters and raifing
recruits. The infantry are clothed in blue, a-nd the
horfe and dragoons in white ; and both are required to
hear fermon twice a-day when in quarters or garrifons.
In time of peace they are allowed, for feveral months
in the year, to hire themfelves out, or to follow their
bufinefs either as burghers or peafants, in the canton
where they are quartered; but they are not allowed to
marry. A confiderable part of thefe troops are ftation-
ed in the Mark, particularly at Berlin and -Potfdam.
The corps of huffars alone amounts to about 10,000
men. The Mark of Brandenburg is divided, in gene¬
ral, into the eledloral and new Marks. The former is
again fubdivided into the old Mark, the Pregnitz, the
middle Mark, and the Ucker Mark. The old Mark,
which lies on the weft fide of the Elbe, between that
river and Lunenburg, is about 50 miles in length, and
30 in breadth.
Brandenburg, a city of Germany, and capital of
the marquifate of that name, fituated on the river Ha¬
vel, in E. Long. 130. N. Lat. 52. 25. It is divided
into the old and new town, and was anciently the fee
of a bifhop. The mountain in the neighbourhood
called Marienherg, is planted with vines. Here is a
fmall colony of French Calvinifts, with a manufadiure
of cloth, fuftain, and canvas; and a pretty good trade is
carried -on by the Havel. The fort here looks like a
fuburb, and contains a riding-fchool, with the cathedral
church. The greateft part alfo of the members of the
chapter which ftill fubfifts, and is compoftd of a Lu¬
theran provoft, dean, fenior, fubfenior, and three other
canons, refide in it. They are dirtinguilhed by a crofs
of gold enamelled with violet, terminating in eight
points; and have a confiderable eftate. Near the town
is a large lake.
BRANDON, a town of Suffolk in England, feated
on the little river Oufe, over which it has a bridge, and
a ferry at a mile’s diftance : whence it is divided into
Brandon, and Brandon-ferry; which laft has the moft
bufinefs, becaufe commodities are brought thither from
the ifle of Ely. E. Long. o. 55. N. Lat. 52. 30.
BRANDRITH, a trevet, or other iron utenfil, to
fet a veflel on over the fire.
BRANDT (Gerard), a learned divine of the re¬
formed religion, was born at Amfterdam in 1626, and
was fucceffively minifter in feveral places of the Nether¬
lands. He wrote fome works which are efteemed, par¬
ticularly Thg hirtory of the reformation of the Nether¬
lands, 4 vols 410 ; and The life of admiral Ruyter;
both written in the Flemifh tongue. He died at Rot¬
terdam in 1685. Brandy
BRANDY, a fpirituous and inflammable liquor,
extracted from wine and other liquors by diftillation f.  1 
Wine-brandy, made in France, is efteemed the beft -(.sce Dj/ft/.
in Europe. They make it wherever they make wine, lation and
and for that purpofe ufe wine that is pricked rather than sP‘ril
good wine. The chief brandies for foreign trade, and
thofe accounted beft, are the brandies of Bourdeaux,
Rochelle, Cogniac, Charenton, the ifle of Rhe, Or¬
leans, the county of Blafois, Poiftou, Touraine, An¬
jou, Nantz, Burgundy, and Champaign.
BRANK, an inftrument ufed in fome parts of
Scotland, and in Staffordlhire, for correfting fcolding
women. It is a fort of head-piece, which opens, and
inclofes the head of the impatient, while an iron, ftiarp
as a chiflel, enters the mouth, and fubdues the more
dreadful weapon within. Thus harneffed, the offender
is led in triumph through the ftreets. Dr Plot, in his
Hiftory of Staffordfhire, has favoured the world with a
minute defeription and figure of the inftrument f, which f P. 389.
is there called a fcolding-bridk; and tells us, he looks t’ab. xxxii.
upon it “ as much to be preferred to the ducking-ftool,
which not only endangers the health of the party, but
alfo gives the tongue liberty betwixt every dip; to nei¬
ther of which this is at all liable.”
BRANLIN, in ichthyology, a fpecies of falmon,
with feveral tranfverfe black ftreaks, refembling the im-
preflion of fo many fingers.
BRANSKA, a town of Tranfilvania, fituated on the
river Marifli. E. Long. 23. 15. N. Lat. 46. O.
BRASIDAS, a celebrated general of the Lacede¬
monians, about 424 years before the birth of Chrift.
He defeated the Athenians by land and fea, took many
places, and rendered his country formidable to all the
neighbouring ftates. He conquered the Athenians on
their attempting to furprife Amphipolis, but died • See j/t;Cl7
the wounds he received in that battle *. an(1 j^accc;el.
BRASIDA, an anniverfary folemnity at Sparta, in mon.
memory of Brafidas, a Lacedemonian captain, famous
for his atchievemcnts at Methone, Pylos, and Amphi¬
polis. It was celebrated with facrifices and games,
wherein none were permitted to contend but free-born
Spartans. Whoever neglefted to be prefent at the fo¬
lemnity was fined.
BRASIL, a large country of South America, be¬
ing the eaftermoft part of that continent, lying between
the equino&ial line and the tropic of Capricorn. It
is about 1560 miles in length, and 1000 in breadth ;
but, meafuring along the coaft, it is 2000 miles long,
and is bordered with mountains that open from time
to time, and form good harbours where veflcls may lie
in fafety. It was accidentally difeovered by the Por-
tuguefe in 1500. Emanuel king of Portugal had e-
quipped a fquadron of 13 fail, carrying 1200 foldiers
and failors deftintd for the Eaft Indies, under the con-
du£t of Peter Alvarez Cabral. This admiral, quitting
Lifbon on the 9th of March 1500, ftruck out to fea
to avoid the coaft of Guinea, and fleered his courfe
fouthward, that he might the more eafily turn the Cape
of Good Hope, which projedts a good way into the
ocean. On the 24fh of April, he got fight of the con¬
tinent of South America, which he judged to be a
large ifland at fome diftance from the coatt of Africa.
Coafting along for fome time, he ventured to fend a
boat on Ihore; and was aftonilhed to obferve the inha¬
bitants
BRA [ 1354 ] BRA
bltants entirely different from the Africans in features,
hair, and complexion. It was found, however, im-
pra&icable to feize upon any of the Indians, who retired
with great celerity to the mountains on the approach
of the Portuguefe ; yet, as the failors had difcovered
a good harbour, the admiral thought proper to come
to an anchor, and called the bay Puerto Seguro. Next
day he fent another boat on fhore, and had the good
fortune to lay hold on two of the natives, whom he
clothed and treated kindly, and then difmiffed, to make
a proper report to their countrymen. The llratagem
had the defired effedt. The Indians, having heard the
relation of the prifoners, immediately crowded to the
fhore, finging, dancing, and founding horns of different
kinds; which induced Cabral to land, and take folemn
poffefiion in the name of his Portuguefe majefty.
As foon as the court of Lifbon had ordered a furvey
to be taken of the harbours, bays, rivers, and coafts
of Brafil, and was convinced that the country afforded
neither gold nor filver, they held it in fuch contempt,
that they fent thither none but condemned criminals
and abandoned women. Two fhips were fent every
year from Portugal, to carry the refufe of the king¬
dom to this new world, and to bring home parrots and
Woods for the dyers and cabinet-makers. Ginger was
afterwards added ; but foon after prohibited, led it
fhould interfere with the fale of the fame article from
India.
In 1548, the Jews, many of whom had taken re¬
fuge in Portugal, beginning to be perfecuted by the
inquifition, were ftripped of their poffeffions, and ba-
nifhed to Brafil. Here, however, they were not en¬
tirely forfaken. Many of them found kind relations
and faithful friends ; others, who were known to be
men of probity and underftanding, obtained money in
advance from merchants of different nations with whom
they had formerly had tranfactions. By the affiftance
of fome enterprizing men, they were enabled to culti¬
vate fugar-canes, which they firft procured from the
ifland of Madeira. Sugar, which till then had been
ufed only in medicine, became an article of luxury.
Princes and great men were all eager to procure them-
felves this new fpecies of indulgence. This circumftance
proved favourable to Brafil, and enabled it to extend
its fugar plantations. The court of Lifbon, notwith-
llanding its prejudices, began to be fenfible, that a co¬
lony might be beneficial to the mother-country, with¬
out producing gold or filver; and this fettlement, which
had been wholly left to the capricious management of
the colon!(Isj was now thought to deferve fome kind
of attention ; and accordingly Thomas de Souza was
fent thither, in 1549, to regulate and fuperintend it.
This able governor began by reducing thefe men,
who had always lived in a flate of anarchy, into pro¬
per fubordination, and bringing their fcattered planta¬
tions clofer together ; after which he applied himfelf
to .acquire fome information refpefting the natives,
with whom he knew he muff be inceffantly engaged
either in traffic or war. This it was no eafy matter to
accomplifh. Brafil was full of fmall nations, fome of
which inhabited the forefts, and others lived in the
plains and along the rivers. Some had fettled habita¬
tions ; but the greater number of them,led a roving
life, and moft of them had no intercourfe with each
other. It is not to be fuppofed that fuch a people
would be at all difpofed to fubmit to the yoke which
the Portuguefe wanted to put upon them on their
arrival. At firft they only declined all intercourfe with
thefe ftrangers : but finding themfelves purfued in order
to be made (laves, and to be employed in the labours
of the field, they took the refolution to murder and
devour all the Europeans they could feize upon. The
friends and relations of the favages that were taken pri¬
foners, alfo ventured to make frequent attempts ta re-
fcue them, and were fometimes fuccefsful; fo that the
Portuguefe were forced to attend to the double employ¬
ments of labour and war.
Souza did not bring a fufficient number of forces to
change the fituation of affairs. Indeed, by building
San Salvador, he gave a centre to the colony; but
the honour of fettling, extending, and making it really
ufeful to the mother-country, was referved for the Je-
fuits who attended him. Thefe men, who for their
arts of infinuation and addrefs have been equalled by
none, difperfed themfelves among the Indians. When
any of the miffionaries were murdered, they were im¬
mediately replaced by others; and feeming to be in-
fpired only With fentiments of peace and charity, the
Indians, in procefs of time, grew not only familiar but
paffionately fond of them. As the miffionaries were
too few in number to tranfaft all the bufinefs themfelves,
they frequently deputed fome of the moft intelligent
Indians in their ftead. Thefe men having diftributed
hatchets, knives, and looking glaffes, among the fa¬
vages they met with, reprefented the Portuguefe as a
harmlefs, humane, and good fort of people.
The profperity of the colony of Brafil, which was
vifible to all Europe, excited the envy of the French,
Spaniards, and Dutch fucceffively. The latter, indeed,
bid faireft for the conqueft of the whole. Their ad¬
miral Henry Lonk arrived, in the beginning of the
year 1630, with 46 men of war, on the coaft of Fer-
nambucca, one of the largeft and beft fortified captain-
fhips of thefe parts. He reduced it after feveral obfti-
nate engagements, in which he was always viftorious.
The troops he left behind fubdued the captainfhips of
Temaraca, Pareiba, and Rio Grande, in the years
1633, 1634, and 1635. Thefe, as well as Fernambucca,
furniffied annually a large quantity of fugar, a great
deal of wood for dying, and other commodities. The
Hollanders were fo elated with the acquifition of this
wealth, which flowed to Amfterdam inftead of Lifbon,
that they determined to conquer all the Brafils, and
entrufted Maurice of Naffua with the conduA of this
enterprize. That general reached the place of his def-
tination in the beginning of the year 1637. He found
the foldiers fo well difciplined, the commanders fuch
experienced men, and fo much readinefs in all to engage,
that h^ direftly took the field. He was fucceffively op-
pofed by Albuquerque, Banjola, Lewis Rocca de Bor¬
gia, and the Brafilian Cameron, the idol of his people,
paffionately fond of the Portuguefe, brave, a&ive, cun¬
ning, and who wanted no qualification neceffary for a
general, but to have learned the art of war under able
commanders. Thefe feveral chiefs exerted their utmoft
efforts to defend the poffeffions that were under their
prote&ion ; but their endeavours proved ineffe&ual.
The Dutch feized upon the captainfhips of Siara, Se-
regippe, and the greater part of that of Bahia. Seven
of the 15 provinces which compofed the colony had al¬
ready
Brafil.
BRA [ 1355 ] BRA
ready fubmitted to them, and they flattered themfelves
that one or two campaigns would make them mafters
of the reft of their enemies pofTeflions in that part of
America ; when they were fuddenly checked by the
revolution happening on the banifhment of Philip IV.
and placing the duke of Braganza on the throne. After
this, the Portuguefe recovering their fpirits, foon drove
the Dutch out of Brafil, and have continued mafters
of it ever fince.
The country of Brafil is divided into the following
provinces, viz. Paria, Maragnano, Siara, Rio Grande,
Pareiba, Tamarica, Fernambucco, Seregippe, Bahia,
Porto Seguro, Efperito Santo, Rio de Janeiro, Angra,
St Vincent, and Del Rey. See thefe articles.
The firft afpeft of the country from,the fea is rather,
unfavourable, as it appears high, rough, and unequal;
but, on a more narrow infpedtion, nothing can be more
delightful, the eminences being covered with woods,
and the valleys and favannahs with the moft refreftiing
verdure. In fo vaft a tra£t of land, it cannot be imagi¬
ned that the climate will be found at all equal, or the
feafons uniform. The northern provinces are fubje& to
heavy rains and variable winds, like other countries
under the fame parallels. Tornadoes, ftorms, and the
utmoft fury of the elements, wreak their vengeance
here; while the foutherly regions are blefied with all
the comforts which a fine fertile foil and temperate cli¬
mate can afford. In fome of the provinces, the heat of
the climate is thought to prove favourable to the gene¬
ration of a great variety of poifonous reptiles ; fome of
which, as the liboya, or roebuck fnake, are laid to ex¬
tend to the length of 30 feet, and to be two or three
yards in circumference. The rattlefnake, and other rep¬
tiles of the fame kind, grow likewife to an enormous
fize; and the ferpent called ibibaboka is affirmed to be
feven yards long, and half a yard in circumference, pof-
feffed too'of a poifon inftantaneoufiy fatal to the human
race. Here alfo are fcorpions, ant-bears, typers or ma-
dilloes, porcupines, janonveras, and an animal called
tapirajfon, which is the produftion of a bull and an afs,
having a great refemblance to both. No country on
earth affords a greater number of beautiful birds, nor
variety of the moft exquifite fruits ; but the chief com¬
modities are Brafil wood, ebony, dying woods, amber¬
gris, rofin, balfams, indigo, fweetmeats, fugar, tobac¬
co, gold, diamonds, beautiful pebbles, cryftal, emeralds,
jafper, and other precious ftones ; in all which the Por¬
tuguefe carry on fuch an amazing trade, as may juftly
be reputed the fupport, and indeed the vital fountain,
of the mother-country. The gold and diamond mines
are but a recent difcovery : they were firft opened in the
year 1681 ; and have fince yielded above five millions
Sterling annually, of which fum a fifth belongs to the
crown. So plentiful are diamonds in this country, that
the court of Portugal hath found it nectffary to reftrain
their impprtation, to prevent too great a diminution of
their value. They are neither fo hard, nor fo clear, as
thofe of the Eaft Indies, nor do they fparkle fo much,
but they are whiter. The Brafilian diamonds are fold
ten per cent, cheaper than the Oriental ones, fuppofing
the weights to be equal. .The largeft diamond in the
world was fent from Brafil to the king of Portugal. It
weighs 1680 carats, or xzj- ounces; and has been va¬
lued at 56,787,500!. Some fkilful lapidaries, however,
are of opinion that this fuppofed diamond is only a to¬
paz ; in which cafe a very great abatement muft be
made in its value. The crown-revenue arifing from this
colony amounts to two millions fterling in gold, if tve .
may credit fome late writers, befides the duties and
cuftoms on merchandife imported from that quarter.
This indeed is more than a fifth of the precious metal
produced by the mines; but, every other confequent
advantage confidered, it probably does not much ex¬
ceed the truth.' The exceffive confluence of people to
the Brafil colonies, as well from other countries as from
Portugal, not only enlarges the imports of gold, but,
what is of infinitely more importance to Europe in ge¬
neral, the exportation of the manufa&ures of. this hemi-
fphere; of which the principal are the following. Great
Britain fends woollen manufaftures; fuch as fine broad
medley cloths, fine Spanifti cloths, fcarlet and black
cloths; ferges, duroys, druggets, fagathies, ffialloons,
camblets, and Norwich fluffs ; black Colchefter bays ;
fays, and perpetuanas called long ells; hats, ftockings,
and gloves. Holland, Germany, and France, chiefly
export fine hollands, bone-lace, and fine thread: filk
manufactures, pepper, lead, block tin, and other ar¬
ticles, are alfo fent from different countries. Befides
the particulars already fpecified, England likewife
trades with Portugal, for the ufe of the Brafils, in cop¬
per and brafs, wrought and unwrought pewter, and all
kinds of hardware : all which articles have fo enlarged
the Portuguefe trade, that, inftead of 12 fliips ufually
employed in the Brafil commerce, there are now' never
fewer than too fail of large veffels conftantly going and
returning to thofe colonies. To all this may be added
the vaft flave-trade carried on with the coaft of Africa
for the ufe of the Brafil colonies; which, we may be¬
lieve, employs a great number of {hipping, from the
multitude of flaves that are annually tranfported. In¬
deed the commerce of Brafil alone is fufficient to raife
Portugal to a confiderable height of naval power, as it
maintains a conftant nurfery of feamen : yet a certain
infatuation in the policy of the country has prevented
that effeft even amidft all thefe extraordinary advan¬
tages. All the (hips in this trade, being under the di-
reftion of the government, have their appointed feafons
of going and returning, under convoy of a certain num¬
ber of men of war : nor can a Angle (hip clear out or
go, except with the fleet, but by a fpecial licence from
the king, which is feldom granted; though it is eafily
determined, that fuch reftri&ions can prove no way be¬
neficial to the general commerce, though poffibly the
crown-revenue may. be better guarded thereby. The
fleets fail in the following order, and at the following
ftated periods : That to Rio de Janeiro fets fail in Ja¬
nuary ; the fleet to Balria, or the bay of All faints, in
February; and the third fleet, to Fernambuco, in the
month of March.
Brasil-/£W/, or Brazil-'wood, an American w'ood
of a red colour, and very heavy. It is denominated
varioufly, according to the places from whence it is
brought : Thus we have brafil of Fernambuco, Japan,
Lamon, &c. For its defcription, &c. fee C^esalpjnAi.
BRASILETTO, the fame with Brafil-wood.
BRASLA W, a confiderable town of Poland, in Li¬
thuania, and palatinate of Wilna, with a caftle. It is
feated on a fmall lake, in E. Long. 17. 5. N. Lat.
55* 45-
BRASS, or, as the French call it, yellow copper, is
Hrdil
Brafs.
BRA [ 1356 1 BRA
Brats. a faftitious metal, made of copper and zinc, or lapis
calaminaris. See Chemistry, n° 377.
The firft formation of brafs, as we are afiured by
fcripture, was prior to the flood, and difcbvered even
f Gen.iv. t}je feventh generation from Adamf. But the ufe of
it was not, as is generally believed, and the Arundelian
marbles affert, previous to the knowledge of iron. They
•were both firft known in the fame generation, and firft
wrought by the fame difcoverer. And the knowledge
of them mull: have been equally carried over the world
afterwards, with the fpreading of the colonies of the
Noachidae. An acquaintance with the one or the other
was abfolutely neceffary to the exiftence of the colo*
nifts; the clearing away of the woods about their fet-
tlements, and the eredlion of houfes for their habita¬
tion.
The ancient Britons, though acquainted from the re-
moleft periods with the ufe of both thefe metals, re¬
mained long ignorant that they were to be obtained in
the ifland. Before this difcovery they imported all
their iron and brafs from the continent. And when
they had at length detected the former in their own
hills, and had ceafed to introduce it, they continued to
receive the latter. Their want of the metal remained,
and no mines of it were opened in the ifland. In the
earlieft ages, whofe manners have been delineated by
hillory, we find the weapons of their warriors invari¬
ably framed of this fablitious metal; and the moft au¬
thentic of all the profane records of antiquity, the A-
rundelian marbles, for that reafon, millakenly date the
firft difcovery of iron a couple of centuries below the
Trojan war. Every military nation, as fuch, is natu¬
rally ftudious of brightnefs in its arms ; and the Bri¬
tons, particularly, gloried in the neatnefs of theirs. For
this reafon the nations of the world ftill fabricated their
arms of brafs, even long after the Arundelian asra for
the difcovery of iron-; and the Britons continued to im¬
port it from the continent, though they had found iron
to be a native of the country, and could have fupplied
themfelves with a fufficient quantity of it.
f Hi/?, of Mr Whittaker f fuppofes, that when the Britons de-
Mancbejier. rJvecl their iron and brafs from the continent, they pur-
chafed the latter at an eaiier expence than the former.
The Gauls had many large brafs works carried on in
the kingdom, but feem to have had few iron forges
within it. And this would naturally induce the Belgae
to be lefs diligent in their inquiry after the veins of
copper and calamine at home, than for the courfes of
iron ore ; though the one was equally difcoverable in
the ifland as the other, and lay equally within the Bel-
gic regions of it. Brafs being thus cheaper than iron,
they neceffarily formed with it fome domeftic as well as
military implements. Such were common among the
Gauls; and fnch were familiar to the Britons, either
imported into the ifland, as fome a&ually were, or ma-
nufaftured within it, as others alfo afluredly were. The
Britons had certainly brafs founderies ere&ed among
them, and minted money, and fabricated weapons of
brafs.
In this condition of the v/orks, the Romans entered
the ifland. And, feeing fo great a demand among the
natives for this article, they would fpeedily inftrudt
them to difcover the materials of it among themfelves.
This muft unavoidably have refulted from the conqueft
of the Romans. The power of furprifing their new
fubjefts with fo unexpefted a difcovery would natu- Brats.
rally ftimulate the pride of the Roman intelleft ; and   
the defire of obliging themfclves with fo cheap a fupply
of that ufeful metal, ftationary as they were in that
kingdom, would alfo equally a&uate the felfiflinefs of
the Roman heart. The veins of copper and calamine
would be eafily found out by an experienced inquirer
after them ; and the former metal is therefore diftin-
guifhed among the Wellh, only by the Roman appel¬
lation of cyprium, koppr, or copper. And many foun¬
deries of brafs appear to have been eftablifhed in the
ifland. Some had been erefted before, one perhaps
within the confines of every kingdom, and probably in
the vicinity of every capital. One at leaft would be ne¬
ceffary, in order to fupply the armory of the principa¬
lity ; and one perhaps was fufficient for moft of the
Britilh ftates. But feveral appear now to have been fet¬
tled in every kingdom, and one perhaps near every fta¬
tionary town. Two have been difcovered in thefingle
county of Effex, and within a narrow portion of it at
Fifield and Danbury. And a third was placed upon
Eafterly Moor in Yorklhire, 12 miles to the north-weft
of York, and in the neighbourhood of Ifurium or Aid-
borough.
Corinthian Brass, famous in antiquity, is a mix¬
ture of gold, filver, and copper. E. Mummius having
facked and burnt the city of Corinth, 146 years be¬
fore Chrift, it is faid this metal was formed from the
immenfe quantities of gold, filver, and copper, where¬
with that city abounded, thus melted and run together
by the violence of the conflagration.
Brass, in the glafs trade.—Thrice-calcined brafs is
a preparation which ferves the glaffmen to give many
very beautiful colours to their metal. The manner of
preparing it is this: Place thin plates of brafs on tiles
on the leet of the furnace near the occhis; let it Hand
to be calcined there for four days and it will become a
black powder fticking together in lumps. Powder this,
fift it fine, and recalcine it four or five days more; it will
not then ftick together, but remain a loofe powder, of
a ruffet colour. This is to be calcined a third time in
the fame manner; but great care muft be taken in the
third calcination, that it be not overdone nor under¬
done ; the way to be certain when it is right, is, to try
it feveral times in glafs while melting. If it makes it,
when well purified, to fwell, boil, and rife, it is pro¬
perly calcined ; if not, it requires longer time. This
makes, according to the different proportions in which
it is ufed, a fea-green, an emerald green, or a turcoife
colour.
Brafs, by long calcination alone, and without any
mixture, affords a fine blue or green colour for glafs ;
but they have a method of calcining it alfo with pow¬
dered brimftone, fo as to make it afford a red, a yel¬
low, or a chalcedony colour, according to the quantity
and other variations in the ufing it. The method of
making the calcination is this: Cut thin plates of brafs
into fmall pieces with fheers, and lay them ftratum fu-
per ftratum, with alternate beds of powdered fulphur,
in a crucible; calcine this for 24 hours in a ftrong fire;
then powder and fift the whole; and finally, expofe this
powder upon tiles for 12 days to a reverberating fur¬
nace; at the end of this time, powder it fine, and keep
it for ufe. The glafs-makers have alfo a method of
procuring a red powder from brafs, by a more fimple
calci-
BRA [ 1357 ] BRA
Brafs calcination, which ferves them for many colours. The
Jrallica method of preparing it is this: They put fmall and thin
3 lLi' plates of brafs into the arches of the glafs furnaces, and
leave them there till they are fufficiently calcined, which
the heat in that place, not being enough to melt them,
does in great perfe£tion. The calcined matter powdered,
is .of a dulky red, and requires no farther preparation.
Brass-Co/our, one prepared by the braziers and co¬
lour-men to imitate brafs. There are two forts of it;
the red brafs, or bronze, and the yellow or gilt brafs :
th? latter is made only of copper-filings, the fmalleft
and brighteft that can be found; with the former they
mix fame red ochre, finely pulverized ; they are both
ufed with varnifh.—In order to make a fine brafs that
will not take any ruil; or verdigreafe, it muft be dried
with a chafing-difii of coals as foon as it is applied.—
The find! brafs colour is made with powder-brafs im¬
ported from Germany, diluted into a varnilh, made and
ufed after the following manner. The varnifii is com-
pofed of one pound four ounces of fpirit of wine, two
ounces of gum-lac, and two ounces of fandarac; thefe
two laft drugs are pulverifed feparately, and afterwards
put to diflblve in fpirit of wine, taking care to fill the
bottle but half full. The varnifii being made, you mix
fuch quantity as you pleafe of it with the pulverifed
brafs, and apply it with a fmall brufii to what you
would brafs over. But you mufl: not mix too much at
once, becaufe the varnifii being very apt to dry, you
would not have time to employ it all foon enough ; it
is therefore better to make the mixture at feveral times.
After this manner they brafs over figures of plaller,
which look as well as if they were of call brafs.
Brass-Z'mw/v, a common name given by miners to
the globular pyrites. See Pyrites.
BRASSAW, or Cronstadt, a ftrong town of
Tranfilvania in Burezland; feated on the river Buxel,
in E. Long. zz. 35. N. Lat. 46. 30.
BRASSE, in ichthyology, a fpecies of Perca.
BRASSICA, cabbage ; a genus of the filiquofa
order, belonging to the tetradynamia clafs of plants.
Species. I. The oleracea, or common white cab¬
bage. Of this there are commonly reckoned the fol¬
lowing varieties. 1. The fabauda, or Savoy cabbage.
2. The rubra, or red cabbage. 3. The pyramidalis,
or fugar-loaf cabbage. 4. The prascox, or egrly cab-
bage. 5. The peregrina, or foreign mufk-cabbage.
6. The mufcovitica, or fmall Ruflia cabbage. 7. The
capitata, or large-fided cabbage. 8. The viridis, or
green Savoy. 9. The laciniata, or borecole. 10. The
felenifia, or green borecole. 11. The fimbriata, or Si¬
berian borecole, by fome called Scotch kale. Of thefe
Mr Miller thinks the fecond fort is undoubtedly a di-
ftindl fpecies; as he always found the feeds produce the
fame, with this difference only, that in good ground
the fialks are much larger than in poor land. The other
fpe.ies are, II. The napo brafiica, or turnip-rooted
cabbage. III. The botrytis, or cauliflower, which
hath two varieties, viz. Purple and white broccoli.
IV. The fylveftris, or taller flirubby fea-cabbage.
V. The violacea, with entire, oval, fpear-fliaped, fmooth,
le ives, which are indented. VI. The purpurea, with
oblong, heart-Ihaped leaves, embracing the ftalks, which
are entire. VII. The orientalis, or colewort with
heart-fhaped fmooth leaves, which embrace the ftalk.
VIII. The gongyloides, wild navew, or cole-feed. To
Von. II.
thefe fpecies Linnaeus joins the turnip, navew, and roc- Braffic
ket; but as it would be apt to breed confufion to clafs   
thefe plants along with cabbages, when fpeaking of
their culture and ufes, however proper it may be in a
fyftem of botany, we Ihall fpeak of them under their
proper names.
Culture, &c. The fecond fort never varies. It grows
naturally on the fea-Ihore near Dover. It hath a per¬
ennial branching Italk, in which it differs from all the
other fpecies. In very fevere winters, when the other
forts are deftroyed, this is a neceffary plant, for the moll
fevere frofts do not injure it. The flower-ftalks grow
from the end of the branches, and fpread out horizon¬
tally ; but thofe which arife from the centre of the
plants grow ereft, and feldom put out branches. The
cauliflower has been much more improved in Britain
than in any other part of Europe. In France they
rarely have cauliflowers till Michaelmas, and Holland
is generally fupplied with them from Britain. In many
parts of Germany there were none of them cultivated
till within a few years paft, and moft parts of Europe
are fupplied with feeds from Britain. The eighth fort,
which is generally known by the title of rape or cole
feed, is much cultivated in the ifle of Ely, and fome
other parts of England, for its feed, from which rape-
oil is drawn ; and it hath alfo been cultivated of late
years, in other places, for feeding of cattle, to great
advantage. The cole feed, when cultivated for feeding
of cattle, ihould be fown about the middle of June.
The ground for this fliould be prepared for it in the
fame manner as for turnips. The quantity of feeds for
an acre of land is from fix to eight pounds; and as the
price of the feed is not great, fo it is better to allow
eight pounds ; for if the plants are too clofe hi any part,
they may be eafily thinned when the ground is hoed,
which muff be performed in the fame manner as is prac-
tifed for turnips, with this difference only, of leaving
thefe much nearer together; for as they have fibrous
roots and flender ftalks, fo they do not require near fo
much room. Thefe plants ftiould have a fecond hoe¬
ing, about five or fix weeks after the firft, which, if
well performed in dry weather, will entirely deftroy the
weeds, fo they will require no farther culture. Where
there is not an immediate want of food, thefe plants
had better be kept as a referve for hard weather, or
fpring feed, when there may be a fcarcity of other green
food. If the heads are cut off, and the ftalks left in
ground, they will fhoot again early in the fpring, and
produce a good fecond crop in April); which may be
either fed off, or permitted to run to feeds, as is the
pra&ice where this is cultivated for the feeds: but if the
firft is fed down, there fhould be care taken that the
cattle do not deftroy their ftems, or pull them out of
the ground. As this plant is fo hardy as not to be de¬
ftroyed by froft, fo it is of great fervice in hard winters
for feeding of ewes ; for when the ground is fo hard
frozen as that turnips cannot be taken up, thefe plants
may be cut off for a conftant fupply. This will afford
late food after the turnips are run to feed; and if it is
afterwards permitted to ftand for feed, one acre will
produce as much as, at a moderate computation, will
fell for five pounds, clear of charges. Patridges, phea-
fants, turkeys, and moft other fowl, are very fond of
this plant; fo that wherever it is cultivated, if there are
any birds in the neighbourhood, they will conftantly
8 I lie
BRA [ 1358 ] BRA
Braffica. He among thefc plants. The feeds of this plant are to plant the fewer of them, and a greater quantity of Ttraffiea.
   fown in gardens for winter and fpring fallads, this be- the fugar-loaf kind, which comes after them ; for the
ing one of the fmall fallad herbs. early kind will not fupply the kitchen long, generally
The common white, red, flat, and long-fided cab- cabbaging apace when they begin, and as foon grow
bages are chiefly cultivated for autumn and winter ufe; hard and burft open; but the fngar-loaf kind is longer
the feeds of thefe forts muft be fown the beginning or before it comes, and is as flow in its cabbaging ; and
middle of April, in beds of good frelh earth ; and when being of an hollow kind, will continue for a good long
the young plants have about eight leaves, they fliould time. The fugar-loaf kind may be planted out in Fe-
be pricked out into Ihady borders, about three or four bruary, and will fucceed as well as if planted earlier ;
inches fquare, that they may acquire'ftrength, and to with this difference only, that they will be later before
prevent their growing long {hanked. About the middle they cabbage. You fhould alfo referve fome plants of
of June you muft tranfplant them out, where they are the early kind in fome well-fheltered fpot of ground, to
to remain. If they are planted for a full crop in a clear fupply your plantation, in cafe of a defeat; for in mild
fpot of ground, the diftance from row to row fliould be winters many of the plants are apt to run to feed, efpe-
three feet and a half, and in the rows two feet and a daily when their feeds are fown too early, and in fevere
half afunder: if the feafon fliould prove dry when they winters they are often dertroyed.
are tranfplanted out, you muft water them every other The Savoy cabbages are propagated for winter ufe,
evening until they have taken frefh root; and after- as being generally efteemed the better when pinched by
wards, as the plants advance in height, you fhould draw the froft : thefe muft be fown about the end of April,
the earth about their ftems with a hoe, which will keep and treated after the manner as was direfted for the
the earth moift about their roots, and greatly ftrengthen common white cabbage; with this difference, that thefe
the plants. Thefe cabbages will fome of them be fit may be planted at a clofer diftance than thofe; two feet
for ufe foon after Michaelmas, and will continue until and a half fquare will be fuflicient. Thefe are always
the end of February, if they are not deftroyed by bad much better when planted in an open fituation, which
weather; to prevent which, the gardeners near London is clear from trees and hedges; for in clofe places they
pull up their cabbages in November, and trench their are very fubjeft to be eaten ahnoft up by caterpillars
ground up in ridges, laying their cabbages againft their and other vermin, efpecially if the autumn prove dry.
ridges as clofe as pofiible on one fide, burying their The borecole may alfo be treated in the fame man-
ftems in the ground: in this manner they let them re- ner, but need not be planted above one foot afunder in
main till after Chriftmas, when they cut them for the the rows, and the rows two feet diftance; thefeare ne-
market ; and although the Outer part of the cabbage ver eaten till the frbft hath rendered them tender, for
be decayed (as is often the cafe in very wet or hard otherwife they are tough and bitter,
winters), yet, if the cabbages were large and hard The feeds of the broccoli (of which there are feveral
when laid, the infide will remain found. kinds, viz. the Roman or purple, the Neapolitan or
The Ruffian cabbage was formerly in much greater white, and the black broccoli, with fome others, but
efteem than at prefent, it being now only to be found the Roman is preferred to them all), fliould be fown
in particular gentlemens gardens, who cultivate it for about the latter end of May, or beginning of June, and
their own ufe. This muft be fown late in the fpring when the plants are grown to have eight leaves, tranf-
of the year, and managed as thofe before dire&ed, with plant them into beds (as was dire&ed for the common
this difference only, that thefe muft be fooner planted cabbage); and toward the latter end of July they will
out, and muft have an open clear fpot of ground, and be fit to plant out, which fhould be done into fome
require much lefs diftance every way, for it is but a very well-fheltered fpot of ground, but not under the drip
fmall hard cabbage. This fort will not continue long of trees: the diftance thefe require is about a foot and
before they will break and run up to feed. a half in the rows, and two feet row from row. The
The early and fugar-loaf cabbages are commonly foil in which they (hould be planted ought to' be rather
fown for fummer ufe, and are what the gardeners about light than heavy: if your plants fucceed well (asthere
London commonly call Michaelmas cabbages. The fea- will be little reafon to doubt, unlefs the' winter prove
fon for fowing of thefe is about the end of July, or be- extreme hard), they will begin to (hew their fmall heads,
ginning of Auguft, in an open fpot of ground; and which are fomewhat like a cauliflower, but of a purple
, when the plants have got eight leaves, you muft prick colour, about the end of December, and will continue
them into beds at about three or four inches diftance eatable till the middle of April. The brown or black
every way, that the plants may grow ftrong and ftiort broccoli is by many perfons greatly efteemed, though
fhanked, and toward the end of Oftober you {hould it doth not deferve a place in the kitchen-garden where
plant them out: the diftance that thefe require is, three the Roman broccoli can be obtained, which is much
feet row from row, and two feet and a half afunder in fweeter, and will continue longer in feafon: indeed, the
the rows. The ground muft be kept clean from weeds, brown fort is much hardier,-fo that it will thrive in the
and the earth drawn up about your cabbage plants. In coldeft fituations, where the Roman broccoli is fome-
May, if your plants were of the early kind, they will times deftroyed in very hard winters. The brown fort
turn in their leaves for cabbaging; at which time, the fliould be fown in the middle of May, and managed as
gardeners near London, in order to obtain them a little hath been dire&ed for the common cabbage, and {hould
fooner, tie in their leaves clofe with a {lender ofier-twig be planted at the fame diftance, which is about two
to blanch their middle; by which means, they have feet and a half afunder. This will grow very tall, fo
them at leaft a fortnight fooner than they could have if {hould have the earth drawn up to their ftems as they
they were left untied. advance in height. This doth not form heads fo per-
The early cabbage being the firft, we {hould chufe fed as the Roman broccoli; the ftems and hearts of the
plants
BRA [ 1359 ] BRA
Rr^ffica. plants are the parts which are eaten. The Roman broc-
“ coli (if well managed) will have large heads, which ap¬
pear in the centre of the plants like clufters of buds.
Thefe heads fhould be cut before they run up to feed,
with about four or five inches of the tlem; the fkin of
thefe ftems fiiould be ftripped off before they are boiled.
After the firft heads are cut off, there will be a great
number of fide (hoots produced from the ftems, which
will have fmall heads to them, but are full as well fla¬
voured as the large. The Naples broccoli hath white
heads very like thofe of the cauliflower, and eats fo like
it as not to be diftinguilhed from it.—Befides this firft
crop of broccoli (which is ufually fovvn in the end of
May), it will be proper to fow another crop the be¬
ginning of July, which will come in to fupply the table
the latter end of March and the beginning of April
and being very young, will be extremely tender and
fweet.
In order to fave good feeds of this kind of broccoli,
you fhould referve a few of the largeft heads of the firft
crop, which fhould be let remain to rurt up to feed, and
all the under (hoots fhould be conftantly ftripped off,
leaving only the main ftem to fiower and feed. If this
be duly obferved, and no other fort of cabbage permit¬
ted to feed near them, the feeds will be as good as thofe
procured from abroad, and the fort may be preferved in
perfection many years.
The turnip-rooted cabbage was formerly more cul¬
tivated in Britain than at prefent, for fince other forts
have been introduced which are much better flavoured,
this fort has been neglected. There are fome perfons
who efteem this kind for foups, but it is too ftrong for
moft palates; and is feldom good but in hard winters,
which will render it tender and lefs ftrong. At the end
of June the plants (hould be tranfplanted out where
they are to remain, allowing them two feet diftance
every way, obferving to water them until they have ta¬
ken root; and as their ftems advance, the earth fhould
be drawn up to them with a hoe, which will preferve a
' moifture about their roots, and prevent their ftems from
drying^and growing woody, fo that the plants will grow
more freely ; but it fhould not be drawn very high, for
as it is the globular part of the ftalk which is eaten, fo
that (hould not be covered. In winter they will be fit for
ufe) when they fhquid be cut off, and the ftalks pulled
out of the ground and thrown away, being good for
nothing after the ftems are cut off.
The curled colewort or Siberian borecole is now
more generally efteemed than the former, being ex¬
treme hardy, fo is never injured by cold, but is always
fweeter in fevere winters than in mild feafotis. This
may be propagated by lowing of the feeds the begin¬
ning of July ; and when the plants are ftrbng enough
for tranfplanting, they fhould be planted in rows about
a foot and a half afunder, and ten inches diftance in the
rows. Thefe will be fit for ufe after Chriftmas, and
continue good until April, fo that they are very ufe-
ful in a family.
The mufk cabbage. This may be propagated in the
fame manner as the common cabbage, and fhould be
allowed the fame diftance: it \frill be fit for life in Oc¬
tober, November, and December; but, if the winter
proves hard, thefe will be deftroyed much fooner than
the common fort.
The cpmmon colewort or Dorfetfhire kale, is now
almoft loft near London, where their markets are ufually Eraffica
fupplied with cabbage plants inftead of them. The beft 
method to cultivate this plant in the fields is, to fow the
feeds about the beginning of July, chufing a moiftfea-
fon, which will bring up the plants in about ten days or
a fortnight; the quantity of feed for an acre of land is
nine pounds: wdien the plants have got five or fix leaves
they fhould be hoed, as is praftifed for turnips, cut¬
ting down all the weeds from amongft the plants, and
alfo thinning the plants where they are too thick; but
they fhould be kept thicker than turnips, becaufe they
are more in danger of being deftroyed by the fly: this
work fhould be performed in dry weather, that the
weeds maybe killed. About fix weeks after the plants
fhould have a fecond hoeing, which, if carefully perfor¬
med in dry weather, will entirely deftroy the weeds, and
make the ground clean, fo that they will require no far¬
ther culture: in the fpring they may be either drawn up
and carried out to feed the cattle, or they may be turned
in to feed upon them as they ftand; but the former
method is to be preferred, becaufe there will be little
wafte; whereas, when the cattle are turned in amongft
the plants, they will tread down and deftroy more than
they eat, efpecially if they are not fenced off by hur¬
dles.
The two laft forts of cabbages are varieties fit for a
botanic garden, but are plants of no ufe. They are
annual plants, and perifh when they have perfedted
their feeds.
The beft method to fave the feeds of all the forts of
cabbages is, about the end of November you fhould
make choice of fome of your beft cabbages, which you
fhould pull up, and carry to fome (hed or other covered
place, wdiere you fhould hang them up for three or
four days by their ftalks, that the water may drain from
between their leaves; then plant them in fome border
near a hedge or pale, quite down to the middle of the
cabbage, leaving only the upper part of the cabbage
above ground, obferving to raife the earth above it, fo
that it may ftand a little above the level of the ground ;
efpecially if the ground is wet, they will require to be
raifed pretty much above the furface. If the winter
fhould prove very hard, you muft lay a little ftraw or
peafe-haulm lightly, upon them, to fecure them from
the froft, taking it off as often as the weather proves
mildj left by keeping them too clofe they fhould rot.
In the fpring of the year thefe cabbages will (hoot out
ftrongly, and divide into a great number of fmall
branches: you muft therefore fupport their ftems, to
prevent their being broken off by the wind ; and if the
weather fhould be very hot and dry when they are in
flower, you fhould refrefh them with water once a week
all over the branches, which will greatly promote their •
feeding, and preferve them from mildew. When the
pods begin to change brown, you will do well to cut
off the extreme part of every (hoot with the pods, which
will ftrengthen your feeds; for it is generally obferved,
that thofe feeds which grow near the top of the fhoots,
are very fubje& to run to feed before they cabbage;
fo that by this there will be no lofs, but a great ad¬
vantage. When your feeds begin to ripen, you muft
be particularly careful that the birds do not deftroy it,
for they are very fond of thefe feeds. The beft method
to prevent this, is to get a quantity of birdlime, and
dawb over a parcel of /lender twigs, which fhould be faft-
8 I 2 ened
BRA [136°] ~ BRA
Brafika. ened at each end to ftronger (licks, and placed near
" the upper part of the feed in diferent places, fo that
the birds may alight upon them, by which means they
will be faftened thereto; where you mull let them re¬
main, if they cannot get o(F themfelves: and although
there fhould not above two or three birds be caught,
yet it will fufficiently terrify the reft, that they will not
come to that place again for a confiderable time after.
When your feed is fully ripe, you muft cut it off;
and after drying, threfti it out, and preferve it in bags
for ufe.
But in planting of cabbages for feed, it will be pro¬
per never to plant more than one fort in a place, or
near one another : for example, never plant red and
white cabbages near each other, nor Savoy with white
or red cabbages ; for they will, by the commixture of
their effluvia, produce a mixture of kinds : and it is
faid to be owing to this neglect, that the gardeners
rarely fave any good red cabbage feed in Britain, but
are obliged to procure frefh feeds from abroad; as fup-
pofing the foil or climate of Britain alters them from
red to white, and of a mixed kind betwixt both; where¬
as, if they fhould plant red cabbages by themfelves for
feeds, and not fuffer any other to be near them, they
might continue the kind as good in Britain as in any
other part of the world.
Cauliflowers have of late years been fo far improved
in Britain, as to exceed in goodnefs and magnitude
what are produced in mod parts of Europe, and by the
fkill of the gardener are continued for feveral months
together; but the moll common feafon for the great
crop is in May, June, and July. Having procured a
parcel of good feed, you muft fow it about the 2 Ist of
Auguft, upon an old cucumber or melon-bed, fifting a
little earth over the feeds, about a quarter of an inch
thick; and if the weather Ihould prove extreme hot and
dry, you (hould (hade the beds with mats, to prevent
the earth from drying too fall, and give it gentle wa¬
terings as you may fee occalion. In about a month’s
time after fowing, your plants will be fit to prick out:
you (hould therefore put fome frefli earth upon your
cucumber or melon beds ; or where thefe are not to be
had, fome beds ftiould be made with a little new dung,
which (hould be trodden down clpfe, to prevent the
worms from getting through it; but it fhould not be
hot dung, which would be hurtful -to the plants at this
feafon, efpccially if it proves hot ; into this bed you
(hould prick your young plants at about two inches
fquare, obferving to (hade and water them at firft plant¬
ing ; but do not water them too much after they are
growing, nor fuffer them to receive too much rain if
the feafon (hould prove wet, which would be apt to
make them black (hanked (as the gardeners term it,
which is no lefs than a rottennefs in their ftems), and is
the deftru&ion of the plants fo affefted. In this bed
they (hould continue till about the 30th of 0£lober,
when they muft be removed into the place where they
are to remain during the winter feafon ; which, for the
firft fowing, is commonly under bell or hand glaffes,
to have early cauliflowers, and thefe (hould be of an
early kind: but in order to have a fuccelfion during
the feafon, you (hould be provided with another more
late kind, which (hould be fown four or five days after
the other, and managed as was dire£led for them. In
order to have very early cauliflowers, you (hould make
choice of a good rich fpot of ground that is well de- Braflic*.
fended from the north, eaft, and weft winds, with
hedges, pales, or walls; but the firft are to be prefer¬
red, if made with reeds, becaufe the winds will fall
dead in thefe, and not reverberate as by pales or walls.
This ground (hould be well trenched, burying therein a
good quantity of rotten dung; then level your ground,
and if it be naturally a wet foil, you (hould raife it up
in beds about two feet and a half, or three feet broad,
and four inches above the level of the ground ; but if
your ground is moderately dry, you need not raife it at
all: then plant your plants, allowing about two feet fix
inches diftance from glafs to glafs in the rows, always
putting two good plants under each glafs, which may
be at about four inches from each other ; and if you
defign them for^a full crop, they may be three feet and
a half row from row: but if you intend to make ridges
for cucumbers between the rows of cauliflower plants,
(as is generally pra£tifed by the gardeners near Lon¬
don) you mull then make your rows about eight feet afun-
der; and the ground between the rows of cauliflowers
may be planted with cabbage plants, to be drawn off for
coleworts in the fpring. When you have planted your
plants, if the ground is very dry you Ihould give them
a little water, and then fet your glaffes over them,
which may remain quite clofe down over them till they
have taken root, which will be in about a week or ten
days time, unlefs there (hould be a kindly (liower of
rain ; in which cafe you may fet off the glaffes, that
the plants may receive the benefit of it; and in about
ten days after planting, you (hould be provided with a
parcel of forked (licks or bricks, with which you (hould
raife your glaffes about three or four inches on the fide
toward the fouth, that your plants may have free air:
in this manner your glaffes fliould remain over the plants
night and day, unlefs in frofty weather, when you fhould
fet them down as clofe as poflible; or if the weather
(hould prove very warm, which many times happens in
November, and fometimes in December, in this cafe you
(hould keep your glaffes off in the day-time, and put
them on only in the night, left, by keeping the glaffes
over them too much, you (hould draw them into flower
at that feafon; which is many times the cafe in mild
winters, efpccially if unfltilfully managed. Toward the
latter end of February, if the weather proves mild, you
(hould prepare another good fpot of ground to remove
fome of the plants into from under the glaffes, which
(hould be well dunged and trenched (as before) ; then
fet off your glaffes ; and, after making choice of one of
the mod promifing plants under each glafs, which
(hould remain, take away the other plant, by railing
it up with a trowel, &c. fo as to preferve as much
earth to the root as poffible; but take care not to di-
fturb or prejudice the roots of the plants which re¬
main. Then plantkthe plants which you have taken
out at the diftance before dire&ed, viz. if for a full
crop, three feet and a half, row from row ; but if for
ridges of cucumbers between them tight feet, and two
feet four inches diftance in the rows: then, with a fmall
hoe, draw the earth up to the ftems of the plants which
were left under the glaffes, taking great care not to let
the earth fall into their hearts; and fet your glaffes o-
ver them again, raifing your props an inch or t wo higher
than before, to give them more air, obferving to take
them off whenever there may be fome gentle (bowers,
which
BRA
[ r36i J
BRA
which will greatly refrefii the plants. to prevenj: the worms from finding their way through
In a little time after, if you find your plants grow fo it; then fay fome good frefii earth about four or five '
fall as to fill the glaffes with their leaves, you Ihould inches thick thereon, in which you fhould plant your
then llightly dig about the plants, andraife the ground plants about two inches and a half fquare, obfervingto
about them in a bed broad enough for the glafles to ihade andwater them until they have taken newroot; but
{land, about four inches high, which vyill give your you mull not keep your coverings clofe, for the warmth
plants a great deal of room, by raifing the glafies fo of the dung will occafion a large damp in the bed,
much higher when they are fet over them ; and by which, if pent in, will greatly injure the plants. When
this means they might be kept covered until April, your plants have taken root, you muft give them as
which otherwife they could not, without prejudice to much free open air as poflible, by keeping the glafies
the leaves of the plants; and this is a great advantage off in the day-time as much as the weather will permit;
to them,»for many times we have returns of feverefrofts and in the night, or at fuch times as the glaffes require
at the latter end of March, which prove very hurtful to to be kept on, raife them up with props to let in frefii
thefe plants, if expofed thereto, efpecially after having air, unlefs in frofty weather ; at which time the glaffes
been nurfed up under glafles. fiiould be covered with mats, ftraw, peafe-haulm, &c.
After you have finilhed your beds, you may fet your but this is not to be done but in very hard frofts; you
glaffes over your plants again, obferving to raife your mull alfo obferve to guard them againft great rain,
   ' ’ which in wintertime is very hurtful to them, but i
props pretty high, efpecially if the weather be mild,
that they may have free air to ftrengthen them; and in
mild weather, if the glafies are kept on, they Ihould be
mild foft weather fet off your glaffes, as alfo in gentle propped to admit frefh air; and if the under leaves
fiiowers of rain ; and now you mull begin to harden grow yellow and decay, be fure to pick them off: for
them by degrees to endure the open air; however, it is if the weather fiiould prove very bad in winter, fo that
advifeable to let your glafles remain over them as long you fhould be obliged to keep them clofe covered for
as poflible, if the nights fhould be frotty, which will two or three days together, as it fometimes happens,
grehtly forward your plants; but you mull not let your thefe decayed leaves will render the inclofed air very
glaffes remain upon them in very hot fun-fhine, efpeci- noxious; and the plants perfpiring pretty much at that
ally if their leaves prefs againll the fides of the glaffes;
for it hath often been obferved in fuch cafes, that the
time, are often deltroyed in vail quantities.
In the beginning of February, if the weather be mild.
moiflure which hath rifen from the ground, together you mull begin to harden your plants by degrees, that
with the perfpiration of the plants, which, by the glaffes
remaining over them, hath been detained upon the leaves
of the plants, and, when the fun hath fhone hot upon
the fides of the glaffes, hath acquired fuch a powerful
they may be prepared for tranfplantation: the ground
where you intend to plant your cauliflowers out (which
fhould be quite open from trees, See. and rather moill
than dry),- having been well dunged and dug, fliould
heat from the beams thereof, as to feald all their larger be fown with radifhes a week or fortnight before you
i  . <• ..n —- -J-— -r  1-_.- .   intend to plant out your cauliflowers : the flawing of
radiflies is particularly rpentioned, bycaufe if there are
not fome radilhes amonglt them, and the month of May
fhould prove hot and dry, as it fometimes happens, the
fly will feize your cauliflowers, and eat their leaves full
of holes, to their prejudice, and fometimes their deftruc-
tion; whereas, if there are radilhes upon the fpot, the
leaves, to the no fmall prejudice of the plants: nay,
fometimes large quantities of plants have been fo af-
fe£led therewith, as never to be worth any thing after.
If your plants have fucceeded well, toward the end
of April fome of them will begin to fruit: you muff
therefore look over them carefully ever)'other day, and
when you fee the flower plainly appear, you muff break
down fome of the inner leaves over it to guard it from the flies will take to them, and never meddle with the cau
fun, which would make the flower yellow and unfightly
if expofed thereto; and when you find your flower
liflowers fo long as they laft: indeed, the gardeners
near London mix fpinach with their radilh-feed, and fo
its full bignefs (which you may know by its outfide have a double crop ; which is an advantage where
‘  -‘r  'J — ' -  —a -1— —1 ground is dear, or where perfons are ftraitened for room;
otherwife it is very well to have only one crop amongff
the cauliflowers, that the ground may be cleared in time.
Your ground being ready and the feafon good, about
parting as if it would run), you muft then draw it out
of the ground, and not cut them off, leaving the ftalk
in the ground, as is by fome pradlifed; and if they are
defigned for prefent ufe, you may cut them out of their _ „ . „ .
leaves; but if defigned to keep, you fliould preferve their the middle of February you may begin to plant out
leaves about them, and put them into a cool place; the
beft time for pulling them is in a morning, before the
fun hath exhaled the moillure ; for cauliflowers pulled
in the heat of the day, lofe that firmnefs which they
naturally have, and become tough.
But to return to our fecond crop (the plants being
railed and managed as was dire&ed for the early crop,
beds, either to be covered with glafs-frames, or arched
over with hoops, to be covered with mats, &c. Thefe
beds (hould have fome dung laid at the bottom, about
fix inches or a foot thick, according to the fize of your
plants; for if they are fmall, the bed Ihould be thicker
of dung to bring them forward, and fo viceverfa; this
dung Ihould be beat down clofe with a fork, in order
your cauliflowers : the diftance which is generally al¬
lowed by the gardeners near London (who plant other
crops between their cauliflowers to fucceed them, as
cucumbers for pickling, and winter cabbages) is every
other row four feet and a half apart, and the interme¬
diate rows two feet and a half, and two feet two inches
diftance in the rows ; fo that in the latter end of May
until the end of Odlober), you muft then prepare fome or beginning of June (when the radiflies and fpinach.
u-j- _:.t—: 1 -i„r. r  are c]eared off),-they put in feeds of cucumbers for
pickling, in the middle of the wide rows, at three feet
and a half apart; and in the narrow rows plant cab¬
bages for winter ufe, at two feet two inches dillance,
fo that thefe Hand each of them exailly in the middle
of the fquare between four cauliflower plants; and thefe
after the cauliflowers are gone off, will have full room
BRA
Braflica, to grow, and the crop be hereby continued
Brafficavit. f10n t}ir0Ugh the whole feafon.
There are many people who are very fond of water¬
ing cauliflower plants in fummer, but the gardeners
near London have almoft wholly laid afide this prac¬
tice, as finding a deal of trouble and charge to little
purpofe; for if the ground be fo very dry as not to pro¬
duce tolerable good cauliflowers without water, it fel-
[ 1362 ] BRA
a fuccef- - arched horfe, whofe legs are bowed by hard labour.
BRAULS, Indian cloths with blue and white llripes.
They are otherwife called turbantsi becaufe they ferve .
to cover thofe ornaments of the head, particularly on
the coaft of Africa.
BRAUN (George), in Latin Braunius, archdea¬
con of Dortmund, and dean of Notre Dame in Gra-
dibus, at Cologne. He publifhed a Latin oration a-
dom happens that watering of them makes them much gainft the priefts guilty of fornication ; he alfo wrote
better; and when once they have been watered, if it is the Life of Jefus Chrift, that of the Holy Virgin, and
not conflantly continued, it had been much better for a controverfial treatife againft the Proteftants; but his
them if they never had any; as alfo, if it be given them chief work is the Tbeatrum Urbitun, in feveral volumes
Qualities,
folio.
in the middle of the day, it rather helps to fcald them:
fo that, upon the whole, if care be taken to keep the
earth drawn up to their ftems, and clear them from e-
very thing that grows near them, that they may have Handing, it was taken by the Aufirians in 1743
free open air, you will find that they will fucceed bet- Long. 13. 3. N. Lat. 48.
ter without than with water, where any of thefe cau- ‘
tions are not ftri&ly obferved.
BRAUNA, a town of Germany, in Bavaria, feated
on the river Inn. It has a ftrong fortrefs : notwith-
   E.
BRAUNSBURG, a town of Poland, in Regal
Pruffia, with a very commodious harbour, and belong-
But in order to have a third crop of cauliflowers, you ing to the king of Pruflia. It is feated near the Bal-
fhould make a flender hot-bed in February, in which
you fhould fow the feeds, covering them a quarter of
an inch thick with light mould, and covering the bed
with glafs-frames. When the plants are come up, and
have gotten four or five leaves, you (hould prepare an¬
tic fea, in E. Long. 20. o. N. Lat. 54. 15.
BRAUNSFIELD, a town of Germany, in the circle
of the Upper Rhine, and country of Solmes, withahand-
fome palace or cattle. E. Long. 8. 32. N. Lat. 50. 22.
BRAVO, one of the Cape de Verd iflands on the
other hot-bed to prick them into, which may be about coaft of Africa, remarkable for its excellent wines, and
two inches fquare ; and in the beginning of April har¬
den them by degrees, to fit them for tranfplanting,
which fhould be done the middle of that month, at the
diftance diredled for the fecond crop, and mutt be ma¬
naged accordingly : thefe (if the foil is moift where
they are planted, or the feafon cool and moift) will pro¬
duce good cauliflowers about a month after the fecond
crop is gone, whereby their feafon will be greatly pro¬
longed.
inhabited by Portuguefe. The land is very high, and
confifts of mountains which look like pyramids. It
abounds in Indian corn, gourds, water-melons,. pota¬
toes, horfes, afl’es, and hogs. There is alfo plenty of
fifli on the coaft, and the ifland produces falt-petre.
W. Long. 25. 35. N. Lat. 14. o.
Bravo, a town of Africa, on the coaft of Ajan, with
a pretty good harbour. It is an independant place,
and is about 80 miles diftant from Magadoxo. E. Long.
There is alfo a fourth crop of cauliflowers, which is 41. 35. N. Lat. i. o.
raifed by fowing the feed about the 23d of May; and BRAURONIA, in Grecian antiquity, a feftival in
being tranfplanted, as hath been before direfted, will honour of Diana, furnamed Brauronia, from its having
produce good cauliflowers in a kindly feafon and good been obferved at Brauron, an Athenian borough. This
foil after Michaelmas, and continue through O&ober feftival was celebrated once in five years, being ma-
and November, and, if the feafoh permit, often a great naged by ten men, called in Greek \jeropoiof\. The
part of December. vidtim offered iri facrifice was a goat, and it was cuf-
All the fpecies of cabbage are fuppofed to be hard tomary for certain men to fing one of Homer’s Iliads,
of digeftion, to afford little nouriihment, and to pro- The moft remarkable perfons at,this folemnity were
duce flatulencies, though probably on no very good
foundation. They tend ftrongly to putrefa&ion, and
run into this ftate fooner than almoft any .other vege¬
table ; when putrefied, their fmell is likewife the moft
offenfive, greatly refembling that of putrefied animal
fubftances. A deco&ion of them is faid to loofen the
young virgins, habited in yellow gowns, and confe-
crated to Diana. It was unlawful for any of them to
be above ten or under five years of age.
BRAWN, the flefh of a boar fouced or pickled :
for which end the boar Ihould be old ; becaufe the older
he is, the more horny will the brawn be.—The me-
belly. Of all thefe plants cauliflower is reckoned the thod of preparing brawn is as follows: The boar be-
eafieft of digeftion. The white is the moft fetid, and ing killed, it is the fliches only, without the legs, that
the red moft emollient or laxative ; a deco&ion of this are made brawn ; the bones of which are to be taken
lad is recommended for foftening acrimonious hu¬
mours in fome diforders of the breaft, and in hoarfe-
nefs. The red cabbage is chiefly ufed for pickling.
In fome countries they bury the white cabbage
when full grown in the autumn, and thus preferve it
all winter. ‘ The Germans cut them to pieces, and,
along with fome jaromatic herbs and fait, prefs them
clofe down in a tub where they foon ferment, and are
eaten under the name of Sonr-crout. See that article.
BRASSICAVIT, or Brachicavit, in the menage,
out, and then the flefti fprinkled with fait, and laid in a
tray, that the blood may drain off: Then it is to be
faked a little, and rolled up as hard as poffible. The
length of the collar of brawn, ftiould be as much as
one fide of the boar will bear, fo that when rolled up
it will be nine or ten inches diameter.
The collar being thus rolled up, is to be boiled in
a copper, or large kettle, till it is fo tender, that you
can run a ftraw through it; then fet it by, till it is
thorough cold, and put it into the following pickle.
is a horfe whofe fore-legs are naturally bended arch- To every gallon of water, put a handful or two of
wife : being fo called by way of diftin&ion from an fait, and as much wheat-bran : Boil them together,
then '
BRA [ 1363 j BRA
Bray, then drain the bran as clear as you can from the li-
Bra>’le- quor; and when the liquor is quite cold, put the
brawn into it.
BRAY (Sir Reginald), a celebrated architeft and
politician, was the fecond fon of Sir Richard Bray, one
of the privy-council to king Henry VI. Sir Reginald
was inftrumental in the advancement of king Henry
VII. to the throne of England; and was- greatly in the
favours of that prince, who bellowed honours and
wealth upon him. His Ikill in architefture appears
from Henry VII.’s chapel at Weftminfter, and the
chapel of St George at Windfor, as he had a principal
concern and direction in the building of the former,
and the finifliing and bringing to perfection the latter,
to which he was alfo a liberal benefadtor. In the
middle of the fouth aile of the above chapel, is a fpaci-
ous chapel built by him, and Hill called by his name.
He died in 1501 ; and was interred in the above cha¬
pel,' probably under the itone where lies Dr Waterland:
for, on opening the vault for that gentleman, who died
in 1 '740, a leaden coffin of ancient form was found,
which, by other appearances, was judged to be that of
Sir Reginald, and was, by order of the dean, immedi¬
ately arched over.
Bray (Dr Thomas), an eminent, learned, and pious
divine, was born at Marton, in Shroplhire, in the year
1656, and educated at Oxford. He was at length pre-
fented to the vicarage^ of Over-Whitacre, in Warwick-
ffiire; and, in 1690, to the reftory of Sheldon, where
he compofed \ns£atechetical Lettur 'es; which procured
him fuch reputation, that Dr Compton, biffiop of Lon¬
don, pitched upon him as a proper perfon to model the
infant church of Maryland, and eftabliffi it upon a fo-
lid foundation, and for that purpofe he was invefted
with the office of com miffary. He now engaged in fe-
veral noble undertakings. He procured fums to be
railed for purchafing fmall libraries for the ufe of the
poor minillers in the feveral parts of our plantations :
and the better to promote thisdefign, he publifhed two
books ; one entitled Bibliotheca'parochialis, or a fcheme
of fuch theological and other heads as feem requifite
to be perufed or occafionally confulted by the clergy,
together with a catalogue of books which may be pro¬
fitably read on each of thofe points ; the other, Apof-
tolical charity, its nature and excellency confidered.
He endeavoured to get a fund eftabliffied for the pro¬
pagation of the gofpel, efpecially among the unculti¬
vated Indians ; and by his means a patent was obtained
for erefting the corporation called The fociety for the
propagation of the gofpel. He, by his induftry, pro¬
cured relief for prifoners ; and formed the plan for the
fociety for the reformation of manners, charity-fchools,
&c. He wrote, 1. his Martyrology, or Papal ufur-
pation, in one volume folio; 2. Direttorium miflionarium;
and other works. This excellent man died in 1730,
aged 73.
Bray, a port-town of Ireland, in the county of
Wicklow, and province of Leinfter, feated on St
George’s channel, eight miles fouth of Dublin. W.
Long. 6. 16. N. Lat. 53. 8.
Bray fur Seine, a town of France, in Champagne,
and in Senonois, on the confines of Brie. E. Long.
3. 15. N. Lat. 48. 35.
BRAYLE, among fportfmen, a piece of leather flit
to put upon the hawk’s wing, to tie it up.
BRAZED, in heraldry, a term ferving to defcribe Brazed
three cheverons, one clafping another. H ,
BRAZEN, fomething confiding of brafs, or formed — reaC
out of it. See Brass.
Brazen dge. See Age.
Brazen Difo, among miners, is the ftandard by
which the other difhes are gauged, and is kept in the
king’s hall.
Brazen Sea, in Jewifli antiquity, one of the facred
utenfils in the temple of Solomon. It was cad in the
plain of Jordan, and removed from thence into the in¬
ner court of the temple : where it was placed upon 12
oxen, three of which looked towards each quarter of
the world. It was ten cubits from the one brim to
the other, five cubits in height, and 30 cubits in cir¬
cumference, and contained 3000 baths. The brim of
it was perfe&ly round, and fo it continued in the two
upper cubits ; but, below the brim, in the three lower
cubits, it was fquare. It was a hand-breadth thick,
and the brim was wrought like the brim of a cup, with
flowers of lilies. About the body of this huge veffel
there were two borders of engravings, being the heads
of oxen in demi-relief; out of which fome fuppofe the
water iffued, and that they were made as cocks and
conveyances for that purpofe.—This brazen or molten
fea, was defigned for the priefts to waffi themfelves in,
before they performed the fervice of the temple. The
fupply of water was through a pipe- out of the well
Etam ; though fome are of opinion, that it was con-
flantly fupplied with water by the Gibeonites.
BRAZIER, an artificer who makes and deals in
all kinds of brafs ware. This trade, as exercifed in
Britain, may be reckoned a branch of the fmithery,
though* they feldom keep forges, except for brazing
or foldering, and tinning the infides of their veffels,
which they work up chiefly out of copper and brafs
prepared rough to their hands. They confill of a work¬
ing part, and a (hop-keeping part, which latter many
carry on to a great extent, dealing as well in all forts
of iron and fteel, as copper and brafs goods for houfe-
hold furniture ; and lately have falleh much into felling
what is called French plate, made of a fort of white
metal, filvered and polilhed to fuch a degree, that the
eye cannot foon diftinguiffi it from real filver.
BRAZIL. See Brasil.
BRAZING, the foldering or joining two pieces of
iron together by means of thin plates of brafs, melted
between the pieces that are to be joined. If the work
be very fine, as when two leaves of a broken faw are
to be brazed together, they cover it with pulverized
borax, melted with water, that it may incorporate
with the brafs powder, which is added to it : The
piece is then expofed to the fire without touching the
coals, and heated till the brafs is feen to run.
Brazing is alfo the joining two pieces of iron toge¬
ther by beating them hot, the one upon the other,
which is ufed for large pieces by farriers, &c.
BRAZZA, a town and ifland on the coalt of Dal¬
matia, in the gulph of Venice, oppolite to Spalatto,
and fubjedl to Venice. E. Long. 28. o. N. Lat. 43. o.
BREACH, in a general fenfe, denotes a break or
rupture in fome part of a fence or inclofure, whether
owing to time or violence.—Inundations, or overflow¬
ings of lands, are frequently owing to breaches in the
dikes or fea-banks. Dagenham breach is famous; it
waa
B R E [ *364 1 B R E
Breach was made in 1707, by a failure of the Thames wall in
i3rea(1’ a very high tide. The force wherewith it burft in upon
the neighbouring level tore up a large channel or paf-
fage for water 100 yards wide, and in fome places 20
feet deep, by which a multitude of fubterraneous trees
that had been buried many ages before were laid bare.
Breach, in fortification, a gape made in any part
of the works of a town by the cannon or mines of the
befiegers, in order to make an attack upon the place.
To make the attack more difficult, the befieged fow
the breach with crow-feet, or flop it with chevaux de
frize.—A pra&icable breach, is that where the men
may mount and make a lodgment, and ought to be 15
or 20 fathoms wide. The befiegers make their way
to it, by covering themfelves with gabions, earth-
bags, &c.
Breach, in a legal fenfe, is where a perfon breaks
through the condition of a bond or covenant; on an
a&ion upon which, the breach muft be affigned : And
this affignment muft not be general, but particular, as,
in an action of covenant for not repairing houfes, it
ought to be affigned particularly what is the want of
reparation ; and in fuch certain manner, that the de¬
fendant may take an iffue.
BREAD, a mafs of dough kneaded and baked in an
oven. See Baker, Baking, and Barm.
Macquer's The grains of all vegetables are almoft entirely
Chem. Did. compofed of fubftances very proper for the nourifhment
of animals ; and amongft grains thofe which contain a
farinaceous matter are the moft agreeable and moft nu¬
tritive.
Man, who appears to be defigned by nature to eat
of all fubflances which are capable of nourifhing him,
and ftill more of vegetables than animals, has, from
time immemorial, and in all parts of the earth, ufed
farinaceous grains as the principal bafis of his food:
but as thefe grains cannot be without difficulty eaten
by men in their natural flate, this aftive and intelligent
animal has gradually found means not only to extract
the farinaceous part, that is, the only nutritive part
of thefe grains, but alfo to prepare it fo that it be¬
comes a very agreeable and wholefome aliment, fuch
as the bread we now generally eat.
Nothing appears fo eafy at firfl fight as to grind
corn, to make a pafte with the flour and water, and
to bake this pafle in an oven. They who are accuf-
tomed to enjoy the advantages of the fineft human in¬
ventions, without refleding on the labour it has cofl
to complete them, think all thefe operations common
and trivial. However, it appears very certain, that
for a long time men no otherwife prepared their corn
than by boiling and forming compad vifcuous cakes,
not very agreeable to the tafte, and of difficult digef-
tion, before they were able to make bread of good tafte
and quality, as we have now. It was neceflary to in¬
vent and complete ingenious machines for grinding corn,
and feparating the pure flour with little trouble and la¬
bour ; and that inquiries, or rather fome happy chance,
which fome obferving perfon availed himfelf of, fhould
difcover, that flour mixed with a certain quantity of
water is fufceptible of a fermentation, which almoft
entirely deftroys its vifcidity, heightens its tafte, and
renders it proper to make a light bread, very agree¬
able to the tafte, and of eafy digeftion.
This effential operation, on which the good quality
of bread depends, is entirely of the province of die- Bread.
miftry. It would add to the honour of the ancient cul-  
tivators of chemiftry, to attribute to them fo ufeful and
important a difcovery ; but, unhappily, it is too pro¬
bable that they had no fhare in it. The ancient che-
milts were engaged in other purfuits than that of bread
and other common objeds. They hoped to make
gold ; and what is bread in comparifon with gold ?
However that be, to the fortunate invention of rai-
fing the pafte before baking we owe the perfe&ion
of the art of making bread. This operation confifts
in keeping fome pafte or dough, till by a peculiar fpi-
rituous fermentation it fwdls, rarefies, and acquires a
fmell and tafte quick, pungent, fpirituous, fomewhat
four, and rather difagreeable. This fermented dough
is well worked with fome frefh dough, which is by that
mixture, and moderate heat, difpofed to a fimilar but
lefs advanced fermentation than that above-mentioned.
By this fermentation the dough is attenuated, and di¬
vided; air is introduced into it, which, being incapable
of difengaging itfelf from the tenacious and folid pafte,
forms in it fmall cavities, raifes and fwells it: hence
the fmall quantity of fermented pafte which difpofes
the reft to ferment, is called leaven, from the French
word lever, fignifying to raife.
When the dough is thusraifed, it is in a proper ftate
to be put into the oven ; where, while it is baked, it
dilates itfelf ftill more by the rarefaction of the air,
and of the fpirituous fubftance it contains, and it forms
a bread full of eyes or cavities, confequently light, and
entirely different from the heavy, compaCt, vifcuous,
and indigefted mafles made by baking unfermented
dough.
The invention of beer, or wine of grains, furnifhes
a new matter ufeful in the making of bread. This
matter is the froth which forms upon the furface of
thefe liquors during fermentation. When it is mixed
with dough, it .raifes it better and more quickly than
ordinary leaven. It is called yeajl or harm. By means
of this, the fineft, lighteft bread is made. It often
happens, that bread made with leaven dough has a
fourifh and not agreeable tafte; which may proceed
from too great a quantity of leaven, or from leaven in'
which the fermentation has advanced too far. This in¬
convenience does not happen to bread made with yeaft;
becaufe the fermentation of this fubftance is not too far
advanced, or becaufe more attention is given to that
finer bread.
It may be afleed, Why, fince dough is capable of
fermenting fpontaneoufly and fingly, as we fee from
the leaven, a fubftance is added to difpofe it to ferment ?
The true reafon is, That all the parts of a fermenting
fubftance do not ferment at the fame time, nor to the
fame degree ; fo that fome parts of this fubftance have
finiftied their fermentation, while others have not yet
begun. The fermentable liquors which contain much
fugar, as hydromel, and muft of wines, give proofs of
this truth ; for, after thefe liquors have become very
vinous, they have ftill very diftinftly a faccharine tafte:
but all faccharine matter is ftill fufceptible of fermenta¬
tion; and, in fatt, if vinous hydromel, or muft, or even
new beer, be diftilled, fo that all their ardent fpirit (hall
be feparated, and the refiduums diluted with water, we
ftiall fee a fecond fermentation take place, and a new
quantity of ardent fpirit formed.
The
B R. E [ 1365 ] B R E
Bread. The fame thing precifely happens to dough, and ftill
f~ more fentibly, from its vifcolity and want of fluidity;
fo that if it be left to ferment alone, and without the
help of leaven, as the fermentation proceeds very flowly
and fucceffively, the parts which ferment firft will have
become four and vapid before all the reft be fufficiently
attenuated and changed, by which the bread will ac¬
quire a difagreeable tafte.
A mixture of a fmall quantity of leaven with dough
effeftually prevents this inconvenience ; becaufe the ef-
fetft of this leaven, and of all fermenting fubftances, is
to difpofe to a (imilar fermentation all matters capable
of it, with which it is mixed ; or rather, by means of
leaven, the fermentation of all the parts of fuch fub-
flances is effe&ed more nearly at the fame time
Bread well raifed and baked differs from unfermented
bread, not only in being lefs compaft, lighter, and of
a more agreeable tafte, but alfo in being more eafily
mifcible with water, with which it does not form a vif-
cous mafs, which circumftance is of great importance
in digeftion.
f.ulkn on the It is obfcrvable, that without bread, or fomewhat
Mat. Med. 0f this form, no nation feems to live. Thus the Lap¬
landers, having no corn of their own, make a fort of
bread of their dried fifties, and of the inner rind of the
pine, which feems to be ufed, not fo much for their
nouriftiment, as for fupplying a dry food. For this
mankind feem to have an univerfal appetite, reje&ing
bland, flippery, and mucilaginous foods. This is not
commonly accounted for, but feems to depend on very
fimple principles. The preparation of our food depends
on the mixture of the animal fluids in every ftage. A-
mong others the faliva is neceffary, which requires dry
food as a neceffary ftimulus to draw it forth, as bland,
flippery, fluid aliments are too inert, and make too ftiort
ftay in the mouth, to produce tfiis effed, or to caufe a
fuffioient degree of manducation to emulge that liquor.
For this reafon we commonly ufe dry bread along with
animal food, which otherwife would be too quickly
fwallowed. For blending the oil and water of our food
nothing is fo fit as bread, aflifted by a previous man¬
ducation. For which purpofe, bread is of like necef-
lity in the ftomach, as it is proper that a fubftance of
folid confiftence ftiould be long retained there. Now
the animal fluids muft be mixed with olir aliments, in
order to change the acefcency it undergoes. But li¬
quid foods would not attain this end, whereas the fo¬
lid ftimulates and emulges the glands of the ftomach.
The bread then appears to be exceedingly proper, be¬
ing bulky without too much folidity, and firm with¬
out difficulty of folution.
Svppl. to Among the ancients we meet with various denomi-
Chamben s nations of bread; as, 1. Panis Jtligineus, called alfo
1 ’ mundiis, athleticus, ifungia, coliphius, and rohys, an-
fwering to our white bread; being made of the pureft
flour of the beft wheat, and only ufed by the richer
fort. 3. Panis fecundas or fecundarius, called alfo fmi-
laceus ov fmilagineus, the next in purity; being made
of fine flour, only all the bran not fifted out. 2. Au-
topyrus, called alfo fyncondjlus and confufaneus, made of
the whole fubftance of the wheat, without either re¬
trenching the finer flour or coarfer bran ; anfwering to
our houfehold bread. 4. Cacabaceus, apparently the
fame with what was otherwife denominated fordidus, as
being given to. dogs ; furfuraceus, furfureus, or fur-
VOL. II.
fufativus, becaufe made in great part of bran ; and, Bread,
in the middle age, bijfus, on account of its brownnefs ; ~
fometimes alfo leibo. There were other forts of bread,
denominated from the manner in which they were
made, or the ufes they were applied to; as, x. The
milt tar is, which was prepared by the foldiers and offi¬
cers in camp with their own hands ; for which purpofe
fome had hand-mills, others pounded the corn in a
mortar, and baked it on the coals. 2. Clibanites, that
baked in an oven, by way of contradiftin&ion from
that baked on the hearth or under the embers. 3. That
called fubcbieritius, or fub cinere colitis; fometimes alfo
reverfatus, becaufe it was to be turned in the baking.
4. Nauticus, anfwering to our fea-bifeuit, and denomi¬
nated accordingly bis colitis, becaufe baked feveral times
over to make it keep the longer. Other kinds of bread
were denominated from their qualities and accidents;
as, x. The panis ftccus, that which had been long ba¬
ked ; fuch as were the bis colitis, naval and buccellated
bread. 2. Madidus, a fort made of rye or bear, fome¬
times alfo made of fine flour, wherewith they fmeared
their faces, by way of a cofmetic, to render them
fmooth. 3. Acidus, or four bread, which was' acidu¬
lated with vinegar. 4. Azymus, that unleavened or un¬
fermented.
The French have alfo a great variety of breads ; as
queen’s bread, alamode bread, bread de Segovie, de
Gentillay, quality-bread, &c. all prepared in peculiar
manners by the bakers of Paris. The bread de Goneffe
excels all others, on account of the waters at Goneffe, a
town three leagues from Paris. It is light, and full of
eyes, which are the marks of its goodntfs. Pain de me¬
nage, is that which each family bakes for itfelf. Spice-
bread, pain d'epice, denotes bread baked and iced over
with the feum taken off fugar in refining houfes ; it is
fometimes alfo made with honey and other forts of feafon-
ing, and anfwers to what the ancients call panis mellitus.
Among us, bread is chiefly divided into white,
wheaten, and houfehold; differing only in deorees of
purity. In the firft, all the bran is feparated; in the fe-
cond, only the coarfer; in the third, none at all: fo
that fine bread is made only of flour; wheaten bread,
of flour and a mixture of the finer bran ; and houfe¬
hold, of the whole fubftance of the grain, without ta¬
king out either the coarfe bran or fine flour. We alfo
meet with fymnel bread, manchet or roll bread, and
French bread : which are only fo many denominations
of the fined and whiteft bread, made of the pureft flour;
except that in roll-bread there is an addition of milk ;
and in French bread, of eggs and butter alfo. In Lan-
caftiire, and feveral of the northern counties of Fug-
land, they have feveral forts of oaten bread ; as, 1. The
bannock, which is an oat-cake, kneaded only with wa¬
ter, and baked on the embers. 2. Clap-bread, which
is made into thin hard cakes. 3. Bitchinefs bread, which
is made of thin batter, and made into thin foft oat¬
cakes. 4. Riddle-cakes, which are thick and four, have
but little leaven, and are kneaded Itiff. And, 5. Jan-
nock, which is oaten bread made up into loaves. Add
to ihtie,peafe-bread, much ufed in many parts of Scot¬
land; being bread confifting either wholly of the flour
of peafe, or of this and oat-meal mixed: the dough,
fometimes leavened, fometimes made only with water,
is formed either into bannocks or cakes, and baked over
the embers; or into what they call baps, i. e. a kind
8 K of
B R E [ 1366 ] B R E
Bread. of flattifli rolls, and baked in the oven. In the fta-
tute of aflize of bread and ale, 51 Hen. III. mention
is made of waftel-bread, cocket-bread, and bread of
treet; which anfwer to the three kinds of bread now in
ufe, called nuhite, nubeaten, and houfehold bread. In re¬
ligious houfes, they heretofore diftinguifhed bread by
the names Efquires bread, partis armigerorum; monks
bread, panis conventualss; boys bread, pants puerorum;
and fervants bread, panis famulorum, called alfo panis
fervientqlis. A like diftribution obtained in the houfe-
holds of nobles and princes ; where, however, we find
fome other denominations; as, meflengers bread,/^/mV
nuncius, that'given to meffengers as a reward of their
labour; court bread,curialis, that allowed by the
lord for the maintenance of his houfehold ; eleemofy-
nary bread, that difiributed to the poor by way of alms.
Ir is for the intereft of the community that the food
of the poor fhould be as various as poffible, that, in
times of dearth and fcarcity of the ordinary kinds, they
may not be without ready and cheap refources. To the
difcovery of fuch refources feveral benevolent philofo-
phers having fuccefsfully turned their inquiries, we fiiall
lay before the reader the refult of their experiments.
* From 1. Bread of Potatoes *. Potatoes, previoufly depri-
Examen vecj Gf tlie;r {kin, eut into thin flices, and put between
Tamm'S d/ PaPer> wiil drY in a heat ^mewhat lefs than 350 of
Terre, &c. Reaumur’s thermometer; and, when thus dried, they
par M. Par- will preferve their wdiite colour. By this procefs they
mentier, a- ]0fe about two thirds of their weight, and they may
ddhotT/d'es t^ien re<^uce<i t0 a hne powder. A little of this pow-
invalides, der thrown upon the fire fends out a fmoke, accompa-
Paris. nied with a fmell refembling burnt bread. Asthisfmell
is perceived from all farinaceous vegetables when treated
in the fame manner, Mr Parmentier thinks it may be
confidered as the chara6teriftic of the prefence of an
• See the amylaceous * matter. This fmell does not, however, he
note infra, obferves, arife from the amylaceous or fibrous part fe-
parately, but from both taken together. The powrder
of potatoes, obtained in the manner deferibed above,
has the fmell and tafte of wheat; and, like it, is de¬
voured by rats and mice : but, even when moft finely
powdered, it has not the feel or brightnefs of the flour
of wheat; although, on a chemical analyfis, it yields the
fame produdts. It is alfo nutritious, and keeps well for
a long time.
Finding fo great a fimilarity between the meal of
wheat and what may be called the meal of potatoes,
Mr Parmentier next endeavoured to make bread of
them when mixed in different proportions. His trials
were made with one fourth, one third, one half, and
two thirds, of the potato-meal, the remainder being
flour from wheat. Thefe proportions, with the addition
of a little fait and yeft, yielded bread which was well
tafted, but which had fermented little, was brown, and
covered with hard brown crufts. Bread made from the
meal of potatoes alone, with the addition of fait and
yeft, was eatable, but very heavy, unfermented, and ex¬
ceedingly brown. This bread, from the meal of pota¬
toes alone, was apt to crumble into powder. To give
it more adhefion, he mixed with the meal a decoftion
of bran, or a mixture of honey and water; either of
which made it lighter and more fermented: it obtained
alfo a cruft of a golden colour, became well tafted, and
fufficiently adhelive. Mr Parmentier obtained bread
alfo, well fermented, and of a good colour and tafte, Bread.
from a mixture of raw potato-pulp with meal of wheat, 
or potato-meal, with the addition of yeft and fait.
Potatoes, when ufed for making bread, are not rea¬
dily difpofed to ferment ; without which, bread is very
infipid, and not eaiily digefted. But Mr Parmentier
found, from a variety of experiments, that good bread
might be made from equal quantities of flour and po¬
tato-meal. He concludes, therefore, with recommend¬
ing the mixture of potatoes, in times of fcarcity, with
the flour of'wheat, inftead of employing rye, barley, or
oats, as has frequently been done.
When grain is altogether wanting, he recommends
the ufe of bread made from a mixture of the amylace¬
ous powder of potatoes and of their pulp, this mixture
being fermented with leaven, or with honey. The meal
of this root, when diluted with hot water, acquires a
tenacious and gluey confiftence. However fair the meal
of potatoes may be, it always gives a'grey colour to
the bread made by mixing it with the flour of wheat :
but a mixture of the pulp of potatoes with the flour of
wheat does not produce brown-coloured bread.
Mr Parmentier made bread, very much like that of
wheat, by a mixture of the following four fubftances,
viz. four ounces of amylaceous powder of potatoes, one
dram of mucilage extracted from barley, one dram of
the bran of rye, and a dram and a half of glutinous
matter dried and powdered.
2. Bread from different Vegetables not commonly in * FromTlfc-
Ufe*. Although horfe-chefnut has not hitherto been moirefuries
employed, yet it is certain that wholefome bread, with- veSeta’?x ?a*
out any bitternefs, may be obtained from it. Mr Par- fTppl't^en
mentier advifes, that the fruit, after the /kin is tzken temps de di-
off, and the juice prefled from it, be made into a pafte." cettx
This mafs muft be diluted in water, and then /trained If l’on e"’~
through a fieve. A milky-coloured liquor is thus fepa- ^emen’/’a^/T
rated, which, on /landing, depofits a fine powder. This, nourriture
being dried, is without either fmell or tafte, and very fit des homines,
for aliment; the mafs from which it is procured re- &c-ParM.
taining the bitternefs of the fruit. Parmentier,
The roots of the bryona, when treated in the fame
manner, yielded a fimilar white powder. By the fame
treatment alfo, fine, white, infipid, inodorous powders
may be procured from the roots of the iris, gladiolus,
ranunculus, fumaria, arum, dracunculus, mandragora,
colchicum, filipendula, and helleborus; plants which
grow fpontaneou/ly, and in great abundance.
Of acorns bread has frequently been made ; and to
this day, in fome countries, they are in common ufe.
The method of preparation which Mr Parmentier re¬
commends, is, that they be deprived of their cover by
boiling, then dried and powdered, and afterwards ba¬
ked in the fame manner as the flour of wheat. When
fully ripe, and made into a pafte, they were deprived
of their aftringency by merely prefling their juice from
them. The mafs remaining after the preflure, when
dried, was eafily reduced to a fine powder by no means
difagreeable.
The gramen caninum arvenfe, in its appearance, ap¬
proaches to corn; and fome itaturalifts have confidered
it as the original fpecies from which all our grain is
produced. Its roots are fweet-tafted, and have long
been employed in making ptifans. In the preparation
of them for bread, it is only neceflary that the roots
Ihould be cleanfed, cut fmall, dried, and pounded. This
powder.
B R E [ 1367 ] B R E
Bread. powder, Mr Parmentier obferves, does not diflblve in
_ water or fp}r;ts. but it does in boiling water,
which it renders thick and cloudy, and, upon cooling,
the whole mafs obtains a gelatinous confiftence. Upon
a chemical analyfis, it yields an acid empyreumatic oil,
which pofieffes a fingular odour, refembling that which
is perceived on burning the plant. The fpongy re-
fiduum, calcined in the air, gives a fixed alcali. Thefe
properties inconteftably prove, that it contains an amy¬
laceous (a) matter fimilar to that of grain, which ap¬
pears to be the nutritive part of vegetables. This amy¬
laceous matter, formed into a jelly, and diffufed in water,
keeps for a long time without fuffering any change ;
it then turns acid, and at length putrefies.
The amylaceous matter of acrid and poifonous plants,
although innocent and nutritive, cannot be converted
into bread without the addition of fome mucilaginous
fubftance. In times of great fcarcity, common bran
will anfwer the purpofe: but when potatoes are to be
had, the addition of a proper proportion of thefe is to
be preferred.
Mr Parmentier gives an account of the bread which
he obtained from the amylaceous powders of the dif¬
ferent vegetables mentioned above, with the addition
of potatoes and a fmall quantity of common leaven of
grain. This bread appeared in general to be well fer¬
mented ; it was of a good white colour, and free from
any difagreeable odour: but to the tafte it was fome-
what infipid; which, however, he imagines, might have
been corre&cd by the addition of a proper quantity
of fait.
As the refources againft fcarcity here pointed out
can be procured only at particular feafons, the author
propofes a method for preferring the matter thus ob¬
tained. For this purpofe, he advifes, that bread prepa¬
red in the manner mentioned above (hould be carefully
dried, reduced to powder, and then kept in a clofe caik.
By this means, he is of opinion that it may be prefer¬
red for a very long time, and will always be ready to
make an agreeable and wholefome panada by the addi¬
tion of a little butter and fait.
Mr Parmentier, in order to difcover the degree of
power wherewith this alimentary powder nourifhed,
made himfelf the fubjeft of experiment; and found,
that three ounces of it for dinner, and as much for flip¬
per, made into panada with water, was a fufiicient
quantity of aliment for a day. From his difcharge Bread,
by ftool while he ufed it, he had reafon to believe that —
it is almoft totally alimentary. He concludes with
recommending it not only as ufeful in times of fcarcity,
but as a proper fubftitute for fea-bifcuit, and as a fpe-
cies of food well adapted for armies and hofpitals.
3. Cheap method of making 'wholefome Bread, when # prom r
wheat-flour is dear, by mixing turnip with it *. letter in the
“ At the time I tried this method, bread was very MufxumKu-
dear, infomuch that the poor people, in the country,
where I live, could hardly afford themfelves half a meal Commerc,a e
a day. This put me upon conlidering whether fome
cheaper method might not be found, than making it
of wheat-meal. Turnips were at that time very plen¬
tiful. I had a number of them pulled, wafhed clean,
pared, and boiled ; when they were become foft enough
to mafh, I had the greateft part of the water prefled
out of them, and afterwards had them mixed with an
equal quantity in weight of coarfe wheat-meal; the
dough was then made in the ufual manner, with yeft
or barm, fait, water, &c. It rofe very well in the trough ;
and after being well kneaded, was formed into loaves,
and put into the oven to be baked. I had at the fame
time fome other bread made with common meal in the
ordinary way. I baked my turnip-bread rather longer
than the other. When they were drawn from the oven,
I caufed a loaf of each fort to be cu t; and found, on ex¬
amination, the turnip bread was fweeter than the other,
to the full as light and as white, but had a little tafte
(though nowife difagreeable) of the turnip. Twelve
hours afterwards I tafted my turnip-bread again, when
I found the tafte of the turnip in it fcarce perceivable,
and the fmell quite gone off. On examining it when
it had been baked 24 hours, had I not known that
there were turnips in its compofition, I fliould not have
imagined it: it had, it is true, a peculiar fweetifli tafte,
but by no means difagreeable; on the contrary, I ra¬
ther preferred it to the bread made of wheat-meal a-
lone. After it had been baked 48 hours, it underwent
another examination, when it appeared to me to be ra¬
ther fuperior to the other ; it eat frelher and moifter,
and had not at all abated in its good qualities : to be
fliort, it was ftill very good after a week; and, as far as
I could fee, kept as well as the bread made of common
wheat-meal.
“ In my trials of this bread by the tafte, I was
8 K 2 nqt
(a) M. Beccari of the Bolognian academy has difcovered in the flour of wheat two diftinct fubftances. The one be
terms an annual or glutinous matter; the other, an amylaceous matter, or vegetable pajle.
The gluten has been fuppofed to be the nutritive part of corn, from its not diflblving unlefs in vegetable acids; from
its affuming a fpongy form in boiling water; from its fuppofed analogy to the animal lymph; and, laftly, from the
fimilitude which the produ<fts it affords, on achemical analyfis, bear to thofeobtained from animal fubftances. M. Par¬
mentier, however, from various experiments, was led to conclude, with the celebrated Model of Peterfburg, that the
gluten or animal matter of Beccari exifts in the bran, and is not the nutritive part of the wheat. Having made experi¬
ments with four different kinds of flour, it appeared that the quantity of animal matter was always proportioned to
the coarfenefs of the flour. Hence, were this gluten the nutritive part, the coarfeft bread, or that which contained
moft bran.wouldaffordthegreateft quantity of nourithment. The contrary of this, however, is now known to be fad.
The amylaceous part, or, as fome have termed it, the fecula, of wheat and other vegetables, is a peculiar gum, not
foluble in fpirit of wine, vinegar, or cold water. It contains more acid, and lefs water, than the ordinary gums. It is
found in many of thofe plants that make the nourifliment of men and other animals. Hence Mr Parmentier concludes
it to be the nutritive matter.
Though we are not to confider the glutinous matter as the nutritious part of vegetables, yet it is a very necdfary in¬
gredient. It is that which preferves the cohefion of the pafte in fermenting bread : it is that which forms the vifcid
pellicle, and flops the air in fermentation ; gives the favoury tafte to bread; occafions it to be light, to ferment, and
which forms the fmall cells feen in it. It is found efpecially near the cortical part of grain; and" this accounts''for its
being found in the greateft quantity in coarfe brown meal. It is this gluten which renders wheat a fuperior aliment
Jo the other grains and roots.
B R E [ 1368 ] B R E
Bread. not fatisfied with eating it by xtfdf; I had fome of it
  fpread with butter ; I tafted it with cheefe ; I eat of
it toafted and buttered, and finally in boiled milk and
in foup : in all thefe forms it was very palatable and
good.”
Bread in Medicine. Befides the alimentary, bread
has alfo medical, qualities.—Decoftions, creams, and
jellies of bread are diretfed in fome difpenfaries. Bread
carefully toafted, and infufed or lightly boiled in wa¬
ter, imparts a deep colour, and a fufficiently agreeable
reftringent tafte. This liquor, taken as common drink,
has done good fervice in a weak lax ftate of the ftomach
and inteftines ; and in bilious vomiting and purging,
or the cholera morbus : examples are related in the E-
dinburgh eflays of feveral cafes of this kind cured by it,
without the ufe of any other medicine.-^ In Weftphalia
there is a very coarfe bread eaten, which ftill retains
the opprobrious name given it by a French traveller, of
Bonpournickel, “ good for his horfe Nickel." It is the
fame with what the Romans called panis furfuraceus,
or panis impurus, from its not being cleanfed from the
hulk ; and panis ater, from the blacknefsof its colour:
though we learn from Pliny, that the Romans for 300
* Hofman years knew no other bread. The Germans * make
Cbfer. Chem. port3 0f waters by diftillation from this bread ; the
one with, the other without, the addition of a fpirituous
liquor : to both which great virtues are afcribed. That
without any thing fpirituous, is made out of the juice
of craw-filh, may»dew, rofe-water, nutmegs, and faf-
fron, diftilled from a large quantity of this bread. This
is efteemed a great reftorative, and given in heftic ha¬
bits. The other is diftilled from this bread and Rhe-
nifti wine, with nutmegs and cinnamon. This is given
in all the diforders of the ftomach, vomiting, lofs
of appetite, and other complaints of the fame kind :
and befides thefe, there is a fpirit diftilled from it by
the retort in the dry way, which, when feparated from
its fetid oil, is efteemed a powerful fudorific, and very
* Bo I's valuable medicine in removing impurities of the blood.
Phil. Works Bread is alfo medicinal, applied externally, as is
abridged, vulgarly known *. Mr Boyle allures us he drew a
vol. III. menftruum from bread ftronger than aquafortis, and
Xlbid vol I woldd a& even uPon gtaf® bfelff.
p. 34'49' ' BreaD'TVw, theEngljlh nameoftheartocarpus (b) ;
the fruit of which not only ferves as a fubftitute for
1 Ha-wkef- bread among the inhabitants of O-Taheite J and the
■worth’s ac- neighbouring iflands, but alfo, variouflydrelfed, compofes
count of ' the principal part of their food. It grows on a tree
Copt. Cooks tjiat js about the fize of a middling oak ; its leaves are
v0Ja&e' frequently a foot and an half long, of an oblong lhape,
deeply finuated like thofe of the fig-tree, which they
refemble in colour and confidence, and in the exfuding
of a milky juice upon being broken. The fruit is about
* See Plate thefizeandlhape of a new-born child’s head; andthefur-
LVHI. face is reticulated *, not much unlike a truffle ; it is co-
fig. 3. But. vered with a thin Hein, and has a core about as big as
delete whut tbe handle of a fmall knife. The eatable part lies be-
is there writ- tween tj)e ^;n an(j t]ie core . ;t ;s as w-hite as fnow, and
ingtheTze" fomewhat of the confiftence of new bread ; it muft be
roafted before it is eaten, being firft divided into three or
fourparts; itstafteis infipid, with a flight fweetnefs fome¬
what reftmbling that of the crumb of wheaten bread
mixed with a Jerufalem artichoke. This fruit is alfo Bread.
cooked in a kind of oven, which renders it foft, and  1
fomething like a boiled potatoe; not quite fo farina¬
ceous as a good one, but more fo than thofe of the
middling fort. Of the bread-fruit they alfo make three
dilhes, by putting either water or the milk of the co¬
coa nut to it, then beating it to a pafte with a ftone
peftle, and afterwards mixing "it with ripe plantains,
bananas, or the four pafie which they call mahie.
The mahie, which is likewife made to ferve as a
fuccedaneum for ripe bread-fruit before the feafon comes
on, is thus made : The fruit of the bread-trt: is ga¬
thered juft before it is perfe&ly ripe; and being laid
in heaps, is clofely covered with leaves : in this ftate
it undergoes a fermentation, and becomes difagreeably
fweet; the core is then taken out entire, which is done
by gently pulling out the ftalk, and the reft of the
fruit is thrown into a hole which is dug for that purpofe
generally in the houfes, and neatly lined in the bot¬
tom and fides with grafs : the whole is' then covered
with leaves and heavy ftones laid upon them; in this
ftate it undergoes a fecond fermentation, and becomes
four, after which it will fuffet no change for many
months. It is taken out of the hole as it is wanted for
ufe; and being made into balls, it is wrapped up in leaves
and baked : after it is drefi’ed, it will keep five or fix
weeks. It is eaten both cold and hot; and the natives
feldom make a meal without it, though to Europeans
the tafte is as difagreeable as that of a pickled olive
generally is the firft time it is eaten.
To procure this principal article of their food, (the
bread-fruit), cofts thefe happy people no trouble or la¬
bour except climbing up a tree : the tree which pro¬
duces it does not indeed grow fpontaneoufiy ; but if a
man plants ten of them in his life-time, which he may
do in about an hour, he will as completely fulfil his
duty to his own and future generations, as the native
of our lefs temperate climate can do by ploughing in
the cold of winter, and reaping in the fummer’s heat, as
often as thefe feafons return; even if, after he has procured
bread for his prefent houfebold, he fliould convert a
furplus into money, and lay it up for his children.
^(Y/-Bread. See Apis, n° 12. par. ult.
Cafada-Vn-Ekv. See Jatropha.
Earth Bread*. “ In the lordlhip of Mofcaw in * From the
the Upper Lufatia, a fort of white earth is found, of German K-
which the poor, urged by the calamities of the wars Phnncr^-’s,
which raged in thofe parts, make bread. It is taken
out of a hill where they formerly worked at faltpetre.
When the fun has fomewhat warmed this earth it cracks,
and fmall white globules proceed from it as meal ; it
does not ferment alone, but only when mixed with
meal. Mr Sarlitz, a Saxon gentleman, was pleafed
to inform us, that he has feen perfons who in a great
meafure lived upon it for fome time. He aflures us that
he procured bread to be made of this earth alone, and
of different mixtures of earth and meal ; and that he
even kept fome of this bread by him upwards of fix
years : he further fays, a Spaniard told him, that this
earth is alfo found near Geronne in Catalonia.”
Eucbari/l or Sacramental Bread, in the Proteftant
churches, is common leavened bread, in conformity to
the ancient pra&ice. In the Romifti mafs, azymous or
unleavened
(b) A new genus of plants; fo named from (panis) “ bread,” and (fruclusj “ fruit,” and referred
to the monoecia monogynia of Linnsus. \ForJleri Charattercs, sjJ.
B R E [ 1369 ] B R E
Bread. unleavened bread is ufcd, particularly in the Gallican
church, where a fort is provided for this purpofe called
pain a chanter, made of the pureft wheaten flour pref-
fed between two iron plates graven like wafer-moulds,
being firft rubbed with white wax to prevent the pafte
from {licking. The Greeks obferve divers ceremonies
in their making the eucharift bread. It is neceflary
the perfon who bakes it have not lain with his wife
the day before; or, if it be a woman, that fhe have not
converfed with her hufband. - The Abyflinians have an
apartment in their churches for this fervice, being a
kind of facrifty. F. Sirmond, in his difquifition on a-
zymous bread, fhews from the council of Toledo, that
anciently there were as many ceremonies ufed in the
Latin church in the preparation of their unleavened
bread as are ftill retained in the eaflern churches. He
cites the example of Queen Radegonda, who diftributed
with her own hands, in the church, the bread which
Ihe herfelf had made. It appears alfo from the dif-
pute of cardinal Humbert againit the Greeks, that in
the Latin church no bread was ufed for the eucharift,
but what was taken out of the facrifty, and had been
made by the deacons, fubdeacons, and even priefts,
who rehearfed feveral pfalms during the procefs.
Ecclefiaftical writers enumerate other fpecies of bread
allotted for purpofes of religion ; as, 1. Calendarius,
that anciently offered to the prieft at the calends.
2. Prebendarius, the fame with capitularis, that diftri¬
buted daily to each prebendary or canon. 3. B'nediflus,
that ufually given to catechumens before baptifm, in
lieu of the euchariftic bread, which they were incapable
of partaking of. The pants benediftus was called alfo
panagiuvi and eulogiuni, being a fort of bread bleffed
and confecrated by the prieft, whereby to prepare the
catechumens for the reception of the body of Chrift.
The fame, was ufed afterwards, not only by catechu¬
mens, but by believers themfelves, as a token of their
mutual communion and friendftiip. Its origin is dated
from the 7th century, at the council of Nantz. In the
Gallican church we ftill find pants benediftus,pain benit,
ufed for that offered for benedi&ion, and afterwards
diftributed to pious perfons who attend divine fervice
in chapels. 4. Confecrated bread is a piece of w'ax,
pafte, or even earth, over which feveral ceremonies have
been performed with benedi&ions, &c. to be fet in an
Agnus Dei, or relic-box, and prefented for veneration,
f See Azy- 5. Unleavened bread, panis azymtis\. The Jews eat
mous. no other bread during their paffover; and exadl fearch
was made in every houfe, to fee that no leavened bread
was left. The ufage was introduced in memory of their
hafty departure from Egypt, when they had not leifure
to bake leavened. 6. Shew-bread was that offered to
God every fabbath day, being placed on the golden
table in the holy of holies.
Horfe Bread is made of wheat, oats, and beans; to
which- fometimes are added anifeed, gentian, liquorice,
faenugretk, eggs, and ale; and fometimes rye and white
wine are ufed.
For race-horfes three forts of bread are ufually given
with fuccefs, for the fecond, third, and fourth nights
feeding : they are all made of beans and wheat worked
with barm; the difference confifting chiefly in the pro¬
portion of the two former. In the firft kind, three times
the quantity of beans is ufed to one of wheat; in the
fecond, equal quantities of both; in the third, three
times the quantity of wheat to one of beans. Bread
Sago Bread. See Sago.
Ajjize f o/'Bread. The price and weight of bread is ! 1_
regulated by the magiftrates according to the price of t Seedflizi,
wheat. We have divers tables of the weights of the u^‘
loaves both of white, wheaten, and houfehold bread, at
every price of wheat. If bread want one ounce in 36,
the baker formerly was to fuffer the pillory : now, to
forfeit 5 s. for every ounce wanting ; and for every de¬
feat lefs than an ounce, 2 s. 6d.; fuch bread being
complained of and weighed before a magiftrate within
24 hours after it is baked or expofed to fale within the
bills of mortality, or within three days in any other
place. It is to be obferved, bread lofes weight by keep¬
ing : in fome experiments recited by Bartholine, the
diminution was near one fourth in fix months. The
fame author affures us, that in Norway they make
bread which keeps 30 or 40 years ; and that they are
there fonder of their old hard bread, than elfewhere of
new or foft ; fince the older it is, the more agreeable
it grows. For their great feafts, particular care is ta¬
ken to have the oldeft bread; fo that, at the chriftening
of a child, they have ufually bread which had been ba¬
ked perhaps at the chriftening of his grandfather. It
is made of barley and oat-meal baked between two
hollow ftones.
Bread-Rcuw, in a (hip, that deftined to hold the
bread pr bifket.
The boards of the bread-room fhould be jointed and
caulked, and even lined with tin plates, or mats. It is
alfo proper to warm it well with charcoal for feveral
days before the bifket is put into it; fince nothing is
more injurious to the bread than moiftu're.
BREADTH, in geometry, one of the three dimen-
fions of bodies, which multiplied into their length con-
ftitutes a furface.
BREAK, in a general fenfe, fignifies to divide a
thing into feveral parts with violence.
In the art of war, to break ground, is to open the
trenches before a place.
Among fportfmen, to break a horfe in trotting, is to
make him light upon the hand in trotting, in order to
make him fit for a gallop. To break a horfe for hunt¬
ing, is to fupple him, to make him take the habit of
running.
BREAKERS, a name given by failors to thofe bil¬
lows that break violently over rocks lying under the
furface of the fea. They are diftinguiftied both by their
appearance and found, as they cover that part of the
fea with a perpetual foam, and produce a hoarfe and
terrible roaring, very different from what the waves
ufually have in a deeper bottom. When a fhip is un¬
happily driven among breakers, it is hardly pofiible to
fave her, as every billow that heaves her upwards ferves
to dafti her down with additional force when it breaks
over the rocks or fands beneath it.
BREAKING, in a mercantile ftyle, denotes the be¬
coming bankrupt. See Bankrupt.
Breaking Bulk, in the fea-language, is the fame
with unlading part of the cargo.
BREAKSPEAR (NichoLs). See Adrian IV.
BREAM, in ichthyology. See Cyprinus.
BREAST, in anatomy, denotes the fore-parts of
the thorax. See Anatomy, n° 35, 373.
Smiting the breaft is one of the expreffions of peni¬
tence.
B R E [ 1370 1 B R E
tence. In the Romifh church, the prieft beats his breaft BREATH, the air infpired and expelled again in Breath
'  he aftibn of refpiration. I!
The ancients were very watchful over the laft breath ret m‘
* Barthol.
Aft. Mel
p.171. Caft.
Lex Med.
p. 7*8.
f Cabrol. Ob-
ferv. 7.
Blaf. Com.
ad Vejling.
p. 133.
in rehearfing the general confeffion at the beginning of the aftion of refpiration
the mafs. The ancients were vei
Breasts, ox Mamnix, in anatomy. See Anatomy, of dying perfons, which the neareft relations, as the
tj° 376. mother, father, brother, or the like, received in their
The breads are ufually two; though we alfo meet mouths,
with indances of trimammix or women with three BREATHING, the fame with Respiration.
breads *, and even fome with four, all yielding milk BRECHIN, a town of Scotland, in the county of
alike f. Angus, lituated in E. Long. 2.18. N. Lat. 56. 40. It
Breast-AccL, in fhip-building, are thick pieces of confids of one large handfome dreet, and two fmaller;
timber incurvated into the form of knees, and ufed to and is feated on the fide of a fmall hill, w’aihed by the
drengthen the fore-part of the Ihip, w'here they are river Southe/k, over which there is a done-bridge of
placed at different heights dire&ly acrofs the dem, fo two large arches. At the foot of the town is a long
as to unite it with the bows on each fide. The bread- row of houfes independent of it, built on ground held
hooks are drongly conne&ed to the dem and hawfe- in feu from the family of Northefk. It is a royal
pieces by tree-nails, and by bolts driven from without borough, and, with four others, fends a member to
through the planks and hawfe-pieces, and the whole parliament. In refpedf to trade, it has only a fmall
thicknefs of the bread-hooks, upon whofe infide thofe fliare of the linen manufa&ure. It lies at no great di¬
bolts are forelocked or clinched upon rings. They are dance from the harbour of Montrofe: and the tide
ufually about one-third thicker, and twice as long, as flows within two miles of the town; to which a canal
the knees of the decks they fupport. might be made, which perhaps might create a trade,
Breast-P/^, in antiquity, a piece of armour worn but would be of certain fervice in conveying down the
to defend the bread, originally believed to be made of corn of the country for exportation.
hides, or hemp twided into fmall cords, but afterwards Brechin was a rich and ancient bifhopric founded by Pennant’s
made of brafs, iron, or other metals, which were fome- David I. about the year 1150. At the Reformation, Tour inScct*
times fo exquifitely hardened, as to be proof againd its revenues, in money and in kind, amounted to 700I. lani'
the greated force. a-year; but, after that event, were reduced to 150I.
BaEAST-P/tf/e, in Jewidi antiquity, one part of the chiefly by the alienation of lands and tythes by Alex-
priedly vcdments anciently worn by the high-prieds. It ander Campbell, the fird Protcdant bifliop, to his
was a folded piece of the fame rich embroidered duff of chieftain the earl of Argyle.—The Culdees had a con-
which the ephod was made : and it was fet with twelve vent here. Their abbot Leod was witnefs to the grant
precious dones, on each of which was engraven the made by king David to his new abbey of Dunferm-
name of the tribes. They were fet in four rows, three in line. In after times, they gave way to the Mathurines
each row; and were divided from each other by the little or Red Friars. The ruins of their houfe, according to
golden fquares or partitions in which they were fet. Maitland, are dill to be feen in the College Wynd.—
The names of thefe dones, and that of the tribes en- Here was likewife an hofpital called Maifon de Dieu,
graven on them, as alfo their difpofition on the bread- founded in 1256, by William de Brechin, for the re-
plate,
s follows.
pofe of the fouls of the kings William and Alexander;
of John earl of Cheder, and of Huntingdon his bro¬
ther ; of Henry his father, and Juliana his mother.
1 K ' ! B I I 'vt-ah. | | wap. [ [/.ebulun. | Albinus bifliop of Brechin, in the reign of Alexan-
         der II. was witnefs to the grant. By the walls which
I s/m eon I I Dan ' ! -AshTr I JosYph I are Yet landing, behind the wed end of the chief
1 J   —        :— dreet, it appears to have been an elegant little building.
j Carbuncle. I j Diamond, j I Amethyjt. 1 i Jafper. j The cathedral is a Gothic pile, fupported by 12 pil-
| Revi I [nTaphthali [ Ifss.achar i (Ken jamin. [ lars; is in length 166 feet, in breadth 61: part is ruin¬
ous, and part ferves as the parifh-church. The wed end
This bread-plate was fadened at the four corners; of one of the ailes is entire : its door is Gothic, and the
thofe on the top to each flioulder by a golden hook or arch confids of many mouldings; the window of it neat
ring at the end of a wreathen chain ; and thofe below, tracery. The deeple is a handfome tower, 120 feet
to the girdle of the ephod, by two drings or ribbons, high ; the four lower windows in form of long narrow
which had likewife two rings and hooks. openings ; the belfry windows adorned with that fpe-
This ornament was never to be fevered from the cies of opening called the quatrefoil: the top battle-
priedly garment; and it was called the memorial, to mented, out of which rifes a handfome fpire.—At a
put the high-pried in mind how dear thofe tribes ought fmall didance from the aile dands one of thofe Angular
to be to him, whofe names he wore on his bread. It round towers whofe ufe has fo long baffled the conjec-
is alfo called the breajl-plate of judgment, becaufe it tures of antiquaries. Thefe towers appear to have been
had the divine oracle of Urim and Thutnmbn annexed peculiar to North-Britain and Ireland : in the lad they
to it. See Urim andThummim. are frequent; in the former, only two at this time ex-
BREAST-P/a/e, in the menage, the drap of leather id. That at Brechin dood originally detached from
that runs from one fide of the faddle to the other, over other buildings. It is at prefent joined near the bottom
the horfe’s bread, in order to keep the faddle tight, and by a low additional aile to the church, which takes in
hinder it from Hiding backwards. about a fixth of its circumference. From this aile there
BREAST-fPeri, in fortification, the fame with Pa- is an entrance into it of modern date, approachable by
rapet. a few deps, for the ufe of the ringers : two handfome
bells
B R E [ 1371 ] B R E
Brechin, bells are placed in it, which are got at by means of fix
ladders placed on wooden femicircular floors, each reft-
ing on the circular abutments withinfide of the tower.
The height from the ground to the roof is 80 feet; the
inner diameter, within a few feet of the bottom, is 8
feet; the thicknefs of the wall at that part, 7 feet 2
inches; fo that the whole diameter is ry feet 2 inches;
the circumference very near 48 feet; the inner diame¬
ter at top is 7 feet 8 inches ; the thicknefs of the walls,
4 feet 6 inches; the circumference, 38 feet 8 inches :
which proportion gives the building an inexpreffible
elegance: the top is roofed with an oftagonal fpire
23 feet high, which makes the whole 103. In this fpire
are four windows placed alternate on the fides, refting
on the top of the tower; near the top of the tower are
four others facing the four cardinal points : near the
bottom are two arches, one within another, in relief^
on the top of the outmoft is a crucifixion : between the
mouldings of the outmoll and inner are two figures; one
of the Virgin Mary ; the other of St John, the cup,
and lamb. On each corner of the bottom of this arch
is a figure of certain beafts; one poffibly the Caledo¬
nian bear; and the other, with a long fnout, the boar.
The ftone-work within the inner arch has a fmall flit or
jeep-hole, but without the appearance of there having
seen a door within any modern period : yet there might
have been one originally ; for the filling up confifts of
larger ftones than the reft of this curious rotund. The
whole is built with moft elegant mafonry, which Mr
Gough obferved to be compofed of 60 courfes.—This
tower hath often been obferved to vibrate with, a high
wind.
The learned among the antiquaries are greatly divi¬
ded concerning the ui’e, as well as the founders, of thefe
buildings. Some think them Pi&ifti, probably becaufe
there is one at Abernethy the ancient feat of that na¬
tion ; and others call them Danifti, becaufe it was a
cuftom of the Danes to give an alarm in time of dan¬
ger from high places. But the manner and fimplicity
of building, in early times, of both thefe nations, was
fuch as to fuperfede that notion: befides, there are fo
many fpecimens left of their architecture, as tend at
once to difprove any conjefture of that kind: the He¬
brides, Caithnefs, and Rofs-lhire, exhibit relics of their
buildings totally different. They could not be defign-
ed.as belfries, as they are placed near the fteeples of
churches, infinitely more commodious for that end ;
nor places of alarm, as they are often ereCted in fitua-
tions unfit for that purpofe. The moft probable opi-
, nion therefore feems to be that of the late Mr Peter
Collinfon, viz. that they were Incluforia ; et artti in-
■cluferii ergajiula, the prifons of narrow inclofures: that
they were ufed for the confinement of penitents ; fome
perhaps conftrained, others voluntary, Dunchad 0 Bra-
oin being faid to have retired to fuch a prifon, where
he died A. D. 9S7. The penitents were placed in the
upper ftory: after undergoing their term of probation,
they were fuffered to defcend to the next; after that,
they took a fecond ftep, till at length, the time of pu¬
rification being fulfilled, they were releafed and received
again into the bofom of the church. Mr Collinfon
fays that they were built in the 10th and 11th centuries.
The religious were in thefe days the beft architects,
and religious architecture the beft of any. Ireland be¬
ing the land of fanftity, Patria Sanflorum, the people
of that country might be the original inventors of thefe Brechin
towers of mortification. They abound there; and, in
all probability, might be brought into Scotland by 1.
fome of thofe holy men who difperfed themfelves to all
parts of Chriftendom to reform mankind.
The caftle of Brechin was built on an eminence, a
little fouth of the town ; but no veftige of it is now
left. It underwent a long fiege in the year 1303 ; was
gallantly defended againft the Englifh under Ed¬
ward III.; and, notwithllanding all the efforts of that
potent prince, the brave governor Sir Thomas Maule,
anceftor of the prefent earl of Panmure, held out this
fmall fortrefs for 20 days, till he was flain by a ftone
call from an engine on the 20th of Auguft, when the
place was inftantly furrendered.—Brechin is alfo re¬
markable for a battle fought near it, in confequence of
the rebellion raifed in 1452, on account of the murder
of the earl of Douglas in Stirling caftle. The victory
fell to the royalifts under the earl of Huntly. The
malecontents were headed by the earl of Crawford,
who, retiring to his caftle of Finhaven, in the frenzy | m
of difgrace declared, that he would willingly pafs feven
years in hell, to obtain the glory which fell to the {hare
of his antagonift.
BRECKNOCK, or Brecon, a town of Brecknock-
fhire in Wales, and capital of the county. It is called
by the Welch Aber-Hondey, and is feated at the con¬
fluence of the rivers Hondey and Ulk, over which there
is a handfome ftone bridge. It is an ancient place,
containing three churches, one of which is collegiate,
and is feated at the weft end of the town. The houfes
are well built. Here was formerly a ftately caftle, and a
ftrong wall, through which there were three gates, that
are all demolilhed. It fends one member to parliament.
It is well inhabited, which is in fome meafure owing to
its being the town where the aflizes are kept; and there
is here a confiderable woollen-manufaCtory. The mar¬
kets are well fupplied with cattle, corn, and provilions.
W. Long. 3. 15. N. Lat. 52. o.
BRECKNOCKSHIRE, a county of Wales, bound¬
ed by Radnorfhire, on the north ; Cardiganftiire and
Caermarthenfliire, on the weft ; Herefordftiire and Mon-
mouthftiire, on the eaft ; and by GJamorganfhire and
Monmouthfhire, on the fouth. It is 35 miles in length, 30
in breadth, and about 100 in circumference. It is fur-
rounded with hills, which render the air in the valleys
pretty temperate. The foil on the hills is very ftony,
but the ftreams defcending from thence into the valleys
render them fruitful both in corn and grafs. The chief
commodities here are corn, cattle, fifh, and otter’s fur,
befides manufactures of cloth and ftockings. The prin¬
cipal rivers are the Ulk, the Wye, and the Yrvon. The
chief towns are Brecknock, Bealt, and Hay.
Two miles to the eaft of Brecknock is a large lake,
called Brecknock Meer, and by the Welch Lbyn Sa-
vaddan; it is two miles in length, and nearly the fame
in breadth. It contains plenty of otters, tench, perch,
and eels. The county fends one member to parliament.
It is in the diocefe of Landaff, and contains 61 parilhes,
and is divided into fix hundreds.
BREDA, a town in Holland, the capital of Dutch
Brabant. It is a large, populous, well-built city, regu¬
larly fortified after the modern way, and is one of the
ftrongeft places on the Dutch frontiers. It is feated
on the river Meek, in a marftiy country, which may be
overflowed
B R E [ 1373 ] B R E
Breech overflowed and rendered inacceflible to an army. It is rejoice in a£ts of civility, to feek out obje&s of com- Breeding
II 4000 paces in circumference, and contains upwards of paffion, and to be pleafed with every occalion of doing II
Breeding. houfes. It is not very well built, but has one them good offices. Lord Shafteftniry compares the ~,res<:n "b
handfome llreet. The town is of a triangular figure, well-bred man with the real philofopher: both charac-
and the ramparts are all planted round with elms. At ters aim at what is excellent, afpire to a juft tafte, and
every angle there is a gate built with brick. The cur- carry in view the model of what is beautiful and beco-
tains are^flanked with 15 baftions, planted with cannon, ming. The conduct and manners of the one is formed
and by 15 ravelins. The great church is a noble ftruc- according to the moll perfeft eafe, and good entertain-
ture, remarkable for its fine fpire, which is 362 feet ment of company ; of the other, according to the ftriA-
high. The maufoleum of Angelbert II. count ofNaf- eft intereft of mankind; the one according to his rank
fau, is a curious piece adorned with feveral ftatues and and quality in his private ftation, the other according
inferiptions fuitable to the occafion. In 1577, the to his rank and dignity in nature. Horace feems to
garrifon delivered this city to the States-general ; but have united both charafters,
ft was retaken in 1 e81, by Cloude de Barlaimont, af- ^ <iaens “ r°Z°> “ a™™ >'« he fom. -
filled by the baron de Frefin, who was prifoner therein.
In 1590, prince Maurice took it again from the Spa¬
niards ; but Spinola became mailer of it in 1625, after
a liege of fix months. It was retaken by the prince of
Orange, for the United Provinces, in 1637. There
was a congrefs held here, and peace concluded, in 1667,
between the Dutch and the Englifh. £. Long. 4. 45.
N. Lat. 51. 35.
BREECH of a great gun, or cannon, the end next
the touch-hole.
BREECHES, a garment worn by males, reaching
from the girdle to the knees, and ferving to cover the
hips, thighs, &c.
The ancient Romans had nothing in their drefs an-
fwering to our breechesand ftockings ; inftead of which,
under their lower tunics and waillcoats, they fometimes
bound their thighs and legs round with fiiken fcarves
or fafeias, called tibialia and femoralia. Breeches ap¬
pear to be a habit peculiar to the barbarous nations,
cfpecially thofe inhabiting the colder countries of the
north; whence Tacitus calls them barbarum tegmen.
We find mention made of them among the ancient
Getas, Sarmatas, Gauls, Germans, and Britons; they
alfo obtained among the Medes and Perfians, as being
a people of Scythian origin: they alfo afterwards got
footing in Italy, fome pretend as early as the time of
Auguftus ; but without much foundation, that empe¬
ror’s breeches, mentioned by Suetonius, being appa¬
rently only fwaths tied over his thighs. However this
be, breeches were at laft received into Italy, and grew
fo highly into fafhion, that it was thought ueceflary un¬
der Honorius and Arcadius, to reftrain them by law,
and expel the bracarii or breeches-makers out of the
city; it being thought unworthy of a nation that com¬
manded the world, to wear the apparel of barbarians.
BREECHINGS, in the fea-language, the ropes
with which the great guns are lathed or. faftened to the
fhip’s fide. They are thus called, becaufe made to pafs
round the breech of the gun.
BREEDING, in a general fenfe, the producing,
nourilhing, and educating all manner of young animals.
Brekding, in a moral fenfe, denotes a perfon’s de¬
portment or behaviour in the external offices and deco¬
rums of focial life. In this fenfe we fay nvell-bred, ill-
bred, a man of breeding, &c. Good-breeding is hard
to define; none can underftand the fpeculation but thofe
who have the practice. Good-breeding amounts to
much the fame with what is otherwife called politenefs,
among the ancient Romans urbanity. Good-breeding
is near to virtue, and will of itfelf lead a man a great
part of the way towards the fame. It teaches him to
See the article GcW-Manners.
Breeding of Horfese See Equus.
Breeding of Fijh. The neceflary qualities of a pond,
to make it ferve well for breeding filh, are very differ¬
ent from thofe which are to make it ferve for the feed¬
ing of them, infomuch that fome particular ponds ferve
only for one of thefe purpofes, and others' for the o-
ther ; and fcarce ever the fame pond is found to an-
fwer for them both. In general, it is much more rare
to find a good breeding pond than a good feeding one.
The bell indications for a good breeding pond are thefe;
that there be a good quantity of rulhes and grafs about
its fides, with gravelly {hoals,.fuch as horfe-ponds ufu-
ally have: when a pond has this property, and takes to
the breeding of filh, it is amazing what a progrefswill
be made in a little time. The fpawn of filh is prodi¬
gious in quantity; and where it fucceeds, one is able
to produce many millions : thus, in one of thefe breed¬
ing ponds, two or three melters, and as many fpawners,
will, in a very little time, flock the whole country.
When thefe ponds are not meant entirely for breeding,
but the owner would have the filh to grow to fome fize
in them, the method is to thin the numbers, btcaufe
they would otherwife ftarve one another, and to put in
other filh that will prey upon the young, and thin them
in the quickeft manner. Eels and perch are the moll
ufeful on this account; becaufe they prey not only up¬
on the fpawn itfelf, but upon the young fry from the
firft hatching to the time they are of a confiderable fize.
Some filh are obferved to breed indifferently in all kinds
of waters, and that in confiderable plenty; of this na¬
ture are the roach, pike, and perch.
BREEZE, a Ihifting wind that blows from fea or
land for fonoe certain hours in the day or night; com¬
mon in Africa and fome parts of the Eall and Weft
Indies.
Breezes differ from etefee or trade-winds, as the for¬
mer are diurnal, or have their periods each day; and
the latter are anniverfary, and blow at a diltance from
land. The fea-breezes rule by day, and the land-breezes
by night; fo that, dividing their empire, they remain
conftant as the feafons of the year, or courfe of the fun,
on which they feem to depend: not but that they ap¬
pear fooner or later, ftronger or weaker, in fome places
than in others; and vary the alternative according to the
feveral latitudes, fituations, and foils, &c. of the coun¬
tries where they are found. See the article Wind.
BREEZE-iTy. See Tabanus.
BREGENTZ, or Bergentz, a town of Tyrol in
Germany, fituated a’t the call end of the lake of Gon-
ftance, in E. Long. 9. 40. N. Lat. 47. 36.
BREGMA,
Bregma
B R E [ 1373 ] B R E
BREGMA, in anatomy, the fame with finciput f. afterwards fold to the king of Great Britain, as elcc-
BREHONS, the provincial judges among the an- tor of Hanover, in 1716. In the winter it is fubjett
cient Iri<h, by whom juftice was adminiftered, and con- to inundations. In 1617, on Chriftmas-day, feveral.ll
troverfies decided. Thefe fages were a diftinfl tribe or thoufand cattle were drowned, befides feveral hundred
omy, n° p, family, to whom competent lands were allowed in in- of men ; and the country was fo covered with water,
heritance. In criminal cafes the brehon had the eleventh that it has coft immenfe fums to repair the dykes. Bre-
part of all the fines; which could not but be confider- men is the capital town.
able at a time when murders, rapes, robberies, and the Bremen-I'Vi?^, a town of Germany, in the circle of
like offences, were only fubjeft to pecuniary commuta- lower Saxony, and duchy of Bremen. It is an open
tions. town, feated on the river Ooft, and was formerly the
BREHON-Ztf<u\r, or Leges Brehonicx, denote the place of refidence of the archbi/hop. E. Long. 8. 35.
general maxims or rules of law obferved by the bre- N. Lat. 53. 58.
hons, and having the force of laws throughout all the BRENNUS, a celebrated captain among the Gauls,
provinces of Ireland. Several fragments of the leges who, about 388 years before the Chriftian asra, entered
are ftill extant in public and private libraries. Italy with a powerful army; made great conquefts
The moll complete colle&ion is that belonging to the there; defeated the Romans; and facked Rome. The
duke of Chandos ; containing 224-fheets elofe written, capitol alone was defended; and Camillus coming to its
full of abbreviated words, and not very legible. By relief, drove the Gauls not only out of Rome, but out
the ftatute of Kilkenny, made under Edward III. it is of all Italy. See (Hijlory of) Rome.
ena&ed that no Englifh fubjeft fhall fubmit to a trial BRENT, a town of Devonfhire, with a market on
bythe law, on the penalty of high treafon. Not- Saturdays, and two fairs, on May 13th and Odtober io^,
withftanding which, many were flill under a neceflity for horned cattle. It is but a fmall place, and lies on
of being concluded by the Irilh laws and cuftoms, till the road from Exeter to Plymouth, being 26 miles
the whole kingdom was fettled on an Englifh bottom fouth-w’eft from the former, and 198 weft-by-fouth of
by king James I. London. W. Long. 5. 7. N. Lat. 50. 30.
BREHAR, one of the Scilly iflands, lying almoft Brent Goofe, a fpecies of goofe with a black neck,
dire&ly weft of the land’s end in Cornwall, about the and a white collar round; ufually confounded with the
diftance of 30 miles. It lies between the ifles of Mi- barnacle, tho’ in reality a diftinft fpecies. See Anas.
carlo, Guel, Trefcaw, and Samfon. It is the rougheft BRENTFORD, a town of Middlefex, in the great
and moft mountainous of them all, and not many years London road to the weft. It is divided into old and
fince there were only two families in it, but now there new Brentford, in which laft are the church and mar-
are 13. There are a few poor houfes, called the town ket-houfe. It is a long place, well flocked with pub-
of Brehar; and there are feveral barrows edged with lie houfes, and is feated on the river Thames, in W.
ftone, in which they buried confiderable perfons in an- Long. o. 10. N. Lat. 51. 26.
cient times ; befides many monuments of the druids. BRENTWOOD, or Burntwood, a town of Eflex
Some are of opinion, that this with the reft made but in England; it Hands on a rifing ground in the road
one ifland, which is the reafon why fo many antiquities from London to Colchefter, and has feveral good inns,
are now found in moft of them. E. Long. o. 25. N. Lat. 51. 38.
BREMEGARTON, a handfome and pretty confi- BREREWOOD (Edward), a very learned Englifh
derable town of Swiflerland, in the territory of Fyen- mathematician and antiquary, was the fon of Robert
Aempter, between the cantons of Zurich and Bern. Brerewood a tradefman, who was thrice mayor of Chef-
The inhabitants deal chiefly in paper; and their reli- ter; and born in that city in the }'ear 1565. He was
gion is the Roman-catholic. It is divided into the educated in grammar learning at the free fchool in Chef-
upper and lower towns, and is very advantageoufly ter; and afterwards admitted, in 1581, of Brazen-nofe-
feated on the river Rufs. E. Long. 8. 25. N. Lat. college in Oxford. In the year 1596, he became the
47. 20. firft profefibr of aftronomy in Grelham-college in Lon-
BREMEN, a large, populous, and very ftrong town don ; where he led the fame private and retired courfe
of Germany, capital of a duchy of the fame name, with of life that he had before done in Oxford. He died
an archbifhop’s fee, fecularized in favour of the Swedes, there of a fever, upon the 4th of November 1613, much
but now belongs to the eleftor of Hanover. The river lamented. He was a great fearcher into antiquity and
Wefer runs through the middle, and divides it into the curious knowledge ; but is remarkable for having ne-
cld and new town. In September 1739, while the inha- ver publiftied any thing during his lifetime. After his
bitants were afleep, the magazine of powder was fet on death came out the following works. 1. De ponderibus
fire by lightning; and all the houfes were ftiook, as if et pretiis veterum nummorum. 2. Inquiries touching
there had been a violent earthquake, which threw them the diverfities of languages and religion through the
into a terrible confternation. This town is divided into chief parts of the world. 3. Elementa logic# in gra-
four quarters, each of which has a burgomafter; and tiam ftudiof# juventutis in Acad. Oxon. 4. Trattatus
in the middle there is a large market-place, with the quidam logici. 5. 6. Two treatifes on the Sabbath.,
ftatue of Rolando. E. Long. 8. 45. N. Lat. 53. 40. 7. Trattatus duo, quorum primus ejl de meteoris, fecun-
Bremen, a duchy of Germany, in the province of dus de oculo. 8. Commemarii in ethica Ariftotelis. Me
lower Saxony, lying between the rivers Wefer and the Wood tells us, that the original manufeript of this,
Elbe; of which the former feparates it from the duchy written with his own hand, is in the fmalleft and neateft,
of Oldenburg, and the other from that of Holftein. charadlers that his eyes ever beheld; and that it was fi-
The air is cold; but the country is fertile, and well nifhed by him on the 27th of O&ober 1586. 9. Patri-
peopled. It formerly belonged to the Swedes, but was archal government of the ancient church.
Von. II. 8 L BRESCIA,
B R E [ 1374 J B R E
Brefda BRESCIA, a ftrong and handfome town of Italy,
I! with a bifhop’s fee and a good citadel. It is the eapi-
Br£(re‘ tal of Brefciano in the territory of Venice, and is feated
in an agreeable plain on the river Garza, in E. Long.
10. 5. N. Lat. 45. 31.
BRESCIANO, a province of Italy in the territory
of Venice; bounded on the north, by the Grifons and
the bifhopric of Trent; on the eaft, by the lake Garda,
the Veronefe, and the duchy of Mantua; on the fouth,
by the duchy of Mantua and the Cremonefe; and on
the w^ft, by the Cremafco, the Burgomafco, and the
Valtelina. It is watered by feveral 1'mall rivers, which
render it very fertile; and is full of towns and villages,
of which Brefcia is the capital.
BRESELLO, a fmall town of Italy, in the duchy
of Modena, feated on the river Po, in E. Long. jo. 25.
N. Lat. 44. 55.
BRESCICATE, in commerce, a kind of bays, of
which there is fome trade carried on with the negroes,
between the river Gambia and Sierra Leona. The belt
forts for that purpofe are the blue and the red.
BRESLAU, a fmall duchy of lower Silefia in Ger¬
many, lying between thofe of Wolaw, OlfTe, Bneg,
Schwednitz, and Lignitz. It is every where level and
flat; is an excellent corn country, yielding alfo good
pafture ; abounding alfo with herds of cattle and flocks
of (heep; but deftitute of wood, except in one diitrift
or circle; and the roads in general are very bad. It is
an immediate principality, that is, one of which both
the property and jurifdi&ion belong to the king, form¬
ing a part of one of the three bailiwics into which all
the immediate principalities are divided.
Breslau, the chief town of the duchy of that name,
and of all Silefia, is fitnated at the conflux of the Ci¬
der and Ohlau, in E. Long. 17. 5. N. Lat. 51.4. In¬
cluding the fuburbs, it is of great extent; having many
large regular fquares, broad ftreets, ftately public and
private edifices ; but the fortifications are of no great
importance. Here are in particular a great many
churches and convents belonging to the catholics; of
the former arc feveral alfo belonging to the Lutherans,
one to the Calvinifts, and another to the Greeks. The
Jews have likewife two fynagogues, the bifhop a ftately
palace, and the Lutherans two gymnafiums. The Po
pifti univerfity is a noble ftru&ure, nor is the exchange
rleftitute of magnificence. This city is the feat of all the
high colleges; and the third in rank, next to Berlin
and Koniglberg, in all the Pruffian dominions. The
magiftracy of it is Lutheran, and its trade and manu-
faftures are very confiderable. Several of the monafte-
ries and nunneries are very magnificent; and there are
alfo fome good public libraries in it, with two armou¬
ries, a college of phyficians, and a mint. Breflau is
very populous, and much frequented by Hungarian,
Bohemian, Polifti, and other merchants, having feveral
yearly fairs. The city was taken by the king of Prufiia
in 1741, and retaken by the Auftrians in 1757; but
the king of Pruflia took it back again the fame year,
and gained a fignal viftory over the Auftrians at Leu-
then, a village not far from the capital.
BRESSE, a province of France, bounded on the
north, by Burgundy and the Tranche Compte; on the
eaft, by Savoy; on the fouth, by Viennois; on the weft,
by the principality of Dombes and the Somme. It is
40 miles from north to fouth, and 23 from eaft to weft.
It is fertile in corn and hemp, has fine paftures, and Breflicl
feveral lakes with plenty of fi(h. It is divided into the BJet
higher and lower ; the firft is on the fide of Bourges, -
and the fecond towards St Trivier and the river Sonne.
The French got poflefiion of it in 1601. The princi¬
pal places are Bourgen, Brefle, Montluel, Pontde Vaux,
and Coligny\
BRESS1CI, in geography. See Breste.
BREST, a maritime town of France, in lower Brit¬
tany, feated on the declivity of a hill on the fide of its
port, which is the largeft in the kingdom, and will hold
500 (hips at a time. There is an arfenal with fea-
ftores, which was placed there on account of its near-
nefs to' the woods, mines of iron, and other things pro¬
per for the building of (hips. It was entirely confumed
by fire in 1744, which was an irreparable lofs to France.
The entrance into'the port is guarded by a ftrong caftle
feated on a rock, which cannot be attempted on the
fea fide, becanfe it is craggy, and is defended on the
land fide by a large ditch and other fortifications. The
ftreets of Breft are very narrow, ill contrived, few in
number, and have all a defeent. A great quay fur-
rounds this fide of the port, which is above a-rnile in
length, and 200 paces broad; and there are magazines
on the quay full of all foreign merchandizes. On the
other fide of the port the fine church of Notre Dame is
fituated; and in a fuburb, which is as big as half the
city, there is a ftrong tower oppofite to the caftle, at
the entrance of the port; there is alfo a great quay on
this fide, bordered with large magazines, partly within
the rock, which has been cut away to enlarge the place.
Thefe are extended almoft as far as the bottom of the
harbour, where there are two docks very commodious
for the building of large (hips ; the ftiops and houfes of
the workmen are all around them: the ropewalks are
feparated from the city by one of thefe docks. The
entrance into the harbour-is called the gullet, and is a
paflage extremely difficult on account of the funk rocks
on both fides of the ihore ; but there are experienced
pilots who carry fhips in very fafely. The Englifti at¬
tempted to take pofleffion of this harbour in 1694, but
were dilappointed. W Long. 4. 26. N. Lat. 48. 23.
Brest, or Breajl, in architecture, a term fometimes
ufed for the member of a column, more ufually called
torus. See Torus.
l&Kf.sT - Summers, in tjmber buildings, are pieces in
the outward thereof, into which the girders are framed:
this, in the ground-floor, is called a cell; and, in the
garret-floor, a beam.—As to their fize, it is the fame
with that of girders. See Girders.
BRESTE, the palatinate of, is one of the provinces
of Cujava, in Poland. It lies between the palatinates
of Pioelko, Rava, and Lencici Wiadiflaw. It is divi¬
ded into four chatelanies, and Brefte is the capital of
the whole.
Breste, or Brefici, the capital of the palatinate of
Breffici, and of Polefia, in Poland, feated on the river
Bog, 80 miles eaft of Warfaw, and fubjedl to'Poland.
It is a fortified town, and has a caftle built upon a rock.
Here is a famous fynagogue, reforted to by the Jews
from all the countries in Europe. E. Long. 24. o. N.
Lat. 41. 35.
BRET, a name the people on the coafts of Lincoln-
Ihire give to the common turbot, a fifh extremely plen¬
tiful with them, and taken in vaft abundance. The way
of
B R E [ 1375 ] B R E
BretelFe, of catching them is in a net trailed on the ground by
Breton' two horfes ; the one going up to the middle of his body
in water, the other on fhore.
BRETESSE, in heraldry, denotes a line embattled
on both fides.
BRETON, or Cap£-Breton, an ifland near the
eaftern continent of North America, lying between 45
and 47 degrees pf north latitude. It is feparated from
Nova Scotia by a narrow (trait called Canfo> and is a-
bout too miles in length and 50 in breadth. It is fur-
rounded with little (harp-pointed rocks, feparated from
each other by the waves, above which fome of their tops
are vifible. All its habours are open to the eaft, turn¬
ing towards the fouth. On the other parts of the coaft
there are but a few anchoring places for fmall veffels, in
creeks, or between idets. Except in the hilly parts,
the furiace of the country has but little folidity, being
every where covered with a light mofs, and( with water.
The dampnefs of the foil is exhaled in fogs, without
rendering the air unwholefome. In other refpeds, the
climate is very cold; owing either to the prodigious
quantity of lakes, which cover above half the ifland,
and remain frozen a long time; or to the number of fo-
retts, that totally intercept the rays of the fun ; the
effed of which is befides decreafed by perpetual clouds.
Tho’ fome fifliermen had long reforted to this ifland
every fummer, not more than 20 or 30 had ever fixed
there. The French, who took pofltffion of it in Auguft
1713, were properly the firft inhabitants. They chan¬
ged its name into that of IJle Royale, and fixed upon
Fort Dauphin for their principal fettlement. This har¬
bour was two leagues in circumference. The (hips came
to the very (hore, and were (heltered from winds. Fo-
refts affording oak fufficient to fortify and build a large
city, were near at hasd; the ground appeared lefs bar¬
ren than in other parts, and the fifhery was more plen¬
tiful. This harbour might have been rendered impreg¬
nable at a trifling expence ; but the difficulty of ap¬
proaching it (a circumftance that had at firil made a
(tronger impreffion than the advantages refulting from
it) occafioned it to be abandoned, after great labour
had been bellowed upon the undertaking. They then
turned their views to Louiflsourg, the accefs to which
was eafier; and convenience was thus preferred to fecu-
rity: the fortification of Louilbourg, however, was not
begun till 1720.
In the year 1714, fome fifliermen, who till then had
lived in Newfoundland, fettled in this ifland. It was
expedled that their number would foon have been in-
creafed by the Acadians, who were at liberty, from the
treaties that had been granted them, to remove with
all their efttfls, and even to difpofe of their ellates; but
thefe hopes were difappointed. The Acadians chofe
rather to retain their poffefiions under the dominion of
Britain, than to give them up for any precarious ad¬
vantage they might derive from their attachment to
France. Their place was fupplied by fome diftreffed
adventurers from Europe, who came over from time to
time to Cape Breton, and the number of inhabitants
gradually increafed to 4000. They were fettled at
Eouifburg, Fort Dauphin, Port Touloufe, Nerucka,
and on all the coails where they found a proper beach
for drying the cod. The inhabitants never applied
themftlves to agriculture, the foil being unfit for it.
They often fowed corn, but it feldom came to matu¬
rity; and when it did thrive fo much as to be worth Breton.
reaping, it had degenerated fo confiderably, that it was 
not fit for feed for the next harveft. They have only
continued to plant a few pot-herbs that are tolerably
well tailed, but mud be renewed every year from a-
broad. The poornefs and fcarcity of paftures has like-
wife prevented the increafe of cattle. In a word, the
foil of Cape Breton feemed calculated to invite none
but fifliermen and foldiers. .
Though the ifland was entirely covered with forefts
before it was inhabited, its wood has fcarce ever been
an objedl of trade. A great quantity, however, of foft
wood was found there fit for firing, and fome that might
be ufed for timber; but the oak has always been fcarce,
and the fir never yielded much refin. The peltry trade
was a very inconfiderable objedl. It confided only in
the (kins of a few lynxes, elks, muik-rats, wild cats,
bears, otters, and foxes both of a red and filver-grey
colour. Some of thefe were procured from a colony of
Mickmac Indians who had fettled on the ifland with
the French, and never could raife more than 60 men
able to bear arms. The red came from St John’s, or
the neighbouring continent. Greater advantages might
pofiibly have been derived from the coal-mines which
abound in the ifland. They lie in a horizontal direc¬
tion ; and being no more than fix or eight feet below
the furface, may be worked without digging deep, or
draining off the waters. Notwithdanding the prodigi¬
ous demand for this coal from New England, from the
year 1745 to 1749, thefe mines would probably have
been forfaken, had not the (hips which were fent out
to the French iflands wanted ballad. In one of thefe
mines a fire has been kindled, which could never yet be
extinguiflied.
The people of Cape Breton did not fend all their fi(h
to'Europe. They fent part of it to the French fouthern
iflands, on board 20 or 25 (hips from 70 to 140 tuns
burden. Befides the cod, which made at lead half
their cargo, they exported to the other colonies tim¬
ber, planks, thin oak-boards, faked falmon and mac-
keril, train-oil, and fea-coal. All thefe were paid for
in fugar and coffee, but chiefly in rum and molaffes.
The ifland could not confume all thefe commodities.
Canada took off but a fmall part of the overplus ; it
was chiefly bought by the people of New England, who
gave in exchange fruits, vegetables, wood, brick, and
cattle. This trade of exchange was allowed; but a
fmuggling trade was added to it, carried on in flour,
and fait fifli.
This ifland, the key of Canada, was attacked by the
Englifh in 1745 ; and the event is of fo Angular a na¬
ture, that it deferves a particular detail. The plan of
this firft invafion was laid at Bofton, and New England
bore the expence of it. A merchant named Pepperel,
who had excited, encouraged, and direfled the enter-
prize, was intruded with the command of an army of
6000 men, which had been levied for this expedition.
Though thefe forces, convoyed by a fquadron from
Jamaica, brought the firfl news to Cape Breton of the
danger that threatened it; though the advantage of a
iurprife would have fecured the landing without oppo-
fition; though they had but 600 regular troops to en¬
counter, and 800 inhabitants haflily armed; the fuc-
cefs of the undertaking was dill precarious. What
great exploits, indeed, could be expelled from a militia
8 L 2 fud-
B R E [ 13
Breton, fuddenly aflembled, who had never feen a fiege or faced
an enemy, and were to aft under the direftion of fea-
officers only. Thefe unexperienced troops flood in need
of the afiillance of fonae fortunate incident, which they
were indeed favoured with in a Angular manner.
The conftruflion and repairs of the fortifications had
always been left to the care of the garrifon of Louifbourg.
The foldiers were eager of being employed in thefe
works, which they confidered as conducive to their
fafety, and as the means of procuring them a comfort¬
able fubfiflence. When they found that thofe who were
to have paid them, appropriated to themfelves the profit
of their labours, they demanded piftice. It was denied
them, and they determined to aifert their right. As
thefe depredations had been (hared between the chief
perfons of the colony and the fubaltern officers, the fol¬
diers could obtain no redrefs. Their indignation againft
thefe rapacious extortioners rofe to fuch a height, that
they defpifed all authority. They had lived in open
rebellion for'fix months, when the Britifh appeared be¬
fore the place.
This was the time to conciliate the minds of both
parties, and to unite in the common caufe. The fol¬
diers made the firfl advances ; but their commanders
miflrufted a generofity of which they themfelves were
incapable. It was firmly believed that the foldiers were
only defirous of fallying out, that they might have an
opportunity of deferting ; and their own officers kept
them in a manner prifoners, till a defence fo ill-mana¬
ged had reduced them to the neceffity of capitulating.*
The whole ifland fhared the fate of Louifoourg, its only
bulwark.
This valuable poffeffion, reflored to France by the
treaty of Aix la Chapelle, was again attacked by the
Britifh in 1758. On the 2d of June, a fleet of 23 (hips
of the line and 18 frigates, carrying 16,000 well difci-
plined troops, anchored in Gabarus bay, within half a
league of Louifbourg. As it was evident it would be to
po purpofe to land at a great diflance, becaufe it would
be impoffible to bring up the artillery and other necef-
faries for a confiderable fiege, it had been attempted to
render the landing impra&icable near the town. In the
prudent precautions that had been taken, the befiegers
law the dangers and difficulties they had to expect; but,
far from being deterred by them, they had recourfe to
llratagem, and while by extending their line they
threatened and commanded the whole coaft, they land¬
ed by force of arms at the creek of Cormorant.
This place was naturally weak. The French had for¬
tified it with a good parapet planted with cannon. Be¬
hind this rampart they had polled 2000 excellent fol¬
diers and fome Indians. In front they had made fuch
a clofe hedge with branches of trees, that would have
been very difficult to penetrate, even if it had not been
defended. This kind of pallifade, which concealed all
the preparations for defence, appeared at a diflance to
be nothing more than a verdant plain.
This would have preferved the colony, had the affail-
ants been fuffered to complete their landing, and to ad¬
vance with the confidence that they had but few ob-
llacles to furmount. Had this been the cafe, over¬
powered at once by the fire of the artillery and the fmall
arms, they would infallibly have perilhed on the ffiore,
or in the hurry of embarking; efpecially as the fea was
Juft then very rough. This unexpected lofs might have
;6 j B R E
interrupted the whole projeft. Breton
But all the prudent precautions that had been taken, H
were rendered abortive by the impetuofity ofthe French. Breve'
The Englifh had fcarce begun to move towards the
fhore, when their enemies haflened to difcover the fnare
they had laid for them. By the brifk and hafly fire
that was aimed at their boats, and ftill more by the pre¬
mature removal of the boughs that maiked the forces,
which it was io much the interefl of the French to con¬
ceal, they gueffed at the danger they were going to
rufh into. They immediately turned back, and faw no
other place to effeCl their landing but a rock, which
had been always deemed inacceffible. General Wolf,
though much taken up in reimbarking his troops, and
fending off the boats, gave the fignal to major Scot to
repair thither. That officer immediately removed to the
fpot with his men. His own boat coming up firfl, and
finking at the very inflant he was llepping out, he
climbed up the rock alone. He was in hopes of meet¬
ing with too of his men who had been fent thither fome
hours before. He found only ten. With thefe few,
however, he gained the fummit of the rock. Ten In¬
dians and 60 Frenchmen killed two of his men, and
mortally wounded three. In fpite of his weaknefs, he
flood his ground undercover of a thicket, till his brave
countrymen, regardlefs of the boiflerous waves and the
fire ofthe cannon, came up to him, and put him in full
poffeffion of that important poll, the only one that could
fecure their landing. The French, as foon as they faw
that the enemy had got a firm footing on land, betook
themfelves to the only remaining refuge, and (hut them¬
felves up in Louifbourg. The fortifications were in a
bad condition, becaufe the fea fand, which they had
been obliged to ufe, is by no means fit for works of
mafonry. The revetments of the feveral curtains were
entirely crumbled away. There was only one cafemate
and a fmall magazine that were bomb proof. The gar¬
rifon which was to defend the place confided only of
2,900 men.
Notwithftanding all thefe difadvantages, the befieged
were determined to make an obflinate refiftance. It is
fcarce credible that the French were confirmed in their
refolution by the courage of a woman. Madame de
Drucourt was continually upon the ramparts, with her
purfe in her hand; and firing herfelf three guns every
day, feemed to difpute with the governor her hufband
the glory of his office. The befieged were not difmayed
at the ill fuccefs of their feveral fallies, or the malterly
operations concerted by admiral Bofcawen apd general
Amherft. It was but at the eve of an afiault, which
it was impoffible to fuflain, that they talked of furren¬
dering. They made an honourable capitulation; and
the conqueror (hewed more refped for his enemy and
for himfelf, than to fully his glory by any a£t of bar¬
barity or avarice.
BRETTIGAW, a territory or valley of the Gri-
fons, lying between the Rhine and the county of Tyrol,
and along the river Lanquet. The fortrefs of Caflels
is the principal town.
BREVE, in law, is any writ diredled to the chan¬
cellor, judges, fheriffs, or other officers, whereby a per-
fon is fummoned, or attached, to anfwer in the king’s
court, &c.
Breve Perquirere, the purchafing of a writ or li¬
cence for trial in the king’s courts; whence comes the
prefent
B R E
Breve v prefent ufe of paying 6s. 8d. fine to the king in fuit,
Breii el ^°r money ^ue on b°nd» where the debt is 401. and of
rcl'se * 10 s. where it is look &c.
Breve de Redo, is a writ of right or licence, for a
perfon ejected, to fne for the pofleffion of the eftate
detained from him.
Breve, in mufic, a note or character of time, in the
form of a diamond or fquare, without any tail, and e-
quivalent to two meafures or minims.
BREVET, in the French cuftoms, denotes the grant
of fome favour or donation from the king; in which
fenfe it partly anfwers to our warrant, and partly to
letters-patent.
Brevet, more particularly denotes the commifiion
of a fubaltern officer, being only written on parchment,
and without feal.
BREUGEL (Peter), an eminent painter, commonly
called Old Breugel, was born at a village of the fame
name near Breda, in the year 1565; and was the firft
pupil of Peter Cock, whofe daughter he married. It
was cuftomary with him to drefs like a country-man, in
order to be more eafily admitted into the company of
country-people, and be allowed to join in their frolics,
by which means he became perfectly acquainted with
their manners and geftures, of which he made excellent
ufe in his pidtures. He travelled to France and Italy,
and for a long time ftudied landfcapes on the moun¬
tains of Tyrol. His humourous turn of mind difplayed
itfelf in all his pictures, which generally confifted of
country-dances, marriages, fports, and diverfions; tho’
he fometimes performed pieces from the hiftorical parts
of the holy Scriptures. At his return from Italy, he
fettled at Antwerp, and in his laft illnefs caufed his wife
to gather together all his immodeft pieces and burn
them before his face. He died at Antwerp ; but in
what year cannot be afcertained.—He had a fon named
Peter, who alfo diftinguilhed himfelf by his paintings;
and John, the fubjedt of the following article.
Of the works of old Breugel, the great duke of Tuf-
cany has, Chrift carrying his crofs, with a great num¬
ber of figures; and a country feaft. The emperor has
the tower of Babel, the maffacre of the Innocents, and
the converfion of St Paul, of his painting t the eledtor
Palatine, a landfcape, with St Philip baptizing queen
Candace’s eunuch; and St John preaching in the wil-
dernefs, with a great many figures.
Breugel (John), commonly called Velvet Breugel,
from his generally wearing velvet clothes, was the fon
of Peter Breugel, and born about the year 1575. He
firft applied himfelf to painting flowers and fruit, in
which he excelled; and afterwards had great fuccefs in
drawing landfcapes, and views of the fea, fet off with
fmall figures. He lived long at Cologn, where he ac¬
quired great reputation. He travelled to Italy, where
his fame had got before him; and where his fine land¬
fcapes, adorned with fmall figures fuperior to thofe of
his father, gave very great fatisfadlion. If a goodjudg-
ment may be formed from the great number of pidlures
he left behind him, all highly finiftied, he muit have
been exceedingly induftrious. Nor did he fatisfy him¬
felf with embelliftn’ng his own works only, but was very
ufeful in this refpeft to his friends. Even Rubens made
ufe of Breugel’s hand in the landfcape part of feveral
of his fmall pi&ures, fuch as his Vertumnus and Po¬
mona; the fatyr viewing the fleeping nymph; and the
B R E
terreftrial paradife, which is looked upon as his mafter-
piece; and, together with the two former, was done for
king William III. of Great Britain. He died in 1642,
in the 67th year of his age.
Several of his works are to be feen in the archbi-
fhop’s gallery at Milan ; particularly a hunting-piece
with a vaft many figures; a landfcape reprefenting a
defart, with the picture of St Hierom painted by Ce-
rano, alias Gro Baptifta Crefpi. In the Ambrofian li¬
brary are 20 pieces of this mafterly hand; particularly,
Daniel in the lion’s den, the infide of the great church
at Antwerp, the four feafons on copper, and the burn¬
ing of Gomorrha. In the poffeffion of the elector Pa¬
latine at Duffeldorp, Chrift preaching on the fea-ftiore;
a country-dance; a fea-port, with a great many fi¬
gures ; a coach and two chariots, with a multitude of
figures and animals; a landfcape, wherein Flora is
crowned by a nymph ; St John preaching in the wil-
dernefs; a fmall fea-landfcape, and feveral other pieces.
In the poffeffion of the king of France, a woman play¬
ing with a dog, the battle between Alexander and Da¬
rius, both in wood; Orpheus in hell, Sec.
BREVIARY, a daily office, or book of divine fer-
vice, in the Romiih church. It is compofed of matins,
lauds, firft, third, fixth, and ninth vefpers, and the com¬
pline, or poft communio.
The breviary of Rome is general, and may be ufed
in all places; but on the model of this various others
have been built,, appropriated to each diocefe, and each
order of religious.
The breviary of the Greeks is the fame in almoft all
churches and monafteries that follow the Greek rites:
the Greeks divide the pfalter into 20 parts. In gene¬
ral, the Greek breviary confifts of two parts;, the one
containing the office for the evening, the other that of
the morning, divided into matins, lauds, firft, third,
fixth, and ninth vefpers, and the compline; that is,.of
feven different hours, on account of that faying of Da¬
vid, Septies in die laudem dixi tibi.
The inftitution of the breviary is not very ancient;
there have been inferted in it the lives of the faints, full
of ridiculous and ill-attefted ftories,.which gave occaiion
to feveral reformations of it, by feveral councils, par¬
ticularly thofe of Trent and Cologn ; by feveral popes,
particularly Pius V. Clement VIII. and Urban VIII.;
and alfo by feveral cardinals and bifhops, each lopping
off fome extravagances, and bringing it nearer to the
fimplicity of the primitive offices. Originally, every
body was obliged to recite.the breviary every.day; but
by degrees the obligation was reduced to the clergy
only, who are enjoined, under penalty of mortal fin and
ecclefiaftical cenfures, to recite it at home, when they
cannot attend in public. In the 14th century, there was
particular referve granted in favour of biftiops, who
were allowed, on extraordinary, occafions, to pafs three
days without rehearling the breviary.
This office was originally called CM/yiri; and after¬
wards, the breviarum; which latter name imports that
the old office was abridged; or rather, that this collec¬
tion is a kind of abridgment of all the prayers.
The breviaries now in ufe are innumerable; the dif¬
ference between them confifts principally in the num¬
ber and order of the pfalms, hymns, pater-nofters, ave-
Maries, creeds, magnificates, cantemus’s, benedi&us’s,
canticamus’s, nunc dimittis’s, miferere’s, halelujah’s,
gloria-a
1 '377 1
Ereugel,
Breviary.
>378
R E W I N G.
gloria patrt’s, &c.
Brsviary, in Roman antiquity, a book firft intro¬
duced by Auguftus, containing an account of the ap¬
plication of the public money.
B REVIATOR, an officer under the eaftern empire,
whofe bulinefs it was to write and tranflate briefs.—At
Rome thofe are ftyled breviators, or abbreviators, who
dictate and draw up the pope’s briefs.
BRE'VIBUS a rotuhs liberandis, a writ or
command to a Iheriff to deliver to his fucceffor the coun¬
ty, with the appurtenances, and the rolls, writs, and
other things to his office belonging.
BREVIER, among printers, a fmall kind of type
or letter between bourgeois and minion.
BREVIUM cusros. See Gustos.
BREVORDT, a town of Guelderland, in the Uni¬
ted Netherlands, fituated in E. Long. 6. 35. N. Lat.
52°.
BREWER (Anthony), a dramatic poet who flou-
rilhed in the reign of king Charles I. and appears to
have been held in high eftimation by the wits of that
time, as may be more particularly gathered from an ele¬
gant compliment paid to him in a poem called Steps to
Parnajfus, wherein he is fuppofed to have a magic
power to call the mufes to his affiftance, and is even
let on an equality with the immortal Shakefpeare him-
felf. There are, however, great difputes among the fe-
veral writers as to the number of his works. Thofe
which have been aferibed to him with any certainty
are, 1. The country girl, a comedy. 2, The love-fick
king, a comedy. And, 3. Lingua; a piece in regard
to which Winftanley records a remarkable anecdote,
which points it out to have been in fome meafure the
innocent caufe of thofe troubles that difturbed the peace
of thefe realms in the middle of the 17th century. He
tells us, that, when this play was adted at Cambridge,
Oliver Cromwell (then a youth) adted apart in it. The
fubftance of the piece Is a contention among the Senfes
for a crown which Lingua had laid for them to find.
The part allotted to young Cromwell was that of
Taftus, or Touch ; who, haying obtained the contefted
coronet, makes this fpirited declamation :
Rofes and bays, pack hence! this crown and robe
My brows and body circles and inverts :
How gallantly it fiis me! (lire the Have
Meafur’d my head who wrought this coronet.—
They lie that fay complexions cannot change!
My blood’s ennobled, and I am transform’d
Unto thefiicred temper of a king.
Methinks I hear my noble parafttes
Styling me Cafar, or Great Alexander,
lucking my feet, &c.
It is faid that he felt the whole part fo warmly, and
more efpecially the above-quoted fpeech, that it was
what firft. fired his foul with ambition, and excited
him, from the poffeffion of an imaginary crown, to
ftretch his views to that of a real one; for the accom-
plifhment of which he was content to wade through
feas of blood.
Brewer, a perfon who profefles the art of brewing.
There are companies of brewers in moft capital ci¬
ties ; that of London was incorporated in 1427 by
Henry VI. and that of Paris is ftill older.
The apparatus and utenfils of a brewer, or a brew-
houfe, are, A furnace made clofe and hollow for faving
fuel, und with a vent for the fmoke left it taint the li¬
quor ; a copper, which is preferable to lead; a maflc-
vat near theliead ; a cooler near the malk-vat; and a
guile-vat under the cooler: adjoining to all are feveral
clean tubs, to receive the worts and liquors.
BREWERS-/&«;<f/?, a good harbour at the north end
of the ifland of Chilqe on the coaft of Chili, in South
America, and in the South fea. The Dutch landed
forces here in 1643, deiigning to get pofleffion of fome
part of Chili; but they were driven from thence by the
Spaniards and the natives. W. Long. 82°. S. Lat. 420.
BREWING,
IIE operation of preparing ale or beer from
f J- Malt.
No fettled Though the art of brewing is undoubtedly a part of
theory of chemiltry, and certainly depends upon fixed and inva-
brewing. r;able principles as well as every other branch of that
fcience, thefe principles have never yet been thoroughly
inveftigated. For want of a fettled theory, therefore,
the pradftice of this art is found to be precarious; and
to fucceed unaccountably with fome, and mifgive as
unaccountably with others. Some few hints, however,
have been thrown out, in order to eftablifh a regular
theory of brewing ; the principal of which we fhall
2, lay before our readers.
Common The ufual procefs of brewing is as follows. A quan-
procefs de- tjty 0f waterj being boiled, is left to cool till the height
cri e ‘ of the fteam be over ; when fo much is poured to a
quantity of malt in the malhing tub, as makes it of a
confiftence ftiff enough to be juft well rowed up: after
ftandmg thus a quarter of an hour, a fecond quantity
of the water is added, and rowed up as before : laftly,
the full quantity of water is added ; and that in pro¬
portion as the liquor is intended to be ftrong or weak.
—This part of the operation is called marking.—The
whole now ftands two or three hours, more or lefs, ac¬
cording to the ftrength of the wort or the difference of
weather, and is then drawn off into a receiver; and the
mafhing repeated for a fecond wort, in the fame man¬
ner as lor the firft, only the water muft be cooler than
before, and muft not ftand above half the time. The
two worts are then to be mixed, the intended quantity
of hops added, and the liquor clofe covered up, gently
boiled in a copper for the fpace of an hour or two ;
then let into the receiver, and the hops ftrained from it
into the coolers. When cool, the barm or yeft is ap¬
plied ; and it is left to work or ferment till it be fit to
tun up. For fmall beer there is a third malhing with the
water near cold, and not left to ftand above three quar¬
ters of an hour; to be hopped and boiled at diferetion.
For double beer or ale, the liquors refulting from the
two firft malhings muft be ufed as liquor for a third
malhing of fr£lh malt. 3
From confidering this procefs, and the multiplicity Difficultie
of circumftances to be attended to in it, we may ealily amending
fee that it muft be a very precarious one. The fuccefs
of the operation, /. e. the goodnefs of the beer, muft
depend upon the quality of the malt from which it is
made ; on that of the water with which it is infufed ;
on the degree of heat applied in the infufxon ; on the
length
r Robert
urray’s
ethod of
alt-ma-
ng.
BREWING. 1379
length of time the infufion is continued ; on the proper
degree of boiling, the quantity and quality of the hops
employed ; on the proper degree of fermentation, &c.:
all which, as already obferved, have Rfver yet been
thoroughly invdiigated and afcertained.
The manner of making malt Sir Robert Murray de-
fcribes as follows—Take good barley newly threfhed,
&c.; put about fix Englifh quarters in a (tone trough
full of water, where let it fteep till the water be of a
bright reddilh colour; which will be in about three
days, more or lefs, according to the moifture or drynefs,
fmallnefs of bignefs, of the grain, the feafon of the
year, or the temperature of the weather. In fummer,
malt never makes well ; in winter it requires longer
fteeping than in fpring or autumn. It may be known
when it is fteeped enough by other marks befides the
colour of the water ; as by the exceffive fuelling of the
rain if it be over-fteeped, and by too much foftnefs ;
eing, when it is in a right temper, like the barley
prepared to make broth of. When it is fufficiently
lleeped, take it out of the trough, and lay it in heaps
to let the water drain from it; then, after two or three
hours, turn it over with a fcoop, and lay it in a new
heap, 20 or 24 inches deep. This is called the coming
heap, in the right management whereof lies the princi¬
pal flcill. In this heap it may lie 40 hours, more or lefs,
according to the forementioned qualities of the grain,
&c. before it come to the right temper of malt; which
that it may do equally, is mainly delired. While it lies
in this heap, it muft be carefully looked to after the
firft 15 or 16 hours: for about that time the grains
begin to put forth roots; which when they have equal¬
ly and fully done, the malt muft, within an hour after,
be turned over with a fcoop; otherwife the grains will
begin to put forth the blade and fpire alfo, which muft
by all means be prevented. If all the malt do not
come equally, but that which lies in the middle, being
warmeft, come the fooneft; the whole muft be turned,
fo that what was outmoft may be inmoft ; and thus it
is managed till it be all alike. As foon as the malt is
fufficiently come, turn it over, and fpread it to a depth
not exceeding five or fix inches; and by that time it is
all fpread out, begin and turn it over again three or
lour times. Afterwards turn it over in like manner
once in four or five hours, making the heap deeper by
degrees ; and continue to do fo for the fpace of 48
hours at lead. This frequent turning it over, cools,
dries, and deadens the grain ; whereby it becomes mel¬
low, melts eafily in brewing, and feparates entirely from
the hufk. Then throw up the malt into a heap as high
as you can; where let it lie till it grow as hot as your
hand can endure it, which ufually happens in about the
fpace of 30 hours. This perfects the fweetnefs and
mellownefs of the malt. After it is fufficiently heated,
throw it abroad to cool, and turn it over again about
fix or eight hours after; and then lay it on a kiln with
a hair-cloth or wire fpread under it; where, after one
fire which muft laft 24 hours, give it another more
flow, and afterwards, if need be, a third: for if the
malt be not thoroughly dried, it cannot be well ground,
neither will it diflblve well in the brewing; but the
ale it makes will be red, bitter, and unfit for keeping.
From this account of the procefs of malting, it ap¬
pears, that, befides the proper management in wetting,
turning, &c. the drying is an article of the utmoft con-
fequence ; and concerning the proper degrees of heat s
to be employed for thispurpofe, M. Combrune has re- MrCom-
lated the following experiments. “ In an earthen pan, brune’sex-
of about two feet diameter, and three inches deep, I
put as much of thepaleft malts, very unequally grown, I'ng Jf
as filled it on a level to the brim. This I placed over a Fffay on
little charcoal lighted in a fmall flove, and kept conti- Brewing.
nually ftirring it from bottom to top ; at firft it did
not feel fo damp as it did about half an hour after.
“ In about an hour more, it began to look of 3
bright orange colour on the outfide, and appeared
more fwelled than before. Every one is fenfible how
long continued cuftom alone makes us fufficient judges
of colours. Then I macerated fome of the grains, and
found they were nearly fuch as are termed brown malts.
On ftirring and making a heap of them towards the
middle, I placed therein at about half depth the bulb
of my thermometer, and found it rofe to 140 degrees:
here the malt felt very damp, and had but little fmell.
“ At 165 degrees I examined it in the fame man¬
ner as before, and could perceive no damp : the malt
was very brown ; and, on being macerated, fome few
black fpecks appeared.
“ Now many corns, neareft the bottom, were be¬
come black and burnt: with all the diligence I could
ufe, I placed my thermometer nearly there, and it rofe
to 175 degrees. But the particles of fire, arifing from
the ftove, a£ on the thermometer in proportion to the
diftance of the fituation it is placed in ; for which,
through the whole experiment, an abatement of 5 de¬
grees ftiould be allowed, as near as I could eftimate ;
fo, a little after, putting my thermometer in the fame
pofition, where nearly half the corns were black, it
ffiewed 180 degrees. I now judged that the water
was nearly all evaporated, and the heap grew black
apace.
“ Again, in the centre of the heap raifed in the
middle of the pan,, I found the thermometer at 180
degrees ; the corn tafted burnt; and the whole, at top,
appeared about one half part a full brown, the reft black:
on being macerated, ftill fome white fpecks appeared;
which I obferved to proceed from thefe barley-corns
which had not been thoroughly germinated, andwhofe
parts cohering more together, the fire, at this degree '
of heat, had not penetrated them : their tafte was in-
fipid, the malts brittle, and readily parting from the
fkin : but the thermometer was now more various, as it
was nearer to or farther from the bottom ; and here I
judged all the true malt to be charred.
“ However, I continued the experiment; and, at 190
degrees, ftill found fome white fpecks on macerating
the grain ; the acrofpire always appearing of a deeper
black or brown than the outward fkin : the corn now
fried at the bottom of the pan.
“ I next increafed the fire ; the thermometer, pla¬
ced in the mean between the bottom of the pan and
the upper edge of the corn, {hewed 21 a degrees. The
malt hiffed, fried, and fmoked abundantly ; though,
during the whole procefs, the grain had been kept ftir¬
ring, yet, on examination, the whole had not been e-
qually affefted with the fire. I found a great part
thereof reduced to perfect cinders, eafily crumbling to
duft between the fingers, fome of a very black hue
without glofs, fome very black with oil fhining on
the outfide. Upon the whole, two third parts of the
com
1380
BREWING.
corn were perfeftly black ; the reft were of a deep Deg. Deg.
brown, more or lefs fo, as they were hard, fteely, or 119 2 weeks. 143 6 months,
imperfeftly germinated ; which was eafily difcovered 124 a month. 148 10 months,
by the length of the fhoot. Moft of them feemed to 129 3 months. 152 15 months,
have loft their cohefion, and had a tafte refembling that *34 4 months. 157 20 months,
of high roafted coffee. ^S8 6 months. 162 two years.
“.In ftaSe charring the malt, I fet thereon Laft] Mr Combrune hath given the following table
a vvine-glafs inverted, into which arofe a pinguious fhewjng t}ie tendency beers have to become fine, when
oily matter, which tafted very fait. Perhaps it may pr0periy brewed from malts of different degrees of dry-
not be unneceffary to fay, that the length or time this nefs>
experiment took up was four hours, and that the effett
it had both on myfelf and the perfon who attended me
was fuch as greatly refembled the cafe of inebriation.
“ Though, from hence, it is not poffible to fix the
exa& degree of heat in which malts charr, yet we fee
fome black appeared when the thermometer was at
165 degrees, that fome were entirely black at 175
and at 180 degrees, that the grains thus affedted were
fuch as had been perfectly germinated, and that thofe I43
which bore a greater heat were defe&ive in that point; 148
whence we may conclude with an exaftnefs that will be 152
fufficient for the purpofes of brewing, that true ger- 157
minated malts are charred in heats between 175 and
180 degrees; and that as thefe correfpond to the de- 162
grees in which pure alcohol, or the fineft fpirit of the
grain itfelf boils, or difengages itfelf therefrom, they 167
may point out to us the reafon of barley being the fit¬
ted grain for the purpofes of brewing.*'
From thefe experiments, our author has conftrufted 176
the following table of the different degrees of the dry-
nefs of malt, with the colour occafioned by each de-
gree.
Colour of malt.
White.
Cream colour.
Light yellow.
Amber colour.
High amber.
Pale brown.
Brown.
High brown. J
Brown inclining to
black. 1
Brown fpeckled withi
black.
Blackifti brown fpec-'
kled with black. (
Colourofburnt coffee. (
Black.
Thefe, whenproperlybre wed,
J become fpontaneoufly fine,
even as far as 138°; when
brewed for amber by repeated
V fermentations, they become
' pellucid.
► By precipitation thefe grow
' bright in a (hort time.
With precipitation thefe re¬
quire 8 or 10 months to be
f With precipitation thefe may
. be fined, but will never be¬
come bright.
k Thefe with difficulty can be
" brewed without fetting the
■ goods, and will by no means
. become bright, not even with
) the ftrongeltacid menftruum
Deg.
119 White.
124 Cream colour.
J29 Light yellow.
134 Amber colour.
138 High amber.
143 Pale brown.
148 Brown.
152 High brown.
157 Brown inclining to black.
162 High brown fpeckled with black.
167 Blackifti brown with black fpecks.'
171 Colour of burnt coffee.
176 Black.
In a pamphlet intitled “ Theoretic hints on an im- Mr Rich-
proved pra&ice of brewing malt-liquors, &c. by John ar<If0n’s oh’
Richardfon,” we have the following obfervations on fcrvatl0ns’
the nature and properties of malt.
“ The procefs of making malt is an artificial or
forced vegetation, in which the nearer we approach the
footfteps of nature in her ordinary progrefs, the more
certainly (hall we arrive at that perfe&ion of which the
fubjeft is capable. The farmer prefers a dry feafon
to fow his corn in, that the common moifture of the
earth may but gently infinuate itfelf into the pores of
the grain, and thence gradually difpofe it for the re¬
ception of the future (bower, and the adtion of vegeta¬
tion. The maltfter cannot proceed by fuch flow de¬
grees, but makes an immerfion in water a fubftitute
for the moifture of the earth, where a few hours infu-
fion is equal to many days employed in the ordinary
“ The above table (fays he) not only (hews us how courfe of vegetation ; and the corn is accordingly re-
to judge of the drynefs of malt from its colour, blit moved as foon as it appears fully faturated, left a fo-
alfo, when a grift is compofed of feveral forts of malt, lution, and confequently a deftru&ion, of fome of its
what effeft the whole will have when blended toge- parts, fliould be the effeft of a longer continuance in
ther by extradlion ; and though poffibly fome fmall water, inftead of that feparation which is begun by
errors may arife in judgments thus formed by our this introdu&ion of aqueous particles into the body of
fenfes, yet as malts occupy different volumes in pro- the grain.
portion to their drynefs in the pra&ice of brewing, if “ Were it to be fpread thin after this removal, it
the refult of the water coming in contaft with the would become dry, and no vegetation would enfue;
malt (hew the degree expe&ed, fuch parcel of malt may but being thrown into the couch, a kind of vegetative
be faid to have been judged of rightly in the degree of fermentation commences, which generates heat, and
drynefs it was eftimated to; fo that the firft trial either produces the firft appearance of germination. This
confirms, or fets us numerically right as to our opinion (late of the barley is nearly the fame with that of many
thereof.’* days continuance in the earth after fowing: but being in
It is found by experience, that the lefs heat em- fo large a body, it requiresoccafionally to be turned over,
ployed in drying the malt, the (horter time will be re- and fpread thinner; the former to give the outward
quired before the beer is fit to be ufed; and of this our parts of the heap their (hare of the required warmth
author has given the following table. and moifture, both of which are leffened by expofure
1381
BREWING.
to the air, the latter to prevent the progrefs of the ve¬
getative to the putrefactive fermentation, which would
be the confequence of fuffering it to proceed beyond a
certain degree.
“ To fupply the moifture thus continually decreaf-
ing by evaporation and confumption, an occafional but
fparing fprinkling of water fliould be given to the floor,
to recruit the languifhing powers of vegetation, and
imitate the fhower upon the corn field. But this fliould
not be too often repeated; for, as in the field, too
much rain, and too little fun, produce rank Hems and
thin ears, fo here would too much water, and of
courfe too little dry warmth, accelerate the growth of
the malt, fo as to occafion the extraction and lofs of
fttch of its valuable parts, as by a flower procefs would
have been duly feparated and left behind.
“ By the flow mode of conducting vegetation here
recommended, an aCtual and minute feparation of the
parts takes place. The germination of the radicles
and acrofpire carries off the cohdive properties of the
barley, thereby contributing to the preparation of the
faccharine matter, which it nas no tendency to extraft
or otherwife injure, but to increafe and meliorate, fo
long as the acrofpire is confined within the hulk ; and
by how much it is wanting of the end of the grain, by
fo much does the malt fall fliort of perfection, and in
proportion as it has advanced beyond, is that purpofe
defeated.
“ This is very evident to the molt common obfer-
vation, on examining a kernel of malt in the different
flages of its progrefs. When the acrofpire has fhot
but half the length of the grain, the lower part only
is converted into that yellow faccharine flour we are fe¬
licitous about, whilfl: the other half affords no other
figns of it than the whole kernel did at its firfl germi¬
nation. Let it. advance to two thirds of the length,
and the lower end will not only have increafed its fac-
charine flavour, but will have proportionally extended
its bulk, fo as to have left only a third part unmalted.
This, or even lefs than this, is contended for by many
maltffers, as a fufficient advance of the acrofpire, which
they fay has done its bufinefs as foon as it has pafled
the middle of the kernel. But we need feek no further
for their conviction of error, than the examination here
alluded to.
“ Let the kernel be flit down the middle, and tailed
at either end, whilfl; green ; or let the effeCts of maf-
tication be tried when it is dried olf; when the former
will be found to exhibit the appearances juft mentioned,
the latter to difeover the unwrought parts of the grain,
in a body of ftony hardnefs, which has no other effeCl
in the malh-tun than that of imbibing a large portion
of the liquor, and contributing to the retention of
thofe faccharine parts of the malt which are in contaCl
with it; whence it is a rational inference, that three
bulhels of malt, imperfeCt in this proportion, are but
equal to two of that which is carried to its utmoft per-
ftCtion. By this is meant the fartheft advance of the
acrofpire, when it is juft burfting from its confinement,
before it has effected its enlargement. The kernel is
then uniform in its internal appearance, and of a rich
fweetnefs in flavour, equal to any thing we can con¬
ceive obtainable from imperfedl vegetation. If the a-
crofpire be fuffered to proceed, the mealy fubftance melts
into a liquid fweet, which foon pafles into the blade,
Vol. II.
and leaves the hulk entirely exhaufted.
“ The fweet thus produced by the infant efforts of
vegetation, and loft by its more powerful adlion, re¬
vives and makes a fecond appearance in the Item, but
is then too much difperfed and altered in its form to
anfwer any of the known purpofes of art.
“ Were we to inquire, by what means the fame
barley, with the fame treatment produces unequal por¬
tions of the faccharine matter in different fituations,
we Ihould perhaps find it principally owing to the dif¬
ferent qualities of the water ufed in malting. Hard
water is very unfit for every purpofe of vegetation, and
foft will vary its effedts according to the predominat¬
ing quality of its impregnations. Pure elementary
water is in itfelf fuppofed to be only the vehicle of the
nutriment of plants, entering at the capillary tubes of
the roots, rifing into the body, and there difperfing its
acquired virtues, perfpiring by innumerable fine pores
at the furface, and thence evaporating by the pureft
diftillation into the open atmofphere, where it be¬
gins anew its round of colledting frelh properties, in
order to its preparation for frelh fervice.
“ This theory leads us to the confideration of an
attempt to increafe the natural quantity of the faccha-
rum of malt by adventitious means; but it mull be ob-
ferved on this occafion, that no addition to water will
rife into the veffels of plants, but fuch as will pafs the
filter ; the pores of which appearing fomewhat fimilar
to the fine ftrainers or abforbing veffels employed by
nature in her nicer operations, we by analogy conclude,
that properties fo intimately blended with water as to
pafs the one, will enter and unite with the ceconomy
of the other, and vice verfa.
“ Suppofing the malt to have obtained its utmoft
perfection, according to the criterion here inculcated,
to prevent its farther progrefs and fecure it in that Hate,
we are to call in the afliftance of a heat fufficient to de-
llroy the adtion of vegetation by evaporating every par¬
ticle of water, and thence leaving it in a Hate of pre-
fervation, fit for the prefent or future purpofe of the
brewer.
“ Thus having all its moifture extradled, and being
by the previous procefs deprived of its cohefive pro¬
perty, the body of the grain is left a mere lump of
flour, fo cafily divifible, that, the hulk being taken
off, a mark may be made with the kernel, as with a
piece of foft chalk. The extradlible qualities of this
flour are, a faccharum clofely united with a large quan¬
tity of the farinaceous mucilage peculiar to breed corn,
and a fmall portion of oil enveloped by a fine earthy
fubftance, the whole readily yielding to the imprelfion
of water applied at different times and different degrees
of heat, and each part predominating in proportion to
the time and manner of its application.
“ In the curing of malt, as nothing more is requi-
fite than a total extrication of every aqueous particle,
if we had in the feafon proper for malting, a folar heat
fulficient to produce perfedt drynefs, it were pradlicable
to reduce beers nearly colourlefs ; but that being want¬
ing, and the force of cuftom having made it neesffary
to give our beers various tindlures and qualities refult-
ing from fire, for the accomodation of various taftes,
we are neceffitated to apply fuch heats in the drying
as lhall not only anfwer the purpofe of prefervation,
but give the complexion and property required.
8 M
To
1382
BREWING.
« To efFe£t this with certainty and precifion, the
introduftion of the thermometer is neceflary; but the
real advantages of its application are only to be known
by experiment, on account of the different conftruc-
tion of different kilns, the irregularity of the heat in
different parts of the fame kiln, the depth of the malt,
the diftance of the bulb of the thermometer from the
floor, &c. &c. for though fimilar heats will produce
iimilar effe&s in the fame fituatfon, yet is the dif-
perfion of heat in every kiln fo irregular, that the me¬
dium fpot muff be found for the local fituation of the
thermometer ere a (landard can be fixed for afcertain-
ing effe&s upon the whole. That done, the feveral de-
rees neceffary for the purpofes of porter, amber, pale
eers, &c. are eafily difcovered to the utmoft exadtnefs,
and become the certain rule of future praftice.
« Though cuftom has laid this arbitrary injunftion
of variety in our malt-liquors, it may not be amifs to
imitate the Ioffes we often fultain, and the inconve¬
niences we combat, in obedience to her mandate.
“ The further we purfue the deeper tints of colour
by an increafe of heat beyond that which fimple pre-
fervation requires, the more we injure the valuable qua¬
lities of the malt. It is well known that fcorched oils
turn black, and that calcined fugar affumes the fame
complexion. Similar effects are producible in malts,
in proportion to the increafe of heat, or the time of
their continuing expofed to it. The parts of the whole
being fo united by nature, an injury cannot be done
to the one, without affedling the other; accordingly
we find, that fuch parts of the fubjeft, as might have
been feverally extra&ed for the purpofes of a more in¬
timate union by fermentation, are, by great heat in
curing, burnt and blended fo effectually together, that
all difcrimination is loft, the unfermentable are extrac¬
ted with the fermentable, the integrant with the con-
ftituent, to the very great lofs both of fpirituofity and
tranfparency. In paler malts, the extra£Iing liquor
produces a feparation which cannot be effededin brown,
where the parts are fo incorporated, that unlefs the ”
brewer is very well acquainted with their feveral qua¬
lities and attachments, he will bring over, with the
burnt mixture of faccharine and mucilaginous prin¬
ciples, fuch an abundance of the fcorched oils, as no
fermentation can attenuate, no precipitants remove ;
for, being in themfelves impediments to the adion of
fermentation, they leffen its efficacy, and being of the
fame fpecific gravity with the beer, they remain fuf-
pended in, and incorporated with the body of it, an
offence to the eye, and a naufea to the palate to the
7 • lateft period.”
Quality of The next confideration is the quality of the water
the water to to be employed in brewing ; and here foft water is
be employed unjverfa]]y allowed to be preferable to hard, both for
ui brewing. ^ pUrp0pe3 0f mafhing and fermentation. Tranfpa¬
rency is, however, more eafily obtained by the ufe of
hard than foft water ; firft, from its inaptitude to ex-
trad fuch an abundance of that light mucilaginous
matter, which, floating in the beer for a long time, oc-
cafibns its turbidity ; fecondly, from its greater ten¬
dency to a ftate of quietude after the vinous fermenta¬
tion is finifhed by which thofe floating particles are
more at liberty to fubfide ; and, laftly, from the mu¬
tual aggregation of the earthy particles of the water
with thofe of the materials, which by their greater fpe¬
cific gravity thus aggregated, not only precipitate them¬
felves, but carry down alfo that lighter mucilage juft
mentioned. For thefe reafons, hard water is not well
adapted to the brewing of porter, and fuch beers as
require a fulnefs of palate, when drawn to the great
lengths of the London brewery, and of fome country
fituations.
The purity of water is determined by its lightnefs ;
and in this, diftilled water only can claim any material
degree of perfedion. Rain water is the pureft of all
naturally produced : but by the perpetual exhalations
of vegetables, and other fine fubftances floating in the
atmofphere, it does not come down to us entirely free
from thofe qualities which pond and river waters pof-
fefs in a greater degree. Thefe, efpecially of rivers
running through fens and moraffes, from the quantity'
of grafs and weeds growing therein, imbibe an abun¬
dance of vegetable folutions which occafions them to con¬
tain more fermentable matter, and confequently to yield
a greater portion of fpirit; but at the fame time induces
fuch a tendency to acidity as will not eafily be con¬
quered. This is more to be apprehended towards the
latter end of the fummer than at any other time ; be-
caufe thefe vegetable fubftances are then in a ftate of
decay, and thence more readily impart their pernicious
qualities to the water which paffes over them.
At fuch an unfavourable time, fhould the brewer
be neceffitated to purfue his pradlice, it will behove
him to pay the utmoft attention to the caufe of tin’s
difpofition in his liquor, and thence endeavour to pre¬
vent the ill confequences, by conducting his procefsto
the extra&ion and combination of fuch parts of the ma¬
terials as his judgment informs him will beft counteradf
its effe&s.
Where there is the liberty of choice, we would re¬
commend the ufe of that water which, from natural
purity, equally free of the aufterity of imbibed earths,
and the ranknefs of vegetable faturation, has a foft
fulnefs upon the palate, is totally flavourlefs, inodorous,
and colourlefs ; whence it is the better prepared for
the reception and retention of fuch qualities as the pro-
cefs of brewing is to communicate and preferve.
The next thing to be confidered is the proper de¬
gree of heat to be employed in making the infufion ;
and here it is evident, that though this mu ft be an ob••
jedl of the utmoft importance to the fuccefs of the o-
peration, it is extremely difficult, perhaps impoffible,
to fix upon a precife ftandard that {hall at all times ^
fully anfwer the purpofe. On this fubjedt Mr Richard- MrRichard-i
fon prefents us with the following obfervations. fon’s obfer-e
“ The quality of the faccharine part of malt refembles vations on
that of common fugar, to which it is practicable to re- ^fVeaf^
duce it; and its charadteriftical properties are entirely
owing to its intimate connexion with the other parts
of the malt, from which fuch diftinguifhing flavours of
beers are derived as are not the immediate refult of the
hop. Were it not for thefe properties, the brewer might
adopt the ufe of fugar, molafies, honey, or the fweet of
any vegetable, to equal advantage; which cannot now
be done, unlefs an eligible fuccedaneum be found to
anfwer that purpofe. As we are at prefent circum-
ftanced, a fearch on the other fide would turn more to
the brewer’s account. We have in malt a fuperabun-
dance of the groffer principles ; and would government
permit the introduction of a foreign addition to the
faccharinej
BREWING. 1383
faccharine, which is too deficient, many valuable im- “ From a knowledge of thefe eflfefts, we form our
provements-might be made from it; as we could, by a ideas of the variations neceffary in the heat of the
judicious application of fuch adventitious principle, pro- extra&ing liquor; which are of more extenfive utility
duce a fecond and third wort, of quality very little infe- than has been yet intimated, though exceedingly li-
rior to the firit. mited in their extent from one extreme to the other.
“ But in thefe experiments a very particular atten- “ The mofl common effedls of too low a heat, be-
tion would be necefiary to the folvent powers of the fides fometimes producing immediate acidity, are an
water at different degrees of heat, and to the inquiry infipidity of the flavour of the beer, and a want of early
how far a menftruum faturated with one principle may tranfparency, from the fuperabundance of mucilaginous
be capable of diffolving another. Such a confideration matter extracted by fuch heats, which, after the utmofl
is the more neceflary on this occafion to diredb us clear efforts of fermentation, will leave the beer turbid with
of two extremes equally difagreeable : the firft is, that fuch a cloud of its lighter feculencies as will require
of applying the menftruum pure, and at fuch a heat as the feparation and precipitation of many months to
to bring off an over proportion of the oleaginous and difperfe.
earthy principles, which would occafion in the beer, “ The contrary application, of too much heat, at
thus wanting its natural fhare of faccharum, a harfhnefs the fame time that it leflens the mucilage, has, as wc
and aufterity which fcarce any time the brewer could have feen before, the effeft of diminifhing the faccha-
allow would be able to diftipate ; the other is, that of rum alfo ; whence 'that lean thin quality obfervable in
previoufly loading the menftruum with the adopted fome beers; and, by extracting an over proportion of
fweet in fuch an abundance as to deftroy its folvent oleaginous and earthy particles, renders the bufinefs
force upon tfie charadteriftical qualities we wifh to of fermentation difficult and precarious, and imprefles
unite with it, and thereby leave it a mere folution of an aufterity on the flavour of the liquor which will not
fugar. The requifite mean is that of confidering what eafily be effaced.
portion of the faccharine quality has been extrafted “ Yet the true medium heat for each extradl: cannot
in the firft wort, according to the quantity of water be univerfally afcertained. An attention not only to
and degree of heat applied ; and then to make fuch a the quality of the malt, but to the quantity wetted, is
previous addition of artificial fweet as will juft ferve to abfolutely neceffary to the obtaining every due advan-
counterbalance the deficiency, and affimilate with that tage; nor muft the period at which the beer is intended
portion of the remaining principles we are taught to for ufe be omitted in the account. The quality of the
expeil will be extrafted with the fucceeding wort. water alfo claims a fhare in the confideration, in order
“ From the nature of the conftituent principles of to fupply that deficient thinnefs and want of folvent
malt, it is eafy to conceive, that the former, or faccha- ^orce in hard, and to allow for the natural fulnefs and
rine or mucilaginous parts, yield moft readily to the fermentative quality of foft; a particular to which
impreffion of water, and that at fo low a degree of heat London in a great meafure owes the peculiar mucila-
as would have no vifible effed upon the latter. If, ginous and nutritious quality of its malt liquors,
therefore, we are to have a certain proportion of every “ Although the variations above alluded to are in-
part, it is a rational inference, that the means of ob- difpenfible, it is eafy to conceive, from the fmall extent
taining it refts in a judicious variation of the extrading of the utmoft variety, that they cannot be far diftant.
heat according to the feveral proportions required. If, therefore, we know that a certain degree extrads
“ A low degree of heat, ading principally upon the the firft principles in a certain proportion, we need not
faccharum, produces a wort replete with a rich foft much confideration to fix upon another degree that
fweet, fully impregnated with its attendant mucilage, fliall produce the required proportion of the remaining
and in quantity much exceeding that obtainable from qualities, and effed that equal diftribution of parts in
increafed heat; which, by its more powerful infinuation the extrad which it is the bufinefs of fermentation to
form into a confiftent whole.”
The principal ufe of boiling, as it refpeds the worts Of boiling
particularly, is to feparate the groffer or more palpable w°rts*
parts of the extrad, preparatory to that more minute
into the body of the malt ading upon all the parts to¬
gether, extrads a confiderable portion of the oleaginous
and earthy principles, but falls Ihort in foftnefs, fulnefs,
fwettnefs, and quantity. This is occafioned by the coa¬
gulating property of the mucilage, which, partaking of feparation which is to be effeded in the gyle tun. The
the nature of flour, has a tendency to run into pafte in eye is a very competent judge of this effed ; for the
proportion to the increafe of heat applied; by which concretions into which the continued adion of boiling
means it not only locks up a confiderable part of the fac- forms thofe parts are obvious to the flighteft infpedion^
charum contained therein, but retains with it a proper- whilft the perfed tranfparency of the interffices of the
tionate quantity of the extrading liquor, which would worts points out its utility in promoting that definable
otherwife have drawn out the imprifoned fweet, thence , quality in the beer. Thefe coagulable parts are formed
leffening both the quantity and quality of the worts, from the fuperabundant mucilage already mentioned ;
And this has fometimes been known to have had fo and hence they are found in greater proportion in the
powerful an effed, as to have occafioned the fetting of firft worts than in thofe that come after ; at the fame
the goods, or the uniting the whole into a pafty mafs ; time, they are in thefe laft fo mingled with a quantity
for though heat increafes the folvent powers of water of oleaginous matter, that they become much more
in moft inftancts, there are fome in which it totally difficultly coagulable in the weak worts than in fuch as
deftroys them. Such is the prefence of flour, which it are ftronger, and hence thefe require to be much longer
converts into pafte ; befides thofe of blood, eggs, and boiled than the others.
fome other animal fubftances, which it invariably tends During this operation the hops are generally added,
to harden. which are found to be abfolutely neceffary for prevent-
8 M 3 ing
>384
B R E
in<* the too great tendency of beer to acidity. The fine
effential oil of hops being mod volatile and fooneft ex¬
tracted, we are thence taught the advantage of boiling
the firft wort no longer than is fufficient to form the
extraft, without expofing it to the a&ion of the fire fo
long as to difiipate the finer parts of this molt valu¬
able principle, and defeat the purpofe of obtaining it.
To the fubfequent worts we can afford a larger allow¬
ance, and purfue the means of prefervation fo long as
we can keep in view thofe of flavour; to which no rules
can pofitively direft, the procefs varying with every
WING.
thod may be taken either with wine-lees, or the flowers
of wine. The former may be brought from abroad with
great eafe in this manner: the latter may be made with
us from the lees, by only diffolving them in water, and
ftirring them about with a ftick; by this means, the
lighter, more moveable, and more a6tive part of the
lees will be thrown up to the top, and may be taken
off and preferved, in the manner above mentioned, in
any quantity defired. By this means, an eafy method
is found of railing an inexhaullible fund ; or a perpe¬
tual fupply of the moft proper ferments may be readily
riety of beer, and differing as effentially in the produc- formed in the way of (uccefiive generation, fo as to cut
tion of porter and pale ale as the modes of producing off all future occafion of complaint for want of them
wine and vinegars
The confequence of not allowing a fufficient time for
the due feparation of the parts of the wort and extrac¬
tion of the requifite qualities of the hop muff be obvi
the bufinefs of dillillation. It mull be obferved, that
all ferments abound in effential oil much more than the
liquors which produce them ; whence they very ftrongly
retain the particular flavour and fcent of the fubject
ous. If we proceed to the other extreme, we have every from whence they were made. It is requilite, there-
• . _i j r  .t._ • _ .c 1  r  c.r  .1... r . •  i* j .  <-1 1 .
thing to apprehend from the introduftion of too large
a quantity of the groffer principles of the hop, which
are very inimical to fermentation ; and from impairing
the fermentative quality of the worts themfelves, by
fuffering their too long expofure to the aftion of the
fire palling through them, whereby they are reduced
fore, before the ferment is applied, to confider what
flavour ought to be introduced, and accordingly what
fpecies of ferment is moft; fuited to the liquor. The al¬
teration thus caufed by ferments is fo confiderable, as
to determine or bring over any naturally fermentable
liquor of a neutral kind to be of the fame kind with
to a more denfe confiftence, and their parts too inti- that which yielded the ferment. The benefit of this.
lately blended to yield to the feparating force of fer¬
mentation with that eafe the perfedlion of the produft
requires.
Of Fermen- T’ne laft ftep >n procefs of brewing is to ferment
tation. the liquor properly; for if this is not done, whatever
care and pains have been taken in the other parts, they
will be found altogether infufficient to produce the li¬
quor defired. The firft; thing to be done here is to pro¬
cure a proper ferment; for though all fermentable li¬
quors would in time begin to ferment of themfelves,
yet, being alfo fufceptible of putrefaftion, the vinous
and putrefaftive ferments would both take place at the
fame time in fuch a manner that the produdt would be
entirely fpoiled. There are only two kinds of artificial
ferments procurable in large quantity, and at a low
price, viz. beer-yeft and wine-lees. A prudent manage¬
ment of thefe might render the bufinefs of the brewery
for diftillation, as in the buiinefs of the malt-diftiller,
’ See Dijlil- &c. much more eafy and advantageous Brewers
iafm. jiave a]wayS found it a confiderable difficulty to pro¬
cure thefe ferments in fufficient quantities, and pre-
ferve them conftantly ready for ufe ; and this has been
however, does not extend to malt, or to any other mat¬
ter that does not naturally yield a tolerably pure and
taftelefs fpirit, as it otherwife makes not a fimple, pure,
and uniform flavour, but a compound and mixed one.
The greateft circumfpe&ion and care are neceffary
in regard to the quality of the ferment. It muit be
chofen perfeftly fweet and frefti : for all ferments are
liable to grow mufty and corrupt; and if in this cafe
they are mixed with the fermentable liquor, they will
communicate their nanfeous and filthy flavour to it in
fuch a manner as never to be got off. If the ferment is
four, it muff by no means be ufed for any liquor; for it
will communicate its flavour to the whole, and even pre¬
vent its rifing to a head, and give it an acetous, inftead
of a vinous, tendency. When the proper quantity is got
ready, it muff be put to the liquor in a iiate barely te¬
pid, or fcarce hike-warm. The bell method of putting
them together,'fo as to make the fermentation ftrong
and quick, is as follows. When the ferment is folid, it
muff be broken to pieces, and gently thinned with fome
of the warm liquor ; but a complete or uniform folu-
tion of it is not to be expefted or defired, as this would
fo great a difcouragement to the bufinefs, that fome weaken its efficacy for the future bufinefs. The whole
have endeavoured to produce other ferments, or to form
mixtures or compounds of particular fermentable ingre¬
dients : but this has been attempted without any great
fuccefs, all thefe mixtures falling (hort even of common
baker’s leaven in their ufe. Whoever has a turn for
intended quantity being thus loofely mixed in fome of
the lukewarm liquor, and kept near the fire or elfe-
where in a tepid ftate, free from too rude commerce
with the external air, more of the infenfibly warm li¬
quor ought at proper intervals to be brought in, till
making experiments and attempting improvements of thus by degrees the whole quantity is fet at work to-
this kind, will find it much eafier and more advan- gether. When the whole is thus fet at work, fecured
tageous to preferve and raife nurferies of the common in a proper degree of warmth, and kept from a too free
ones, than to devife mixtures of others. Yeft may be intercourfe with the external air, it becomes as it were
preferved by freeing it from its moifter parts. This may the bufinefs of nature to finiffi the operation,
be done by the fun’s heat, but flowly and imperfedlly. In the operation of fermentation, however, the de-
The belt method is by gently preffing it in canvas
bags: thus the liquid part, in which there is fcarce any
virtue, will be thrown off, and the folid will remain be¬
hind in form of a cake, which may be packed in a bar¬
rel or box, and will keep for a long time fweet and
gree of heat employed is of the utmoft confequence. In
forming the extracts of the malt, the variation of a few
degrees of heat produces an important difference in the
effedf. In the heat of fermentation, fimilar confequences
refult from fimilar variety. Under a certain regulation
f Jin. x.
S6s-
BREWING.
is capable, the finer mucilage, and thereby preferve
that fulnefs upon the palate which is by many fo much
admired : on the other hand, by a flight alteration we
can throw it off, and produce that evennefs and unifor¬
mity of flavour which has fcarce any charadferiftical
property, and is preferred by fome only for want of
that heavinefs which they complain of in full beers. If
a more vinous racy ale be required, we can, by colledl-
ing and confining the operation within the body of the
wort, caufe the feparation and abforption of fuch an
abundant portion of the oleaginous and earthy prin¬
ciples, as to produce a liquor in a perfeft ftate at the
earliell 'period, and fo highly flavorous as to create a
fufpicion of an adventitious quality. But though all
this may be done, and often hath been done, the proper
management of fermenting liquors depends fo much
upon a multiplicity of flight and feemingly unimport¬
ant circumftances, that it hath never yet been laid
down in an intelligible manner; and no rules, drawn
from any thing hitherto publiflied on the fubjedt of
brewing, can be at all fufficient to diredt any perfon in
this matter, unlefs he hath had confiderable opportuni¬
ties of obferving the pradfice of a brewhoufe.
*38j
B R I
B R I
BREY, a town of Germany, on the frontiers of
Brabant, feated on a rivulet, in E. Long. 5. 35. N.
Lat. 51. 6.
BREYNIA, in botany, a fynonime of the cappa-
ris. See Capparis.
BRIANCON, a town of France, in upper Dau-
phiny, capital of the Brianconnois. E. Long. 6. 45.
N. Lat. 44. 46.
BRIANCONNOIS, a territory of France, in Dau-
phiny, bounded by Grenoblois, Gapenzois, Ambru-
nois, Pied'mont, and Savoy. It comprehends ftveral
valleys, which lie among the mountains of the Alps;
and though it is extremely cold, yet it is fertile in corn
and pallures. The inhabitants have a great deal of
wood; yet they choofe to be in the ftables with their
cattle fix months in the year, to keep themfelves warm.
Briancon is the capital town.
BRIAR, in botany, the Englifti name of a fpecies
of rofa. See Rosa.
BRIARE, a town of France, in the Gatinois, feat¬
ed on the river Loire. It is remarkable for nothing
but a long ftreet full of inns and farriers, it being on
the great road to Lyons; and the canal of Briare,
which is 33 miles in length, and maintains a commu¬
nication between the Loire and tha Seine, by means of
the Loing. E. Long. 2. 45. N. Lat. 47. 40.
BRIAREUS, in fabulous hiftory, a giant; the fon
of ./Ether, Titan, or Ccelus, and Terra. This was his
name in heaven ; on earth he was called JEgeon. He
was of fignal fervice to Jupiter, when Juno, Pallas,
Neptune, and the reft of the gods, endeavoured to bind
him in chains and dethrone him. Afterwards, how¬
ever, he confpired with the reft of his gigantic bre¬
thren to dethrone Jupiter. Virgil, on this occafion, de-
fcribes him as having 100 hands, 50 heads, and breath¬
ing out fire f. The fable fays that Jupiter, to punifti
him, threw him under mount .Etna, which, as often
as he moves, belches out fire. See .Etna.
BRIBE, a reward given to pervert the judgment.
See the next article.
BRIBERY, (from the French briber, to devour or
eat greedily), is a high offence, where a perfon in a ju¬
dicial place takes any fee, gift, reward, or brockage,
for doing his office, but of the king only. But, taken
largely, it fignifies the receiving or offering any undue
reward to or by any perfoh concerned in the admini-
ftration of public juftice, whether judge, officer, &c.
to act contrary to his duty; and fometimes it fignifies
the taking or giving a reward for a public office.
In the Eaft it is the cuftom never to petition any fu
perior for juftice, not excepting their kings, without a
prefent. This is calculated for the genius of defpotic
countries; where the true principles of government are
never underftood, and it is imagined that there is no
obligation due from the fuperior to the inferior, no re¬
lative duty owing from the governor to the governed.
The Roman law, though it contained many fevere in- Bladft.
junctions againft bribery, as well for felling a man’s Comment.
vote in the fenate or other public affembly, as for the
bartering of common juftice; yet, by a ftrange indul¬
gence in one inftance, it tacitly encouraged this prac¬
tice; allowing the magiftrate to receive fmall prefents,
provided they did not on the whole exceed 100 crowns
a-year: not confidering the infinuating nature and gi¬
gantic progrefs of this vice, when once admitted. Plato,
therefore, in his ideal republic, orders thofe who take
prefents for doing their duty to be punifhed in the fe-
vereft manner: and by the laws of Athens, he that of¬
fered a bribe was alfo profecuted, as well as he that re¬
ceived a bribe. In England this offence of taking
bribes is punifhed, in inferior officers, with fine and im-
prifonment; and in thofe that offer a bribe, though not
taken, the fame. But in judges, efpecially the fuperior
ones, it has been always looked upon as fo heinous an
offence, that the chief juftice Thorpe was hanged for
it in the reign of Edward III. By a ftatute 11 Hen¬
ry IV. all judges and officers of the king convi&ed of
bribery, fhall forfeit treble the bribe, be punifhed at the
king’s will, and be difcharged from his fervice for ever.
And fome notable examples have been made in parlia¬
ment, of perfons in the higheft ftations, and otherwife
very eminent and able, but contaminated with this for¬
did vice. Thus in the reign of king James I. the earl
of M. lord treafurer of England, being impeached by
the commons, for refufing to hear petitions referred to
him by the king, till he had received bribes., &c. was,
by fentence of the lords, deprived of all his offices, and
difabled to hold any for the future, or to fit in parlia¬
ment ; he was alfo fined 50,000/. and imprifoned du¬
ring the king’s pleafdre. In the 11th year of king
George I. the lord chancellor M had a fomewhat
milder punifhment : he was impeached by the com¬
mons, with great zeal, for bribery, in felling the places
of mailers in chancery for exorbitant fums, and other
corrupt practices, tending to the great lofs and ruin of
the fuitors of that court; and the charge being made
good againft him, being before divefted of his office,
he was fentenced to pay a fine of 30,000/. and impri¬
foned till it was paid. It is faid, that one of the pi ers,.
if not two, who voted againft him, had been poflUEd
B R I [ 1386 ] B R I
Bribery 0f the office of chancellor, and fold the places of ma-
Brsck ^ers in chancery whenever vacant.
.■'nC..‘— Bribery in FJettions. See Elections.
BRICIANI, thofe of the order of that name. This
was a military order, inftituted by St Bridget, queen
of Sweden, who gave them the rules and conllitutions
of thofe of Malta and St Auguftin. This order was
approved by pope Urban V. They were to tight for
the burying of the dead, to relieve and affift widows,
orphans, the lame, tick, &c.
BRICK, a fat reddith earth, formed into long
fquares, four inches broad, and eight or nine long, by
means of a wooden mould, and then baked or burnt in
a kiln, to ferve the purpofes of building.
Bricks are of great antiquity, as appears by the fa-
cred writings, the tower and walls of Babylon being
built with them.
The Greeks chiefly ufedthree kinds of bricks; the
firft whereof was called \_didoron,~\ i. e. of two palms;
the fecond \Jetrad6ro?i\, of four palms; the third \jen-
tadoron\, of five palms. They had alfo other bricks,
jult half each of thofe, to render their works more fo-
lid, and alfo more agreeable to the fight, by the diver-
fities of the figures and fizes of the bricks.
The dimenfions of the brick chiefly ufed by the Ro¬
mans, according to Pliny, were a foot and a half long,
and a foot broad; which meafures agree with thofe of
feveral Roman bricks in England, which are about 17
inches long, and 11 broad, of our meafure. Sir Henry
Wotton fpeaks of a fort of bricks at Venice, of which
flately columns were built; they were firft formed in a
circular mould, and cut, before they were burnt, into
four or more quarters or fides ; afterwards, in laying,
they were jointed fo clofe, and the points concentered
* Wotm exa&ly, that the pillars appeared one entire piece *.
Elem. of The ordinary Paris brick is eight inches long, four
Architedure broad, and two thick, French meafure, which makes
!• "• fomething more than ours. But this fmallnefs is an ad¬
vantage to a building, the ftrength of which confifts
much in the multitude of angles and joints, at leaft if
well laid, and having a good bond.
Supplement Bricks among us are various according to their
io chamlers. various forms, dimenfions, ufes, method of making,
&c. The principal are, compafs-bricks, of a circu¬
lar form, ufed in fteyning of walls: concave, or hollow
bricks, on one fide flat like a common brick, on the
other hollowed, and ufed for conveyance of water: fea¬
ther-edged bricks, which are like common ftatute-
bricks, ""only thinner on one edge than the other, and
ufed for penning up the brick pannels in timber build¬
ings: cogging bricks are ufed for making the indented
works under the caping of walls built with great bricks:
caping bricks, formed on purpofe for caping of walls:
Dutch or Flemifh bricks, ufed to pave yards, (tables,
and for foap-boilers vaults and cifterns: clinkers, fuch
bricks as are glazed by the heat of the fire in making:
fandel or famel-bricks, are fuch as lie outmoft in a kiln
or clamp, and confequently are foft and ufelefs as not
being thoroughly burnt: great bricks are thofe twelve
inches long, fix broad, and three thick, ufed to build
fence-walls: plafter or buttrefs bricks, have a notch at
one end, half the breadth of the brick; their ufe is to
bind the work which is built of great bricks: ftatute-
bricks, or fmall common bricks, ought, when burnt, to
be nine inches long, four and a quarter broad, and two
and a half thick ; they are commonly ufed in paving
cellars, finks, hearths, &c.
Worlidge, and others after him, have endeavoured to
excite brickmakers to try their (kill in making a new
kind of brick, or a compofition of clay and fand, where¬
of to form window-frames, chimney-pieces, door-cafes,
and the like. It is to be made in pieces falhioned in
moulds, which, when burnt, may be fet together with
a fine red cement, and feem as one entire piece, by
which may be imitated all manner of ftone-work. The
thing fhould feem feafible, by the earthen pipes made
fine, thin, and durable, to carry water under-ground at
Portfmouth; and by the earthen backs and grates for
chimneys, formerly made by Sir John Winter, of a
great bignefs and tlucknefs. If chimney-pieces thus
made in moulds, and dried and burnt, were not found
fmooth enough, they might be polifhed with fand and
water; or were care taken, when they were half dry in
the air, to have them polifhed with an inftrument of
copper or iron, then leave them till they were dry enough
to burn, it is evident they would not want much po-
lifliing afterwards. The work might even be glazed,
as potters do their fine earthen ware, either white, or
of any other colour; or it might be veined in imitation
of marble, or be painted with figures of various colours,
which would be much cheaper, perhaps equally durable,
and as beautiful, as marble itfelf.
Bricks are commonly red; though there are fame alfo
of a white colour, for which fort Walpit in Suffolk is
famous. Bricks may be made of any earth that is clear
of ftones, even fea-oufe; but all will not burn red, a
property peculiar to earths which contain ferruginous
particles. In England, bricks are chiefly made of a
hazely, yellowith-coloured, fatty earth, fomewhat red-
difli, vulgarly called loam. The earth, according to
Leibourn, ought to be dug before winter, but not made
into bricks before fpring. For the making of fuch
bricks as will ftand the fierceft fires, Sturbridge clay or
Windfor loam are efteemed the beft. In general, the
earth whereof bricks are made ought not to be too
fandy, which would render them heavy and brittle; nor
too fat, which would make them crack in drying.
The firft ftep in the procefs of brickmaking is call¬
ing the clay, or earth. The next ftep is to tread or
temper it, which ought to be performed doubly of what
is ufually done ; fince the goodnefs of the bricks de¬
pends chiefly upon this firft preparation. The earth it¬
felf, before it is wrought, is generally brittle and dufty;
but adding fmall quantities of water gradually to it, and
working and incorporating it together, it opens its
body, and tinges the whole with a tough, gluey band
or fubftance. If, in the tempering, you overwater
them, as the ufual method is, they become dry-and
brittle, almolt as the earth they are made of; whereas,
if duly tempered, they become fmooth and folid, hard
and durable. A brick of this laft fort takes up near as
much earth as a brick and a half made the contrary
way; in which the bricks are fpongy, light, and full
of cracks, partly through want of due working, and
partly by mixing of aflies and light fandy earth to make
it work eafy and with greater difpatch ; as alfo to fave
culm or coals in the burning. We may add, that for
bricks made of good earth, and well tempered, as they
become folid and ponderous, fo they take up a longer
time in drying and burning than the common ones ;
Brick.
B R I [ 1387 ] B R I
Brick, and that the well drying of bricks before they are burn-
ed, prevents their cracking and crumbling in the burn-
ing. •»
Bricks are burnt either in a kiln or clamp. Thofe
that are burnt in a kiln, are firft fet or placed in it; and
then the kiln being covered with pieces of bricks, they
put in fome wood to dry them with a gentle fire; and
this they continue till the bricks are pretty dry, which
is known by the fmoke’s turning from a darkifh colour
to tranfparent fmoke: they then leave off putting in
wood, and proceed to make ready for burning; which
is performed by putting in brufh, furze, fpray, heath,
brake, or fern-faggots : but before they put in any fag¬
gots, they dam up the mouth or mouths of the kiln
with pieces of bricks (which they call Jhinlog) piled up
one upon another, and clofe it up with wet brick-earth
inftead of mortar. The fhinlog they make fo high, that
there is but juft room above it to thruft in a faggot:
then they proceed to put in more faggots, till the kiln
and its arches look white, and the fire appears at the
top of the kiln; upon which they flacken the fire for an
hour, and let all cool by degrees. This they continue
to do, alternately heating and flacking, till the ware
be thoroughly burnt, which is ufually effected in 48
hours.
About London they chiefly burn in damps, built of
the bricks themfelves, after the manner of arches in
kilns, with a vacancy between each brick, for the fire
to play through ; but with this difference, that inftead
of arching, they fpan it over by making the bricks pro¬
ject one over another on both fides of the place, for the
wood and coals to lie in till they meet, and are bounded
by the bricks at the top, which clofe all up. The place
for the fuel is carried up ftraight on both Tides, till about
three feet high; then they almoft fill it with wood, and
over that lay a covering of fea-coal, and then overfpan
the arch ; but they ftrew fea-coal alfo over the clamp,
betwixt all the rows of bricks; laftly, they kindle the
wood, which gives fire to the coal; and when all is con-
fumed, then they conclude the bricks are fufliciently
burnt.
*' Vol. I. p. In Dr Percivals effays *, we have the following ex-
3®*- periment of the effedts of bricks on water. “ Two or
three pieces of common brick were fteeped four daysin
a bafon full of diftilled water. The water was then
decanted off, and examined by various chemical tefts.
It was immifcible with foap, ftruck a lively green with
fyrup of violets, was rendered flightly la&efcent by
the volatile alcali, and quite milky by the fixed alcali
and by a folution of faccharum faturni. The infufion
of tormentil root produced no change in it.” This ex¬
periment, he obferves, affords a ftriking proof of the
impropriety of lining wells with brick, a practice very
common in many places, and which cannot fail of ren¬
dering the water hard and unwholefome. Clay gene¬
rally contains a variety of heterogeneous matters. The
coloured loams often participate of bitumen, and the
ochre of iron. Sand and calcareous earth are ftill more
common ingredients in their compofition ; and the ex¬
periments of Mr Geoffry and Mr Pott prove, that the
earth of alum alfo may in large quantity be extra&ed
from clay. Now as clay is expofed to the open air for
a long fpace of time, is then moulded into bricks, and
burnt, this procefs refembles in many refpefts that by
which the alum-ftone is prepared. And it is probable
that the white 'efflorefcence which is frequently obfer-
vable on the furface of new bricks, is of an aluminous
nature. The long expofure of clay to the air before
it is moulded into bricks, the fulphureous exhalations
of the pit-coal ufed for burning it, together with the
fuffocating and bituminous vapour which arifes from the
ignited clay itfelf, fufficiently account for the combi¬
nation of a vitriolic acid with the earth of alum.
Oil c/’Br.icks, olive oil imbibed by the fubftance of
bricks, and afterwards diftilled from it. This oil was
once in great repute for curing many difeafes, but is
now juftly laid afide.
Layer, an artificer whofe bufinefs is to build
with bricks, or make brick work.
Bricklayers work, or bufinefs, in London, includes
tyling, walling, chimney work, and paving with bricks
and tyles. In the country it alfo includes the mafon’s
and plafterer’s bufinefs.
The materials ufed by brick-layers are bricks, tyles,
mortar, laths, nails, and tyle-pins. Their tools are a
brick trowel, wherewith to take up mortar; a brick-ax,
to cut bricks to the determined (hape; a faw, for faw-
ing bricks; a rub-ftone, on which to rub them; alfo a
fquare, wherewith to lay the bed or bottom, and face
or furface of the brick, to fee whether they are at right
angles ; a bevel, by which to cut the under fides of
bricks to the angles required; a fmall trannel of iron,
wherewith to mark the bricks; a float-ftone, with which
to rub a moulding of brick to the pattern defcribed ;
a banker, to cut the bricks on ; line-pins, to lay their
rows or courfes by ; plumb-rule, whereby to carry their
work upright; level, to conduct it horizontal; fquare,
to fet off right angles; ten-foot rod, wherewith to take
dimenfions; jointer, wherewith to run the long joints;
rammer, wherewith to beat the foundation ; crow and
pick-ax, wherewith to dig through walls.
The London brick-layers make a regular company,
which was incorporated in 1568; and confifts of a ma¬
tter, two wardens, 20 affiftants, and 78 on the livery.
Laying, the art of framing edifices of bricks.
Moxon hath an exprefs treatife on the art of brick¬
laying; in which he defcribes the materials, tools, and
method of working, ufed by brick-layers.
Great care is to be taken, that bricks be laid joint
on joint in the middle of the walls as feldom as may
be ; and that there be good bond made there, as well
as on the outfides. Some brick-layers, in working a
brick and half wall, lay the header on one fide of the
wall perpendicular on the header on the other fide, and
fo all along the whole courfe; whereas, if the header
on one fide of the wall were toothed as much as the
ftretcher on the other fide, it would be a ftronger tooth¬
ing, and the joints of the headers of one fide would be
in the middle of the headers of the courfe they lie upon
of the other fide. If bricks be laid in winter, let them
be kept as dry as poffible ; if in fummer, it will quit
coft to employ boys to wet them, for that they will then
unite with the mortar better than if dry, and will make
the work ftronger. In large buildings, or where it is
thought too much trouble to dip all the bricks feparate-
ly, water may be thrown on each courfe after they are
laid, as was done at the building the phyfician’s college,
by order of Dr Hooke. If bricks are laid in fummer,
they are to be-covered ; for if the mortar dries too ha-
ftily, it will not bind fo firmly to the bricks as when
, left
Brick.
B Pv I [ 1388 ] B R I
Bnc* left t0 dry more gradually. If the bricks be laid in
!! winter, they Ihould alfo be covered well, to protedf
n egroom ti,eln from ra;n> fnQWj anci fr0{l; which laft is a mortal
enemy to mortar, efpecially to all fuch as have been
wetted juft before the froft. aflaults it.
BiucK-TWtffer, is he who undertakes the making of
cricks. This is moftly performed at fome frnall di-
llance. from cities and towns ; and though fome, thro’
ignorance, look upon it as a very mean employ, becaufe
laborious, yet the matters about London, and other ca¬
pital cities, are generally men of fubftance.
BRICKING, among builders, the counterfeiting of
a brick-wall on plafter: which is done by fmearing it
over with red ochre, and making the joints with an
edged tool; thefe laft are afterwards filled with a fine
plafter.
BRIDE, a woman newly married. Among the
Greeks, it was cuftomary for the bride to be conducted
from her father’s houfe to her hufhand’s in a chariot,
the evening being chofen for that purpofe, to conceal
her blufhes; (he was placed in the middle, her huiband
fitting on one fide, and one of her moft intimate friends
on the other; torches were carried before her, and ftie
was entertained in the paflage with a fong fuitable to
the occafion. When they arrived at their journey’s end,
the axle-tree of the coach they rode in was burnt, to
fignify that the bride was never to return to her father’s
houfe.—Among the Romans, the bride was to feem to
be favifhed by force from her mother, in memory of the
rape of the Sabines under Romulus ; ftie was to be car¬
ried home in the night-time to the bridegroom’s houfe,
accompanied by three boys, one whereof carried a torch,
and the other two led the bride; a fpindle and diftaffbe-
ing carried with her: Ihe brought three pieces of money
called affes, in her hand to the bridegroom, whofe doors
on this occafion were adorned with flowers and branches
of trees: being here interrogated who (he was, (he was
to anfwer Caia, in memory of Caia Cecilia, wife of
Tarquin the Elder, who was an excellent lanifica or
fpjnftrefs; for the like reafon, before her entrance, (lie
lined the door-pofts with wool, and fmeared them with
greafe. Fire and water being fet on the threftiold, (lie
touched both ; but darting back from the door, refu-
fed to enter, till at length (he pafled the threfliold, be¬
ing careful to ftep over, without touching it: here the
keys were given her, a nuptial fupper was prepared for
her, and minftrels to divert her; (he was feated on the
figure of a priapus, and here the attendant boys re-
figned her to the pronuba, who brought her into the
nuptial chamber and put her to bed. This office was
to be performed by matrons who had only been once
married, to denote that the marriage was to be for per¬
petuity.
BRIDEGROOM, a man newly married, the fpoufe
of the bride.
The Spartan bridegrooms committed a kind of rape
upon their brides. For matters being agreed on between
them two, the woman that contrived and managed the
match, having (haved the bride’s hair clofe to her (kin,
drefled her up in man’s clothes, and left her upon a
mattrefs: this done, in came the bridegroom, in his u-
fual drefs, having fupped as ordinary, and dealing as
privately as he could to the room where the bride lay,
and untying her virgin girdle, took her to his embraces;
and having ftayed a (hort time with her, returned to
his companions, with whom he continued to fpend his Bridewell,
life, remaining with them by night as well as by day,
unlefs he dole a (hort vifit to his bride, which could not
be done without a great deal of cireumfpe&ion, and
fear of being difeovered. Among the Romans, the
bridegroom was decked to receive his bride; his hair
was combed and cut in a particular form; he had a co¬
ronet or chaplet on his head, and was dreffed in a white
garment.
By the ancient canons, the bridegroom was to for¬
bear the enjoyment of his bride the firft night, in ho¬
nour of the nuptial benediction given by the pried
on that day*. In Scotland, and perhaps alfo fome * John/.
parts of England, a cuftom called marchet, obtained; Ecd. Law.
by which the lord of the manor was entitled to the firft an- M°-
night’s habitation with his tenants brides f. I see' Mar.
BRIDEWELL, a work-houfe, or place of correc- c
tion for vagrants, (trumpets, and other diforderly per-
fons.
Thefe are made to work, being maintained with clo¬
thing and diet; and when it feemsgood to their gover¬
nors, they are fent bypafles into their native countries:
however, while they remain here, they are not only
made to work, but, according to their crimes, receive,
once a-fortnight, fuch a number of (tripes as the go¬
vernor commands. Yet to this hofpital feveral hopeful
and ingenious lads are put apprentices, and prove af¬
terwards honeft and fubftantial citizens.
BRIDGE, a work of mafonry or timber, confiding
of one or more arches built over a river, canal, or the
like, for the conveniency of palling the fame.
The firft Inventor of bridges, as well as of (hips and
crowns, is by fome learned men fuppofed to be Janus;
their reafon is, that on feveral ancient Greek, Sicilian,
and Italian coins, there are reprefented on one fide a
Janus, with two faces; and on the other a bridge, or
a crown, or a (hip.
Bridges are a fort of edifices very difficult to execute,
on account of the inconvenience of laying foundations
and walling under water. The earlieft rules and in-
ftrudlions relating to the building of bridges are given
by Leon Baptifta Alberti, Archit. 1. viii. Others were
afterwards laid down by Palladio, 1. iii. Serlio, 1. iii,
c. 4. and Scamozzi, 1. v. all of which are colle&ed by
M. Blondel, Cours cTArchit. p. 629, feq. The beft
of them are alfo given by Goldman, Baukurji, 1. iv.
c. 4. p. 134, and Flawkefmoor’s Hiftory of London
bridge, p. 26, feq. M. Gautier has a piece exprefs on
bridges, ancient and modern; Trait des Pantsy Paris
1716, i2mo.
The parts of a bridge are, The piers; the arches ;
the pavement, or way over for cattle and carriages; the
foot-way on each fide, for foot-paffengers; the rail or
parapet, which inclofes the whole ; and the butmentsor
ends of the bridge on the bank.
The conditions required in a bridge are. That it be
well-defigned, commodious, durable, and fuitably de¬
corated. The piers of (tone-bridges (hould be equal
in number, that there may be one arch in the middle,
where commonly the current is ftrongeft ; their thick-
nefs is not to be lefs than a fixth part of the fpan of
the arch, nor more than a fourth ; they are commonly
guarded in the front with angular fterlings, to break the
force of the current: the ftrongeft arches are thofe whofe
fweep is a whole femicircle; as the piers of bridges al¬
ways
13 R I [ 1389 ] B R I
ways diminifh the bed of a river, in cafe of inundations, deur, that, whether viewed from the water, or by the Bridge*
the" bed muft be funk or hollowed in proportion to the paflengers who walk over it, it fills the mind with an ~
fpacetaken up by the piers (as the waters gain in depth agreeable furprize. The femiodtangular towers which
what they lofe in breadth) which otherwife conduce to form the recefles of the foot-way, the manner of placing
walh away the foundation and endanger the piers: to the lamps, and the height of the baluftrade, are at once
prevent this, they fometimes diminifh the current, either the moil beautiful, and; in every other refpeft, the bed
by lengthening its courfe, or by making it more wind- contrived.
ing ; or by flopping the bottom with rows of planks, London bridge confifts of 20 locks or arches, 19 of
flakes, or piles, which break the current. which are open, and one filled up or obfcnred. It is
Among the Romans, the building and repairing of 900 feet long, 60 high, and 74 broad, having a draw¬
bridges was firfl committed to the pontifices or priefls; bridge in the middle, and almoft 20 feet aperture in
then to the cenfors, or curators of the roads; laflly, each arch. It is fupported by 18 piers, from 25 to 34
the emperors took the care of bridges into their own feet thick ; fo that the greatefl water-way when the
hands. Thus Antoninus Pius built the Pons Janicu- tide is above the flerlings is 450 feet, fcarce half the
lenfis of marble ; Gordian reflored the Pons Ceftius ; width of the river; and below the flerlings, the water-
and Adrian built a new one denominated from him. In way is reduced to 194 feet. Thus a river 900 feet
the middle age, bridge-building was reckoned among wide is here forced thro’ a channel of 194 feet. Lpn-
the a£ls of religion; and a regular order of Hofpital- don bridge was firfl built of timber, fome time before
lers was founded by St Benezet, towards the end of the the year 994, by a college of priefls, to whom the pro-
12th century, under the denomination of pontifices, or fits of the ferry of St Mary Overy’s had defcended; it
bridge-builders, whofe office it was to be affiflant to was repaired, or rather new built of timber, in 1163.
travellers, by making bridges, fettling ferries, and re- The flone-bridge was begun by king Henry in 1176,
ceiving flrangers in hofpitals, or houfes built on the and finifhed by king John in 1209. The architedt was
banks of rivers. We read of one hofpital of this kind Peter of.Colechurch, a priefl *. For the keeping it in * Ha-wkfm.
at Avignon, where the hofpitallers dwelt under the di- repair, a large houfe is allotted, with a great number of H'fi- °f Lon-
redtion of their firfl fuperior St Benezet. The Jefuit offices, and a vail revenue in land, &c. The chief of- ion bridSe>
Raynaldus has a treatife exprefs on St John the bridge- ficers are two bridge-mailers, chofen yearly out of the P' ’
builder. body of the livery. The defedls of this bridge are the
Among the bridges of antiquity, that built by Tra- narrownefs and irregularity of the arches, and the large-
jan over the Danube is allowed to be the moll magnifi- nefs of the piers, which, together with the flerlings,
cent. See Architecture, n° 138. turn the current of the Thames into many frightful ca-
Among modern bridges, that of Weflminfler, built taradls, which muft obftrudl and endanger the naviga-
over the river Thames, may be accounted one of the tion through the bridge; to whiph may be added, the
fineft in the world : it is 44 feet wide, a commodious narrownefs of the bridge above, occafioned by the houfes
foot-way being allowed for paffengers, on each fide, of built on it: but it is pretty certain that there were no
about feven feet broad, raifed above the road allowed houfes on the bridge for upwards of 200 years; fince
for carriages, and paved with broad moor-ftones, while we read of a tilt and tournament held on it in 139^.
the fpace left between them is fufficient to admit three The fterlings have been added, to hinder the piers from
carriages and two horfes to go a-breaft, without any being undermined by the rotting of the piles on which,
danger. Its extent from wharf to wharf is 1220 or they are built: for by means of thefe fterlings the piles
1223 feet, being full 300 feet longer than London- are kept conftantly wet; and thus the timber is kept
bridge. The free water-way under the arches of this from decaying, which always happens when it is fuf.
bridge is 870 feet, being four times as much as the free fered to be alternately wet and dry.
water-way left between the fterlings of London-bridge: Blackfriars bridge, fituated near the centre of the
this difpofition, together with the gentlenefs of the city, and built according to a plan drawn by Mr Ro-
llream, are the chief reafons why no feniible fall of wa- bert Mylne, is an exceeding light and elegant ftruc-
ter can ever ftop, or in the leaft endanger, the fmalleft ture. The arches are only 9 in number; but very
boats in their paffage through the arches. large, and of an elliptical form. The centre-arch is
It confifts of 13 large and 2 fmall arches, together too feet wide ; thofe on the fides decreafe in a regu-
with 14 intermediate piers. lar gradation ; and the width of that near the abutment
Each pier terminates with a faliant right angle againft at each end is 70 feet. It has an open balluftrade at
either dream: the two middle piers are each 17 feet in the top, and a foot-way on each fide, with room for
thicknefs at the fpringing of the arches, and contain three carriages abreaft in the middle. It has alfo re-
3000 cubic feet, or near 200 tons, of folid ftone; and ceffes on the fidts for the foot palfengers, each fup-
the others decreafe in width equally on each fide by one ported by two lofty Ionic columns,
foot. The longeft bridge in England is that over the Trent
All the arches of this^ bridge are femicircular; they at Burton, built by Bernard abbot of Burton, in the
all fpring from about two feet above low-water mark; 12 th century; it is all of fquared free ftone, ftrong and
the middle arch is 76 feet wide, and the others decreafe lofty, 1545 feet in length, and confiding of 34 arches,
in breadth equally on each fide by 4 feet. Yet this comes far ffiort of the wooden bridge over the
This bridge is built of the belt materials; and the Drave, which according to Dr BroVra is at leaft five
fize and difpofition of thefe materials are fuch, that miles long.-
there is no falfe bearing, or fo much as a falfe joint in But the moft fingular bridge in Europe is that built
the whole ftru&ure; befides that, it is built in a neat over the river Tave in Glam organ (hire. It confifts of
and elegant tafte, and with fuch fimpltcity and gran- one ftupenduous arch, the diameter of which is 17 s feet,
Vot. II. 8 N the
Badge.
B R I [ 1390 ] B R I
Bridge, the chord 140, the altitude 35, and the abutments 32.
 This magnificent arch was built by William Edward,
a poor country mafon, in the year 1756.
The famous bridge of Venice, called the Rialto, con-
fifts of but a fingle arch, and that a fiat or low one, and
palfed for a malierpiece of art. It was built in 1591,
on the defign of Michael Angelo; the fpan of the arch
is f^t, and its height above the water only 23.—
Poulet mentions a bridge of a fingle arch in the city of
Munller in Bothnia, much bolder than that of the Ri¬
alto at Venice. But thefe are nothing to a bridge in
China, built from one mountain to another, confiding
of a fingle arch 400 cubits long, and 500 in height,
whence it is called the flying-bridge: a figure of it is
given in the Philofophical Tranfadions. Kircher alfo
fpeaks of a bridge in the fame country 360 perches long,
fupported by 300 pillars.
Bridges are either built of done or timber, as is judged
mod convenient. See Architecture, n° 121, &c.
Rujhen Bridge, Pont de jonc, is made of large {heaves
of rulhes growing in marfiiy grounds, which they cover
with boards or planks; they ferve for crofiing ground
that is boggy, miry, or rotten. The Romans had alfo
a fort of fubitaneous bridges made by the foldiers, of
boats, or fometimes of calks, leathern bottles, or bags,
or even of bullocks bladders blown up and faftened to¬
gether, called afeogafri. M. Couplet gives the figure of
a portable bridge 200 feet long, eafily taken afunder
and put together again, and which 40 men may carry.
Frezier fpeaks of a wonderful kind of bridge at Apu-
rima in Lima, made of ropes, formed of the bark of a
tree.
Pendent or Hanging Bridges, called alfo Philofophi¬
cal Bridges, are thofe not fupported either by polls or
pillars, but hung at large in the air, only fupported at
the two ends or hutments. Inllances of fuch bridges
are given by Palladio and others. Dr Wallis gives the
defign of a timber-bridge 70 feet long, without any
pillars, which may be ufeful in fome places where pil¬
lars cannot be conveniently erefted. Dr Plot allures us,
that there was formerly a large bridge over the callle-
ditch at Tutbury in Staffordlhire, made of pieces of tim¬
ber, none much above a yard long, and yet not fup¬
ported underneath either with pillars or archwork, or
any fort of prop whatever.
Draw-Bridge, one that is faftened with hinges at
one end only, fo that the other may be drawn up; in
which cafe, the bridge Hands upright, to hinder the
palfage of a ditch or moat.
/■/^-Bridge, or Pons duftorius, an appellation gi¬
ven to a bridge made of pontoons, leather boats, hol¬
low beams, calks, or the like, laid on a river, and co¬
vered with planks, for the palfage of an army.
Flying-Bridge (pont volant) more particularly de¬
notes a bridge compofed of one or two boats joined to¬
gether by a fort of flooring, and furrounded with a rail
or balluftrade; having alfo one or more malls, to which
is faftened a cable, fupported, at proper diftances, by
boats,. and extended to an anchor, to which the other
end is faftened, in the middle of the water: by w'hich
contrivance, the bridge becomes moveable, like a pen¬
dulum from one fide of the river to the other, without
any other help than the rudder.—Such bridges fome¬
times alfo confill of two ftories, for the quicker palfage
ef a great number of men, or that both infantry and
cavalry may pafs at the fame time.
In Plate LXV. is reprefented a flying-bridge of this ~
kind. Fig. 2. is a perfpeftive view of the courfe of a
river and its two banks, a, b, c, d, Two long boats or
batteaux, which fupport the flying-bridge. GH, KL,
two malls joined at their tops by two tranfverfe pieces,
or beams, and a central arch, and fupported in a verti¬
cal polition by two pair of Ihrouds and two chains
LN, HR. M, a horfe, or crofs-piece, over which the
rope or cable M, F, e, f, that rides or holds the bridge
againft the current, paftes. E, a roll or windlafs round
which the rope M, F, e, f, is wound, a, b. The rud¬
ders. AB, and CD, two portions of bridges of boats
faftened to the bank on each fide, and between which
the flying bridge moves in palling from one fide of the
river to the other. e,f. Chains fupported by two punts,
or final! flat-bottomed boats: there are five or fix of
thefe punts at about 40 fathoms from one another. The
firft, or fartheft from the bridge, is moored with an¬
chors in the middle of the bed of the river.
Fig. 3. Is a plan of the fame bridge, a, b, c, d, The
two boats that fupport it. K and G, the two mads.
K F G, the tranfverfe piece or beam over which the
cable paffes. E, the roll, or windlafs, round which the
rope or cable is wound, a, b. The rudders. O, a boat.
e, One of the punts, or fmall flat-bottomed boats that
fiipport the chain. N, N, pumps for extracting the wa¬
ter out of the boats. P, P, capllans.
Fig. 4. Lateral elevation of the bridge, a, c, One
of the boats, b. The rudder. E, The roll, or wind¬
lafs. M, The horfe, or crofs-piece. G H, One of the
malls. E, M, H, F, The cable. In this view the ba-
lullrade running along the fide of the bridge is plainly
exhibited.
Fig. 5. Elevation of the hinder or Hern part of the
bridge, a, b. The two boats. G H, K L, The two
malls. H L, The upper tranfverfe beam, p, q. The
lower tranfverfe beam, or that over which the cable
pafies, and on which it Hides from one mall to the o-
ther; this beam is therefore always kept well greafed.
p, k, q,g, Shrowds extending from the fides of the bridge
to the tops of the malls. M, The horfe or crofs-piece
over which the cable pafles to the roll or windlafs E.
Bridges of boats are either made of copper or wooden
boats, faftened with Hakes, or anchors, and laid over
with planks. One of the moll notable exploits of Ju¬
lius Ccefar was the expeditious making a bridge of boats
over the Rhine. Modern armies carry copper or tin
boats, called pontoons, to be in readinefs for making
bridges; feveral of thefe being joined fide by fide till
they reach acrofs the river, and planks laid over them,
make a plane for the men to march on. There are fine
bridges of boats at Beaucaire and Rouen, which rife
and fall with the water; and that at Seville is faid to ex¬
ceed them both. The bridge of boats at Rouen, built
in lieu of the ftately Hone-bridge erefted there by the
Romans, is reprefented by a modern writer as the won¬
der of the prefent age. It always floats, and rifes and
falls with the tide, or as the land-waters fill the river.
It is near 300 yards long, and is paved with Hone, juli
as the ftreets are ; carriages with the greateft burdens
go over it with eafe, and men and horfes with fafety,
though there are no rails on either hand. The boats
are very firm, and well moored with llrong chains, and
the whole well looked after, and conltautly repaired,
though
B R I [ 1391 ] B R I
Bridge, though now very old.
r" " Bridge of Communication, is that made over a river,
by which two armies, or forts, which are feparated by
that river, have a free communication with one ano¬
ther.
Floating-HtRWGZ, is ordinarily made of two fmall
bridges, laid one over the other, in fuch manner, as that
the uppermoft ftretfches and runs out, by the help of
certain cords running through pullies placed along the
fides of the under-bridge, which pulh it forwards till
the end of it joins the place it is deJigned to be fixed on.
When thefe two bridges are ftretched out to their full
length, fo that the two middle ends meet, they are not
to be above four or five fathoms long; becaufe, if lon¬
ger, they will break. Their chief ufe is for furpriiing
out-works, or polls that have but narrow moats. In
the memoirs of the royal academy of fciences wre find
an ingenious contrivance of a floating bridge, which
lays itfelf on the other fide of the river.
Bridge, in gunnery, the twm pieces of timber which
go between the two tranfums of a gun-carriage, on
which the bed refts.
Bridge, in mufic, a term for that part of a ftringed
inftrument over which the firings are ftretched. The
bridge of a violin is about one inch and a quarter high,
and near an inch and a half long.
Bridge-7Vu>», the capital of the ifland of Barba-
does, fituated in W. Long. 6i°. N. Lat. 130. It
Hands in the inmoft part of Carlifle bay. This origi¬
nally was a moft unwholefome fituation, and was chofen
entirely for its convenience for trade; but is now deemed
to be as healthy as any place in the illand. The town
itfelf would make a figure in any European kingdom. It
is fa id to contain 1500 houfes, and fome contend that
it is the fineft the Britilh poflefs in America. The
houfes in general are well-built and finilhed, and their
rents as high as fuch houfes would let for in London.
The wharfs and quays are well defended from the fea,
and very convenient. The harbour is fecure from the
north-eaft wind, which is the conftant trade-wind there;
andCarlifle-bay is capable of containing 500 Ihips, and
is formed by Needham and Pelican points. But what
renders Bridge-town the fineft and moft defirable town
in the Weft Indies is its fecurity againft any attacks
from foreign enemies. It is defended on the weft ward
by James-fort, which mounts 18 guns. Near this is
Willoughby’s fort, which is built upon a tongue of
land running into the fea, and mounts 12 guns. Need¬
ham's fort has three batteries, and is mounted with 20
guns; and St Anne’s fort, which is the ftrongeft in the
ifland, Hands more within land. In fhort, according
to Mr Douglas, there is all along the lee-ftiore a breaft-
work and trench, in which, at proper places, were 29
forts and batteries, having 308 cannon mounted, while
the windward ftiore is fecured by high rocks, fteep cliffs,
and foul ground. Such was the ftate of the fortifica¬
tions in 1717; but fince that time they have been much
ttrengthened. Bridge-town is deftitute of few elegan¬
cies or conveniencies of life that any city of Europe can
afford. The church of St Michael exceeds many En-
glilh cathedrals in beauty, largenefs, and conveniency;
and has a fine organ, bells, and clock. Here alfo is a
free-fchool for the inftruftion of poor boys, an hofpital,
and a college. The latter was eredled by the fociety
for propagating the Chriftian religion, in purfuance of
the will of colonel Chriftopher Codrington, who left Biidgenorth
about 2000/. a-year for its endow'ment, for maintain-
ing profeffors and fcholars to ftudy and pra&ife divi- ‘ '
nity, furgery, and phyfic. See Codrington.
BRIDGENORTH, a town of ShropftuYe in Eng¬
land, feated on the river Severn, which divides it into
two parts ; but they are united by a handfome ftone
bridge, and thefe are called the u/’/’er and the lonuer
town. It is faid to have been built by Ethelfleda, wi¬
dow of Etheldred king of the Mercians, about the year
675. Robert de Belizma, fon of Robert de Montgo¬
mery, built the caftle, and maintained it againft king
Henry I. by which means it was forfeited to the crown,
and remained fo till the reign of Richard III. who gave
it to John Sutton lord Dudley. This town has un¬
dergone feveral fieges ; and in the civil war it fuffered
very much, many fine buildings, and the whole town,
being almoft deftroyed by fire, when Sir Lewis Kirke
defended the citadel for king Charles. There are now
no other remains of the caftle than a fmall part of one
of the towers, and a place yet called the cajile, within
the walls of the old one; within which Hands one of
the churches, dedicated to St Mary Magdalen, which
was made a free chapel, and exempted from epifcopal
jurifdi&ion. The other church is at the north end of
the towm, on the higheft part of the hill, near to whofe
church-yard flood a college, which was deftroyed by
fire in the civil wars, together with the church juft men¬
tioned ; which has been fince rebuilt by the inhabitants.
On the weft bank of the river are the remains of an an¬
cient and magnificent convent, under which are feveral
remarkable vaults and caverns running to a great length.
Part of the cow-gate ftreet is a rock, rifing perpendi¬
cularly, in which are feveral houfes and tenements that
make a very agreeable though grotefque appearance.
In many other places there are alfo caves and dwellings
for families, in the rocks; and indeed the whole town
has an appearance furprifingly Angular. W. Long. 2.
30. N. Lat. 52. 40.
BRIDGEWATER, a town of Somerfetftiire in
England, feated on the river Parret, over which there
is a ftone bridge, near which fliips of too tons burden
may ride with eafe. It is a large, well frequented place,
with the title of a duchy, and fends two members to
parliament. There are in it feveral large inns, and the
market is well fupplied with provifions. W.Long. 3.0..
N. Lat. 51. 15.
BRIDLE, in the menage, a contrivance made of
(traps or thongs of leather and pieces of iron, in order
to keep a horfe in fubjeftion and obedience.
The feveral parts of a bridle are the bit, or fnaffle ;
the head-ftall, or leathers from the top of the head to
the rings of the bit; the fillet, over the fore-head and
under the fore-top; the throat-band, which buttons
from the head-band under the throat; the reins, or long
thongs of leather that come from the rings of the bit,
and being call over the horfe’s head, the rider holds
them in his hand; the nofe-band, going through loops,
at the back of the head-ftall, and buckled under the
cheeks ; the trench j the cavefan ; the martingal; and.
the chaff halter.
Pliny affures us that one Pelethronius firft invented
the bridle and faddle; though Virgil aferibes the in¬
vention to the Lapithae, to whom he gives the epithet
Fclethronii, from a mountain in Theffaly named Pekr
8 N 2 throniuW}
B R 1 [ 1392 1 B R I
BriJon thronium, where hones were firft begun to be broken.
' I! The firft horfemen, not being acquainted with the art
^ _ _ of governing horfes with bridles, managed them only
with a rope or a fwitch, and the accent of the voice.
This was the pra&ice of the Numidians, Getulians,
Libyans, and Maffilians. The Roman youth alfo learn¬
ed the art of fighting without bridles, which was an ex-
ercife or leffon in the menage; and hence it is, that on
the Trajan column, foldiers are reprefented riding at
full fpeed without any bridles on.
aScoM^-Bridle. See Brank.
BRIDON, or Snaffle, after the Englilh falhion,
is a very flender bit-mouth, without any branches. The
Englifh make much ufe of them, and fcarcely ufe any
true bridles except in the fervice of war. The French
call them bridons, by way of diftindlion from bridles.
BRIDLINGTON, a fea-port town in the eaft ri¬
ding of Yorklhire in England. It is feated on a creek of
the fea near Flamborough-head, having a commodious
quay for fhips to take in their lading. It has a fafe
harbour, and is a place of good trade. It is more ge¬
nerally known by the name of Burlington, as it gives
title to an earl of that name. E. Long. o. 10. N. Lat.
54. 15.
BRIDPORT, a town of Dorfetlhire in England.
It has a low dirty fituation between two rivers, which,
at a little diftance, joining a fmall ftream, formerly made
a convenient harbour; but is now quite choked up with
fand. It fends two members to parliament, who are
chofen by the inhabitants who are houfekeepers. It is
noted for making of ropes and cables for (hipping;
whence arifes a proverb of a man that is hanged, that
he is Jlabbed 'with a Bridport dagger. W. Long. 3. o.
N. Lat. 50. 40.
BRIEF, in law, an abridgement of the client’s cafe,
made out for the inftruftion of council on a trial at
law; wherein the cafe of the plaintiff, &c. is to be briefly
but fully ftated: the proofs mull be placed in due or¬
der, and proper anfwers made to whatever may be ob¬
jected to the client’s caufe by the oppofite fide; and
herein great care is requifite, that nothing be omitted,
to endanger the caufe.
Brief, in Scots law, a writ ifiued from the chan¬
cery, directed to any judge-ordinary, commanding and
authorifing that judge to call a jury to inquire into the
cafe mentioned in the brief, and upon their verdid to
pronounce fentence.
y^pojiolical letters which the pope difpatches
to princes, or other magiftrates, relating to any public
affair.—Thefe briefs are diftinguifhed from bulls, in re¬
gard the latter are more ample, and always written on
parchment, and fealed with lead or green wax; whereas
briefs are very concife, written on paper, fealed with red
wax, and with the feal of the fifherman, or St Peter in
a boat.
BRIEG, a town of Silefia in Germany, fituated in
E. Long. 17. 35. N. Lat. 50. 40. It might have paf-
fed for a hapdfome place before the laft fiege; the
caflle, the college, and the arfenal, being very great
ornaments, and moft of the houfes very well built. But
the Pruffians, who befieged it in 1741, threw 2172
bombs into it, and 4714 cannon bullets, which reduced
a great part i>f the town to afhes, and quite ruined a
wing of the xallle. It was obliged to furrender, after
fuftaining feven days continual fire. The Pruffians, to
whom this place was ceded by the peace, have augment. Brkl
ed the fortifications, and built a new fuburb.—The II
town ftands upon the Oder; on the other fide of which BnH‘l(!e-
there are plenty of fallow-deer, and large forefts of
beech and oak trees. They have a yearly fair, at which
they fell above 12,000 horned cattle. Since 1728, they
have begun to manufacture fine cloth.
BRIEL, a maritime town of the United Provinces,
and capital of the ifland of Vuorn. It was one of the
cautionary towns which was delivered into the hands of
queen Elizabeth, and garrifoned by the Englifh during
her reign and part of the next. The Dutch took it
from the Spaniards in 1572, which was the foundation
of their republic. It is feated at the mouth of the ri¬
ver Meufe, in E. Long. 3. 56. N. Lat. 51. 53.
BRIESCIA, a palatinate in the duchy of Lithua¬
nia, in Poland. The name given to it by fome is Po-
lejia. It is bounded on the north, by Novogrode and
Troki; on the well, by thofe of Bielfko and Lublin;
on the fouth, by that of Chelm and upper Volhinia;
and on the eaft, by the territory of Rziczica. This
province is of confiderable extent from eaft to weft, and
is watered by the rivers Bug and Pripefe: it is full of
woods and marfhes ; and there are lakes that yield large
quantities of fifh, that are faked by the inhabitants,
and fent into the neighbouring provinces.
BRIEUX (St), a town of France, in upper Brit¬
tany, with a bifhop’s fee. It is feated in a bottom, fur-
rounded with mountains, which deprive it of a profpe£l
of the fea, though it is not above a mile and a quarter
from it, and there forms a fmall port. The churches,
ftreets, and fquares, are tolerably handfome ; but the
town is without walls and ditches. The church of St
Michael is in the fuburb of the fame name, and is the
largeft in the place. The convent of the Cordeliers is
well built, and the garden is fpacious. The college,
which is very near, is maintained by the town for the
inftruCtion of youth. W. Long. 2. 58. N. Lat. 48. 33.
BRIG, or Brigantine, a merchant-fhip with two
mafts. This term is not univerfally confined to veffels
of a particular conftruftion, or which’are mailed and
rigged in a manner different from all others. It is va-
rioufty applied, by the mariners of different European
nations, to a peculiar fort of veffel of their own marine.
Amongft Britifh feamen, this veffel is diftinguifhed by
having her mainfail fet nearly in the plane of her keel ;
whereas the mainfails of larger fhips are hung athwart,
or at right angles with the (hip’s length, and faftened
to a yard which hangs parallel to the deck: but in a
brig, the foremofl edge of the mainfail is faftened in
different places to hoops which encircle the main-maft,
and Aide up and down it as the fail is hoifted or lower¬
ed: it is extended by a gaff above, and a boom below.
BRIGADE, in the military art, a party or divifion
of a body of foldiers, whether horfe or foot, under the
command of a brigadier.—An army is divided into bri¬
gades of horfe and brigades of foot: a brigade of horfe
is a body of eight or ten fquadrons ; a brigade of foot
confifls of four, five, or fix battalions. The eldeft bri¬
gade has the right of the firft line, and the fecond the
right of the fecond; the two next take the left of the
two lines, and, the youngeft (land in the centre.
RkigAm-Major, is an officer appointed by the bri¬
gadier, to affift him in the management and ordering
of his brigade.
BRIGA-
Plate IjXV".
r S/y. /. JjoS e>r(2c .
Skr.cS.
<2220e///jt
Bridge.
m&t
B R I [ 1393 ] B R I
IBrigidier BRIGADIER, is the general officer who has the
Jl -command of a brigade. The eldeft colonels are gene-
‘ rally advanced to this poft. He that is upon duty is
brigadier of the day. They march at the head of their
own brigades, and are allowed a ferjeant and ten men
of their own brigade for their guard.
Brigadiers, or Sub-brigadiers, are pofts in the
horfe-guards.
BRIGANDINE, a coat of mail^ a kind of ancient
defenlive armour, confiding of thin jointed fcales of
plate, pliant and eafy to the body.
BRIGANTIA, or Brigantium, (anc. geog.), a
town of Vindelicia; now Bregentz, in Tyrol, at the
See Bre- ea{^ en(j Gf the lake of Condance*.—Another
er z' tium- in the Alpes Cottias; which lad is probably Bri-
See ’Brian- ancon, a town on the borders of Dauphiny f.
BRIGANTINE. See Brig.
BRIGANTINUS lacus, (anc. geog.), a lake of
Rhaetia, or Vindelicia which Tacitus includes in Rhse-
tia. Ammian calls the lake Brigantia. It took its
name either from the Brigantii, the people inhabiting
on it, or from the adjoining town. Now the lake of
Confiance, or Bodenzee.
Brigantinus Partus, (anc. geog.), a port of the hi¬
ther Spain ; fo called from Flavium Brigantium. Now
* See Corun- £/ Puerto de la Corunna, commonly the Groyne*.
BRIGG, by fome called Glantford Bridges, a town
of England, in Lincolnfhire, feated on the river Ankam.
W. Long. o. 20. N. Lat. 53. 40.
BRIGGS (Henry), one of the greated mathemati¬
cians in the 16th century,' was born at Warley Wood
in the paridi of Halifax in Yorkdiire, in 1556. In
1592, he was made examiner and ledturer in mathe¬
matics, and foon after, reader of the phyfic le&ure
founded by Dr Linacer. When Grediam college in
London was edablilhed, he was chofen the fird pro-
feffor of geometry there, about the beginning of March
1596. In 1609, Mr Briggs contra&ed an intimacy
with the learned Mr James Udier afterwards archbilhop
of Armagh, which continued many years by letters,
two of which, written by our author, are yet extant.
In one of thefe letters, dated in Augud 1610, he tells
his friend he was engaged in the fubjedt of eclipfes ;
and in the other, dated March 10th 1615, he acquaints
him with his being wholly employed about the noble
invention of logarithms, then lately difcovered, in the
improvement of which he had afterwards a large (hare.i
In 1619, he was made Savilian profeffor of geometry
at Oxford ; and refigned his profefforfhip of Grediam
college on the 25th of July 1620. Soon after his going
to Oxford, he was incorporated mader of arts in that
univerfity; where he continued till his death, which
happened on the 26th of January 1630. Dr Smith
gives hint the charadler of a man of great probity ; a
contemner of riches, and contented with his own da-
tion ; preferring a dudious retirement to all the fplen-
did circumdances of life. He wrote, 1. Logarithmo-
rumchiliasprima. 2. Arithmetica logarithmica. 3. Pri-
gonometria Britannica. 4. A. fmall tradt on the north-
wed padage ; and fome other works.
Briggs (William), an eminent phyfician in the
latter end of the 17th century, was the fon of Augudin
Briggs, Efq; four times member for the city of Nor¬
wich, where our author was born. He dudied at the
univerfity of Cambridge; and his genius leading him
to the dudy of phyfic, he travelled into France, where Briglnhelm.
he attended the ledlures of the famous anatomid M.
Vieuffens, at Montpelier. After his return, he pub- *?fl^lttiri5;'
lidied his Ophthalmographia in 1676. The year fol¬
lowing he was created dodlor of medicine at Cambridge,
and foon after was made fellow of the college of phy-
ficians at London. In 1682, he quitted his fellow-
fliip to his brother ; and the fame year, his Theory of
vifton was publidied by Hooke. The enfuing year he
fent to the royal fociety a continuation of that difcourfe,
which was publidied in their Tranfadlions; and the fame
year, he was by king Charles II. appointed phyfician
to St Thomas’s hofpital. In 1684, he communicated
to the royal fociety two remarkable cafes relating to
vifion, which were likewife printed in their Tranfac-
tions ; and in 1685 he publifhed a Latin verfion of his
Theory of vifton, at the defire of Mr Newton, afterwards
Sir Ifaac, profeffor of mathematics at Cambridge, with
a recommendatory epidle from him prefixed to it. He
was afterwards made phyfician in ordinary to king
William, and continued in great edeem for his fldll in
his profeffion till he died Sepr. 4,h, 1704.
BRIGHTHELMSTONE, a fea-port town ofSuf-
fex in England. It is a pretty large and populous
town; but ill built, inhabited chiefly by fifhermen, and
has a pretty good harbour. W. Long. o. 10. N. Lat.
50. 50. It w'-as at this place king Char les II. em¬
barked for France, 1651, after the battle of Worceder.
BRIGITTINS, or Bridge-tins, more properly
Brigittins, a religious order, denominated from their
founder St Bridgit or Birgit, a Swedifii lady in the
i4rh century: whom fome reprefent as a queen ; but
Fabricius, on better grounds, as a princefs, the daugh¬
ter of king Birgenes, legiflator of Upland, and famous
for her revelations. The Brigittins are fometimes alfo
called the Order of our Saviour ; it being pretended,
that Chrid himfelf dictated the rules and conditinions
obferved by them to St Bridget. In the main, the
rule is that of St Augudin ; only with certain addi¬
tions fuppofed to have been revealed by Chrid, whence
they alfo denominate it the Rule of our Saviour.—The
fird monadery of the Bridgetin order was eredled by
the found refs about the year 1344, in the diocefe of
Lincopen ; on the model of which all the red were
formed. The conditution of thefe houfes was very fin-
gular: though the order was principally intended for
nuns, who were to pay a fpecial homage to the holy
Virgin, there are are alfo many friars of it, to minidt r
to them fpiritual afiiflance. The number of nuns is
fixed at 60 in each monadery, and that of friars to 13,
anfwerable to the number of apodles, of whom St Paul
made the 1.3th; befides which there are to be four dea¬
cons, to reprefent the four do£lors of the church, St
Ambrofe, St Augudin, St Gregory, and St Jerome;
and eight lay-brothers ; making together, fays our au¬
thor, the number of Chrid’s 72 difciples.—The order
being indituted in honour of the Virgin, the direction
is committed to an abbefs, who is fuperior not only
of the nuns, but alfo of the friars, who are obliged to
obey her. Each houfe confids of two convents or mo-
naderies, feparately inclofed, but having one church in
common; the nuns being placed above, and the friars on
the ground. The Bridgetins profefs great mortifica¬
tion, poverty, and felf-denial, as well as devotion ;
and they are not to poffefs any thing they can call their
own
B R I [ U94 J B R I
Brignoles own, not fomuch as an halfpenny ; nor even to touch
_ . It money on any account. This order fpread much thro’
Sweden, Germany, the Netherlands, &c. In England
we* read but of one monaftery of Brigittins, and this
built by Henry V. in 1413, oppofite to Richmond,
now called Sion houfe ; the ancient inhabitants of which,
fince the diflblution, are fettled at Lilbon. The re¬
venues were reckoned at 1495 1. per annum.
BRIGNOLES, a town of France, in Provence, fa¬
mous for its prunes. It is feated among mountains,
in a pleafant country, 275 miles S. S. E. of Paris.
E. Long. 6. 15. N. Lat. 43. 24.
BRIHUEGA, a town of Spain, in New Caftile,
where general Stanhope with the Englilh army were
taken prifoners, after they had feparated themfelves
from that commanded by count Staremberg. It is
feated at the foot of the mountain Tajuna, 43 miles
north-eaft of Madrid. W. Long. 3. 20. N. Lat. 41. o.
BRIL (Matthew and Paul), natives of Antwerp,
and good painters.—Matthew was born in the year
1550, and itudied for the moft part at Rome. He
was eminent for his performances in hiltory and land-
fcape, in the galleries of the Vatican ; where he was
employed by Pope Gregory XIII. He died in 1584,
being no more than 34 years of age.—Paul was born
in 1554; followed his brother Matthew to Rome;
painted feveral things in conjunction with him ; and,
after his deceafe, brought himfelf into credit by his
landfcapes, but efpecially by thofe which he compofed in
his latter time. The invention in them was more plea¬
fant, the difpofition more noble, all the parts more a-
greeable, and painted with a better gufto, than his
earlier productions in this way ; which was owing to
his having itudied the manner of Hanibal Carrache,
and copied fome of Titian’s works in the fame kind.
He was much in favour with Pope Sixtus V.; and for
his fucceffor Clement VIII. painted the famous piece,
about 68 feet long, wherein the faint of that name is
reprefented call into the fea with an anchor about his
neck. He died at Rome in the year 1626, aged 72.
BRILLIANT, in a general fenfe, fomething that
has a bright and lucid appearance.
Brilliant, in the menage. Abriik, high mettled,
{lately horfe is called brilliant, as having a railed neck ;
3 fine motion ; and excellent haunches, upon which he
rifes, though ever fo little put on.
Brilliants, a name given to diamonds of the fined
cut. See Diamond.
BRIM, denotes the outmoft verge or edge, efpecially
of round things. The brims of vefiels are made to
proje£l a little over, to hinder liquors, in pouring out,
from running down the fide of the veffel. The brim¬
ming of veifels was contrived by the ancient potters,
in imitation of the fupercilium or drip of the cornices
of columns : it is done by turning over fome of the
double matter when the work is on the wheel.
Brim, in country affairs. A fow is faid to brim or
to go to brim, when file is ready to take the boar.
BRIMSTONE. See Sulphur.
Brimstone Medals, Figures, &c. may be caft: in
the following manner. Melt half a pound of brimftone
over a gentle fire : with this mix half a pound of fine
vermilion ; and when you have cleared the top, take
it off the fire, ftir it well together, and it will diffolve
like oil; then caft it into the mould, which Ihould be
firft anointed with oil. When cool, the figure may Brin
be taken out; and in cafe it fliould change to a yellow-
irti colour, you need only wipe it over with aqua fortis,  —
and it will look like the fineft coral *. * Smith's
BRIN, a ftrong town of Bohemia, in Moravia. It Laboratory,
is pretty large, and well built; the affembly of the p>
flates is held alternately there and at Olmutz. The
caftle of Spilberg is on an eminence, out of the town,
and is its principal defence. It was invefted by the
king of Pruffia in 1742, but he was obliged to raife
the liege. It is near the river Swart, in E. Long.7. 8.
N. Lat. 49. 8.
BRINDISI, an ancient celebrated town of Italy,
in the Terra d’Otranto, and kingdom of Naples, with
an archbilhop’s fee. It has a caftle built in the fea, at
the entrance of the port, which is extremely ftrong,
aud is alfo defended by two forts. Its territory has
whole forefts of olive trees. E. Long. 18. 5. N. Lat.
40. 52.
BRINE, or Pickle ; water replete with falinepar¬
ticles.
BRiNE-IT/z/er, a fait water, which, being boiled,
turns into fait. See Salt.
Brine taken out of brine-pits, or brine-pans, ufed
by fome for curing or pickling of fifh, without boil¬
ing the fame into fait; and rock-falt, without refining
it into white fait; are prohibited by 1 Ann. cap. xxi.
BaiNE-Spr/W/, are fountains which flow with falt-
water inftead of frelh. Of thefe there are a good number
in South Britain, but though not peculiar to this illand,
are far from being common in the countries on the con¬
tinent. There are fome of them in feveral different coun¬
ties ; and perhaps, on a duefearch, others might be dif-
covered *. The moft remarkable of thefe already known * Campbell's
are, one at Eaft-Chennoek in Somerfetlhire, about Political
20 miles from the fea. Another at Leamington in Survey,
Warwickfhire, very near the river Learn; which, how- v°hl.p.
ever, is but weak. Such a fpring likewife runs into the
river Cherwell in Oxfordfhire, and feveral more in
Weftmoreland and Yorklhire; but as they are but
poor, and the fuel in moft of thofe countries fcarce
and dear, no fait is prepared from them. At Barrow-
dale near Grange, three miles from Kefwick in Cum¬
berland, a pretty ftrong fpring rifes in a level near a
mofs, 16 gallons of the water of which yield one of
pure fait ; which is the more remarkable, when it is
confidered that the fame quantity of fait cannot be ob¬
tained from lefs than 22 gallons of the waters of the
German ocean. At a place called Salt-water Haugh
near Butterpy in the biftiopric of Durham there are a
multitude of fait fprings which rife in the middle of
the river Weare, for the fpace of about 40 yards in
length, and 10 in breadth; but particularly one out
of a rock, which is fo ftrong that in a hot fummer’s
day the furface will be covered with a pure white fait.
At Wefton, in Staffordftiire, there are brine pits
which afford about a ninth part of very fine white fait.
There are others at Enfon, St Thomas, and in the
parifh of Ingeftre, but fo weak that they are not
wrought; though it is believed, that by boring, ftronger
fprings might be found in the neighbourhood. In
Lancalhire there are feveral fait fprings, but (if we ex¬
cept that at Barton, which is as rich as the fpring at
Norwich) by no means fo famous as thofe of Cheffire*
called in general by the name of the wiches. Nampt-
wich
B R I [ 1395 ] B R I
I J Biine ■wich on the river Weever, has 3 noble fpring not far
_ J, from the river, which is fo rich as to yield one fixth part
„ ——0l1. -e‘ ■ of pure white fait. At fix miles diftance (lands North-
wich, at the confluence of the Weever and the Dan ;
where the brine is dill richer, fince they obtain fix
ounces of fait from 16 of water. There are, even at
this day, fome vifible remains of a Roman canfeway
between thefe two towns. The inhabitants of Wales,
who, before that country was incorporated into Eng¬
land, were fupplied chiefly, if not folely, with that
neceflary commodity from thefe two towns, called the
former Hellath Wen, and the latter Hellath Du ; i. e.
the white and black fait pit. In 1670, a rock of fait
was difcovered at a fmall diftance from Northwich,
which has been wrought to a great depth, and to a
vail extent, fo as to be juftly efteemed one of the
reateft; curiofities in England ; and it is highly pro-
able, that there is an immenfe body of foffile fait in
the bowels of the earth, under this whole county;
fince, upon boring, brine-pits have been found in many
places on both fides the river Weever. This is the
more likely, fince, at Middlewich, which (lands at
the confluence of the Croke and the Dan, there are
falt-fprings with a frefli brook running between them.
The brines from thefe pits are of unequal (Irength ; but,
when mixed, they commonly obtain four ounces of fait
from a pound of brine. Experience (hews, that in
thefe fprings the water is ftrongeft neared the bottom,
richer in dry weather than in wet, and when long
drawn than when firfl wrought. But thefe are no rules
in refpedl to other falt-fprings, fince in thofe of Franche
Comte the brine is (Irongdl in wet weather. There
are feveral other bodies diflblved in thefe brines befides
fait ; in fome a fulphureous fubftance, which fublimes
as the brine heats; a fort of dirty ochre which difcolours
the brine, but, if fuffered to (land, fpeedily fubfides ;
and in mod brines a calcareous, or rather felenitic earth,
•See Sfl//, which fettles to the bottom of the pans *.
and Spring. ^ BRING-to, in navigation, to check the courfe
of a (hip when (he is advancing, by arranging the
fails in fuch a manner, that they (hall counteract each
othe^, and prevent her either from retreating or mo¬
ving forward. In this fituation the (hip is faid to lie
by, or lie to; having, according to the fea-phrafe, fome
of her fails aback, to oppofe the force of thofe which
are full; or having them otherwife (hortened by being
furled, or hauled up in the brails.
Bringing-/)?, is generally ufed to detain a (hip in
any particular (lation, in order to wait the approach of
fome other that may be advancing towards her ; or to
retard her courfe occalionally near any port in the
courfe of a voyage.
Bringing-//^ a Horfe, in the menage, the fame as to
fay, keep down the nofe of a horfe that boars and tofles
his nofe in the wind: this is done by means of a
branch.
BRIONNE, a town of France, in Normandy, feated
on the river Rille. E. Long. o. 51. N. Lat. 49. 51.
BRIOUDE, a town of France, in lower Auvergne.
There are two Brioudes, three quarters of a mile from
each other; the one is called Church Brioude, the other
Old Brioude. The houfes are built after the' antique
manner, and are badly difpofed. The canons are all
temporal lords and counts. It is in no diocefe, but de¬
pends immediately on the Pope. There are feveral con¬
vents ; and, among the reft, the church of St Ferrof, Briquetas
which is highly celebrated. Near the Old Town is a JL
ftone-bridge on the river Allier, which confifts of one r‘ ot'
arch: this is efteemed a (lupendous ftrufture, and is
thought to be a work of the Romans. The inhabitants
have no manufactures. It is fituated in E. Long. 3. 25.
N. Lat. 45. 14.
BRIQUERAS, a town in Piedmont, feated in the
valley of Lucern, three miles from the town of that
name, and four fouth of Pignerol. It had a very (trong
caftle towards the latter end of the 16th century; but
when the French got footing in it, it was ruined, that
is, before they delivered it up to the duke of Savoy in
1696. E. Long. 7. 24. N. Lat. 44. 41.
BRISACH, a town of Germany, and capital of
Brifgaw. It was twice in poffeflion of the French ; but
reftored to the houfe of Aultria, in confequence of
treaties of peace. It was a very ftrong place, but the
fortifications have been demoliftied. It is feated on the
Rhine, where there is a bridge of boats. E. Long.
7. 49. N. Lat. 48. 5.
Brisach (New), 3 town of France, in Alface, built
by order of Lewis XIV. over againll Old Brifach, and
fortified by Vauban. It is 32 miles fouth of Stralburo-,
E. Long. 7. 46. N. Lat. 48. 5.
BRISEIS, or Hippodamia, in fabulous hiftory, the
wife of Mynes king of Lyrnefla. After Achilles had
taken that city, and killed her hulband, die became his
captive. That hero loved her tenderly; but Agamem¬
non taking her from him, (he became the accidental
caufe of numberlefs diforders in the Grecian army.
Achilles, enraged, retired to his tent; and, till the
death of Patroclus, refufed to fight againft: the Tro¬
jans. The refentment of this prince is finely painted in
the Iliad.
BRISGAW, a territory of Germany, in the circle
of Suabia, on the eaftern banks of the Rhine, about 50
miles in length, and 30 in breadth. The principal places
are Old Brifach, New Brifach, Freyburgh, Rhinmarck,
and an ifland in the Rhine.
BRISSOT (Peter), one of the ableft phyficians of
the 16th century, was born at Fontenai le Comte in
Poitou. He ftudied at Paris; and, having taken his
dodtor’s degree, bent his thoughts to the reforming of
phyfic, by reftoring the precepts of Hippocrates and
Galen, and exploding the maxims of the Arabians: to
this purpofe he publicly explained Galen’s works, in-
(lead of thofe of Avicenna, Rhafis, and Meflue. He af¬
terwards refolved to travel to acquire the knowledge of
plants; and going to Portugal, pradtifed phyfic in the
city of Ebora. His new method of bleeding in pleu-
rifies, on the fide where the pleurify was, raifed a kind
of civil war among the Portuguefe phyficians ; it was
brought before the univerfity of Salamanca, who at lad
gave judgment, that the opinion aferibed to Briflbt
was the pure dodlrine of Galen. The partizans of De¬
nys, his opponent, appealed in 1529 to the emperor, to
prevent the pradtice, as being attended with deftrudlive
confequences ; but Charles III. duke of Savoy hap¬
pening to die at this time of a pleurify, after having
been bled on the oppofite fide, the profecution drop¬
ped. He wrote an Apology for his pradtice; but died
before it was publilhed, in 1552 : but Anthony Lu-
ceus, his friend, printed it at Paris three years after.
Renatus Moreau procured a new edition of it at Paris
ifii
B R I [ 1396 U B R X
Bridle, Jn 1622 ; and annexed to It a treatlfe entitled Dt? niif-
]'rifto1- fione fanguinis in pleuritide, together with the Life of
Briflbt.
BRISTLE, a rigid gloffy kind of hair found on
fwine, and much ufed by brufh-makers, See.
BRISTOL, a city of England, and inferior to
none, except London, for wealth, trade, and number
of inhabitants. Briftol is a corruption of Brightjlo’w, as
it was called by the Saxons. It is thought to have
ftood anciently altogether on the weft or Somerfetfhire
fide of the Avon, before the bridge was built; but af¬
ter that, it came to be partly in Somerfetlhire, and
partly in Gloucefterftn're, until it was made a county of
itfelf, though even before that, in the parliament rolls,
it was always placed in Somerfetlhire. At prefent, the
eaft fide is by much thelargeft and moft populous. It
had anciently a caftle, built by Robert earl of Glou-
cefter, natural Con to Henry I. which was demolilhed
by Cromwell ; and the ground is now laid out into
ftreets. The corporation confifts of a mayor; recorder;
twelve aldermen, of whom the recorder is one; two
IherifFs ; and twenty-eight common-council men. The
recorder is generally a ferjeant at law, and fits as judge
in capital and all other criminal caufes. The mayor, to
fupport his dignity, and defray his extraordinary ex¬
pence, is entitled to certain fees from Ihips, which
long ago amounted 10500 or 600I. Beiides .the cathe¬
dral, which was anciently the church of the Abgnftine
monaftery, there are x8 parilh churches. Here are dif-
fenters of all denominations, of whom the quakers are
very refpeClable both for their wealth and numbers.
When Henry VIII. diffolved the monaftery, he applied
its revenues to the maintenance of a biftiop, dean, fix
prebendaries, and other officers. Of the pariih churches,
St Mary Ratcliff is reckoned one of the fineft, not only
here, but in the whole kingdom. In this church, be-
fides two monuments of the founder William Cannings,
who had been five times mayor of this city, one in the
habit of a magiftrate, and another in that of a prieft
(for in his latter days he took orders), there is one of
Sir William Penn, father to the famous quakeri The
old bridge over the Avon confifted of fourbroad arches,
with houfes on both fides like thofe formerly on Lon¬
don bridge; but this has been lately pulled down, and
another erefted in its place. No carts or waggons are
admitted into Briftol, for fear of damaging the vaults
and gutters made under ground for carrying the filth
of the city into the river. Qneen’s-fquare, in this city,
is larger than any in London, except Lincolns-inn-
fields, and has in the centre an equeftrian ftatue of
king William III. All the gates of the city remain en¬
tire, and a part of the walls ; the reft were razed in
the reign of William Rufus. It is almoft as broad as
long, about feven miles in circumference, and contains
about 95,000 inhabitants. Of the hofpitals, the chief
are, 1. That called Queen Elizabeth’s, in which 100
boys are taught reading, writing, arithmetic, and navi¬
gation ; fix of whom, when they go out, have 10I. and
the reft 81. 8 s. to bind them apprentices: the mafter
is allowed 4501. a-year for the maintenance of the
boys. 2. Colfton’s hofpital; in which 100 boys are
maintained for feven years, and taught and apprenticed,
as in queen Elizabeth’s. 3. Another founded by the
fame gentleman in 1691, for 12 men and 12 women,
with an allowance of 3 s. per week, and 24 facks of coale
in the year. This charity coft the founder 25,000!.
4. Another founded partly by Mr Colfton, and partly
by the merchants, in which 18 men on account of the
merchants, and 12 men and women on account of Mr
Colfton, are maintained. 5. An infirmary, which was
opened in 1736 for the fick, lame, and diftreffed poor
of the city, which is maintained by fubfeription, be-
fides 50001. bequeathed to it by John Eldridge, Efq;
formerly comptroller of the cuftoms at this port. There
are, befides thefe, a bridewell, feveral alms-houfes, and
charity-fchools. There is alfo a guildhall for the fef-
fions and affizes; the mayor’s and fheriff's courts ; a
council-houfe, where the mayor and aldermen meet
every day, except Sundays, to adminifter juftice; a
handfome new exchange, with three entrances, about
two thirds as large as that in London; and a key half
a mile in length, the moft commodious in England for
{hipping and landing goods, for which purpofe it is
provided with feveral cranes. In College-green is a
{lately high crofs, with the effigies of feveral kings
round it. In Winch-ftreet is a guard-houfe, with bar¬
racks for foldiers. As to the trade of this city, it was
computed many years ago to be much greater in pro¬
portion, efpecially to America and the Weft Indies,
than that of London. Fifty fail, fome of them {hips of
confiderable burden, have arrived here at one time, or
very near one another, from the Weft Indies. For this
trade, and that to Ireland,, it is much better fituated
than London, befides the great advantages it poffeffes
of an inland navigation by the Wye and Severn. Their
trade extends to the Baltic, Norway, Holland, Ham¬
burgh, Guinea, and the Streights. The largeft {hips
are difeharged at Hungroad, four miles below the city,
and the goods .are brought to the key by lighters.
For building, equipping, and repairing {hips, there are
docks, yards, rope-walks, and Ihip-wrights. Here are
fome confiderable woollen manufa&ures; and no lefs
than 15 glafs-houfes, for which Kingfwood and Mendip
furnifh the coals. The city companies are 13 : 1. The
merchant adventurers. 2. The merchant tailors. 3. The
mercers. 4. The foap-boilers. 5. The tobacconifts.
6.The butchers. 7. The barbers. 8. The tylers. 9. The
holliers, who are *he fled-men. 10. Shoemakers. II.
Coopers. 12. Bakers. 13. Smiths. For fupplying the
city with water there are fix public conduits; and
handfome hackney-coaches may be hired at very rea-
fonable rates, but they do not ply in the ftreets. There
are alfo ftage-coaches, which fet out every day for
Bath, London, and other places. A mile below the
city, clofe by the river, is the hot well, whofe waters
are fpecific for the diabetes, and good in phthifical,
fcorbutic, and inflammatory diforders. Hither is a
great refort in the fummer of invalids, as well as other
company; for whofe accommodation and entertainment
there is a pump-room, ball-room, coffee-houfe, with
taverns, and a great number of elegant lodging-houfes,
both below on a level with the well, and above in the
delightful village of Clifton, which is fituated on the
brow of a hill, from whence there are downs extending
feveral miles, where the company ride out for exercife.
Nothing can be more pure and falutary than the air of
thefe downs, which afford a variety of the moft roman¬
tic and agreeable profpe&s, comprehending Kingroad,
with the (hips at anchor, the mouth of the Severn, and
the mountains of Wales. In the rocks above the well <re
found
Briftol.
Eriftol,
Britain.
Albion the
ancient
■tiame.
B R X [i39
found tbofc fix-cornered (tones called 5rj/7«/ftones; but
they are not fo plentiful now as in Camden’s days,
when, he fays, whole bufhels might have been eafily
gathered. In this city is a theatre, where plays are
a&ed almoft every night during the recefs of the come¬
dians from the metropolis. There are two annual fairs,
to which the concourfe is fo great, that the neighbour¬
ing inns have filled 100 beds a-piece with their guefts.
In the winter feafon there is an afiembly every Thurf-
day for the gayer part of the citizens of both fexes.
About half -way betwixt Briftol and Bath, at a place
called Warmly, a company of Briftol merchants have
ere&ed a noble manufacture of pins and other brafs
utenfils, which employs a great number of hands, inclu¬
ding above 200 children of both fexes from feven to
twelve or thirteen years of age. All the different ope¬
rations of melting, fplitting, drawing, hammering, turn¬
ing, &c. are performed by wheels worked with water,
which is raifed by two fire-engines of a very curious
mechanifm. The city of Briftol gives the title off earl
to the family of Hervey. It is worth obferving, that
whoever marries a citizen’s daughter becomes free of
the city.
New Bristol, the capital of the county of Bucks
in Penfylvania, fituated on the river Delawar, about 20
miles north of Philadelphia, in W. Long. 750. N. Lat.
4°. 45.
Bristol Water. Of the four principal warm waters
naturally produced in England this is the lead fo. As the
Bath waters are proper where thefecretions are defective,
fo the Briftol water is of fervice where they exceed the
requirements of health. The Bath water warms ; the
Briftol cools. Bath water helps the ftomach, inteftines,
and nerves ; the Briftol favours the lungs, kidneys, and
bladder. Except a jaundice attend, the Briftol water
may be of ufe in dropfies by its drying and diuretic
qualities. Dr Wynter afferts, that there is no iron in
the Briftol water ; and that its mineral contents are
chalk, lapis calcarius, and calaminaris. Five gallons of
this water, after evaporation, afforded only 3 iii. and
gr. ii. of a mineral-like fubftance. The difeafes in which
this water is ufeful are internal haemorrhages, immode¬
rate menfes, internal inflammations, (pitting blood, dy-
fentery, purulent ulcers of the vifcera, confumption,
dropfy, fcurvy with heat, ftone, gravel, ftrangury, ha¬
bitual gout, atrophy, a flow fever, fcrophula, gleets,
and a diabetes, in which laft it is a fpecific, and may
be drank as freely as the third requires it. The hotter
months are the beft for ufing it. The Briftol and Mat-
lock waters are of exadfly the fame qualities.
Doctors Mead and Lane firft eftablifhed the reputa¬
tion of Briftol waters in difeafes of the kidneys and
bladder.
BRITAIN, or Great Britain, the mod confider-
able of all the European iflands, extends from the Li¬
zard Point, in the latitude of about 50°. to Dunelbay-
head in latitude 58.30. N. or, taking it in a ftraight line
from north to fouth, about eight degrees or 550 miles;
and from Dover-head on the eaft to Land’s-end on the
weft comprehends about feven degrees of longitude,
which may be computed at about 290 miles: but the
form being very irregular, and leffening continually to¬
wards the north, proper allowances mud: be made in
computing its dimenfions.
The ancient name of this ifland was Albion, the name
Vol. II.
7 ] B R I
Britain being then common to all the iflands round it. Britaiu.
Hence Agathemerus, fpeaking of the Britifh iflands, **“" '
“ They are many in number (fays he) ; but the moll
confiderable among them are Hibernia and Albion.”
And Ptolemy, to the chapter wherein he deferibes the
ifland now called Great Britain, prefixes the following
title : “ The fituation of Albion a Britifh ifland.” But
as this far excelled the other Britifh iflands, the name
of Albion in procefs of time was laid quite afide, and
that of Britain ufed in its (lead. By this name it was *
known in Pliny’s time, and even in Ctefar’s. The origin Origin of
of both thefe names is very uncertain. Some derive that '*ie cf‘®;rent
of Albion from the Greek word alphon, which, accord- nam£4,
ing to Fettus, fignifies white, the chalky cliffs that
in feveral places rife on the fouthern coafts having
that colour; while others pretend this name to have
been borrowed from a giant feigned to have been the
fon of Neptune, and mentioned by feveral ancient au¬
thors. Some etymologifts have recourfe to the Hebrew,
and others to the Phoenician ; alben in the former fig-
nifying white, and alp in the latter fignifying high. The
origin of the name Britain is no lefs Uncertain than
that of Albion. Nennius and fome other Britifh wai¬
ters derive it from Brutus, whom they likewife call
Brito, the fifth in defeent from the celebrated A£neas.
Others derive it from the Britifh words pryd cain, that
is, a white form, foftened by degrees into Britannia.
Camden derives it from the word brith, which, in the
ancient language of the ifland, fignifies painted; and
tania, importing, in Greek, a region or country ; fo
that the word Brithania, changed in procefs of time
into Britannia, expreffes what the Britons really w'erc,
that is, painted. Somner, difliking Camden’s etymolo¬
gy, propofes another, viz. that the name Britain comes
from brydio; fignifying, in the Britifh tongue, rage,
and pointing out the violent motion of the fea that fur-
rounds the ifland. Mr Whittaker, in his Hiftory of
Manchefter, derives it from the word brith, brief, brit,
bris, or brig, which, he fays, fignifies divided or Jlriped.
Againft the firft of thefe etymologies it may be obje£l-
ed, that it is founded on a fable : and againft the other
four lies onecommon and unanfwtrable objeilion; which
is, that the name of Britain was given to the ifland by
foreigners, wko could not borrow it from the Britifh
tongue, with which they were in all likelihood unac¬
quainted. That the ifland received the name of Britain
from foreigners is evident, fince the natives never ftyled
themfelves Britons, nor their country Britain; their
true name being Cumri, or Cumbri; whence Cambria
the name of Wales to this day among the Welfli. 3
The learned Bochart, fpeaking of the colonies and Bochart’s
language of the Phoenicians, offers a conjecture which 0Pinion-
moft of our modern writers have adopted as the mod
natural. The Phoenicians, according to that writer,
called this ifland, and fome others near it, Barat Anac,
that is, the land or country of tin or lead, and more con-
Bratanac; which name, paffing from the Phoe¬
nicians to the Greeks, and from thefe to the Romans,
might have been foftened into that of Britannica and
Britannia. That the Phoenicians firft difeovered thefe
iflands, which were afterwards by the Greeks called
Cafliterides, and are proved by Camden to be our Scilly
iflands, appears both from Strabo and Pliny ; of whom
the former tells us, that the Phoenicians firft brought
tin from the Caffiterides, which they fold to the Greeks;
8 O but
B R I
Britain. but kept the trade to themfelves, and the place private:
~ and the latter writes, that Mediocritus was the firft
who brought lead from the Cafliterides ; where Bo^hart
fhews that we ought to read Mdichartus, who is the
Phoenician Hercules of Sanchoniatho, to whom that
nation afcribe their firft weftern difcoveries. But, not-
withftanding the care of the Phoenicians to conceal
thefe iflands, the Greeks at laft difcovered them ; and
[ i398 ]
B R I
were not regular, or that little attention was paid to
the choice or continuance of the members. In the reign ”
of Elizabeth, and her predeceflbrs, the feffions of par¬
liament did not continue above the twelfth part fo long
as the vacations. It was then ufual, after parliaments
had been prolonged beyond one fefiion, for the chan¬
cellor to exert a difcretionary authority of iffuing new
writs to fupply the place of any members whom he
gave them the name of CaJJiterides, which, in the Greek judged incapable of attending, either on account of
tongue, fignifies the fame with Barat Anac in the Phce- their employment, ficknefs, or other impediment. No
nician. This name was at firft given to the iflands of pra&ice could be more dangerous to liberty than this
t given
Scilly already mentioned* but by degrees communicated
to all the others lying in the fame fea. Thus Bochart.
But after all, his opinion, however plaufible in appear¬
ance, may be as foreign to the purpofe as any of the
reft ; many inftances of names given to new-difcovered
countries (hewing that the origin of fuch names is not
always owing to reafon, but often to chance or ca¬
price.
The general divifion of Britain is into Scotland,
as it gave the chancellor, and confequently the fove-
reign, an opportunity of garbling at pleafure the re-
prefentatives of the nation: yet fo little was liberty at
that time underftood, that the commons, of their own
accord, without the leaft court influence or intrigue, and
contrary to fome former votes of their own, confirmed
the chancellor’s power in this refpeift in the 23d of E-
lizabeth. Nor did they proceed any farther in the af-
fertion of their privileges, than to vote, that “ during
England, and Wales ; for a particular defcription and the fitting of parliament there do not, at anytime', any
4 hiftory of which, fee thefe articles.
Jimes VI. In the year 1603, the kingdoms of Scotland and
of Scotland England fell under the dominion of one fovereign, by
fucceeds to |ie accef$jon 0f James VI. of Scotland to the throne of
England?0 England alfo. He derived his title to the latter from
being the grandfon of Margaret eldeft daughter to
Henry VII. of that kingdom ; and, on the failure of
all the male line, his hereditary right remained incon-
teftabk. Queen Elizabeth, with her lateft breath.
writ go out for the chufing or returning any member
without the warrant of the houfe.” ?
Towards the end of the 16th or beginning of the Origin of
17th century, a great revolution took place, though in- the patriotic
fenfibly, throughout all Europe. Arts and fciences Party-
began to flourifh, commerce and navigation were greatly
extended, and learning of all kinds began to diffufe it-
felf. By more enlarged views, the love of freedom be¬
gan, in England efpecially, to take place in the breafts
had recognized him for her fucceflbr ; fo that few fove- of moft people of birth and education ; and this was
General
(fate of the.
nation at
that time.
reigns ever afcended a throne with more approbation
of their fubje&s, or greater hopes of a peaceable and
happy reign.
Thofe hopes, however, were foon blafted ; and the
hiftory of this monarch’s reign confifts of little elfe
than a detail of difputes and contentions between him
and his parliament. A particular and minute account
of fuch tranfadfions could afford very little entertain¬
ment ; but it is of importance to know their origin, as
.they are to be reckoned the ultimate caufes of thofe
fucceeding events which make fo confpicuous a figure
in the annals of Britain.
greatly promoted by an acquaintance with the.ancient
Greek and Latin hiftorians. From the example of the
republics of Greece and Rome, whofe members had fo
often facrificed their lives for the fake of liberty, 3 pa¬
triotic fpirit began to arife; and a defire of circumfcri-
bing the excefiive prerogative and arbitrary proceed¬
ings of the crown began fecretly to take place through¬
out the nation.
Nor was this defire unreafonable, or without a folid
foundation. During the laft years of queen Elizabeth’s
reign, the commerce, navigation, and number of fea-
men in England, had fenfibly decayed. A remonftrance
In thofe barbarous ages which preceded the period from the Trinity-houfe in 1602 fays, that, fince 1588.
.     ^ u  :"'1 —-—the number qf feamen and (hipping had decayed about
a third part. Every fpecies of domeftic induftry was fet¬
tered by monoP°lies > and by exclufive companies,
which are only another fpecies of monopoly, almoft all
foreign trade, except that to France, was brought into
the hands of a few rapacious engroffers, and all profpedt
Grievances
the nation
at that time •
laboured
under.
are now entering upon, the human mind, enervated
by fuperftition, and obfeured by ignorance of every art
and fcience, feemed to have given up all pretenfions to
liberty either religious or civil. Unlimited and uncon-
trouled defpotifm prevailed every where ; and though
England fuffered lefs in this refpe ft than almoft any
other nation, the many examples of arbitrary power of future improvement in commerce was for ever facri-
exerted by her fovereigns, queen Elizabeth herfelf,
James’s immediate predeceffor, not excepted, (hew that
they wxre very far from being then a free people. An
inconteftable proof of this, and an evidence how little
reftraint at that time the people could lay upon the £
ficed to a little temporary advantage of the fovereign.
Thefe companies, though arbitrarily eredfed, had car¬
ried their privileges fo far, that almoft all the com¬
merce of England centered in London ; the cuftoms of
that port alone amounted to 110,0001. a-year; while
thority of the fovereign, is, that the proceedings of thofe of all the kingdom befide amounted only to
parliament were accounted, even by themfelves, of fo
little confequence, that they were not at the trouble to
keep journals of them. It was not till the year 1607,
7,0001.; nay, the whole trade of London was confi¬
ned to about 200 citizens, who were eafily enabled, by
combining among themfelves, to fix whatever price they
four years after the acceffion of James, that parliamen- pleafed both on the exports and imports of the nation.
tary journals were kept, at the motion of Sir Edwin
Sandys, a member of great authority in the houfe.
Befides this, the fubjedts were burdened by wardlhips
and purveyances. The latter was an old prerogative of
ofhtdecon- Proceedings of the parliament being at that time the crown, by which the officers of the houfehold were
Alteration, of fo little confeejuence, it is no wonder that the fdlions empowered to take, without confent of the owners.
B R I [ 1399 1 15 R I
Britain, provifions for the king’s family, and carts and horfes for
the removal of his baggage, upon paying a dated price
for them. The king had alfo a power of fending any
perfon, without his confent, on whatever meffage he
pleafed; and thus he could eafily force any individual
to pay him whatever money he chofe, rather than be
fent oilt of the country on a difagreeable. errand. Mo¬
ney extorted from individuals, by this or any other
method, was called a benevolence.
Thefe were fome of the grievances under which the
nation at this time laboured, and thefe the rifing fpirit
|; of patriotifm tended to redrefs. This difpoiition, how¬
ever, the fevere government of Elizabeth had confined
within very narrow bounds: but when James fucceed-
ed to the throne; a foreign prince, lefs dreaded and lefs
9 beloved; fymptoms of a more free and independent ge-.
Tame.’s ar- n{us immediately appeared. Happily James neither
ftemT/V Pel'ce*vecl tbe alteration, nor had fufficient capacity to
vernment.0 check its early advances. He had eftabliflted in his
own mind a fpeculative fyftem of abfojute government,
which few of his fubje&s, and none but traitors and re¬
bels, he thought, would make any fcruple to admit.
He confidered himfelf as intitled to equal prerogatives
with other European fovereigns, not confidering the
military force with which their defpotifm was fupported.
The almoft unlimited power which, for upwards of a
century, had been exercifed by the Englifh fovereigns,
he confidered as due to royal birth and title, not to
_ the prudence and fpirit of thofe monarchs, or the con-
junftures of the times. In his perfon, therefore, he
imagined all legal power to be centered by an heredi¬
tary and a divine right; nay, fo fully was he perfuaded
that he was the abfolute proprietor of his fubjefts, that
in his fpeech to the parliament in 1621, he told them,
that he “ wilhed them to have faid that their privileges
were derived from the grace and permiffion of him and
his anceftors.” And when the fame parliament pro-
telled that “ the liberties, franchifes, privileges, and
jurifdiftions of parliament, are the ancient and undoubt¬
ed birthright and inheritance of the fubjefts of En-
land,” he was fo enraged, that fending for the journals
of the commons, he with his own hand, before the
council, tore out this proteftation; and ordered his rea-
fons to be inferted in the council-book.
Spch were the oppofite difpofitions of the prince and
parliament, at the commencement of the Scottifh line;
difpofitions jull beginning to exift and to appear in par¬
liament, but thoroughly eftablifhed, and openly avowed
on the part of the king, throughout his whole reign.
The confequence of fuch oppofite difpofitions pre¬
vailing in the king and parliament was, that during this
10 reign the prerogatives of the crown were viplently and
Reafons of openly attacked ; but the chief grounds of difcontent
the diflen- were money, and religion. The king's high notions
^wten the ^ roya^ Prerogative naade him imagine he had a
kTogand right to whatever fums he pleafed to demand; and his
parliament profufion caufed him to diffipate in a Ihort time the
fcanty fupplies he could extort from the parliament,
,, who feem to have behaved" as unreafonably on the one
Averfion of hand, as James himfelf did on the other. With regard
James to the to reUg{0US matters, the nation was at that time great-
puritans. jy infc6!ed with puritanifm. Though the feverities of
Elizabeth had almoft totally fuppreffed the Papifts, it
had been otherwife with the Puritans. So much had
they increafed by the very means which had diminiftied
the number of catholics, that no lefs than 750 clergy- fbh8'11-
men of that perfuafion figned a petition to James on his "
acceffion. They hoped that the king, having received
his education in Scotland, and having always profeffed
an attachment to the church eftablifhed there, would at
leaft abate the rigour of the laws enafted againft the
Puritans, if he did not fhew them particular favour and
encouragement. But in this they were miftaken. He
had obferved in their Scots brethren a violent turn to¬
wards republicanifm, and a zealous attachment to civil
liberty. In the capacities both of monarch and theo¬
logian, he had experienced the little complaifance they
were difpofed to fhew him. They controuled his com¬
mands; difputed his tenets; and to his face, before the
whole people, cenfured his conduft and behaviour.
This, fuperiority aflumed by the prefbyterian clergy,
the monarchic pride of James could never digeft. Tho’
he had been obliged while in Scotland to court their
favour, he treafured up, on that account, the ftronger
refentment againft them; and was determined to make
them fed, in their turn, the weight of his authority.
He therefore not only reje&ed the petition of the 750
clergymen abovementioned, but throughout his whole
reign refufed to relax in the leaft the feverity of the
laws againft Proteftant nonconformifts, though very of¬
ten petitioned in their favour by his parliaments. i*
The fame principles which occafioned in James fuch He favours
an averfion to. the Puritans, prompted him greatly to 1 ais j^Pa-
favour the epifcopals, and even the Papifts, as being piftSi
greater friends to defpotifm. In his youth he had been
fufpe&ed of a bias towards the religion of the latter;
and when he afcended the throne of England, it is cer¬
tain he often endeavoured to procure fome mitigation
of the laws againft them, if not an abfolute toleration.
But in this he was as conftantly oppofed by the parlia¬
ment; and indeed the ftrong inclination fhewn by James
to eftablifh epifcopacy throughout every corner of his
dominions, tended very much to alienate the minds of
the generality of his fubjefts, efpecially in Scotland,
entirely from him.
In May 1617, the king fet but for Scotland, exprefsly Attempts to
with the defign of eftablilhing epifcopacy in that king- eftablifti e-
dom. He did not, however, propofe to abolifh pref- g^tian^ 'U
bytery entirely, and fet up abfolute epifcopacy in its
room. He defigned to content himfelf with eftablifh-
ing the royal authority above the ecclefiaftical, and in¬
troducing fome ceremonies into the public worlhip, fuch
as kneeling at the facrament, private communion, pri¬
vate baptifm, confirmation of children, and the obfer-
vance of Chriftmas, &c. But as his defign was fully
feen from the beginning, every advance towards epif¬
copacy gave the greateft difcontent, and thofe trivial
ceremonies were rejeited as fo many mortal fins.
At this time the power of the Scots clergy was ex- Tyranny of
ceedingly great; and the gloomy enthufiaftic fpirit with £be Sc°ts
which they were a&uated, prompted them to exercife c er^y‘
it in fuch a manner as to make their tyranny infupport-
able to thofe who were of a different way of thinking
from themfelves. Every ecclefiaftical court poflefled
the power of excommunicatiof; which was then at¬
tended with fome very ferious temporal confequences,
befides the fpiritual ones which were fuppofed to flow
from it. The perfon excommunicated was fhunned by
every one as profane and impious; his whole eftate du¬
ring his life-time, and all his moveables for-ever, were
8 O 2 for*
B R I [ 1400 ] B R I
Anecdotes
of ferae of
The king’s
forfeited to the crown. A fentence of excommunica¬
tion was fometimes pronounced in a fummary manner,
by any ecclefiaftical court however inferior, againft any
perfon, whether he lived within the bounds of their ju-
rifdi&ion or not. And by this means, the whole ty¬
ranny of the inquifition, though without its orders, was
introduced into Scotland. But the clergymen were not
fatisfied with this unbounded authority in ecclefiaftical
matters : they aflumed a cenforial power over every
part of adminiftration ; and, in all their fermons, and
even prayers, mingling politics with religion, they in¬
culcated the moft feditious and turbulent principles.
One Black, a minifter of St Andrews, went fo far as
to pronounce, in one of his fermons, that all kings were
the devil’s children ; and in his prayer for the queen he
ufed thefe words, “ We muft pray former for the fa-
fhion’s fake, but we have no caufe: fhe will never do us
any good.” Another minifter preaching in the principal
church of that capital, faid, that the king was potTeffed
with a devil; and, that one devil being expelled,feven
worfe had entered in his place. To which he added,
that the fubjefts might lawfully rife, and take the fword
out of the hands of their fovereign.
„ We can fcarce wonder that James fhould be defirous
defign mif- fubjugating fuch rebellious and turbulent fpirits as
Scotland. thefe ; and, on the other hand, confidering the ex¬
treme weaknefs of this monarch’s underftanding, and
that he imagined himfelf able to manage not only fu¬
rious religionifts, but even the moft powerful foreign
nations, with no other weapon than mere argumenta¬
tion, we can as little wonder at his want of fuccefs.—
In (hort, fo far was James from being able to eftabliftt
his royal authority above the ecclefiaftical, that he found
himfelf unable to introduce a fingle ceremony. He re¬
turned therefore with the mortification not only of fee¬
ing his fchemes entirely baffled with regard to Scotland,
but of having difgufted even the few of that nation over
whom religious prejudices did not prevail : for they,
confidering the ceremonies fo much infilled on by the
king as trivial and infignificant, could not help think¬
ing the national honour facrificed byaTervile imitation
of the modes of worlhip pra&ifed in England, and
that their fovereign betrayed equal narrownefs of mind,
though in an oppofite manner, with thofe he fo much
17 condemned.
His bad fuc- The like bad fuccefs attended James when he at-
cefs againft tempted fome oppofition to the puritanical innovations
^England! ’n England. He had obferved in his progrefs through
that kingdom, that a Judaical obfervance of the Sun¬
day gained ground every day: and that by this means,
under colour of religion, the people were debarred from
fuch fports and recreations as contributed to their
health as well as amufement. Imagining, therefore,
that it would be eafy to infufe cheerfulnefs into the
dark fpirit of devotion which then prevailed, he iffued
a proclamation to allow and encourage, after divine
fervice, all kinds of lawful games and exercifes; and
this proclamation his fubje&s regarded as the utmoft
inftance of profanenefs and impiety. In 1620 a bill
was brought in by the commons for the more ftrift ob¬
fervance of the Sunday, which they affe&ed to call the
fabbath. One Shepherd oppofed this bill, objected to
the appellation of fabbath as puritanical, and feems
even to have juftified fports on that day. For this
he was expelled the houfe by the fuggeftion of Mr
Pym ; and in the fentence pronounced againft Shep- Britain,
herd, his offence is faid to be great, exorbitant, and —
unparallelled.
This Iketch, we hope, will be fufficient to give the
reader a tolerable idea of the fituation of affairs during
the reign of James I. We now proceed to give an ac¬
count of the few remarkable tranfactions which occurred
in this period. j8
The firft thing of any confequence was a confpiracy sir Walter
formed, the very year of the king’s acceflion to the Raleigh’s
throne, to difplace him, and beftow the kingdom on ecnipiraey,
Arabella Stuart, a near relation of James’s, and equal¬
ly defeended from Henry VII. With regard to this
confpiracy every thing remains ftill myfterious, as it was
at the time when the confpiracy itfelf was difeovered.
What renders it. remarkable is the concern Sir Walter
Raleigh was faid to have in it; for which he was tried,
condemned without fufficient proof, fuffered 13 years . gee ^
imprifonment in the tower, and was afterwards exe-
cuted out of complaifance to the Spaniards *. * 19
In 1605 was difeovered the hmous gunpowder trea- Account of
fon, the anniverfary of which difeovery hath ever af- the Sun‘
tervvards been celebrated with rejoicings. Its origin
was as follows. On the acceffion of James, great ex¬
peditions had been formed by the catholics that he
would prove favourable to them, both as that was the
religion of his mother, and that he himfelf had been
fufpedled of a bias towards it in his youth. It is even
pretended that he had entered into politive engage¬
ments to grant them a toleration as foon as he Ihould %
mount the throne of England. Here, however, they
found their hopes built on a falfe foundation. James,
on all occalions, expreffed his intention of executing
ftridtly the laws enadted againft them, and of perfeve-
ring in all the rigorous meafures of Queen Elizabeth.
A plan of revenge was firft; thought of by one Catelhy,
a gentleman of good parts, and of an ancient family.
He communicated his mind to Percy, a defeendant of
the houfe of Northumberland. The latter propofed to
affaffinate the king ; but this feemed to Catelby very
far from being adequate to their purpofe. He told
Percy, that the king would be fucceeded by his chil¬
dren, who would alfo inherit his maxims of govern¬
ment. He told him, that, even though the whole royal
family were deftroyed, the parliament, nobility, and
gentry, who were all infedted with the fame herefy,
would raife another Proteftant prince to the throne. so
“ To ferve any good purpofe (fays he), we muft de- Catetby’s
ftroy, at one blow, the king, the royal family, the *Peech‘
lords and commons; and bury all our enemies in one
common ruin. Happily they are all affembled on the
firft meeting of parliament; and afford us the opportu¬
nity of glorious and ufeful vengeance. Great prepa¬
rations will not be requifite. A few of us may run a
mine below the hall, in which they meet; and chufing
the very moment when the king harangues both the
houfes, confign over to deftrudtion thofe determined
foes to all piety and religion. Mean while, we our-
felves {landing aloof, fafe and unfufpedled, {hall tri¬
umph in being the inftruments of divine wrath, and
ffiall behold with pleafure thofe facrilegious walls, in
which were paffed the edidls for proferibing our church
and butchering her children, toffed into a thoufand
fragments; while their impious inhabitants, medita¬
ting perhaps ftill new perfecutions againft us, pafs from
flames
£ S-fi
B R I
[ H01 ]
B R I
flames above to flames below, there for ever to endure
the torments due to their offences.’
where you may expeft the event in fafety. For, tho*
there be no appearance of any ftir, yet, I fay, they
This terrible fcheme being approved of, it was re- fhall receive a terrible blow this parliament ; and yet
folved to communicate it to a few more. One Thomas
Winter was fent over to Flanders in queft of Fawkes,
officer in the Spa nidi fervice of approved zeal and
tlvgy fhall not fee who hurts them. This counfel is
not to be condemned, becaufe it may do you good,
and can do you no harm : for the danger is over as foon
courage. All the confpirators were bound by the moil as you have burned this letter. And I hope God will
folemn oaths, accompanied with the facrament; and
to fuch a degree had fuperftition effaced every principle
of humanity from their minds, that not one of them
give you the grace to make good ufe of it, to whofe
holy proteftion I commend you.”—Though Monteagle
imagined this letter to be only a ridiculous artifice to
ever entertained the fmalleft compunftion for the cruel frighten him, he immediately carried it to lord Salif-
maffacre they were going to commit. Some indeed bury, fecretary of Hate ; who laid it before the king on
were ftartled at the thoughts of deftroying a number of his arrival in town a few days after.
catholics who muft neceffarily be prefent as fpe&ators,
or attendants on the king, or as having feats in the hOufe
The king looked upon the letter in a more ferious
light. From the manner in which it was wrote he
of peers. But Tefmond a jefuit, and Garnet fuperior of concluded that fome defign was forming to blowup
that order in England, removed thofe fcruples, by {hew¬
ing that the interefl of religion required in this cafe the
facrificeof the innocent with the guilty.
This happened in the fpring and fummer of 1604 ;
when the confpirators alfo hired a houfe in Percy’s
name, adjoining to that in which the parliament was to
aflemble. Towards the end of that year they began to
pierce through the wall of the houfe, in order to get in
below that where the parliament was to fit. The wall
was three yards thick, and confequently occafioned a
great deal of labour. At length, however, they ap¬
proached the other fide, but were then ftartled by a
noife for which they could not well account. Upon
inquiry, they found that it came from a vault below the
houfe of lords; that a magazine of coals had been kept
there ; and that the coals were then felling off, after
which the vault would be let to the higheft bidder.
Upon this the vault was immediately hired by Percy ;
36 barrels of powder lodged in it; the whole covered
the parliament-houfe with gunpowder, and it ■
thought advifeable to fearch the vaults below. The
lord chamberlain, to whom this charge belonged,
purpofely delayed the fearch till the day before the
meeting of parliament. He remarked thofe great
piles of wood and faggots which lay in the vault
under the upper houfe ; and cafting his eye upon
Fawkes, who flood in a corner and pafied himfelf for
Pesvy’s fervant, he took notice of that daring and de¬
termined courage which was confpicuous in his face,
and fo much diftinguifhed this confpirator even amongfl
the other heroes in villany that were concerned in the
fcheme. Such a quantity of fuel, alfo, for one who
lived fo little in the town as Percy, appeared fome-
what extraordinary ;■ and, upon comparing all circum-
ftances, it was refoived to make a further fearch. A-
bout midnight, Sir Thomas Knevet, a juftiee of peace,
was fent with proper attendants ; and before the door
of the vault, finding Fawkes, who had juft finifhed all r
up with faggots and billets; the doors of the cellar his preparations, he immediately feized liim, and, turn-
boldly flung open ; and every body admitted, as if it   ' r *- ’;i' J '  J— rr"
contained nothing dangerous.
Being now, as they thought, affured of fuccefs, the
confpirators began to plan the remaining part of their
enterprize. The king, the queen, and prince Henry,
were expe&ed to be prefent at the opening of the par¬
liament. The duke, by reafon of his tender age, would
be abfent, and it was refplved that Percy fhould feize
ing over the faggots, difcovered the powder. The
matches and every thing proper for fetting fire to the
train were taken in Fawkes’s pocket ; who feeing now
no refuge but in boldnefs and defpair, exprefled the
utmoft regret that he had loft the opportunity of firing
the powder at once, and of fweetening his own death
by that of his enemies. For two or three days he dif-
played the fame obftinate intrepidity ; but, being Con¬
or murder him. The princefs Elizabeth, likewife a fined in the tower, and the rack juft {hewn to him, h
child, was kept at Lord Harrington’s houfe in War-
wickfhire ; and fonae others of the confpirators engaged
to aflemble their friends on pretence of a hunting
match, when they were to feize that princefs, and im¬
mediately proclaim her queen. The day fo long wifhed
for at laft approached; the dreadful fecret, tho’ com¬
municated to more than 20 perfons, had been religioufly
kept for near a year and an half; and nothing could be
forefeen which could poffibly prevent the fuccefs of
their defign. Ten days before the meeting of parlia¬
ment, however, lord Monteagle, a catholic fon to lord
1 Morley, received the following letter, which had been
■ delivered to his fervant by an unknown hand. “ My
lord, out of the love I bear to fome of your friends, I
have a care of your prefervation. Therefore I would
advife you, as you tender your life, to devife fome ex-
cufe to fliift off your attendance on this parliament.
For God and man have determined to punifti the wic-
kednefs of this time. And think not (lightly of this
advertifement; but retire yourfelf into the country,
courage at laft failed, and he made a full difcovery of
all the confpirators.
Catelby, Percy, and the other criminals,.on hearing
that Fawkes was arrefted, hurried away to Warwick-
ftiire ; where Sir Edward Digby, imagining that his
confederates had fucceeded, was already in arms, to
feize the princefs Elizabeth. She had efcaped into
Coventry ; and they were obliged to put themfelves in
a pofture of defence againft the councry-people, who
were raifed from all quarters and armed by the fherifFs.
The confpirators, with all their attendants, never ex¬
ceeded the number of 80 perfons ; and being fur-
rounded on every fide, could no longer have any hope
either of prevailing or efcaping. Having therefore
confeffed themfelves, and received abfolution, they
boldly prepared for death, and refoived to fell their
lives as dear as poffible. But even this miferable con-
folation was denied them. Some of their powder took
fire, and difabled them from defending themfelves.
The people then rufhed in upon them. Percy and Ca-
telby
Confpira¬
tors puniih>
B R I [ 1402 ] B R I
1’n^in. tefby were killed with one (hot. Digby, Rookwood,
Winter, and others, being taken prifoners, were tried,
confefled their guilt, and died, as well as Garnet, by
the hands of the common executioner. The lords
Stourton and Mordaunt, two catholics, were fined, the
former of 4000/. the latter of 10,000/. by the ftar-
chamber; becaufe their abfence from parliament had
occafioned a fufpicion of their being made acquainted
with the confpiracy. The earl of Northumberland was
fined 30,000 /. and detained feveral years a prifoner in
the tower ; becaufe, not to mention other grounds of
fufpicion, he had admitted Percy into the number of
gentlemen penfioners, without his taking the requifite
is oaths.
James’s wife Jn 1612, James appears in his moft advantageous
thete^fla* P0'nt view> namely, as legifiator of Ireland, and
tion of Ire- the perfon who undertook to civilize the barbarous in¬
land. habitants.of that kingdom, and to render their fubjec-
tion durable and ufeful to the crown of England. In
this work, James proceeded by a fteady, regular, and
well-concerted plan. He began with abolifhing the
ancient Irilh cuftoms which fupplied the place of laws,
and which were exceedingly barbarous and abfurd. By
the Brehon law, every crime however enormous was
pufiilhed not with death, but by a fine. Murder itfelf
was compenfated in this way. Every one had a value
affixed to him, called his eric; and whoever was able
to pay this, might kill him when he pleafed. As for
fuch flight offences as oppreffion, extortion, or other
things of that nature, no penalty was affixed to them,
nor could any redrefs for them ever be obtained. By
the cuftom of gavelkinde, upon the death of any perfon,
his land was divided among all the males of the fept or
family, both baftard and legitimate: and after partition
made, if any of the fept died, his portion was not
fliared out among his fons ; but the chieftain at his
diferetion made a new partition of all the lands be¬
longing to that fept, and gave every one his flrare: as
no man, by reafon of this cuftom, enjoyed the fixed
property of any land ; to build, cultivate, or improve,
muft have been fo much loft labour. Thefe chieftains
were eftabliftied by ele&ion, or, more properly fpeak-
ing, by force and violence. Their Authority was ab-
folute ; and, notwithftanding certain lands were affigned
to the office, its chief profit refulted from exaftions,
dues, affeffments, for which there was no fixed law,
and which were levied at pleafure.
After abolifhing thefe cuftoms, and fubftituting En-
glifh law in their place ; James having taken all the
natives under his prote&ion, and declared them free
citizens, proceeded to govern them by a regular ad-
miniftration, military as well as civil. A fufficient
army was maintained, its difeipline infpefted, and its
pay tranfmitted from England, in order to prevent the
foldiery from preying upon the country, as had been
ufual in former reigns. When Odoghartie railed an
infurreftion, a reinforcement was fent over, and, the
rebellion immediately extinguifhed. All minds being
firft quieted by an univerfal indemnity, circuits were
eftablifhed, juftice adminiftered, and crimes of every
kind feverely punifhed. As the Irifh had been univer-
fally engaged in a rebellion againft Elizabeth, a refig-
nation of all the rights formerly granted them to fe-
parate jurifdiftions was rigoroufly exafted; a refigna-
tion of private eftates was even required; and when
they were reftored, the proprietors received them un« Britain,
der fuch conditions as might prevent all future tyranny ^ “
and oppreffion over the common people. The whole
province of Ulfter having fallen to the crown by the
attainder of rebels, a company was eftabliftied in Lon¬
don for planting new colonies in that fertile coun¬
try. The property was divided into moderate (hares,
the largeft not exceeding 2000 acres: Tenants were
brought over from England and Scotland : The Irifh
were removed from the hills and faftneffes, and fettled
in the open country : Hufbandry and the arts were
taught them ; and by thefe means Ulfter, from being
the moft wild and diforderly province in Ireland, foon
became the beft cultivated and moft civilized. lLg j
This year was alfo remarkable for the death of Henry Death of j
prince of Wales, who died fuddenly on the 6th of No- Henry
vember, not without ftrong fufpicions of poifon, for of
which the king himfelf was blamed. On opening his
body, however, no fymptoms of poifon appeared ; but
his death diffufed an univerfal grief throughout the na¬
tion, he being reckoned a prince of extraordinary ac-
complifhments. 27
The marriage of the princefs Elizabeth with Frede- Marriage of
ric elector palatine, which was celebrated February
14th 1613, ferved to diffipate the grief which had arifen with thee-
on account of prince Henry’s death. But this mar- leflor pala-
riage, in the event, proved unhappy to the king'as d116*
well as his fon-in-law. The eleftor, trufting to fo
great an alliance, engaged in enterprizes beyond his
ftrength; and James, not being able, and indeed per¬
haps not willing, to affift him in his diftrefs, loft entirely
what remained of the affe&ions of his people. *8
Thefe bad confequences did not begin to appear till The eleftor
the year 1619. At that time the ftates of Bohemia kil.'g
having taken arms againft the emperor Matthias, in ° 0 emii'
defence of the Proteftant religion, and continued their
revolt againft.his fucceffor Ferdinand II. and being a-
larmed at his mighty preparations againft them, made
an offer of their crown to the eleftor palatine. To
this they were induced by the greatnefs of his connec¬
tions, as being fon-in-law to the king of England,
and nephew to prince Maurice, whofe authority in the
United Provinces was almoft abfolute ; and the young
palatine ftimulated by ambition, without confulting
either James or Maurice, whofe oppofition he forefaw,
immediately accepted the offer, and marched all his
forces into Bohemia, in fupport of his new fubjefts. ss>
The affairs of the new king were not long of co- Defeated,
ming to an unfortunate crifis. It was known aJtn°ft ]
at one time in England, that Frederic being defeated dominions,
in the great and decilive battle of Prague, had fled
with his family into Holland; and that Spinola the
Spanifh general had invaded the palatinate, where meet¬
ing with little refiftance, except from one body of
2,400 Englifhmen commanded by the brave Sir Horace
Vere, had in a little time reduced almoft the whole
principality. In 1621, the ban of the empire was
publifhed againft the unfortunate eleftor, and the ex¬
ecution of it was committed to the duke of Bavaria.
The upper palatinate was in a little time conquered by
that prince; and meafures were taking in the empire
for beftowing on him the ele&oral dignity of which
the palatine was defpoiled. Frederic was now obliged
to live with his numerous family, in poverty and dif¬
trefs, either in Holland, or at Sedan, with his uncle
B R I [ 1403 ] B R I
ift for a >
'ith the
1011 fe of
Auftria.
Spanifh
match for
his fon.
Britain, the duke of Bouillon ; and the new conquefts of the
catholics throughout all Germany were attended with
30 perfecutions againft the Proteftants.
At this news the religious zeal of the Englilh was
inflamed to the higheft degree ; and they would have
plunged headlong into a war with the houfe of Auf-
tria, without refledting in the leaft on the confequences
that might enfue. The fuflerings of their Proteftant
brethren in Germany were the only objedfs of confi-
deration, and the neutrality and inadtive fpirit (hewn
by James were loudly exclaimed againft. But though
for not af James m*ght have defended his pacific meafures by
Pifting his ver7 ptauhble arguments, it is certain that fome of his
r ' i-kw. motives were the moft ridiculous that can be imagined.
Such was the opinion that he himfelf entertained of
his own wifdom, that he imagined himfelf capable of
difarming hoftile nations by dint of argument; and that
the whole power of Auftria, though not awed by the
power of England, would fubmit to his arbitration,
merely out of refpedt to his virtue and moderation.—
So much alfo he was wedded to his opinion concerning
the prerogative of kings, that he imagined, wherever
there was a contention between any fovereign and his
fubjedts, the latter behoved always to be in the wrong;
and for this reafon, from the very firft he had denied
his fon-in-law the title of king of Bohemia, and forbad
1 him to be prayed for in the churches under that appel¬
lation. Befides thefe reafons, James was on another
account extremely averfe to come to a rupture with
Spain. He had entertained an opinion peculiar to him¬
felf, which was, that any alliance below that of a king
was unworthy a prince of Wales ; and he never would
allow any princefs but a daughter of France or Spain
to be mentioned as a match for his fon. This piece of
pride, which really implied meannefs, as if he could
have received honour from any alliance, gave Spain an
opportunity of managing this monarch in his moft im¬
portant poncerns. With a view to engage him to a
neutrality with regard to the fucceffion of Cleves, the
eldeft daughter of the king of Spain had been indi-
redtly offered during the life of prince Henry. The
bait, however, did not then take; James, in confe-
quence of his alliance with the Dutch, marched 4000
men to the afliftance of the Proteftants, by which means
the fucceflion was fecured to the Proteftant line. In
1618, Gondomar the Spanifh ambaffador made offer
of the king’s fecond daughter to prince Charles ; and,
that he might render the temptation irrefiftible to the
neceffitous James, gave hopes of an immenfe fortune
that fhould attend the princefs. Upon this match
James had built great hopes, not only of relieving his
own neceflities, but of recovering the palatinate fot his
fon-in-law; which laft, he imagined, might be procured
from the mere motive of friendfhip and perfonal attach-
33 ment.
Commons This laft ftep was equally difagreeable to the com-
this mesi- mo*ls W*t'1 t^ie re^; an<^’ joined to the other pieces of
fure. James’s conduct, at laft blew into a flame the conten-
34 tion which had fo long fubfifted between their fovereign
They frame and them. On the 14th of November 1621, the com-
, mons framed a remonftrance which they intended to
carry to the king. They reprefented, that the enor¬
mous growth of the Auftrian power threatened the
liberties of Europe ; that the progrefs of the Catholic
religion in England bred the rooft melancholy appre-
ftrance a-
gainft it.
henfions left it fhould again acquire an afcendant in Britain,
the kingdom ; that the indulgence of his majefty to- ‘
wards the profeffors of that religion had encouraged '
their infplence and temerity ; that the uncontrouled
conquefts made by the Auftrian family in Germany
raifed mighty expe&ations in the Englifh Papifts ; but
above all, that the Spanifh match elevated them fo far
as to hope for an entire toleration, if not a final re-
eftablifhment, of their religion. They therefore intreated
his majefty, that he would immediately undertake the
defence of the palatine, and maintain it by force of
arms ; that he would turn his fword againft Spain,
whofe armies and treafures were the chief fupport of
the Catholic intereft in Europe ; that he would enter
into no negociation for the marriage of his fon but with
a Proteftant princefs; that the children of Popifh re-
cufants fhould be taken from their parents, and com¬
mitted to the care of Proteftant teachers and fchool-
mafters ; and that the fines and confifcations to which
the Catholics by law were liable, fhould be levied with
the utmoft feverity. ^
The king, who was then at Newmarket, hearing of Contenifon
the intended remonftrance, wrote a letter to the fpeaker, b«we<;n the
in which he fharply rebuked the houfe for debating on
matters far above their reach and capacity; and he ommons‘
ftri&ly forbad them to meddle with any thing that re¬
garded his government, or deep matters of ftate, and
efpecially not to touch on his fon’s marriage with the
Spanifh princefs. Upon this the commons framed a
new remonftrance, in which they aflerted their right
of debating on all matters of government, and that they
pofliffed entire freedom of fpeech in their debates.
The king replied, that their remonftrance was more like
a denunciation of war, than an addrefs of dutiful fub-
jefts ; that their pretenfion to inquire into all ftate af¬
fairs without exception, was fuch a plenipotence as
none of their anceftors, even during the reign of the
weakeft princes, had ever pretended to ; that public
tranfa&ions depended on a complication of views and
intelligence, with which they were entirely unac¬
quainted ; that they could not better fhew their wif¬
dom, as well as duty, than by keeping within their
proper fphere; and that in any bufinefs which depended
on his prerogative, they had no title to interpofe with
their advice, unlefs when he pleafed to afk it, &c. The
commons in return framed the proteftation already men¬
tioned, which the king tore out of their journals, and
foon after diffolved the parliament. The leading mem¬
bers of the houfe, Sir Edward Coke and Sir Robert
Phillips, were committed to the tower ; three others,
Selden, Pym, and Mallory, to other prifons ; and, as
a lighter punifhment, fome others were fent-into Ire¬
land to execute the king’s bufinefs. Sir John Saville,
however, a powerful man in the houfe of commons,
and a zealous oppofer of the court, was made comp¬
troller of the houfehold, a privy counfellor, and foon
after a baron. This event is memorable ; as being
the firft inftance in the Englilh hiftory, of any king’s
advancing a man on account of parliamentary intereft,
and of oppofition to his meafures. 3g
This breach between the king and parliament foon Origin of
made politics become a general fubjedt of difeourfe, and th,e factions
every man began to indulge himfelf in reafonings and wlli2 anct
inquiries concerning matters of ftate ; and the faftions
which commenced in parliament were propagated
B R I
^throughout the nation. In vain did James by reiterated
proclamations fofbid difcourfes of this kind. Such pro-
[ '404 ]
B R I
ver and daring adventurer. Little perfuafion was necef-
fary to prevail with prince Charles to undertake this ~
clamations, if they had any effeft, ferved rather to in- journey; and the impetuofity of Buckingham having
flame the curiofity of the public. In every company
fociety the late tranfaftions became the fubjeft of ar¬
gument and debate ; fome taking the fide of monarchy,
others of liberty; and this was the origin of the two
parties fmce known by the names of Whigs and Tories.
extorted a confent from James, our two adventurers fet
out, prince Charles as the knight-errant, and Bucking¬
ham as the fquire. They travelled through France in
difguife, affuming the names of Jack and Tom Smith.
They went to a ball at Paris, where the prince firft.
of the court court °f Spain. Though firmly refolved to contraft no
of Spain. alliance with a heretic, the king of Spain had continued
-For five years, James continued the dupe of the faw the princefs Henrietta whom he afterwards married,
who was then in the bloom of youth and beauty, and
with whom the novellifts of that time fay he then fell in ^
to procraftinate, and invent one excufe after another, love. On their arrival at Madrid, every body was fur- Their kind!
while he pretended to be very willing to conclude the prifed by a ftep fo little ufual among great princes, reception H
match. At laft the king of England, finding out what The Spaniih monarch made Charles a viiit, exprefied l!)it kinS"
was really the matter, refolved to remove that obftacle the utmoft gratitude for the confidence he repofed in °m"
if poffible. He iffued public orders for difcharging-all him, and made warm protertations of a correfpondent
Popilh recufants who were im'prifoned; and it was confidence and friendlhip. He gave him a golden key
daily apprehended that he would forbid, for the future, which opened all his apartments, that the prince might,
the execution of the penal laws againft them. For this without any introduftion, have accefs to him at all
conduct he was obliged to apologize, and even pretend hours : he took the left hand of him on every occafion,
that it was done in order to procure from foreign except in the apartments affigned to Charles; for there,
princes a toleration for the ProteHants ; the feverity of he faid, the prince was at home : Charles was introdu-
the Englifii laws agarnlt catholics, he faid, having been
urged as a reafon againft (hewing any favour to Pro-
teitants refiding in catholic kingdoms.
Thefe conceflions in favour of the catholics, howe
ced into the palace with the fame pomp and ceremony
which attend the kings of Spain on their coronation :
the council received public orders to obey him as the
king himfelf: Olivarez too,' the prime minifter, though
 C. ‘„ ...L ~ 1 <.1 • I . r i • ^ i
ill reliihed by his fubje£ls, at laft obtained James’s end a grandee of Spain, who has the right of being covered
with regard to the marriage. The earl of Briftol, am- before his own king, would not put on his hat in the
baifador at the court of Spain, a minifter of vigilance prince’s prefence : all the prifons of Spain were thrown
and penetration, and who had formerly oppofed the open, and all the prifoners received their freedom, as if
alliance with catholics, being now fully convinced of an event the moft honourable and moft fortunate had
the Spaniih fmcerity, was ready to congratulate the happened to the monarchy; and every fumptuary law
king on the completion of his projedls. The Spaniih
princefs is reprefented as very accompliihed ; ill
with regard to apparel ’
Charles’s refidence in Spai
fufpended during prince
i The infanta, however, was
38
Marriage
■with the ‘
bring with her a fortune of 6oo,oool.; and, what only ihown to her lover in public; the Spaniih ideas
was more, not only Briftol confidered this match as an of decency being fo ftrid, as not to allow any farther
infallible prognoftic of the palatine’s reftoration, but
the Spaniards themfelves did the fame. All things be-
ftnta a**re d t^ere*°re agree(l uPon between the parties, nothing
upon.a^reed was want‘ng hut the difpenfation from Rome, which
might be confidcred as a matter of mere formality. The
king exulted in his pacific counfels, and boafted of his
fuperior fagacity and penetration; when all his flatter¬
ing profpe&s were blafted by the temerity of the duke
of Buckingham, who governed both court and nation
with almoft unlimited fway.
This nobleman had fuddenly been raifed to the high-
eft honours. Though pofleffed of fome accompliihments
of a courtier, he was utterly deyoid of every talent of a
minifter ; but at once partook of the infolence which
attends a fortune newly acquired, and the impetuofity
which belongs to perfons born in high ftations, and
unacquainted with oppofition. Among thofe who had
experienced the arrogance of this overgrown favourite,
the prince of Wales himfelf had not been entirely fpa-
red ; and a great coldnefs, if not enmity, had for that
reafon taken place between them. Buckingham, being
defirous of putting an end t<5 this coldnefs, and at the
intercourfe till the arrival of the difpenfation. The
point of honour w^as carried fo far by thefe generous
people, that no attempt was made, on account of the ad¬
vantage they had acquired by having the prince of Wales
in their power, to impofe any harder conditions of trea¬
ty : their pious zeal only prompted them on one occa¬
fion to defire more conceflions in the religious articles ;
but, on the oppofition of Briftol, they immediately de-
fifted. The Pope, however, hearing of Charles’s arrival in
Madrid, tacked fome new claufes to the difpenfation; and
it became neceifary to tranfmit the articles to London, 4I
that the king might ratify them. This treaty, which Articles of
was made public, confifted of feveral articles, chiefly re- the mar-
garding the exereife of the catholic religion by the in- riaSc treaty,
fanta ; and, among thefe, nothing could reafonably be
found fault with, except one article, in which the king
promifed that the children ihould be educated by the
princefs till they were ten years of age ; which un¬
doubtedly was infifted upon with a view of feafoning
their minds with catholic principles. But, befides this
public treaty, there were fomc private articles fworn to
by James, which could not have been made public
39 fame time envious of the great reputation of the earl of without grievous murmurs. A fufpenfion of the penal
Prince Briftol, perfuaded the prince to undertake a journey to
Charles an Madrid ; which, he faid, would be an unexpe&ed gal-
ham re^lve lantry 5 would equal all the fi&ions of Spaniih romance;
on .journey and, fuiting the amorous and enterprifing character of
into Spain- that nation, muft immediately introduce him to the
law's againft the Engliih catholics was promifed, as
likewife a repeal of them in parliament, and a tolera¬
tion for the exercife of that religion in private houfes.
Meanwhile Gregory XV. who granted the difpenfation,
died; and Urban VIII. was chofen in his place. Uj:
princefs under the agreeable charadler of a devoted lo- on this event, the nuncio refufed to deliver the difpe
fatioa
marriage.
B R I [ T405 ] B R I
fatlon till It fhould be renewed by Urban. This the crafty former. However, the king had not the fame allurements Britain.
pontiff delayed, in hopes that, during the prince’s reft- in profecuting this match as the former, the portion  
dence in Spain, fome expedient might be fallen upon promifed him being much fmaller; but, willing that his
fhe prince to effeft his converfion. The king of England, as well fon fhould not be altogether difappointed of a bride, as
as the prince, became impatient: but, on the firft hint, the king of France demanded only the fame terms that
Charles obtained leave to return ; and Philip graced had been offered to the court of Spain, James thought
his departure with all the circumitances of civility and proper to comply. In an article of this treaty of mar-
refpeft which had attended his arrival. He even ere&ed riage, it was ftipulated, that the education of the chil-
a pillar on the fpot where they took leave of each dren till the age of 13 fhould belong to the mother;
other, as a monument of mutual friendfhip ; and the and this probably gave that turn towards popery which
prince, having fworn to the obfervance of all the ar- has fince proved the ruin of the unfortunate family of
tides, embarked on board the Englifh fleet at St An- Stewart.
dero. James now, being deprived of every other hope of Wardcda
The modeft,referved, and decent behaviour of Charles, relieving his fon-in-law but by force of arms, declared red againft
together with his unparallelled confidence in them, and war againft Spain and the emperor, for the recovery of Spain,
the romantic gallantry he had pra&ifed with regard to the palatinate; 6000 men were fent over into Holland
their princefs, had endeared him to the whole court of to affift prince Maurice in his fchemes againft thofe
Madrid. But in the fame proportion that Charles was powers ; the people were every where elated at the
~  courage of their king, and were fatisfied with any war
which was to exterminate the Papifts. This army was unfuccefs-
followed by another confiding of 12,000 men, com- ful expedi-
manded by count Mansfeldt; and the court of France tionofcount
promifed its afliftance. But the Englilh were difap- Mansfeldt.
pointed in all their views : the troops being embarked
at Dover, upon failing to Calais, found no orders for
their admiflion. After waiting for fome time, they
were obliged to fail towards Zealand, where no proper
meafures were yet confulted for their difembarkation.
Mean while, a peftilential diftemper crept in among
them, fo long cooped up in narrow veffels: half the
army died while on board; and the other half, weakened
by ficknefs, appeared too fmall a body to march into
the palatinate; and thus ended this ill-concerted and
fruitlefs expedition. Whether this misfortune had any Death of
effetft on the king’s conftitution or not, is uncertain; king James,
but he was foon after feized with a tertian ague, which
put an end to his life on the 27 th of March 1625, after
having lived 59 years, and reigned over England 22,
and over Scotland almoft as long as he had lived.
James was fucceeded by his fon Charles I. who a- succeede-l
fcended the throne amidft the higheft praifes and ca- hy his fon
reffes of his fubje&s for what was perhaps the moft Charles I.
blame-worthy adtion of his life, namely, his breaking
off the match with the Spanifh princefs, and procuring
the rupture with the houfe of Auftria. Being young Hisaffeaion
and unexperienced, he regarded thefe praifes as fincere; for his peo-
and therefore was fo impatient to affemble the great pi®-
council of the nation, that he would gladly, for the fake
of difpatch, have called together the fame parliament
which fat under his father, and which lay at that time
under prorogation. But being told that fuch a mea-
fure would appear unufual, he iffued writs for fummon-
ing a new parliament on the 7ttl of May ; and it was
not without regret that the arrival of the princefs Hen¬
rietta, whom he had efpoufed by proxy, obliged him to
delay, by repeated prorogations, their meeting fill the
18th of June, when they affembled at Weftminfter for
the difpatch of bufinefs.
Charles inherited from his father, great diftrefs for His charae.
money, very high notions of the royal prerogative, and ter.
a violent attachment to epifcopacy. As to his charac¬
ter, he feems to have been obftinate, though not refo-
lute ; and therefore, though it was fcarce ever polilible
to make him give up his point, he never could carry on
his defigns with that fpirit which was neceffary for
8 P their
beloved and efteemed, was Buckingham defpifed and
hated. His fallies of “paffion; his indecent freedoms
with the prince; his diffolute pleafures ; his arrogant
impetuous temper, which he neither could nor would
difguife; were to the Spaniards the obje&s of peculiar
averfion. They lamented the infanta’s fate, who muft
be approached by a man whofe temerity feemed to re-
lucking- fpedt no laws divine or human. Buckingham, on the
ham pre- other hand, fenfible how odious he was become to the
to'refolveT Spaniards, and dreading the influence which that na-
gainft the tlon would naturally acquire after the arrival of the in¬
fanta, refolved to employ all his credit in order to pre¬
vent the marriage. By what arguments he could pre¬
vail on the prince to offer fuch an infult to the Spanifti
nation, from whom he had received fuch generous treat¬
ment ; by what colours he could difguife the ingrati¬
tude and imprudence of fuch a meafure ; thefe are to¬
tally unknown to us: certain it is, however, that when
the prince left Madrid, he was firmly determined, in
oppofition to his moft folemn promifes, to break off the
treaty with Spain. On their arrival at London, there¬
fore, the prince and Buckingham affumed the entire
dire&ion of the negociation ; and it was their bufinefs
to feek for pretences by which they could give a colour
to their intended breach of treaty. At laft, after many
fruitlefs artifices were employed to delay or prevent the
efpoufals, Briftol received pofitive orders not to deliver
the proxy which had been left in his hands, or to finilh
the marriage, till fecurity was given for the full reftitu-
Philip ob- tion of the palatinate. Philip underftood this language:
hgeshimfelf but being determined to throw the whole blame of the
th pr<[p,re rupture on tbe Englilh, he delivered into Briftol’s hand
tionthe a wr‘tten promife, by which he bound himfelf to pro¬
palatinate. cure the reftoration of the palatine either by perfuafion
or by every other poffible means ; and when he found
that this conceffion gave no fatisfaftion, he ordered the
infanta to lay afide the title of princefs of Wales, which
Ihe bore after the arrival of the difpenfation from
Rome, and to drop the ftudy of the Englilh language;
and as he knew that fuch ralh counfels as now go¬
verned the court of England would not ftop at the
breach of the marriage-treaty, he immediately ordered
preparations for war to be made throughout all his do-
45 minions.
Match with ^ match for prince Charles was foon after nego-
princefeof t‘ate<^ w‘t*1 Henrietta, daughter of the great Hen.
France *7 IV. and this met with much better fuccefs than the
VOL. II.
B R I [ i4°6 ] B R I
Britain, their fuccefs. In other refpe&s, he appears to have even refufed the addition of two fifteenths to the for- Britain. 1|.
   pofTeffed every virtue requifiteto conftitute the charafter mer fupply. Inftead of this, they renewed their ri- ||
of a good man. At prefent believing his fubjefts to be diculous complaints againft the growth of popery,
in perfett friendfhip with him as he was with them, he which was now their only grievance. They (hewed
refolved that their bounty to him (hould be entirely un- their intolerant fpirit by demanding a drift execution
afked, and the genuine effeft of mutual confidence and of the penal laws againft the catholics; and rcmon-
His firft regard. Accordingly, his difcourfe to the parliament ftrated againit fome late pardons granted to priefts.
fpeech to his was full of fimplicity and cordiality; he lightly men- They attacked Montague, one of the king’s chaplains,
parliament. t;onecj t^e OCcafion he had for fupply. He employed on account of a moderate book which he had lately
no intrigue to influence the fuffrages of the members, compofed, and which, to their great difguft, faved
He would not even allow the officers of the crown, who virtuous catholics as well as other Chriftians from eter- K;n<,^refJ
had feats in the houfe, to mention any particular fum nal torments. Charles gave them a gracious and com- luti“n to
which he had occafion for; but trufted entirely to the plailant anfwer; but firmly rdfolved to abate fomewhat vourtheC*-
wifdom and affeftion of his parliament, who perfeftly of the rigorous laws againft that unfortunate party, tholics. . j
well knew his circumftances. which his engagements with France abfolutely re-
Their lean- It is almoft impoffible to read without indignation an quired. No meafure, however, throughout the whole
dalous pro- account of the return made by the commons to this reign of this prince, was more difguftful to his bigot-
ceedings. generous behaviour of their fovercign. They knew, ted fubjefts, or by its confequences more fatal to him-
that all the money granted by the laft parliament had felf, than this refolution. The Puritans had continued
been expended on military and naval preparations ; and to gain ground during the whole reign of James, and
that great anticipations were likewife made on the re- now formed the majority of the houfe of commons ; in
venues of the Crown. They were not ignorant that confequence of which, petitions were prefented to the
Charles was loaded with a debt contrafted by his fa- king for replacing fuch clergymen as had been fi-
ther, who had borrowed money both from foreign lenccd for want of conformity to the ceremonies. They
princes, and from his own fubjefts. They had learned alfo enafted laws for the ftrift obfervance of Sun-
by experience, that the public revenues could with dif- day, which they afl'efted to call the fabbath, and which
ficulty maintain the dignity of the crown, even under they fanftified with the moft melancholy indolence ; and
the ordinary charges of government. They were fen- it is worthy of notice, that the different appellations of
iible that the prefent war was, very lately, the refult Sunday and fabbath were at that time known fymbols parp5^ent
' of their own importunate applications and intreaties, of the different parties.—In confequence of this beha- diffolved^ *
and that they had folemnly engaged to fupport their viour in Charles’s firft parliament, it was diffolved on
fovereign in the management of it. They were ac- the 12th of Auguft 1625, and a new one called on
quainted with the difficulty of military enterprizes di- Feb. 6fh 1626.
refted againft the whole houfe of Auftria ; againft the During this interval Charles had been obliged to jjis f^em©
king of Spain, poffeffed of the greateft riches and moft borrow from his fubjefts on privy-feals ; the advantage to raife mo-J
extenfive dominions of any prince in Europe ; againft of which was but a fmall compenfation for the difguft ney.
the emperor Ferdinand, hitherto the moft fortunate it occafioned. By means, however, of that fupply,
monarch of the age, who had fubdued and aftonifhed and fome other expedients, he was enabled to equip
Germany by the rapidity of his viftories. Deep im- his fleet, tho’ with difficulty. It was defigned againft
preffions they faw muft be made by the Britifh fword, Spain, but performed nothing worth notice, and its
and a vigorous offenfive war be waged againft thefe bad fuccefs increafed the clamours againft the court. St
mighty potentates, ere they would refign the palati- Charles’s fecond parliament immediately adopted the Pr°fe^dinSs |
nate which they had now fully fubdued, and which fame views with the former; however, they voted him °ar^^°nt j
they held in fecure poffeffion by its being furrounded a fupply of three fubfidies (168,000/.) and three fif-
with all their other territories. To anfwer, therefore, teenths ; but the paffing this vote into a law was re-
all thefe great and important ends; to fatisfy their ferved until the end of the feffion, that in the mean
young king in the firft requeft he made them; to prove time they might have an opportunity of forcing the
their fenfe of the many royal virtues, particularly oe- king to make what conceffions they pleafed. This
conomy, with which Charles was endued; the commons harfti and undutiful conduft was greatly refented by
thought proper to confer on the king a fupply of Charles; but he found himfelf obliged to fubmit, and
112,000/. To fearch for the reafons of fuch an ex- wait the event with patience. In the mean time they
travagant piece of conduft would be needlefs; it is im- attacked the duke of Buckingham, who was become
poffihlethey could be good. generally obnoxious; and he was alfo impeached by
It is not to be fuppofed that Charles, or any perfon the earl of Briftol, on account of his conduft with re-
of common fenfe, could be infenfible of fuch treatment gard to the Spanifti negociation. The earl’s impeach-
as this; he behaved, however, with great moderation, ment, however, was entirely overlooked, and the com-
He reprefent.ed in the moft explicit manner the neceffity mons were able to prove nothing otherwife of any con-
there was for a large fupply: he even condefcended to fequence againft him. The king imagining that Buc-
ufe intreaties : he faid that this requeft was the firft he kingham’s greateft crime was the having been fo much
had ever made them ; that he was young, and in the in favour with his fovereign, commanded the houfe ex¬
commencement of his reign ; and if he now met with prefsly not to meddle with his minifter and fervant, but
kind and dutiful ufage,it would endear him to the ufe of to finifti in a few days the bill they had begun for the
parliaments, and would for-ever preferve an entire har- fubfidies; otherwife they muft expeft to fit no longer. j8
mony between him and his people.—To thefe reafons Suggqftions of this kind had a bad effeft; and when
and intreaties, the commons remained inexorable; they the king proceeded further to throw into prifon two gUfted>
members 6
B R I [ 1407 ] B R I
Britain, members of the houfe who had managed the impeach-
~~ ment againft Buckingham, the commons declared that
they would proceed no further in bufinefs till they had
fatisfa&ion in their privileges. Charles alleged as the
reafon of this meafure, certain feditious expreffions,
which, he faid, had, in their accufation of the duke,
dropped from thefe members. Upon inquiry it ap¬
peared that no fuch expreffions had been ufed, and the
members were accordingly releafed. Soon after, the
houfe of lords, moved by the example of the commons,
claimed liberty for the earl of Arundel, who had been
lately confined in the tower; and after many fruitlefs
evalions the king was obliged, though fomewhat un¬
gracefully, to comply.
The next attack made by the commons would have
proved decifive, had it fucceeded, and would have re¬
duced the king to an abfolute dependence on his par¬
liament. They were preparing a remonftrance againft
the levying of tonnage and poundage without con-
fent of parliament. This article, together with the
new impofitions laid on merchandize by James, confti-
tuted near one half of the crown revenues ; and after
having gained this point, they were to petition the
king, which then would have been the fame thing with
commanding him, to remove Buckingham from his pre-
l_ ,.S9 „ fence and councils. The king, however, being a-
difiolved. larmed at the yoke they were preparing lor him, du-
folved his parliament a fecondtime, June 15th 1626.
Charles having thus made fuch a breach with his par¬
liament as there was no hopes of repairing, was obliged
to have recourfe to the exercife of every branch of his
prerogative in order to fupply himfelf with money. A
commiffion was openly granted to compound with the
catholics, and agree for difpenfing with the penal laws
enafted againft them ; and by this expedient the king,
indeed, filled his coffers, but gave univerfal difguft to
his fubje&s. From the nobility he defired affittance :
from the city he required a loan of 100,000 1. The
former contributed flowly: but the latter, covering
60 themfelves under many pretences and excufes, gave at
Ship-money laft a flat denial. In order to equip a fleet, a diftribu-
tion by order of the council was made to all the mari¬
time towns ; and each of them was required, with the
affiftance of the adjacent counties, to arm as many
veffels as were appointed them. The city of London
was rated at 20 fhips : and this is the firft appearance,
in Charles’s reign, of (hip-money; a taxation which
had once been impofed by Elizabeth, but which, when
carried fome fteps farther by Charles, produced the moft
violent difcontents. —Thefe methods of fupply were
carried on with fome moderation, till news arrived of
the king of Denmark being totally defeated by count
Ci Tilly the Imperial general ; but money then becoming
A general more than ever neceffary, it was fuggefted in council,
loan re- that the moft fpeedy, equal, and convenient method of
qiure . fupply was by a general loan from the fubject, accord¬
ing as every man was affeffed in the rolls of the laft fub-
fidy. That precife fum was required which each would
have paid, had the vote of four fubfidies been paffed
into a law: care, however, was taken, that the fums
thus exatted were not to be called fubfidies, but loans;
but it wasimpoffible to avoid obferving, that thus the
liberty of the fubjeffc was entirely deftroyed, and all par¬
liaments rendered at once fuperfluous.
Many people throughout England refufed thefe
loans, and fome were even aftive in encouraging their Britaiir.
neighbours to infift upon their common rights and ^
privileges. By warrant of the council, thefe were Five gentle-
thrown into prifon. Moft of them patiently fubmit- men refolve
ted to confinement, or applied by petition to the king, 19
who commonly releafed them. Five gentlemen, how- 13 *
ever, Sir Thomas Darnel, Sir John Corbet, Sir Wal¬
ter Earl, Sir John Heweningham, and Sir Edmond
Hambden, demanded releafe, not as a favour from the
court, but as their due by the laws of their country.
No particular caufe was affigned for their commitment.
The fpecial command of the king and council alone
was pleaded. And it was alleged, that by law this was
not fufficient reafon for refufing bail or releafement to
the prifoners. The queftion was brought to a folemn
trial before the court of king’s bench; and the whole
kingdom was attentive to the iffue of the caufe. By
the debates on this fubje& it appeared, that perfonal li¬
berty had been fecured by no lefs than fix different fta-
tutes, and by an article in magna charta itfelf. It ap¬
peared, that, in times of turbulence and fedition, the
princes infringed upon thefe laws; and of this alfo
many examples were produced. The difficulty then lay
to determine when fuch violent meafures were neceffary;
but of that the court pretended to be the fupreme
judge. As it was legal, therefore, that thefe five gen¬
tlemen (hould plead the ftatute, by which they might
demand bail, fo it was expedient in the court to remand
them to prifon, without determining on the neceffity of
taking bail for the prefent. This was a cruel evafion
of juftice ; and, in fad, fatisfied neither party. The
court infifted that no bail could be taken; the country
exclaimed that the prifoners ought to be fet free. 63
While the king was thus embroiled with his parlia- War decla-
ment at home, and with powerful nations abroad, he
rafhly engaged in a war with France, a kingdom with
which he had but lately formed the moft natural alli¬
ance. All hiftorians agree that this war proceeded
from the rivalfliip of the duke of Buckingham and car¬
dinal Richlieu ; both of whom were in love with the
queen of France: and an inveterate enmity being thus
produced between thefe favourites, they refolved to in¬
volve their refpedive nations in the difpute. However
this be, war was declared againft France; and Charles
was taught to hope, that hoftilities with that kingdom
would be the fureft means of procuring tranquillity at
home.—The fuccefs of this war was proportionable to Bad fuccefs
the wifdom with which it was commenced. Bucking- Bucking¬
ham was appointed commander; and he being entirely lam'
unacquainted both with fea and land fervice, managed
matters fo ill, that he loft two thirds of his army, and
returned in total difcredit both as an admiral and ge¬
neral.
The difcontents in England now rofe to fuch an
height, that there was reafon to apprehend an infufrec-
tion or rebellion. Charles was alfo reduced to the
greateft diftrefs for want of money. That which he
had levied by virtue of his prerogative came in very
(lowly, and it was dangerous to renew the experiment
on account of the ill humour of the nation in general.
A third parliament therefore was called March 17th, a third par-
1628; whom Charles plainly told at the beginning of liament cal-
the feffion, that “ if they (hould not do their duties, in Je((-
contributing to the neceffities of the (late, he muft, in
difcharge of his confcience, ufe thofe other means which
8 P 2 God
Britain.
13 R I [ 1408 ] 13 R I
Britain. God had put into his hands, in order to fave that which
' r"'r‘ the follies of fome particular men may otherwife put in
danger.” This parliament behaved in a much more
reafonable manner than either of the two former ones.
The nation was now really aggrieved by the late arbi¬
trary proceedings. They began with voting againft ar¬
bitrary imprifonments and forced loans; after which,
five fubfidies (280,000/.) were voted to the king. With
this fum, though much inferior to his wants, Charles
declared himfelf well fatisfied ; and even tears of affec¬
tion ftarted in his eye when informed of this conceffion :
the commons, however, refolved not to pafs this vote
into a law, before they had obtained from the king a
fufficient fecurity that their liberties fhould be no Ion-
Petition of ger violated as they had formerly been. They refolved
right fra- to frame a law, which they were to call a petition of
med. right, in which they fhould colleft all the arbitrary ex¬
ertions of the prerogative which Charles had expofed
to their view, and thefe they were to afiault at once by
their petition. The grievances now complained of
were, forced loans, benevolences, taxes without confent
of parliament, arbitrary imprifonments, billeting fol-
diers, and martial law. They pretended not, as they
affirmed, to any unufual powers or privileges ; nor did
they intend to infringe the royal prerogative in any re-
fpe&: they aimed only at fecuring thofe rights and pri-
67 vileges derived from their anceftors.
Duplicity of The king, on his part, now began plainly to (how
the king. that he aimed at nothing lefs than abfolute power.
This reafonable petition he did his utmoft to evade, by
repeated meffages to the houfe, in which he always of¬
fered his royal word that there fhould be no more in¬
fringements on the liberty of the fubjeft. Thefe mef¬
fages, however, had no effe& on the commons: they
knew how infufficient fuch promifes were, without fur¬
ther fecurity; and therefore the petition at laft paffed
both houfes, and nothing was wanting but the royal
affent to give it the force of a law. The king accord¬
ingly came to the houfe of peers, fent for the commons,
and being feated in the chair of ftate, the petition was
read to him. In anfwer to it, he faid, “ The king wil-
leth, that right be done according to the laws and cu-
floms of the realm, and that the flatutes be put into
execution; that his fubje&s may have no caufe to com¬
plain of any wrong or oppreffion contrary to their juft
rights and liberties, to the pvefervation whereof he
holds himfelf in confcience as much obliged as of his
own prerogative.”
This equivocal anfwer was highly refented. The
commons returned in very ill humour. Their indigna¬
tion would undoubtedly have fallen on the unfortunate
catholics, had not their petition againft them already
received a fatisfaftory anfwer. To give vent to their
prefent wrath, therefore, they fell on Dr Manwaring,
who had preached a fermon, and, at the fpecial com¬
mand of the king, printed it; which was now found to
contain doftrines fubverfiveof all civil liberty. It taught,
that tho’ property was commonly lodged in the fubjeft,
yet, whenever any exigency required fupply, all property
was transferred to the fovereign ; that the confent of
parliament was not neceffary for the impofition of taxes;
and that the divine laws required compliance with every
demand, however irregular, which the prince (hould
make upon his fubje&s. For thefe do&rines Manwa¬
ring was fentenced to be imprifoned during the plea-
fure of the houfe; to be fined 1000/. to the king; make
fubmiffion and acknowledgment for his offence ; be fu-
fpended three years; be incapable of holding any ec-
clefiaftical dignity or fecular office; and that his book be
called in and burnt. No fooner, however, was the feffion
ended, than Manwaring received a pardon, and was pro¬
moted to a living of confiderable value. Some years af¬
terwards he was promoted to the fee of St Afaph. At Heat hfl: I
laft, the king, feeing it was impoffible to carry his gives his af*j
point, yielded to the importunities of parliament. He ,to tlie \
came to the houfe of peers, and pronouncing the ufual Petulou' j
form of words, “ Let it be law as is defired,” gave
full fan&ion and authority to the petition. The houfe
refounded with acclamations, and the bill for five fub¬
fidies immediately paffed.
The commons, however, were not yet fatisfied; they
began again to attack Buckingham, againft whom they
were implacable: they alfo afferted, that the levying of
tonnage and poundage without confent of parliament
was a palpable violation of the ancient liberties of the
people, and an open infringement of the petition of right
fo lately granted. The king, in order to prevent a re- 69
monftrance on that fubjeft, fuddenly prorogued the par- nroroeu-U*
liament, on June 26th, 1628.
The commons foon got rid of their enemy Bucking- „ J0
ham; who was murdered, on the 23d of Auguft this ham mur-
fame year, by one Felton who had formerly ferved un- dcred.
der him as a lieutenant. The king did not appear much
concerned at his death, but retained an affeftion for his
family throughout his whole lifetime. He defired alfo
that Felton might be tortured, in order to extort from
him a difcovery of his accomplices; but the judges de¬
clared, that though that practice had been formerly very
common, it was altogether illegal.
In 1629, the ufual contentions between the king and 91 .
his parliament continued. The great article on which
the commons broke with their fovereign, and which fi- nage and
nally created in him a difguft at all parliaments, was poundage,
their claims with regard to tonnage and poundage.
The difpute was, whether this tax could be leviedwith¬
out confent of parliament or not. Charles, fupported
by multitudes of precedents, maintained that it might;
and the parliament, in confequence of their petition of
right, afferted that it could not. The commons were
reiolved to fupport their rights: and the difputes con¬
cerning tonnage and poundage went hand in hand with
fome theological controverfies; particularly concerning
Arminianifm, which the Puritans, which now formed
the majority of the nation, oppofed with the greateft
violence; and which confequently crept in among thofe
who profeffed epifcopacy, where it hath ftill maintain¬
ed its ground more than in any other party.
The commons began with fummoning before them
the officers of the cuftom-houfe, to give an account by
what authority they had feized the goods of thofe mer¬
chants who had refufed to pay the duties of tonnage
and poundage. The barons of exchequer were que-
ftioned with regard to their decrees on that head. The
fheriff of London was committed to the Tower for his
aftivity in fupporting the officers of the cuftom-houfe.
The goods of Rolles, a merchant, and member of the
houfe, being feized for his refufal to pay the duties,
complaints were made of this violence, as if it were a
breach of privilege. Charles, on the other hand, fup¬
ported his officers in all thefe meafures, and the quar¬
rel
B R I
L Hop J
B R 1
I Hiitain. rcl between him and the commons became every day in a lefs degree, the fame with that of the Romifh. The Britain.
higher. Sir John Elliot framed a remonitrance againll fame profound refpedt was exafted to the facerdotal
tonnage and poundage, which he offered to the clerk
to read; but it was refufed, and he then read it him-
felf. The queftion being called for. Sir John Finch
the fpeaker faid, that he had a command from the king
to adjourn, and to put no queftion ; upon which he
rofe and left the chair. The whole houfe was in an up¬
roar; the fpeaker was pufhed back into the chair, and
forcibly held in it, till a ftiort remonftrance was formed,
which was inftantaneoufly paffed by almoft univerfal
acclamation. Papifts and Arminians were now decla¬
red capital enemies to the commonwealth. Thofe who
levied tonnage and poundage were branded with the
fame epithet. And even the merchants, who fliould
charadter; the fame fubmiffion to the creeds and de¬
crees of fynods and councils required; the fame pomp
and ceremony was affefted in worfhip; and the fame fu-
perftitious regard to days, poftures, meats, and veft-
ments. Orders were given, and rigoroufly infifted on,
that the communion-table fhould be removed from the
middle of the area where it had hitherto flood in all
churches except cathedrals. It was placed at the eaft
end, railed in, and denominated an altar; as the cler¬
gyman, who officiated, commonly received the appella¬
tion of priejl. All kinds of ornaments, efpecially pic¬
tures, were introduced. Some of thefe, upon inquiry,
were found to be the very fame that were to be met with
luntarily pay thefe duties, were declared betrayers of in the mafs-book. The crucifix too, that perpetual
w—i./e —j—li: rr"- - J u -— confolation of all pious Catholics, and terror to all found
Proteftants, was not forgot on this occafion.
In return for Charles’s indulgence towards the church,
Laud arid his followers took care to magnify on every
occafion the regal authority, and to treat with the ut-
moft difdain or deteftation all puritanical pretenfions to
a free and independent conftitution. From this fubjec-
tion, however, they took care to exclude themfelves,
and infifted upon a divine and apoftolical charter in pre¬
ference to a legal and parliamentary one. The facer¬
dotal character was magnified as facred and indefeafible;
Englifh liberty, and public enemies. The doors being
locked, the gentleman-ufher of the houfe of lords, who
was fent by the king, could get no admittance till this
’arliament remonftrance was finifhed. By the king’s order he took
■ftblvcd. the mace from the table, which put an end to their pro¬
ceedings, and on the 10th of March the parliament was
difiblved. Some of the members were imprifoned and
fined; but this feverity ferved only to increafe the ge¬
neral difeontent, and point out the fufferers as proper
leaders for the popular party.
Charles being now difgufted with parliaments, refol-
F ranee and vecj to call no more; but finding himfelf deftitute of all right to fpiritual authority, or even to private judg-
refources, was obliged to make peace with the two ment in fpiritual fubjedls, was refufed to profane lay-
introduce
' religi-
powers with which he was at war. A treaty was figned men : ecclefiaftical courts were held by biihops in their
—:‘l~ 17   — ‘l-“ * -th "f A—:1 —1 — —:*L own name, without any notice taken of the king’s au¬
thority: and Charles, tho’ extremely jealous of every
claim in popular affemblies, feemed rather to encourage
than reprefs thofe encroachments of his clergy.
The principles which exalted prerogative were put His arbitra-
in pra&ice during the whole time that Charles ruled T an<l l,n-
without parliaments. He wanted money for the fup- P0Pular S°-
rr vernment.
port ot government; and he levied it, either by the re¬
vival of obfolete laws, or by violations of the privileges.
Though humane and gentle in his nature, he gave way
to feverities in the ftar-chamber and high commiffion,
which feemed neceflary in order to fupport the prefent
mode of adminiftration, and fupprefs the rifing fpirit of
liberty throughout the kingdom. Tonnage and pound¬
age were continued to be levied by royal authority alone.
The former arbitrary impofitions were (till exaded; and
even new impofitions laid upon different kinds of mer¬
chandize. The cuftom-houfe officers received orders
from the council to enter into any houfe, warehoufe,
or cellar; to fearch any trunk or cheft ; and to break
any bulk whatever, in default of the payment of cu-
ftoms. In order to exercife the militia, each county
by an edid of the council was affeffed in a certain fum
for maintaining a mufter-mafter appointed for that fer-
vice. Compolitions were openly made with recufants,
and the Popifh religion became a regular part of the
revenue. A commiffion was granted for compounding
with fuch as were poffeffed of crown-lands on defedive
titles ; and on this pretence fome money was exaded of
the people, &c.
While the Englifh were in the utmoft difeontent, He attempts
within him, which would not fuffer his compliance, till and almoft ready to break out in open rebellion by to eftablifh
0—- ...... ♦ko., .V :-»> T«- thefe arbitrary proceedings, Charles thought proper fPiftoPacy
to attempt fetting up epifcopacy in Scotland. The in ScotlantJ*
with France on the 14th of April, and another with
Spain on the 5th of November 1630, by which Charles
bound himfelf to obferve a neutrality with regard to the
affairs on the continent. His condud to his fubjeds
cannot now appear entirely blamelefs, nor the general
difeontent altogether without foundation. As if, how¬
ever, he had refolved to ruin himfelf, and to lofe the
74 fmall degree of affedion which remained among his
The king fubjeds, Charles now began to fet about making inno¬
attempts to yations in religion. Archbifhop Laud had obtained a
prodigious afcendency over’the king; and, by his fu-
_ perftitious attachment to foolifh ceremonies, led him into
a condud that proved fatal to himfelf and to the king¬
dom in general. The humour of the nation ran at that
time in a channel perfedly the reverfe of fuperftition.
The ancient ceremonies which had been fandified by
the permiffion and pradice of the firft reformers, could
fcarce be retained in divine fervice. Laud chofe this
time, of all others the moft improper, for renewing the
ceremonies of the fourth and fifth century, when the
Chriftian church, as is well known, was funk into thofe
fuperftitions, which were afterwards continued and aug¬
mented by the policy of the church of Rome. So open¬
ly were thefe tenets efpoufed, that not only the difeon-
tented Puritans believed the church of England to be
relapfing fall into the Romilh fuperftition, but the court
of Rome itfelf entertained hopes of regaining its au¬
thority in this ifland. To forward Laud’s good inten¬
tions, an offer was twice made him, in private, of a
cardinal’s hat; which he declined accepting. His an-
fwer was, (as he fays himfelf), that “ fomething dwelt
Rome was other than it is.” It muft be confeffed,
however, that though Laud deferved not the appella¬
tion of athe genius of his religion was, though canons for dtablilhing ecclefiaftical juriftlicUon were
pro-
B R I [14
F-ritain. promulgated in 1635, and were received without much
 appearance of oppofition ; yet, with great inward ap-
prehenfion and difcontent. The firii reading of the
liturgy was attempted in the cathedral church of St
Giles in Edinburgh, in 1637 ; but this produced fuch
a tumult, that it was not thought fafe to repeat the
experiment. An univerfal combination againft: the re¬
ligious innovations began immediately to take place ;
but Charles, as if obftinately bent on his own deftruc-
tion, continued inflexible in his purpofe, though he
had nothing to oppofe to the united force of the king¬
dom but a proclamation, in which he pardoned all pall
offences, and exhorted the people to be more obedient
77 for the future, and to fubmit peaceably to the ufe of the
Which oc- liturgy. This proclamation haftened forward the in-
cafions an furre£tion which had been flowly advancing before,
infurreftion jrour tables, as they were called, were formed in E-
dinburgh. One confifted of nobility, another of gen¬
try, a third of minifters, and the fourth of burgefles.
The table of gentry was divided into many fubordinate
ones, according to their different counties. In the
hands of the four tables, the authority of the whole
kingdom was placed. Orders were iffued by them,
and every where obeyed with the utmoft regularity ;
and among the firft a£ts of their government was the
7g produ&ion of the Covenant.
Account of This famous covenant confided of a renunciation of
thecove- Popery, formerly figned by James in his youth, and
mnt. filled with many virulent inveflives againft that party.
A bond of union followed, by which the fubferibers
obliged themfelves to refill all religious innovations,
and to defend each other againft all oppofition what-
foever : And all this for the greater glory of God, and
the greater honour and advantage of their king and
country. The covenant was fubferibed by people of
all ranks and conditions. Few difapproved of it in their
hearts, and dill fewer dared openly to condemn it.
The king’s minifters and counfellors themfelves were
moftly of the fame way of thinking ; and none but
rebels to God, and traitors to their country, it was
thought, would withdraw themfelves from fo falutary
79 and pious a combination.
Charles at- The king now began to be alarmed. He fent the
tempts to marquis of Hamilton, as commifiioner, with authority
appeafe the t0 treat w;th the covenanters. He required the cove-
a ' nant to be renounced and recalled ; and he thought
that on his part he made very fatisfa&ory conceffions,
when he offered to fufpend the canons and liturgy till
in a fair and legal way they could be received, and fo
to model the high commiflion that it Ihould no longer
give offence to his fubjedls. In anfwer to this demand
the covenanters told him, they would fooner renounce
their baptifm; and invited the commifiioner himfelf to
fign it. Hamilton returned to London ; made ano¬
ther fruitlefs journey with new conclufions to Edin¬
burgh ; returned again to London, and was imme¬
diately fent back with ftill more fatisfaclory conceffions.
The king was now willing to abolilh entirely the ca¬
nons, the liturgy, and the high-commiffion court ; he
even refolved to limit extremely the power of the bi-
ffiops, and was content if on any terms he could retain
that order in the church of Scotland. And to enfure
all thefe gracious offers, he gave Hamilton authority
to fummon firft an affembly, and then a parliament,
where every national grievance fhould be redreffed.—
10 ] B R 1
Thefe fucceffive conceffions only fhewed the weaknefs Britain,
of the king, and encouraged the malcontents to rife in
their demands. The offer, however, of an affembly and
a parliament, in which they expe&ed to be entirely
mailers, was very willingly embraced by the cove¬
nanters. 8:
Charles, perceiving what advantage his enemies had Covenant
reaped from their covenant, refolved to have a cove- fnte,re<1 int.0
nant alfo on his fide ; and he ordered one to be drawn ;fls> er°ia
up for that purpofe. It confifted of the fame violent
renunciation of Popery with the other ; which, though
the king did not approve of it, he thought proper to
adopt, in order to remove all the fufpieions entertained
againft him. As the covenanters, in their bond of mu¬
tual defence againft all oppofition, had been careful not
to except the king ; Charles had formed a bond which
was annexed to this renunciation, and which expreffed
the fubferibers loyalty and duty to his majefty. But
the covenanters perceiving that this new covenant was
only meant to weaken and divide them, received it
with the utrnoft fcorn and deteftation. And, without
delay, they proceeded to model the affembly from
which fuch great atchievements were expedled. Si
The affembly met at Glafgow in 1638. A firm de- Violent pro¬
termination had been entered into of utterly aBolifhing ceedings of
epifeopacy ; and, as a preparative to it, there was laid affembly
before the prefbytery of Edinburgh, and folemnly read
in all the churches ofthe kingdom, an accufation againft
the bifhops, as guilty, all of them, of herefy, fimony,
bribery, perjury, cheating, inceft, adultery, fornica¬
tion, common-fwearing, drunkennefs, gaming, breach
of the fabbath, and every other crime which had oc¬
curred to the accufers. The bifhops fent a proteft,
declining the authority of the affembly ; the commif-
fioner too.protefted againft that court, as illegally con-
ftituted and elefted ; and, in his majefty’s name, dif-
folved it. This meafure was forefeen, and little re¬
garded. The court ftill continued tp fit and do bufi-
nefs. All the a6ts of affembly, fince the acceffion of
James to the crown of England, were, upon pretty
reafonable grounds, declared null and invalid. The
a&s of parliament which affefted ecclefiaftical affairs,
were on that very account fuppofed to have no autho¬
rity. And thus the whole fabric, which James and
Charles, in a long courfe of years, had been rearing
with much care and policy, fell at once to the ground.
The covenant likewife was ordered to be figried by
every one, under pain of excommunication.
In 1639, the covenanters prepared in earneft for Piepara-
war. The earl of Argyle, though he long feemed to t ons for
temporize, at laft embraced the covenant; and he be- war by the
came the chief leader of that party. The earls QfC0Vcnanters
Rothes, Caffils, Montrofe, Lothian, the lords Lin-
defey, Loudon, Yefter, and Balmerino, alfo diftin-
guifhed themfelves. Many of their officers had acquired
reputation in the German wars, particularly under
Gullavus ; and thefe were invited over to affift their
country in her prefent neceffity. The command was
entrufted to Lefly, a foldier of experience and ability.
Forces were regularly enlifted and difeiplined. Arms
were commiffioned and imported from foreign countries.
A few cattles which belonged to the king, being un¬
provided of victuals, ammunition, and garrifons, were
foon feized. And the whole country, except a fmall
part, where the marquis of Huntly ftill adhered to the
king,
B R I [ 1411 ] B R I
Britain, king, being in the covenanters hands, was foon put
—3^ into a tolerable pofture of defence.
t By theking. Charles, on the other hand, was not deficient in his
endeavours to oppofe this formidable combination. By-
regular ceconomy he had not only paid all the debts
contra&ed in the French and Spanifh wars, but had
amaffed a fum of 200,000 1.; which he had referved
for any fudden exigency. The queen had great in-
tereft with the catholics, both from the fympathy of
religion, and from the favours and indulgences which
(he had been able to procure them. She now employed
her credit, and perfuaded them, that it was reafonable
to give large contributions, as a mark of their duty to
the king, during this urgent neceffity : And thus, to
the great fcandal of the Puritans, a confiderable fup-
ply was gained. The king’s fleet was formidable and
well fupplied. Having put 5000 land-forces on board,
he intrufted it to the marquis of Hamilton, who had
orders to fail to the frith of Forth, and caufe a diver-
fion in the forces of the malcontents. An army was
levied of near 20,000 foot, and 3000 horfe; and was
put under the command of the earl of Arundel, a noble¬
man of great family, but celebrated neither for military
nor political abilities. The earl of Eflex, a man of
ftrift honour, and extremely popular, efpecially among
the foldiery, was appointed lieutenant-general : The
earl of Holland was general of the horfe. The king
himfelf joined the army, and he fummoned-all the peers
of England to attend him. The whole had the appear¬
ance of a fplendid court rather than a military arma¬
ment, and in this fituation the camp arrived at Berwick.
The Scottifti army was equally numerous with that
of the king, but inferior in cavalry. The officers had
more experience; and the foldiers, though ill difciplined
and armed, were animated, as well by the national a-
verfion to England, and the dread of becoming a pro¬
vince to their old enemy, as by that religious enthu-
iiafm which was the occafion of the war. Yet fo pru¬
dent were their leaders, that they immediately fent
84 very fubmiflive meflages to the king, and craved leave
Peace eon- to be admitted to a treaty.—Charles, as ufual, took the
eluded. Worft courfe. He concluded a fudden pacification, in
which it was ftipulated, that he ftiould withdraw his
fleet and army ; that within 48 hours the Scots Ihould
difmifs their forces ; that the king’s forts (hould be re-
ftored to him ; his authority be acknowledged ; and a
general afiembly and parliament be immediately fum-
moned, in order to compofe all differences.
This peace was of no long duration. Charles could
not prevail on himfelf to abandon the caufe of epifeo-
pacy, and fecretly intended to feize every favourable
opportunity to recover the ground he had loft. The
aflembly, on the other hand, proceeded with the ut-
moft fury and violence. They voted epifcopacy to be
unlawful in the church of Scotland : they ftigmatifed
the canons and liturgy as Popifh: they denominated
the high commiflion tyranny. The parliament which
fat after the aflembly, advanced pretenfions which
tended to diminiih the civil power of the monarch ; and
what probably affefted Charles ftill more, they were
proceeding to ratify the afts of aflembly, when by the
gj king’s inftrudlions Traquaire the commiflioner pro-
War again rOgued them. And on account of thefe claims, which
declared, might have been eafily forefeen, war was recommenced
the fame year.
No fooner had Charles concluded the peace, than he Britai‘n •
found himfelf obliged to difband his army, on account
of his want of money ; and as the foldiers had been
held together merely by mercenary views, it was not
pofiible, without great trouble, expence, and lofs of
time, to reaflemble them. On the contrary, the cove¬
nanters, in difmiffing their troops, had been careful to
preferve nothing but the appearance of a pacification.
The officers had orders to be ready on the firft fum-
mons : The foldiers were warned not to think the na¬
tion fecure from an Englilh invafion : And the religi¬
ous zeal which animated all ranks of men made them
immediately fly to their ftandards, as foon as their
trumpet was founded by their fpiritual and temporal
leaders. 86
In 1640, however, the king made ftiift to draw an A parlia-
army together; but finding himfelf unable to fupport mentcalkd-
them, was obliged to call a parliament after an inter-
miflion of above 11 years. As the foie defign of the
king’s calling this parliament was to obtain a fupply,
and the only reafon they had for attending was to pro¬
cure a redrefs of grievances, it is not to be fuppofed
there could be any good agreement between them.
The king accordingly infifted for money, and the par- g7
liament on their grievances, till a diflblution enfued. Diffblved,
—To add to the unpopularity' of this meafure, the king,
notwithftanding his difolving the parliament, allowed
the convocation to fit ; a practice of which, fince the
reformation, there had been very few examples, and
which was now by many deemed very irregular. Be-
lides granting to the king a fupply from the fpirituality,
the convocation, jealous of innovations fimilar to thofe
which had taken place in Scotland, impofed an oath,
on the clergy and the graduates in the univerfities, by
which every one fwore to maintain the eftablilhed go¬
vernment of the church, by archbilhops, bifhops, deans,
chapters, &c. Thefe fteps were deemed illegal, becaufe
not ratified by confent of parliament ; and the oath,
containing an &c. in the middle of it, became a fubjedl
of general ridicule. gg
The king, difappointed of parliamentary fubfidies, Charles dif-
was obliged to have recourfe to other expedients. The trefled for
ecclefiaftical fubfidies ferved him in feme ftead ; and it money,
feemed but juft that the clergy ftiould contribute to
the expence of a war which had been in a great mea¬
fure of their own raifing. He borrowed money from
his minifters and courtiers ; and fo much was he be¬
loved among them, that above 300,000 1. were fub-
feribed in a few days. Some attempts were made to¬
wards forcing a loan from the citizens ; but ftill repel¬
led by the fpirit of liberty, which was now become
unconquerable. A loan of 40,0001 • was extorted from
the Spanilh merchants who had bullion in the tower.
Coat and conduct money for the foldiery was levied on
the counties; an ancient practice, but which was fup¬
pofed to be abolifhed by the petition of right. All the
pepper was bought from the Eaft India Company upon
truft ; and fold, at a great difeount, for ready money.
A fcheme was propofed for coining two or three hun¬
dred thoufand pounds of bafe money. Such were the
extremities to which Charles was reduced. The frefh
difficulties, which amidft the prefent diftrefles were e-
very day raifed, with regard to the payment of fliip-
money, bbliged him to exert continual afts of autho¬
rity, augmented extremely the difeontents of the peo-
B R I
Britain, pie, and increafed his indigence and neceffities.
_ ,pke prefent expedients, however, enabled the king,
though with great difficulty, to march his army, con-
fifting of 19,000 foot and 2000 horfe. The earl of
Northumberland was appointed general; the earl of
Strafford, who was called over from Ireland, lieutenant-
general ; lord Gonway, general of the horfe. A fmall
fleet was thought fufficient to ferve the purpofes of this
expedition. The Scots, though fomewhat fuperior,
were fooner ready than the king’s army, and marched
to the borders of England. Notwithftanding their war¬
like preparations and hoftile attempts, the covenanters
ftill preferved the moft fubmiflive language to the king ;
and entered England with no other defign, they faid,
89 than to obtain accefs to the king’s prefence, and lay
Royalifts their humblepetition at his royal feet. AtNewburnupon
Newborn1 Tyne they were oppofed by a detachment of 4500 men
ew urn. un(jerConway, who feemed refolute to difpute with them
the paffage of the river. The Scots firft intreated them,
with great civility, not to flop them in their march to
their gracious fovereign ; and then attacked them with
great bravery, killed feveral, and chafed the reft from
their ground. Such a panic feized the whole Englifh
army, that the forces at Newcaftle fled immediately to
Durham ; and not yet thinking themfelves fafe, they
deferted that town, and retreated into Yorkfhire.
The Scots continued to advance ; they difpatched
rheflengers to the king, who was now arrived at York.
They took care, after the advantage they had gained,
to redouble their exprelfions of loyalty, duty, and fub-
milfion to his perfon; and they even made apologies
full of forrow and contrition for their late victory.
Charles was in a very diftreffed condition ; and, in.or-
der to prevent the further advance of the Scots, agreed to
a treaty, and named 16 Englifh noblemen to meet with
11 Scots commiffioners at Rippon. Strafford, upon
whom, by reafon of Northumberland’s ficknefs, the
command of the army had devolved, advifed Charles
rather to put all to hazard, than fubmit to fuch un¬
worthy terms as he faw would be impofed upon him.
He advifed him to pufh forward and attack the Scots,
•and bring the affair to a quick decifion ; and if he was
ever fo unfuccefsful, nothing worfe could befal him than
what from his inactivity he would certainly be expofed
to; and, to fhewhow eaiily thisprojeCt might be executed,
he ordered an affault to be made on fome quarters of
the Scots, and gained an advantage over them. This
falutary advice Charles had not refolution to follow.
He therefore refolved to call a council of the peers;
and as he forefaw that they would advife him to call a
parliament, he told them in his firft fpeech, that he had
already taken that refolution. In order to fubfift
both armies (for the king was obliged to pay his ene¬
mies, in order to fave the northern counties), Charles
wrote to the city, defiring a loan of 200,0001. And
the peers at York, whole authority was now much
greater than that of their fovereign, joined in the fame
50 requeft.
Parliament The parliament met November 3d 1640: the houfe
meets. of commons had never been obferved fo numerous; and,
that they might ftrike a decifive blow at once againft
the court they began with the impeachment of the earl
Unhappy ft' Strafford. That nobleman, who was confidered as
tuation of prime minifter, both on account of the credit he poffef-
Btraffbrd. fed with his mafter, and his own uncommon vigour and
B R I
capacity, had now the misfortune of having incurred Britain,
the hatred of all the three kingdoms. The Scots looked
upon him as the capital enemy of their country. He
had engaged the parliament of Ireland to advance large
fubfidies to be employed in a war againft them : he had
levied an army of 9000 men, with which he had me¬
naced all their weftern coaft : he had obliged the Scots
who lived under his government to renounce the cove¬
nant, &c.: he had governed Ireland, firft as deputy, and
then as lord-lieutenant, during eight years, with great
vigilance, aftivity, and prudence, but with very little
popularity. In a nation fo averfe to the Englifh govern¬
ment and religion, thefe very virtues were fufficient to
draw on him the public hatred. His manners, befides,
were at bottom haughty, rigid, and fevere ; and no
fooner did adverfity begin to feize him, than the con¬
cealed averfion blazed up at once, and the Irifh parlia¬
ment ufed every expedient to aggravate the charge
againft him.
The univerfal difcontent which prevailed throughout
the Englifh nation was all pointed againft the earl of
Strafford; though for no other reafon but becaufe he
was the minifter of date whom the king moft favoured
and trufted. His extraftion was honourable, his pater¬
nal fortune confiderable : yet envy attended his hidden
and great elevation ; and his former aflbciates in popu¬
lar counfels, finding that he owed his advancement to
the defertion of their caufe, reprefented him as the great
apoftate of the commonwealth, whom it behoved them
to facrifice as a vidlim to public juftice.
From fo terrible a combination againft a fingle per¬
fon, nothing elfe could be expected than what really
happened. Strafford was impeached, moft unjuftly con- Unjuftlyex-
demned, and at laft executed, in the year 1641. It was ecmed.
not without extreme difficulty that the king could be 9i
brought to confent to his execution. He came to the Diftrefs of
houfe of lords, where he expreffed his refolution never tlie 0B
to employ Strafford again in any public bufinefs; but
with regard to the treafon for which he was con- tion.
demned, he profeffed himfelf totally diffatisfied. The
commons voted it a breach of privilege for the king to
take notice of any bill depending before the houfe.
Charles did not perceive, that his attachment to Straf¬
ford was the chief motive for the bill; and the greater
proof he gave of this attachment to his favourite mini¬
fter, the more inevitable did he render his deftruftion.
The houfe of lords were intimidated, by popular vio¬
lence, into palling the bill of attainder againft the un¬
fortunate earl. The fame battery was next employed
to force the king’s affent. The populace flocked about
Whitehall, and accompanied their demand of juftice
with the loudeft clamours and moft open menaces. A
thoufand idle reports of confpiracies, infurreftions, and
invafions, were fpread abroad. On whatever fide the
king caft his eyes, he faw no refource nor fecurity. All
his fervants, confulting their own fafety rather than
their mafter’s honour, declined interpofing with their
advice between him and his parliament. The queen,
terrified at the appearance of fo great danger, preffed
Charles, with tears, to fatisfy his people in this demand,
which it was hoped would finally content them. Arch-
bilhop Juxon alone had the courage to advife him, if
he did not approve of the bill, by no means to confent
to it.
Strafford, hearing of the king’s irrefolution and an¬
xiety,
[ '4'2 ]
iment per-
etual.
iis reafons
onhisftep.
New crime
of delin¬
quency.
B R I [ 1413 ] B R 1
xiety, wrote to him a letter, in which he defired his mination. The judges who had formerly given judg- Britain,
own execution, in order to give peace to the nation : ment againft Hambden for refufing to pay Ihip-money, ~~
and at laft, after the moft violent anxiety, and doubt, were accufed before the peers, and obliged to find fe-
Charles granted a commiffion to four noblemen, in his curity for their appearance. Berkley-, a judge of the
name, to give the royal afTent to the bill ; flattering king’s bench, was feized by order of the houfe, even
himfelf, perhaps, that as neither his will confented to when fitting in his tribunal. The fan ft ion of the lords
the deed, nor was his hand immediately engaged in it, and commons, as well as that of the king, was declared
he was the more free from all the guilt which attended neceflary for the confirmation of ecclefialtical canons,
it. Thefe commiflioners he empowered at the fame Monopolifts and projectors, if of the king’s party, were
time to give his aflent to a bill yet more fatal to him- now expelled the houfe; but oneMildmay, a notorious andinjufticc
felf, viz. That the prcfent parliament fhould not bedif- monopolift, was allowed to keep his feat, becaufe he of the par-
folved, prorogued, or adjourned, without their own was of the popular party-. In fliort, the conftitution hainent'
confent. was completely new-modelled ; and during the firft pe-
By this laft bill Charles rendered the power of his riod of the tranfaCtions of this remarkable parliament,
enemies perpetual as it was already uncontroulable. if we except Strafford’s attainder, their merits in other
The reafon of this extraordinary ftep was, that the refpeCts fo much overbalance their miftakes, as to in-
commons, from policy, more than neceflity, had em- title them to very ample praifes from all lovers of li-
braced the expedient of paying the two armies by bor- berty. Not only were former abufes remedied, and
rowing money from the city. Thefe loans they repaid grievances redreffed : great provifion for the future was
afterwards by taxes levied bn the people. At laft the made by excellent laws againft the return of the like
citizens, either of themfelves, or by fuggeftion, began complaints. And if the means by which they obtain-
to ftart difficulties with regard to a farther loan which td fuch mighty advantages favoured often of artifice,
was demanded. “ We make no fcruple of trufting the fometimes of violence ; it is to be confidered, that re¬
parliament, (faid they), were we certain that the par- volutions of government cannot be effedted by mere
liament was to continue till our repayment. But, in the force of argument and reafoning; and that, faCHons
prefent precarious fituation of affairs, what fecurity can being once excited, men can neither fo firmly regulate
be given us for our money ?” In order to obviate this the tempers of others, nor their own, as toenfurethem-
objeftion, the abovementionedbill was fuddenly brought felves againft all exorbitancies.
in, and having paffed both houfes with great rapidity, Had the parliament flopped here, it had been happy
was at laft brought to the king ; who, being oppreffed for the nation; but they were now refolved to be fatis-
with grief on account of the unhappy fate of Straf- fied with nothing lefs than the total abolition of mo-
ford, did not perceive the pernicious confequence of the narchy. The king had promifed to pay a vifit, this
bill. fummer, to his fubje&s in Scotland, in order to fettle
All this time the commons had ruled in other refpe&s their government; and though the Englifli parliament
with an uncontroulable fway. Soon after the impeach- was very importunate with him to lay afide that jour-
ment of Strafford, Laud was accufed of high treafon, ney, they could not prevail with him fo much as to de-
and committed to cuftody. To avoid the like fate, lay it. Having failed in this, they appointed a fmall
lord keeper Finch and fecretary Windebank fled, the committee of both houfes to attend him, in order, as
one into Holland, the other into France. The houfe was pretended, to fee the articles of pacification exe-
inftituted a new fpecies of guilt, termed delinquency : cuted, but really to be fpies upon the king, to extend
thofe who had exercifed the powers neceffary for the ftill farther the ideas of parliamentary authority, as
defence of the nation during the late military opera- well as eclipfe his majefty. Endeavours were even ufed,
tions, were now called delinquents. In confequence of before Charles’s departure, to have a prote&or of the
this determination, many of the nobility and prime kingdom appointed, with a power to pafs laws without
gentry of the nation, while only exerting, as they juft- having recourfe to the king. About this time, the Marr^ e of
ly thought, the legal powers of magillracy, found king concluded the marriage of the princefs Mary, with ,he pri„ccfs
themfelves unexpe&edly involved in this new crime of William prince of Orange. He did not conclude this Mary with
delinquency. The commons, however, by their infti- alliance without communicating his intentions to par- theprinceof
tution, reaped this multiplied advantage; they difarmed liament, who were very well fatisfied with thepropofal.
the crown, they eftablilhed the maxims of rigid law They adjourned from September 9th, to Oftober 20th,
and liberty, and they fpread the terror of their own 1641. joo
authority. All the ftieriffs who had formerly exa&ed Charles arrived in Scotland Auguft 14th 1641, with Charles ar-
fhip-money, though by the king’s exprefs command, a defign to give full fatisfaftion if poffible to this reftlefs rlvesinScot-
were now declared delinquents. The farmers and officers kingdom. Some good regulations were made; them'd-
of the cuftoms who had been employed during fo many bench of biftiops, and lords of articles, were abolilhed ;
years in levying tonnage, poundage, &c. were like- it was ordained that no man Ihould be created a Scqt-
wife denominated criminals of the lame kind, and were tifti peer, who poffeffed not 10,000 marks (above 500I.)
afterwards glad to compound for a pardon by paying of annual rent in the kingdom ; a law for triennial par-
150,000!. Every diferetionary or arbitrary fentence liaments was likewife ena&ed ; and it was ordained,
of the ftar-chamber and high commiflion courts, which that the laft aft of every parliament fhould be to ap-
from their very nature were arbitrary, underwent a fe- point the time and place for holding the parliament
vere ferutiny ; and all thofe who had concurred in fuch next enfuing ; the king was alfo deprived of that power
fentences, were voted to be liable to the penalties of formerly exercifed, of iffuing proclamations which en-
law. No minifter of the king, no member of the joined obedience under the penalty of treafon. But J4;s g°jat
council, but what found himfelf expofed by this deter- the moft fatal blow given to royal authority, and what conedfions,
Vol. II. 8 in
B R I [ 1414 ] B R I
Britain. ;n a manner dethroned the prince, was an article, that
  no member of the privy-council, in whofe hands, du¬
ring the king’s abfence, the whole adminifixation lay,
no officer of date, none of the judges, fhould be ap¬
pointed but by advice and approbation of parliament.
Charles even agreed to deprive of their feats four
judges who had adhered to his interefls ; and their place
was fupplied by others more agreeable to the ruling
party. Several of the covenanters were alfo fworn of
the privy-council; and all the minifters of ftate, coun-
fellors and judges, were, by law, to hold their places
during life or good behaviour. The king, while in
Scotland, conformed himfelf to the eftablifhed church ;
he beftowed penfidns and preferments on Henderfon,
Gillefpy, and other popular preachers ; he pra&ifed
every art to foften, if not to gain, his greatell enemies ;
the earl of Argyle was created a marquis, Lord Loudon
an earl, and Lefly was dignified with the title of Lord
Leven. But though Charles was thus obliged to heap
favours on his enemies and overlook his friends, the for*
mer were not fatisfied, as believing all he did proceeded
from artifice and neceffity; while fome of the latter
were difgufted, and thought themfelves ill rewarded for
their pail fervices.
Argyle and Hamilton, being feized with an appre-
henfion, real or pretended, that the earl of Crawfurd
and others meant to affaffinate them, left the parlia¬
ment fuddenly, and retired into the country: but, up¬
on invitation and affurances, returned in a few days.
This event, which in Scotland had no vifible confe-
quence, was commonly denominated thebut
though the incident had no 'effedl in Scotland, it was
101 attended with very ferious confequences in England.
Englilhpar- The Englifh parliament immediately took the alarm;
fireguard or rat^er probably were glad of the hint: they infinu-
k 1 ’ ated to the people, that the malignants, fo they called
the king’s party, had laid a plot at once to murder them
and all the godly in both kingdoms. They applied
therefore to Effex, whom the king had left general of
the fouth of England ; and he ordered a guard to at¬
tend them.
Rebellion t^ie mean time a moft dangerous rebellion broke
breaks out out in Ireland, with circumftances of unparallelled hor-
in Ireland, ror, bloodfhed, and devaftation. The old Irifii, by the
wife condudt of James, had been fully fubdued, and
proper means taken for fecuring their dependence and
fubje&ion for the future ; but their old animofity ftill
remained, and only wanted an occafion to exert itfelf.
This they obtained from the weak condition to which
Charles was reduced, and this was made ufe of in the
following manner.
One Roger More, a gentleman defeended from an
ancient Iriih family, but of narrow fortune, firft: formed
the projeft of expelling the Englifh, and afferting the
independency of his native country. He fecretly went
from chieftain to chieftain, and rouzed up every latent
principle of difeontent. He maintained a clofe corre-
fpondence.with lordMacguire, and Sir Phelim O Neale,
the mod powerful of the old Irifh; and by his perfua-
fions foon engaged not only them, but the moft confi-
derable perfons of the nation, into a confpiracy ; and
it was hoped, the Englifh of the pale, as they were
called, or the old Englifh planters, being all catholics,
would afterwards join the party which reftored their
religion to Us ancient fplendor and authority. The
plan was, that Sir Phelim O Neale, and the other Britain,
confpirators, fhould begin an infurredtion on one day ~ 1
throughout -the provinces, and fhould attack all the
Englifh fettlements ; and that on the very fame day,
lord Macguire and Roger More fhould furprife the
cattle of Dublin. They fixed on the beginning of win¬
ter for the commencement of this revolt; that there
might be more difficulty in tranfporting forces from
England. Succours to themfelves, and fupplies of
arms, they expedted from France, in confequence of a
promife made them by cardinal Richelieu ; and many
Irifh officers who had ferved in the Spanifh troops, had
given affitrances of their concurrence, as foon as they
faw an infurredtion entered upon by their catholic
brethren. News, which every day arrived from England,
of the fury expreffed by the commons againft all Pa-
pifts, ftruck frefh terror into the Irifh nation, ftimu-
lated the confpirators to execute their fatal purpofe,
and affured them of the concurrence of their country¬
men.
Such a propenfity was difeovered in all the Irifh to
revolt, that it was deemed< unneceflary as well as dan¬
gerous to trnft the fecret in many hands; and though
the day appointed drew nigh, no difeovery had yet
been made to government. The king, indeed, had re¬
ceived information from his ambafladors, that fomething
was in agitation among the Irifh in foreign parts ; but
though he gave warning to the adminiftration in Ire¬
land, his intelligence was entirely negledted. They
were awakened from their fecurity only that very day
before the commencement of hoftilities. The cattle of
Dublin, by which the capital was commanded, con¬
tained arms for 10,000 men, with 35 pieces of can¬
non, and a proportionable quantity of ammunition.
Yet was this important place guarded, and that too
without any care, by no greater force than 50 men.
Macguire and More were already in town with a nume¬
rous band of their retainers ; others were expe£fed that
night; and next morning they were to enter upon
what they efteemed the eafieft of all enterprizes, the
furprifal of the cattle. O Conolly, however, an Irifh-
man, but a Proteftant, difeovered the confpiracy. The
juftices and council fled immediately to the caftle, and
reinforced the guards. The city was immediately a-
larmed, and all the Proteftants prepared for defence.
More efcaped, but Macguire was taken ; and Mahone,
one of the confpirators, being likewife feized, firft dif¬
eovered to the juftices the projeft of a general infur-
reftion.
But though O Conolly’s difeovery faved the caftle Horrid cm- j
from a furprize, Mahon’s confeffion came too late to elties of the
prevent the intended infurrettlon. O Neale and his re*3Cb.
confederates had already taken arms in Ulfter. The
houfes, cattle, and goods of the Englifh were firfl
feized. Thofe who heard of the commotions in thein
neighbourhood, inftead of deferring their habitations,
and aflembling together for mutual prote&ion, re¬
mained at home in hopes of defending their property;
and fell thus feparately into the hands of their enemies.
An univerfal maffacre now commenced, accompanied
with circumftances of unequalled barbarity. No age,
fex, or condition, was fpared. All connexions were
diffolved, and death was dealt by that hand from which
proteXion was implored and expeXed. All the tor¬
tures which waoton cruelty could devife, all the linger-
B R I [ 1415 ] B R I
h ~Br‘ta’1T' ing painj of body, the anguifli of mind, the agonies of
defpair, could not fatiate Yevenge excited without in¬
jury, and cruelty derived from no caufe. Such enor¬
mities, in (hort, were committed, that though attefted
by undoubted evidence, they appear almoft incredible.
The ftately buildings or commodious habitations of
the planters, as if upbraiding the doth and ignorance
of the natives, were confumed with fire, or laid level
with the ground; and where the miferable owners, fhut
up in their houfes, and preparing for defence, perilhed
in the flames, together with their wives and children, a
double triumph was afforded to their infulting foes. If
any where a number affembled together, and refolved to
oppofe the affaffins ; they were difarmed by capitula¬
tions, and promifes of fafety, confirmed by the moft
folemn oaths. But no fooner had they furrendered,
than the rebels, with perfidy equal to their cruelty,
made them rhai'e the fate of their unhappy countrymen.
Others tempted their prifoners, by the fond love of
life, to embrue their hands in the blood of friends,
brothers, or parents; and having thus rendered them
accomplices in their own guilt, gave them that death
which they fought to Ihun by deferving it.
Such were the barbarities by which Sir Phelim O
Neale and the Irifh in Uliter fignalized their rebellion.
I ’ More, (hocked at the recital of thefe enormities, flew
to O Neale’s camp ; but found that his authority,
which was fufficient to excite the Irifli to a rebellion,
was too feeble to reftrain their inhumanity. Soon af-
| - ter, he abandoned the caufe, and retired to Flanders.
From Uliler, the flames of rebellion diffufed themfelves
in an inftant over the other three provinces of Ireland.
In all places, death and (laughter were not uncommon ;
though the Irifh in thefe other provinces pretended to
aft with moderation and humanity. But cruel and
barbarous was their humanity ! Not content with ex¬
pelling the EnglKh from their houfes, they (tripped
them of their very clothes, and turned them out naked
and defencelefs to all the feverities of the feafon. The
heavens themfelyes, as if confpiring againft that un¬
happy people, were armed with cold and temped un-
ufual to the climate, and executed what the fword had
left unfiniflied. By fome computations, thofe who
perifhed by all thefe cruelties are fuppofed to amount
to 150 or 200,000. But by the mod reafopable and
moderate, they are made to amount only to 40,000 ;
though probably even this account is not free of exag¬
geration,
The Englilh of the pale, who probably were not at
fird in the fecret, pretended to blame the infurreftion,
and to deted the barbarity with which it was accom¬
panied. By their protedations and declarations they
engaged the judices to fupply them with arms, which
they promifed to employ in defence of government.
But in a little time, the interedsuf religion were found
to be more prevalent over them than regard and duty to
their native country. They chofe lord Gormondone
their leader ; and, joining the old Irifh, rivalled them
in every aft of cruelty towards the Englifh Prote-
dants. Befides many fmaller bodies, difperfed over the
kingdom, the main army of the rebels amounted to
20,000 men, and threatened Dublin with an immediate
fiege. Both the Englifh and Irifli rebels confpired in
one impodure, by which they feduced many of their
countrymen. They pretended authority from the king
and queen, but efpecially the latter, for their infurrec- hdtain.
tion ; and they affirmed that the caufe of their taking
arms was to vindicate the royal prerogative, now in¬
vaded by the puritanical parliament. Sir Phelim O
Neale, ha'ving found a royal patent in the houfe of
lord Caulfield, whom he had murdered, tore off the
feal, and affixed it to a commiffion which he had forged
for himfelf. „ ,oS
The king received intelligence of this infurreftion Scots refufc
while in Scotland, and immediately acquainted the Scots t0 in
parliament with it. He hoped, as there had all along 1 e
been fuch an outcry againfl. Popery, that now, when
that religion was appearing in its blacked colours, the
whole nation would vigoroufly fupport him in the fup-
preffion of it. But here he found himfelf midaken.
The Scots confidering themfelves now as a republic,
and conceiving hopes from the prefent didreffes of Ire¬
land, they refolved to make an advantageous bargain
for the fuccours with which they (hould fupply the
neighbouring nation. Except difpatching a fmall bo¬
dy of forces, to fupport the Scots colonies in Ulder,
they would, therefore, go no farther than to fend com-
miffioners to London, in order to treat with the par¬
liament, to whom the fovereign power was in reality
transferred. The king too, fenfible of his utter ina¬
bility to fubdue the Iridi rebels, found himfelf obliged,
in this exigency, to have recourfe to the Englilh par¬
liament, and depend on their affiltance for fupply. He
told them that the infurreftion was not, in his opinion,
the refult of any ra(h enterprize, but of a formed con-
fpiracy againd the crown of England. To their care
and wifdom, therefore, he faid, he committed the con-
duft and profecution of the war, which, in a caufe fo
important to national and religious intereds, mud of
neceffity be immediately entered upon, and vigoroufly
purfued.
The Englifh parliament, now re-affembled, difeo- jnfam°0uS
vered in each vote the fame difpofltions in which they conduft of
had feparated. Nothing lefs than a total abolition of the Englilh
monarchy would ferve their turn. But this projeft it parliament,
had not been in the power of the popular leaders to
have executed, had it not been for the paffion which
feized the nation for the prefbyterian difeipline, and the
wild enthufiafm which at that time attended it. By the
difficulties and didreffes of the crown, the commons,
who poffeffed alone the power of fupply, had aggran¬
dized themfelves ; and it feemed a peculiar happinefs,
that the Irifli rebellion had fucceeded, at fuch a critical
junfture, to the pacification in Scotland. That expref-
fion of the king’s, by which he committed to them the
care of Ireland, they immediately laid hold of, and in¬
terpreted in the mod unlimited fenfe. They had on
other occafions been gradually encroaching on the exe¬
cutive power of the crown, which forms its’ principal
and mod natural branch of authority; but with regard
to Ireland, they at once affumed it, fully and entirely,
as if delivered over to them by a regular gift or affign-
ment. And to this ufurpation the king was obliged
paffively to fubmit, both becaufe of his inability to re¬
fid, and led he (hould expofe himfelf dill more to the
charge of favouring the rebels; a reproach eagerly
thrown upon him by the popular party as foon as they
heard that the Irifn pretended to aft by his commiffion.
Nay, to complete their charafter, while they pretended
the utmod zeal againd the infurgents, they took no
8 Q^2 fteps
B R I [14
Britain, fteps for its fupprefllon, but fuch as likewife gave them
the fuperiority in thofe commotions which they fore-
faw muft be fo foon excited in England. They levied
money under pretence of the Irifh expedition, but re-
ferved it for purpofes which concerned them more
nearly: they took arms from the king’s magazines,
but Itill kept them with a fecret intention of making
ufe of them againft himfelf: whatever law they deem¬
ed neceffary for aggrandizing, themfelves, they voted,
under colour of enabling them to recover Ireland ; and
if Charles with-held his royal affent, the refufal was
imputed to thofe pernicious counfels which had at firft
excited the Popifh rebellion, and which Hill threatened
total ruin to the Proteilant intereft throughout his do¬
minions. And though no forces were for a long time
fent over into Ireland, and very little money remitted
during the extreme diltrefs of that kingdom; fo ftrong
was the people’s attachment to the commons, that the
fault was never imputed to thofe pious zealots, whofe
votes breathed nothing but death and deftru&ion to the
Irilh rebels.
The conduft of the parliament towards the king now
, became exceedingly unreafonable, unjuft, and cruel. It
was thought proper to frame a general remonftrance of
the ftate of the kingdom ; and accordingly the commit¬
tee, which at the firft meeting of the parliament had been
107 chofen for that purpofe, were commanded to finifti their
King re- undertaking. The king returned from Scotland No-
vember 25th 1641. He was received in London with
‘ 0 dn ‘ the (houts and acclamations of the populace, and with
every demonftration of regard and affeftion. Sir Rich¬
ard Gournay, lord mayor, a man of great merit and au¬
thority, had promoted thefe favourable difpofitions;
and had engaged the populace, who fo lately infulted
the king, and who fo foon after made furious war upon
him, to give him thefe marks of their dutiful attach¬
ment. But all the pleafure which Charles reaped from
this joyful reception was foon damped by the remon¬
ftrance of the commons, which was prefented to him
together with a petition of the like nature. The bad
counfels which he followed were there complained of;
his concurrence in the Irifh rebellion plainly infinuated;
the fcheme laid for the introdu6Hon of popery and fu-
perftition inveighed again ft ; and for a remedy to all
thefe evils, the king was defired to entruft every office
and command to perfons in whom his parliament fhould
have caufe to confide. By this phrafe, which was very
often repeated in all the memorials and addreffes of that
time, the commons meant themfelves and their adhe¬
rents. To this remonftrance Charles was obliged to
make a civil reply, notwithftanding his fubjefts had
tranfgrefled all bounds of refpeft and even good man-
108 ners in their treatment of their fovereign.
Commons It would be tedious to point out every invafion of
a Hume the - the prerogative now attempted by the commons : but
fovcreignty, finding themfelves at laft likely to be oppofed by the
nobility, who faw their own deprelfion clofely connetft-
ed with that of the crown, they openly told the upper
houfe, that “ they themfelves were the reprefentatives
of the whole body of the kingdom, and that the peers
were nothing but individuals, who held their feats in a
particular capacity; and therefore, if their lordfhips
will not confent to a£Is neceflary for the prefervation of
the people, the commons, together with fuch of the
lords as are more fenfible of the danger, muft joiq, to-
16 ] B R I
gether and reprefent th,e matter to his majefty.” Every Britain,
method proper for alarming the populace was now put
in practice. The commons affefted continual fears of
deftru&ion to themfelves and to the whole nation.
They excited the people by never ceafing inquiries af¬
ter confpiracies, by reports of infurreCtions, by feigned
intelligence of invafions from abroad, and by difco-
veries of dangerous combinations at home amongft
Papifts and their adherents. When Charles difmiffed
the guard which they had ordered during his abfence^-
they complained; and, upon his promifing them a new
guard under the command of the earl of Lindefay, they
abfolutely refnfed the offer: they ordered halberts to
be brought into the hall where they affembled, and
thus armed themfelves againft thofe confpiracies with
which they pretended they were hourly threatened. Se¬
veral reduced officers, and young gentlemen of the inns
of court, during this time of diftrefs and danger, offer¬
ed their fervice to the king. Between them and the po¬
pulace there paffed frequent fkirmifhes, which ended
not without bloodfhed. By way of reproach, thefe I09
gentlemen gave the rabble the name of round-heads, Round-heads
on account of their fhort cropt hair; while they diftin- ^.nd ^ova-
guifhed the others by the name of cavaliers. And thus luri'
the nation, which was before fufficiently provided with
religious as well as civil caufes of quarrel, was-alfo fup-
plied with party-names, under which the fadlions might
rendezvous and fignalize their mutual hatred.
Thefe tumults continued to increafe about Weft-
minfter and Whitehall. The cry continually refounded
againft biihops and rotten-hearted lords. The former
efpecially, being eafily diftinguifhable by their habit,
and being the objeft of violent hatred to all the fe&a-
ries, were expofed to the mod dangerous infults. The
archbifhop of York, having been abufed by the popu- IIO
lace, haftily called a meeting of his brethren. By his Bifhops re¬
advice a proteflation was drawn and addreffed to the t're frorn
king and the houfe of lords. The bifhops there fet
forth, that though they had an undoubted right to fit
and vote in parliament, yet in coming thither they had
been menaced, affaulted, affronted, by the unruly multi¬
tude, and could no longer with fafety attend their duty
in the houfe. For this reafon they protefted againft all
laws, votes, and refolutions, as null and invalid, which
fhould pafs during the time of their forced abfence.
This proteftation, which, though juft and legal, was
certainly ill-timed, was figned by twelve bifhops, and
communicated to the king, who haftily approved of it.
As foon as it was prefented to the lords, that houfe
defired a conference with the commons, whom they in¬
formed of this unexpe&ed proteftation. The opportu¬
nity was feized with joy and triumph. An impeach¬
ment of high treafon was immediately fent up againft
the biftiops, as endeavouring to fubvert the fundamental
laws, and to invalidate the authority of the legiflature.
They were, on the firft demand, fequeftered from par¬
liament, and committed to cuftody. No man in either
houfe ventured to fpeak a word in their vindication; fo
much was every one difpleafed at the egregious impru¬
dence of which they had been guilty. One perfon alone
faid, that he did not believe them guilty of high trea¬
fon ; but that they were ftark mad, and therefore de¬
fired they might be fent to bedlam.
This was a fatal blow to the royal intereft ; but it
foon felt a much greater from the imprudence of the
king
B R I [ 1417 ] B R I
I Britain, king kimfelf. Charles had long fuppreffed his refent-
  ment, and only ftrove to gratify the commons by the
111 greatnefs of his conceffions; but finding that all his
rs of par- compliance had but increafed their demands, he could
ment im- no longer contain. He gave orders to Herbert his at-
aehed by torney-general to enter an accufation of high treafon, in
the houfe of peers, againft lord Kimbolton, one of the
6r' molt popular men of his party, together with five com¬
moners, Sir Arthur Haflerig, Hollis, Hambden, Pym,
^gdStrode. The articles were,That they had traiteroufly
endeavoured to fubvert the fundamental laws and go¬
vernment of the kingdom, to deprive the king of his
regal power, and to impofe on his fubje&s an arbitrary
and tyrannical authority ; that they had invited a fo¬
reign army to invade the kingdom; that they had
aimed at fubverting the very rights and being of par¬
liaments; and had adlually raifed and countenanced
tumults againft the king. Men had fcarce leifure to
wonder at the precipitancy and imprudence of this im¬
peachment, when they were attonilhed by another mea-
fure ftill more rafh and unfupported. A ferjeant at
arms, in the king’s name, demanded of the houfe the
five members, and was fent back without any pofitive
111 . anfwer. This was followed by a condudft ftill more ex-
jerforfm” traordinary- The next day, the king himfelf was feen
eize them. t0 enter the houfe of commons alone, advancing through
the hall, while all the members itood up to receive him.
The fpeaker withdrev/ from his chair, and the king
took poffefiion of it. Having feated himfelf, and look¬
ed round him for fome time, he told the houfe, that
he was forry for the occaiion that forced him thither ;
that he was come in perfon to feize the members whom
he had accufed of high treafon, feeing they would not
deliver them up to his ferjeant at arms. Then addreffing
himfelf to the fpeaker, he defired to know whether any
of them were in the houfe: but the fpeaker, falling on his
knees, replied, that he had neither eyes to fee, nor tongue
to fpeak, in that place, but as the houfe was pleafed to
direft him; and he alked pardon for being able to give
no other anfwer. The king fat for fome time, to fee if
the accufed were prefent ; but they had efcaped a few
minutes before his entry. Thus difappointed, perplexed,
and not knowing on whom to rely, he next proceeded,
amidft the inveftivcs of the populace, who continued to
cry out, Privilege! Privilege! to common council of the
city, and made his complaint to them. The common
council anfwered his complaints by a contemptuous li-
lence; and on his return, one of the populace, more
infolent than the reft, cried out, “ To your tents, O If-
rael!” a watch-word among the Jews, when they in-
1I3 tended to abandon their princes,
tead confe- When the commons aflembled the next day, they
quences of pretended the greateft terror; andpafled an unanimous
this attempt vote tjiat k;ng j)a(j v[0lated their privileges, and
that they could not aflemble again in the fame place,
till they fliould obtain fatisfa&ion, and have a guard
for their fecurity. The king had retired to Windfor,
and from thence he wrote to his parliament, making
every conce.ffion, and promifing every fatisfaftion in his
power. But they were refolved to accept of nothing
unlefs he would difcover his advifers in that illegal mea-
fure; a condition to which, they knew, that without
rendering himfelf for ever vile and contemptible, he
could not poffibly fubmit.
The commons had already ftript the king of almoft
all his privileges; the bifliops were fled, the judges were Britain,
intimidated ; it now only remained, after fecuring the "
church and the law, that they ftiould get pofiefiion of Commons
the fword alfo. The power of appointing governors and demand pof-
generals, and of levying armies, was ftill a remaining fcfhonpftke
prerogative of the crown. Having therefore firft mag- po^er'of
nified their terrors of Popery, which perhaps they ac- the (late.
tuallydreaded,they proceededtopetition that theTower
might be put into their hands; and that Hull, Portf-
mouth, and the fleet, ftiould be intrufted to perfons of
their chufing. Thefe were requefts, the complying with
which fubverted what remained of the conilitution;
however, fuch was the neceffity of.the times, that they
were firft contefted, and then granted. At laft, every
compliance only increafing the avidity of making frefh
demands, the commons defired to have a militia, raifed
and governed by fuch officers and commanders as they
fliould nominate, under pretence of fecuring them from
the Irifti Papifts, of whom they were under the greateft
apprehenfion.
It was here that Charles firft ventured to put a flop Refufed by
to his conceffions ; and that not by a refufal, but a de- the king,
lay. He was at that time at Dover attending the queen
and the princefs of Orange, who had thought it pru¬
dent to leave the kingdom. He replied to the peti¬
tion', that he had not now leifure to confider a matter
of fuch great importance ; and therefore would defer
an anfwer till his return. But the commons were well
aware, that though this was depriving him even of the
fhadow of power, yet they had now gone too far to re¬
cede ; and they were therefore defirous of leaving him
no authority whatever, being confcious that themfelves
would be the firft viclims to its fury. They alleged,
that the dangers and diftempers of the nation were fuch
as could endure no longer delay ; and unlefs the king
ftiould fpeedily comply with their demands, they ftiould
be obliged, both for his fafety and that of the king¬
dom, to embody and direft. the militia by the autho¬
rity of both houfes. In their remonftrances to the king,
they defired even to be permitted to command the army
for an appointed time; which fo exafperated him, that Warrdbl-
he exclaimed, “ No, not for an hour.” This peremp- Ved on be-
tory refufal broke off all further treaty; and both fides tween the
were now refolved to have reconrfe to arms. king and
Charles, taking the prince of Wales with him, reti- Parllarnent*
red to York, where he found the people more loyal, and
lefs infe&ed with the frenzy of the times. He found
his caufe there backed by a more numerous party a-
mong the people than he had expeded. The queen,
wjjo was in Holland, was making fuccefsful levies of
mehvand ammunition by felling the crown-jewels. But
before war was openly declared, the ftiadow of a nego-
ciation was carried on, rather with a defign to pleafe
the people than with any view of reconciliation. Nay, shamefui
that the king might defpair of all compofition, the par- requifitions
liament fent him the conditions on which they were °f parlia-
willing to come to an agreement. Their demands were ment>
contained in 19 propofitions, and amounted to a total
abolition of monarchical authority. They required that
no man fliould remain in the council who was not agree¬
able to parliament; that no deed of the king’s ftiould
have validity unlefs it paffed the council, and was at-
tefted under their hand ; and that all the officers of ftate
ftiould be chofen with confent of parliament; that none
of the royal family fliould marry without confent of
parliament
B R I [ 1418 ] B R I
l'riia:n. parliament or council; that the laws fliould be execu¬
ted againft Catholics ; that th? votes of Popifh lords
(hould be excluded; that the reformation of the liturgy
and church-government Ihould take place according to
the advice of parliament ; that the ordinance with re¬
gard to the militia be fubmitted to; that the juftice of
parliament may pafs upon all delinquents; that a ge¬
neral pardon be granted with fuch exceptions as Ihould
be advifed by parliament; that the forts and caftles be
difpofed of by confent of parliament; and that no peers
<* be made but with confent of both houfes. War on any
ll8 terms was efteemed, by the king and all his counfel-
Rejetted by lors, preferable to fo ignominious a peace. Charles ac-
Charks. . cordingly refolved to {upport his authority by force of
arms. “ His towns (he faid) were taken from him;
his Ihips, his army, and his money: but there ftill re¬
mained to him a good caufe, and the hearts of his loyal
fubje&s ; which, with God’s bleffing, he doubted not
would recover all the relt.” Colle&ing therefore fome
forces, he advanced fouthwards, and erefted his royal
ftandard at Nottingham.
The king found himfelf fupported in the civil war
by the nobility and more confiderable gentry. They,
dreading a total confufion of rank from the fury of the
populace, inlifted themfelves under the banner of their
monarch ; from whom they received, and to whom they
communicated, their luftre. The concurrence of the
bilhops and church of England alfo increafed the ad¬
herents of the king; but it may be fafely affirmed, that
the high monarchical do&rines fo much inculcated by
the clergy, had never done him any good. The bulk
of the nobility and gentry who now attended the king
in his diftreffes, breathed the fpirit of liberty as well as
of loyalty: and in the hopes alone of his fubmitting to
a limited and legal government they were willing to fa-
crifice their lives and fortunes.
On the other hand, the city of London, and moft of
the great corporations, took part with the parliament;
and adopted with zeal thofe democratical principles on
which thefe affemblies vyere founded. The example of
the Dutch commonwealth too, where liberty had fo
happily lupported induftry, made the commercial part
of the nation defire to fee a like form of government
eftablilhed in England. Many families alfo, who had
enriched themfelves by commerce, faw with indigna¬
tion, that, notwithftanding their opulence, they could
not raife themfelves to a level with the ancient gentry:
they therefore adhered to a power by whofe fuccefs they
hoped to acquire rank and confideration.
T,*L • At firft everyadvantage feemed to lie againft theroyal
condhion of caufe. The king was totally deftitute of money. Lon-
theroyalifts. don and all the fea-ports, except Newcaftle, being in the
hands of parliament, they were fecure of a confiderable
revenue; and the feamen naturally following the difpo-
fition of the ports to which they belonged^ the parlia¬
ment had the entire dominion of the fea. All the ma¬
gazines of arms and ammunition they feized at firft;
and their fleet intercepted the greateft part of thofe fent
by the queen from Holland. The king, in order to
arm his followers, was obliged to borrow the weapons
of the train bands, under promife of reftoring them as
foon as peace fhould be fettled. The nature and qua¬
lities of his adherents alone, gave the king fome com-
penfation for all the advantages poflefied by his adver-
faries. More bravery and adivity were hoped for from
the generous fpirit of the nobles and gentry, than from Britain,
the bafe difpofition of the multitude. And as the landed 
gentlemen, at their own expence, levied and armed their
tenants, befides an attachment to their mafters, greater
force and courage were to be expe&ed from thefe ruftic
troops, than from the vicious and enervated populace
of cities. Had the parliamentary forces, however, ex¬
erted themfelves at firft, they might have eafily diflipa-
ted the fmall number the king had been able to colled,
and which amounted to no more than 800 horfe, and
foot; while his enemies were within a few days march
of him with 6000 men. In a fhort time the parliamen¬
tary army were ordered to march to Northampton ;
and the earl of Effex who had joined them found the f
whole to amount to 15,000. The king’s army too was
foon reinforced from all quarters ; but ftill, having no
force capable of coping with the parliamentary army,
he thought it prudent to retire to Derby, and from
thence to Shrewfbury, in order to countenance the le¬
vies which his friends were making in thofe parts. At
Wellington, a day’s march from Shrewlbury, he made a
rendezvous of all his forces, and caufed his military or¬
ders to be read at the head of every regiment. That
he might bind himfelf by reciprocal obligations, he
here protefted folemnly before his whole army, that he
would maintain the Proteftant religion according to the
church of England; that he would govern according
to the known ftatutes and cuftoms of the kingdom ;
and particularly, that he would obferve inviolable the
laws to which he had given his confent during this par¬
liament, &c. ,10
While Charles lay at Shrewftmry, he received the They gain
news of an adlion, the firft which had happened in thefe an atJvan-
parts, and wherein his party was viftorious. On the over
p • • 1--1 111 • their ene-
appearance ot commotions in Jhngland, the princes Ru- m\tS9
pert and Maurice, fons of the unfortunate eleftor pala¬
tine, had offered their fervice to the king; and the for¬
mer at that time commanded a body of horfe which
had been fent to Worcefter in order to watch the mo¬
tions of Effex, who was marching towards that city.
No fooner had the prince arrived, than he faw fome ca¬
valry of the enemy, approaching the gates. Without
delay he brifldy attacked them, as they were defiling
from a lane, and forming themfdves. Colonel Sandys
their commander was killed, the whole party routed,
and purfued above a mile.
In 1642, Oftober 23d, happened a general engage- Battle of
ment at Edgehill, in which, though the royalifts were Edgehill.
at firft victorious, their impetuofity loft the advantage
they had gained, and nothing decifive happened. Five
thoufand men, it is faid, were found dead on the field
of battle. Soon after, the king took Banbury and
Reading ; and defeated two regiments of his enemies at
Brentford, taking 500 prifoners. Thus ended the cam¬
paign in 1642 ; in which, though the king had the ad¬
vantage, yet 'the parliamentary army amounted to
24,000 men, and was much fuperior to his; notwith-
ftand which, his enemies had been fo far humbled as to
offer terms of peace.
In 1643, the treaty was carried on, but without any
ceffation of hoftilities: and indeed the negociation went
no farther than the firft demand on each fide ; for the
parliament, finding no likelihood of coming to an ac¬
commodation, fuddenly recalled their commiflioners.
On the 27th of April, Reading furrendered to the par-
par-
B R I [ 1419 ] B R I
Britain. Hamentary forces under the earl of Effex, who com-
" manded a body of 18,000 men. The earl of North-
n-11.1 . umberland united in a league for the king the counties
1 favoiir°of Northumberland, Cumberland, Weftmorland, and
he king. the bifliopric; and engaged, feme time after, other coun¬
ties in the fame afibciation. The fame nobleman alfo
took poffeffion of York, and diflodged the forces of the
parliament at Tadcaftcr, but his viftory was not deci-
five. Other advantages were alfo gained by the royal-
ills ; the moll important of which was the battle of o ^   ^ ^ ^
'* Stratton, w'here the poet Waller, who commanded the field, and took general Goring prifoner: the latter Cromwell''
iefeafedat Par^ament;,s armyj was entirely defeated, and forced to obtained a victory at Gainfborough over a party com-
Stratton. % w't^1 only a f£w horfe to Briftol. This happened on manded by the gallant Cavendilh, who perilhed in the
the 13th of July; and was followed by the fiege of that T> - L *’ -r 1 r ■
city, which furrendered to prince Rupert on the 25,th
of the fame month.
Though the taking of Briftol had coft the royalifts
dear, yet fuch a continued run of fuCcefs had greatly
difpirited.the oppofite party; and fuch confufion now
prevailed at London, that fome propofed to the king
to march direiftly to that city, which it was hoped
might be reduced either by an infurredlioh of the citi¬
zens, by victory, or by treaty, and thus an end put to
the civil diforders at once. This advice, however, was
rejeiled, on account of the great number of the Lon-
In the north, during this fummer, the earl, now Britain,
created marquis of Newcaftle, had raifed a confiderable 7
force for the king ; and great hopes of fuccefs were en¬
tertained from that quarter. There appeared, how¬
ever, in oppofition to him, two men on whom the event
of the war finally depended, and who began about this
time to be remarked for their valour and military con-
du6l. Thefe were, Sir Thomas Fairfax, fon to the lord 127
of that name; and Oliver Cromwell. The former gained Advantages
a conliderable advantage over the royali Its at Wake- 8ai.n?d .
1 . . 0, ~ . .J . . Fairfax and
action. But both thefe defeats were more than c
penfated by the total rout of lord Fairfax at Atherton Lord* Fair-
moor, and the difperfion of his army, which happened fax defeated
'"July. After this vidtory, the marquis atAtherton'
on the 3Ist'of _ ^ | 
of Newcaftle fat down before Hull with an army of
15,000 men ; but being beat off by a fally of the gar-
rifon, he fuffered fo much that he thought proper to
raife the fiege. About the fame time, Manchefter,
who advanced from the eaftern affociated counties, ha¬
ving joined Cromwell and young Fairfax, obtained a
confiderable vidlory over the royalifts at Horn caftle;
   —- „  —  where the two laft mentioned officers gained renown by
-Charles be- don militia; and it was refolved firft to reduce GIou- their conduct and^gallantry. And though fortune had
fieges Glou- cefter, in confequence of which the king would have thus balanced her favours, the king’s party ftill re-
a-z-ftpr. the whole courfe of the Severn under his command, mained-much fuperior in thofe parts of England ; and
The rich and malcontent counties of the weft, having had it not been for the garrifon of Hull, which kept
then loft all protedlion from their friends, might be en- Yorklhire in awe, a conjundlion of the northern forces
forced to pay large contributions as an atonement for with the army in the fouth might have been made, and
their difaffedion ; an open communication could be had probably enabled the king, inftead of entering on
preferred between Wales and thefe new conquefts; and the unfortunate, perhaps imprudent enterprife of Glou-
half the kingdom being entirely freed from the enemy, cefter, to march direftly to London, and put an end
and thus united into one firm body, might be employed ' ,"T
in re-eftablilhing the king’s authority throughout the
remainder.
The fiege of this city commenced Auguft 10th; but
being defended by Maffey a refolute governor, and well
garrifoned, made a vigorous defence. The confterna-
tion at London, however, was as great as if the enemy
to the war. The battle of Newbury was attended with
fuch lofs on both fides, that it put an end to the cam¬
paign of 1643, by obliging both parties to retire into
winter quarters.
The event of the war being now very doubtful, the
king and parliament began both of them to look for af-
fiftance from other nations. The former call his eyes
had been already at their gates; and in the midft of on Ireland, the latter on Scotland. The parliament
the general confufion, a delign was formed by Waller
of forcing the parliament to accept of fome reafonable
conditions of peace. He imparted his delign to fome
others ; but a difcovery being made of their proceed¬
ings, he and two others were condemned to death.
Waller, however, efcaped with a fine of 10,000/. The
city of Gloucefter in the mean time was reduced to the
utmoft extremity ; and the parliament, as their laft re-
of England had ever invited the Scots, ’from the pom- Enpliiii par-
mencement of the civil diffenfions, to interpofe their liament afk
Mediation, which they knew would be very little fa- affiftance
vourable to the king, and which for that reafon he had from the
declined. Early in the fpring 1643, this offer of me- SC°tS‘
diation had been renewed, with no better fuccefs than
before. The commiffioners were alfo empowered to
prefs the king to a compliance with the prelbyterian
""orftu’p and difcipline. But this he abfolutely refufed.
He is forced fOUrCe’ dilPatched Effex wkh an arm7 of I4>°00 ■ —.-r ... a^,^,y rciuieu,
to raife the ln 0,‘der tom f°rce the king to raife the fiege of that as well as to call a parliament in Scotland ; fo that the
liege. city. This he accomplilhed ; and when he entered, commiffioners, finding themfelves unable to prevail in
found only one barrel of gunpowder left, and other any one of their demands, returned home highly dif-
provifions in the fame proportion. On his return to fatisfied. The'Engliffi parliament being now in "reat
London, he was intercepted by the king’s army, with diftrefs, gladly fent commiffioners to Edinburgh, to
Battle of whom a moft defperate battle enfued at Newbury which treat of a more clofe confederacy with the Scottilh na-
Newbury. lifted tdl night. Though the vidory was left unde- tion. The perfon they principally trulled to on this
cided, Effex next morning proceeded on his march, and occafion was Sir Henry Vane, who in eloquence, ad-
reached London in fafety, where he received the ap- drefs, capacity, as well as in art anddiffimulatioth was
plaufe for his condud he deferyed. The king followed not furpaffed even by any one in that age fo famous for
him on his march; and having taken poffeffion of adive talents. By his perfuafions was framed at Edin-
Reading after the earl left it, he there eftablifhed a gar- burgh the Solemn League and Covenant ; which Solemn
rifon, and ftraitened by that means London and the effaced all former proteftations and vows taken’in both leag^and
quarters of the enemy. kingdoms, and long maintained its credit and autho- covenant
rity. framed'
B R I [
f’ritain. n'ty. In this covenant, the fubfcribers, befides en-
gag'ng mutually to defend each other againft all op¬
ponents, bound themfelves to endeavour, without re-
fpedl of perfons, the extirpation of popery and prela¬
cy, fuperllition, herefy, and profanenefs ; to maintain
the rights and privileges of parliaments, together with
the king’s authority ; and to difcover and bring to ju-
ftice all incendiaries and malignants. They vowed al-
fo to preferve the reformed religion eftablilhed in the
church of Scotland ; but by the artifice of Vane, no de¬
claration more explicit was made with regard to Eng¬
land and Ireland, than that thefe kingdoms fliould be
reformed according to the word of God, and the ex¬
ample of the pureft churches.
Great were the rejoicings among the Scots, that
they fliould be the happy inllruments of extending their
mode of religion, and diflipating the profound dark-
nefs in which the neighbouring nations were involved.
And being determined that the fwordfliould carry con-
vi&ion to all refradlory minds, they prepared them¬
felves with great vigilance and aftivity for their mili¬
tary enterpnzes ; fo that, having added to their other
forces the troops which they had recalled from Ireland,
they were ready about the end of the year to enter Eng-
13, land under their old general the earl of Leven, with an
Charles af- army of above 20,000 men. The king, in order to
filled by the fecure himfelf, concluded a ceffation of arms with the
ri ' Irifli rebels, and recalled a confiderable part of his ar¬
my from Ireland. Some Irilh catholics came over with
thefe troops, and joined the royal army, where they
continued the fame cruelties and diforders to which
they had been accuftomed. The parliament voted,
that no quarter in any aftion fliould ever be given them.
But prince Rupert, by making feme reprifals, foon re-
prefied this inhumanity.
The campaign of 1644 proved very unfortunate to
the royal caufe. The forces brought from Ireland
were landed at Moyftne in North Wales, and put un¬
der the command of lord Biron. They befieged and
took the cattles of Hawarden, Beefton, Adton, and
Deddington-houfe. No place in Chefliire or the neigh¬
bourhood now adhered to the parliament, except Nant-
wich ; and to this place Biron laid fiege in the depth
1420 1 B R I
fembleda body of 14,000 men, endeavoured to break
into Suflex, Kent, and the fouthern aflbeiation, which
feemed well difpofed to receive him; but was defeated
by Waller at Cherington. At Newark, however,
prince Rupert totally defeated the parliamentary army
which befieged that place; and thus preferred the com¬
munication open between the king’s northern and
fouthern quarters.
The great advantages the parliament had gained in
the north, feemed now to fecond their unwarrantable
enterprizes, and finally to proitiife them fuccefs. Man-
chefter having taken Lincoln, had united his army to ,33
that of Leven and Fairfax ; -and York was now clofely York belie-
befieged by their numerous forces. That town, tho’ ged ky tlie
vigoroufly defended by the marquis of Newcaftle, was j3”
reduced to the lafl; extremity, when prince Rupert, ha¬
ving joined Sir Charles Lucas w'ho commanded New-
caftle’s horfe, haftened to its relief with an army of
20,000 men. The Scots and parliamentary generals
raifed the fiege, and drawing up on Marfton moor, 134
propofed to give battle to the royalifts. Prince Ru- tl
pert approached the town by another quarter, and in-
terpofing the river Oufe between him and the enemy, moor.
fafely joined his forces to thofe of Newcaftle. The
marquis endeavoured to perfuade him, that having fo
fuccefsfully effedted his purpofe, he ought to be con¬
tented with the prefent advantages, and leave the ene¬
my now much diminiihed by their lofies, and difeour-
aged by their ill fuccefs, to diflblve by thofe mutual
diffenfions which had begun to take place among them.
The prince, however, hurried on by his natural impe-
tuofity, gave immediate orders for fighting. The battle
w'as loft, the royal army entirely puftied off the field,
and the train of artillery taken. Immediately after this
unfortunate adlion the marquis of Newcaftle left the
kingdom, and prince Rupert retired into Lancalhire.
The city of York was furrendered in a few days, and
Newcaftle foon after taken by ftorm.
This was a fatal blow to the royal caufe, and far
from being balanced by an advantage-gained at Cro-
predy bridge by the king over Waller, or even by the
difarming of Eflex’s forces, which happened on the Ist
of September. On the 27th of O&ober, another battle
of winter. Sir Thomas Fairfax, alarmed at fo great a was fought at Newbury, in which the royalifts
progrefs, affembled an army of 4000 men in Yorkftiire;
and having joined Sir William Brereton, was approach¬
ing to the camp of the royalifts. Biron and his fol-
worfted, but foon after retrieved their honour at Den-
nington caftle, which finifhed the campaign in 1644. ^
In 1645, a negociation was again fet on foot, and Extrava-
diers, elated with fucceffes in Ireland, entertained a the commiffioners met at Uxbridge on the 30th of Ja- gant de-
13a moft profound contempt for their enemies. Fairfax
Irifh forces fuddenly attacked their camp. The fwelling of the
difperfed. rivcr by a thaw, divided one part of the army from a-
nother. That part expofed to Fairfax, being beat from
nuary; but it was foon found impoflible to come to any mandsofthe
agreement. The demands of the parliament were ex- par iament“
orbitant ; and what was worfe, their commiflioners
owned them to be nothing but preliminaries. Th<
their poll, retired into the church at Afton, where king was required to attaint, and except from a gene¬
being furrounded, they were all taken prifoners. The
other retreated with precipitation ; and thus was dif-
fipated or rendered ufelefs that body of forces which
had come from Ireland. This happened on the 25th
of January ; and on the 1 Ith of April, Colonel Bella-
ral pardon, 40 of the moft confiderable of his Englifh
fubjefts, and 19 of his Scots, together with all the
Popifh recufants who had born arms for him. It was
infifted that 48 more, wdth all the members of either
houfe who had fat in the parliament called by the king
fis was totally defeated at Selby in Yorkfliire by Sir at Oxford, all lawyers and divines who had embraced
Thomas Fairfax, w’ho had returned from Cheihire with the king’s party, fliould be rendered incapable of any
his vi&orious forces. Being afterwards joined by lord office, be forbid the exercife of their profeffion, be
Leven, the two generals fat down before the city of prohibited from coming within the verge of the court,
York; but being unable to inveft that city completely, and forfeit the third of their eftates to the parliament,
they were obliged to content themfelves with incom- It was required, that whoever had born arms for the
moding it by a loofe blockade. Hopeton, having af- king fhould fojrfeit the tenth of their eftates 3 or if that
did
B R I [ 1421 ] B R I
136
■37 f
le earl of
ontrofe in
Gotland.
did not fuffice, the fixth, for the payment of public
debts. As if royal authority were not fufficiently an¬
nihilated by thefe terms, it was demanded that the
court of wards fhould be abolilhed; that all the con-
fiderable officers of the crown, and all the judges, ffiould
be appointed by parliament ; and that the right of
peace and war ffiould not be exercifed without confent
of parliament. A little before the commencement of
this fruitlefs treaty, the parliament, to ffiew their de¬
termined refolut ion to proceed in the fame haughty im¬
perious method in which they had begun, brought to
the block archbiffiop Laud, who had long been a pri-
foner in the Tower, and was incapable of giving offence
to any.
While the king’s affairs thus went to decay in Eng¬
land, they feemed to revive a little in Scotland, thro’
1 theconduft and valour of the earl of Montrofe, a young
nobleman newly returned from his travels. He had been
introduced to the king; but, not meeting with an agree¬
able reception, had gone over to the covenanters, and
been adtive in forwarding all their violence. Being com-
miffioned, however, by the tables, to wait upon the king
while the army lay at Berwick, he was fo gained by
the civilities and careffes of that monarch, that he
thenceforth devoted hiimfelf entirely, though fecretly,
to his fervice. For attempting to form an affociation
in favour of the royal caufe, Montrofe was quickly
thrown into prifon; but being again releafed, he found
the king ready to give ear to his counfels, which were
of the boldeft and moft daring kind. Though the
whole nation of Scotland was occupied by the cove¬
nanters, though great armies were kept on foot by
them, and every place guarded by a vigilant admini-
ftration, he undertook by his own credit, and that of
the few friends wffio remained to the king, to raife
fuch commotions, as would foon oblige thofe malcon¬
tents to recal the forces which had fo fenfibly thrown
the balance in the favours of parliament. The defeat
at Marfton-moor had left him no hopes of any fuccours
from England ; he was therefore obliged to ftipulate
with the earl of Antrim, a nobleman of Ireland, for
fome fupply of men from that country. And he him-
felf having ufed various difguifes, and paffid through
many dangers, arrived in Scotland, where he lay for
fome time Concealed in the borders of the Highlands.
The Iriffi did not exceed 1100 foot, very ill armed.
Montrofe immediately put himfelf at their head; and,
being joined by 1300 Highlanders, attacked lord El-
cho, who lay at Perth with 6000 men, utterly defeated
him, and killed 2COO of the covenanters. He next
marched northw'ards, in order to roufe again the
marquis of Huntly and the Gordons, who had taken
arms before, but been fuppreffed by the covenanters.
At Aberdeen he attacked and entirely defeated lord
Burley, who commanded 2500 men. Montrofe, how¬
ever, by this viftory, did not obtain the end he pro-
pifcd ; the marquis of Huntly ffiewed no inclina¬
tion to join an army where he was fo much eclipfed
by the general.
Montrofe was now in a very dangerous fituation.
Argyle, reinforced by the earl of Lothian, was behind
him with a great army. The militia of the northern
counties, Murray, Rofs, and Caithnefs, to the num¬
ber of 5000, oppofed him in front, and guarded the
banks of the Spey, a deep and rapid river. In order
Vol. II.
to fave his troops, he turned afide into the hills; and Britain,
after fome marches and countermarches, Argyle came '
up with him at Faiyy caltle; and here after fome ffiir-
miffies, in which he was always vi&orious, Montrofe
got clear of a fuperior army, and by a quick march
through thefe almoft inacceffible mountains put him¬
felf abfolutely beyond their power.
It was the misfortune of this general, that very good
or very ill fortune were equally deftruftive of his army.
After every vidlory his Scots foldiers went home to en¬
joy the fpoil they had acquired ; and had his army
been compofed of thefe only, he mutt have foon been
abandoned altogether: but his Iriffimen having no
place to which they could retire, adhered to him in e-
very fortune. With thefe, therefore, and fome rein¬
forcements of the Atholemen and Macdonalds, Montrofe
fell fuddenly upon Argyle’s country, letting loofe upon
it all the horrors of war. Argyle, collefting 3000 men,
marched in queft of the enemy, who had retired with
their plunder; and he lay at Innerlochy, fuppofing
himfelf to be ftill at a good dittance from them. The
earl of Seaforth, at the head of the garrifon of Inver-
nefs, and a body of 5000 new-levied troops, preffed
the royalifts on the other fide, and threatened them
with total deftru&ion. By a quick and unexpe&ed
march, Montrofe haftened to Innerlochy, andprefented
himfelf in order of battle before the covenanters. Argyle
alone, feized with a panic, deferted his army. They
made a vigorous refittance, however; but were at laft:
defeated and purfued with great (laughter: after which,
Montrofe was joined by great numbers of Highlanders;
Seaforth’s army difperfed of itfelf; and the lord Gor¬
don, eldeft fon to the marquis of Huntly, having ef-
caped from his uncle Argyle, who had hitherto detained
him, now joined Montrofe with a confiderable number
of his followers, attended by the earl of Aboyne.
The council at Edinburgh, alarmed at thefe vidories,
fent for Baillie, an officer of reputation, from England ;
and, joining him in command with Urrey, fent them
with a confiderable army againft the royalifts. Mon¬
trofe, with a detachment of 800 men, had attacked
Dundee, a town extremely attached to the covenant ;
and having carried it by aflault, had given it up to be
plundered by his foldiers ; when Baillie and Urrey with
their whole force came upon him. He inftantly called
off his foldiers from the plunder ; put them in order ;
fecured his retreat by the moft (kilful meafures ; and
having marched 60 miles in the face of an enemy much
fuperior, without (topping, or allowing his foldiers the
lead deep or refreffiment, at laft fecured himfelf in the
mountains. His antagonifts now divided their forces,
in order to carry on the war againft an enemy who
furprifed them as much by the rapidity of his marches
as by the boldnefs of his enterprizes. Urrey met him
with 4000 men, at Alderne near Invernefs ; and truft- He defeats
ing to his fuperiority in numbers (for Montrofe had two armies,'
only 2000 men), attacked him in the poll which he fach double
had chofen. Montrofe, having placed his right wing ln j'llflnher
in ftrong ground, drew the bell of his forces to the o- t0 ls<>wn*
ther, and left no main body between them ; a defedl
which he artfully concealed by (hewing a few men
through trees and buffies with which that ground was
covered. That Urrey might have no leifure to per¬
ceive the ftratagem, he inftantly led his wing to the
charge, made a furious attack on the covenanters, drove
8 R, them
B R I [ 1422 ] R R I
Brlta'n. them ofF the field, and obtained a complete vidlory o-
'“vert-hem. Baillie now advanced, in order to revenge
Urrey’s defeat; but he himfelf met with a like fate
at Alford. Montrofe, weak in cavalry, lined his troops
of horfe with infantry ; and, after putting the enemy’s
horfe to rout, fell with united force upon their foot,
which were entirely cut in pieces, though with the lofs
of the gallant lord Gordon on the part of the royalids.
—Having thus prevailed in fo many battles, which his
vigour always rendered as decifive as they were fuccefs-
ful, he prepared for marching into the fouthern pro¬
vinces, in order to put a total period to the power of
the covenanters, and diffipate the parliament, which
with great pomp and folemnity they had ordered to
139 meet at St Johnflone’s.
Parlhmen- While Montrofe was thus fignalizing his valour in
new model t^le nort^> Fairfax, or rather Oliver Cromwell under
ie£ji his name, employed himfelf in bringing in anew model
•» into the parliamentary army, and throwing the whole
troops into a different fhape ; and never furely was a
more lingular army eflabliihed, than that which was
now fet on foot by the parliament. To the greateft
number of the regiments chaplains were not appointed.
The officers affumed. the fpiritual duty, and united it
with their military fundlions. During the intervals of
adlion they occupied themfelves in fermons, prayers,
and exhortations. Rapturous ecftacies fupplied the
place of ftudy and refleddion ; and while the zealous
devotees poured out their thoughts in unpremeditated
harangues, they miftook. that eloquence, which to their
own furprife, as well as that of others, flowed in upon
them, for divine illuminations, and illapfes of the Holy
Spirit. Wherever they were quartered, they excluded
the minifter from his pulpit; and, ufurping his place,
conveyed their fentiments to the audience with all the
authority that followed their power, their valour, and
their military exploits, united to their apparent zeal
and fervour. The private foldiers were feized with the
fame fpirit; and in fhort, fuch an enthufiafm feized the
whole army as was perhaps fcarce ever equalled.
The royalifts ridiculed this fanaticifm of the parlia¬
mentary armies, without being fenfible how much rea-
fon they had to dread it. They were at this time e-
qual, if not fuperior, in numbers to their enemies 5 but
fo licentious, that they were become more formidable
to their friends than their enemies. The commanders
were mod of them men of diflblute chara&ers; in the
weft efpecially, where Goring commanded, univerfal
fpoil and havock were committed; and the whole coun¬
try was laid wafte by the rapine of the army; fo that
the moft devoted friends both to the church and date
wifhed there for fuch fuccefs to the parliamentary forces
,40 as might put an end to thefe diforders.
Roy?.lifb The natural confequence of fnch enthufiafm in the
Nafe!^ 3t Par^amentar7 army, and ^licentioufnefs in that of the
1 a e b king, was, that equal numbers of the latter would no
longer maintain their ground againft the former. This
appearecj in1; the decifive battle of Nafeby, where the
forces were nearly equal ; but after an obftinatc en¬
gagement, Charles was entirely defeated, 500 of his
officers and 4000 private men made prifoners, all his
artillery and ammunition taken, and his infantry to¬
tally difperfed; fo that fcarce any vidlory could be more
complete.
After this fatal battle, the king retired firft to Here¬
ford, then to Abergavenny ; and remained fome time Brit
in Wales, from the vain hope of raifing a body of in-
fantry in thefe quarters already harralTed and exhaulted.
His affairs now, however, went to ruin in all quarters.
Fairfax retook Leicefter on the xy'^of June. On the
10th of July, he raifed the fiege of Taunton; and the
royalifts retired to Lamport, an open town in the coun¬
ty of Somerfet. Here they were attacked by Fairfax,
and beat from their poft, with the lofs of 300 killed
and 1400 taken prifoners. This was followed by
the lofs of Bridgewater, which Fairfax took three days
after; making the garrifon, to the number of 2600
men, prifoners of war. He then reduced Batli and t4,
Sharburn ; and on the utb of September Briftol was Hriftol
furrendered to him by prince Rupert, though a few *ten-
days before be had boafted in a letter to Charles, that,
he would defend the place for four months. This fo
enraged the king, that he immediately recalled all the
prince’s commiffions, and fent him a pafs to go beyond
fea.
The Scots in the mean time, having made themfelves
mafters of Carlifie after an obftinate fiege, marched
fouthwards and invefted Hereford ; but were obliged
to raife the fiege on the king’s approach. And this
was the laft glimpfe of fuccefs that attended his arms.
Having marched to the relief of Chefter, which was
anew befieged by the par liamentary forces under colonel
Jones, his rear was attacked by Pointz, and an engage¬
ment immediately enfned. While the fight was con¬
tinued with great obftinaey, and viddory leemed to in¬
cline to the royalifts, Jones fell upon them from the o-
ther fide, and defeated them with the lofs of 600 killed
and 1000 taken prifoners. The king with theremains Chariej
of his army fled to Newark; and from thence efcaped t!'e' M
to Oxford, where he fliut himfelf up during the winter for^"
feafon.
After the furrender of Briftol, Fairfax and Cromwell,
having divided their forces, the former marched weft-
wards in order to complete the conqueft of Devonfhire
and Cornwall ; the latter attacked the king’s garrifons
which lay the eaft of Briftol. Nothing was able to
ftand before thefe vidfortous generals ; every town was
obliged to fubmit, and every body of troops that pre¬
tended to refift were utterly defeated. At laft, news
arrived, that Montrofe himfelf, after fome more fuccei-
fes, was defeated ; and thus the only hope of the royal
party was deftroyed. ^
When that brave general defeended into the fouthern M0iUro;
counties, the covenanters, aflembling their whole force, defeated
met him with a numerous army, and gave hinr battle
at Kilfyth. Here he obtained his moft memorable vic¬
tory : 6000 of the covenanters were killed on the fpot,
and no remains of an army left them in Scotland. Many
noblemen, who fecretly favoured the royal caufe, now
declared openly for it, when they faw a force able to
fupport them. The marquis of Douglas, the earls of
Annandale and Hartfield, the lords Fleming, Seton,
Maderty, Carnegy, with many others, flocked to the
royal ftandard. Edinburgh opened its gates, and gave
liberty to all the prifoners there detained by the cove¬
nanters. Among the reft was lord Ogilvy, fon to
Airly, whofe family had contributed very much to the
vidtory gained at Kilfyth.—David Lefly was detached
from the army in England, and marched to the relief
of his diftreffed party in Scotland. Montrofe advan-
B R I
IWho fell
Ihim to the
IJEnglift.
B R I [ ,423 ]
ced Hill further to the fouth, allured by the vain hopes,
both of rouling to arms the earls of Hume, Traquaire,
and Roxborough, who had promifed to join him ; and
of obtaining from England fome fupply of cavalry, in
which he was very deficient. By the negligence of his
fcouts, Lefly, at Phiiip-hatigh in the foreii, furprized
his army, much diminifhed in numbers from the defer*
tion of the Highlanders, w’ho had retired to the hills,
according to cuftom, to fecure their plunder. After a
fharp conflict, in which Montrofe exerted great valour,
his forces were routed by Lefly’s cavalry, and hehim-
fclf forced to fly to the mountains.
Nothing could be more affecting than the fituation
in which the king now was. He now refolved to grant
the parliament their own terms, and fent them repeated
meflages to this purpofe, but they never deigned to
make him the leaft reply. At laft, after reproaching
him with the blood fpilt during the war, they told him
that they were preparing fome bills, to which, if he
would confent, they would then be able to judge of
his pacific inclinations. Fairfax, in the mean time,
was advancing with a victorious army in order to lay
fiege to Oxford; and Charles, rather than fubmittobe
taken captive and led in triumph by his infolent fub-
jeCts, refolved to give himfelf up to the Scots, who had
never teftifkd fuch implacable animofity’againft him,
and to truft to their loyalty for the reft. After palling
through many bye-ways and crofs-roads, he arrived in
company with only two perfons, Dr Hudfon and Mr
Afhburnham, at the Scots camp before Newark, and
difeovered himfelf to lord Leven their general.
The reception he met with was fuch as might be ex-
pedled from thefe infatuated bigots, deftitute of every
principle of reafon, honour, or humanity. Inftead of
endeavouring to alleviate the diftrefles of their fovereign,
they fuffered him to be infulted by the clergymen.
They immediately fent an account of his arrival to the
Englifn parliament, and they as quickly entered into a
treaty with the Scots about delivering up their prifoner.
The Scots thought this a proper time for the recovery
of their arrears due to them by the Englifh. A great
deal was really due them, and they claimed much more
than actually belonged to them. At laft, after various
debates between them and the parliament, in which they
pretended to great honour, and infilled Upon many punc¬
tilios, it was agreed, that, upon payment of 400,000/.
the- Scots Ihould deliver up the king to his enemies ; and
this was cheerfully complied with. Thus the Scots juft-
ly fell under the cenfure of having fold their king who
had thrown himfelf upon their mercy; a llain peculiar to
the nation, and unjaaralielled in hillory either ancient or
modern. It mull, however, be acknowledged, that the
infamy of this bargain had fuch an influence on the Scots
parliament, that they once voted that the king Ihould
be protected, and his liberty infilled on. But the ge¬
neral aflembly interpofed; and pronounced, that as he
had refufed to take the covenant which was prefled on
him, it became not the godly to concern themfelves a-
.bout his fortunes. In confequence of this, the parlia¬
ment were obliged to retracl their vote. The king, be¬
ing delivered over to the Englilh commiflioners, was
condu&td under a guard to Holdenby in the county of
Northampton, where he was very rigoroufly confined;
liis ancient fervants being difmifled, himfelf debarred
from vifits, and all communication cut off with his
friends or family.
The civil war being now over, the king abfolved his
followers from their allegiance, and the parliament had
now no enemy to fear but their own troops. From
this quarter their danger only arofe ; and it was not
long before they found themfelves in the fame unfortu¬
nate fituation to which they had reduced the king.
The majority of the houfe were prelbyterians, but the
majority of the army were independents. The former,
foon after the retreat of the Scots, feeing every thing
reduced to obedience, propofed to difband a confider-
able part of the army, and fend the reft over to Ireland.
This was by no means reliftied, and Cromwell took care
to heighten the difalfe&ion. Inftead of preparing to
dilband, therefore, the foldters refolved to petition;
and they began by defiring an indemnity, ratified by
the king, for any illegal aftions which they might have
committed during the war. The commons voted that
this petition tended tointroducemutiny, &c. and threat¬
ened to proceed againll the promoters of it as enemies
to the llate and dillurbers of the public peace. rl he
army now began to fet up for themfdves. In oppofi-
tion to the parliament at Weftminfter, a military par¬
liament was formed. The principal officers formed a
council to reprefent the body of peers; the foldiers e-
ledled two men out of each company to reprefent the
commons, and thefe were called the agitators of the
army ; and of this affembly Cromwell took care to be a
member. The new parliament foon found many grie¬
vances to be redrefled; and fpecified fome of the moil
confiderable. The commons were obliged to yield to
every requeft, and the demands of the agitators rofe in
proportion. The commons accufed the army of mutiny
and fedition; the army retorted the charge, and alleged
that the king had been depofed only to make way for
their ufurpations. Cromwell, in the mean time, who
fecretly conducted all the meafures of the army, while
he exclaimed againft their violence, refolved to feize the
king’s perfon. Accordingly a party of 500 horfe ap¬
peared at Holmby caftle, under the command of erne
Joyce, originally a taylor, but now a cornet; and by
this man was the king conduced to the army, who
were haftetiiug to their rendezvous at Triplo-heath near
Cambridge. Next day Cromwell arrived among them,
where he was received with acclamations of joy, and im¬
mediately invefted with the fupremc command.
The commons now faw the defigns of the army; but
it was too late, all refiftance was become vain:' Crom¬
well advanced with precipitation, and was in a few days
at St Albans. Even fubmiffion was now to nopurpofe;
the army ftill rofe in their demands, in proportion as
thefe demands were gratified, till at laft they claimed a
right of modelling the whole government, and fettling
the nation.
Cromwell began with accufing eleven members of the
houfe, the very leaders of the prelbyterian party, as
guilty of high treafon, and being enemies of the army.
The commons were willing to protect them ; but the
army infilling on their difmiffion, they voluntarily left
the honfe. At lad the citizens of London, finding the
conllitution totally overturned, and a military defpotifm
beginning to take place, inllead of the kingly one they
were formerly afraid of, began to think fenoufly of re-
preffing the infolence of the troops. The common coun¬
cil affembled the militia of the city; the works were
8 R 2 xnan-
Britain.
T|
begin to ti-
fut p tlie fo-
vcreigT
t47
A military
parliament
formed.
148
Cromwell
feizes the
king.
B R I
[ 1424 1
B R I
Britain, manned; and a manifefto publilhed, aggravating the
 hoftile intentions of the army. Finding that the com¬
mons, in compliance with the requeft of the army, had
voted that the city-militia (hould be difbanded, the
multitude rofe, befieged the door of the houfe, and ob¬
liged them to reverfe that vote they had fo lately paf-
fed. The affembly was, of confequence, divided into
two parties; the greater part tiding with the citizens;
I4P but the minority, with the two fpeakers at their head,
Sixty-two were for encouraging the army! Accordingly the two
members of fp^kers, with 62 of the members, fecretly retired from
join the61*1 tlle houfe, and threw themfelves under the protediion
irmy. of the army who were then at Hounflow-heath. They
were received with thouts and acclamations; their inte¬
grity was extolled; and the whole force of the foldiery,
ton court; and his efcape was not difcovered till near hr*1'
an hour after; when thofe who entered his chamber,
found on the table fome letters diredfed to the parlia¬
ment, to the general, and to the officer who had at¬
tended him. All night he travelled thro’ the foreft, and
arrived next day at Tichfield, a feat of the earl of South¬
ampton, where redded the countefs dowager, a woman
of honour, to whom the king knew he might fafely en-
trull his perfon. Before he arrived at this place, he
had gone to the fea coaft: and expreffed great anxiety
that a fhip which he feemed to look for, had not arri-*
ved. He could not hope to remain long concealed at
Tichfield: the queftion was, what meafure fliould next
be embraced? In the neighbourhood lay the Ifle of He is
Wight, of which Hammond was governor. This man
to the number of 20,000 men, now moved forward to was entirely dependent on Cromwell, which was a very ;fle of
rei nflate them in their places.
unfavourable circumftance : yet becaufe the governor Wight.
n the mean time, the part of the houfe which was was nephew to Dr Hammond the king’s favouiite cha-
left, refolved to refift the encroachments of the army.
They chofe new fpeakers, gave.orders for enlifting
troops, ordered the train-bands to man the lines ; and
the whole city boldly refolved to refift the invafion.
But this refolution only held while the enemy was at a
diftance; for when Cromwell appeared, all was obedi¬
ence and fubmiffion: the gates were opened to the ge-
JJi
Charles re-
folves to
leave the
kingdom.
plain, and had acquired a good reputation in the army,
it was thought proper to have recourfe to him in the
prefent exigence, when no other rational expedient
could be thought of. Afhburnham and Berkeley were
difpatched to the ifland. They had orders not to in
form Hammond of the place where the king lay con¬
cealed, till they had firft obtained a promife of him not
neral, who attended the two fpeakers and the reft of to deliver up his majefty, even though the parliament
the members peaceably to their habitations. The ele- and army fhould require him ; but reltore him to his li¬
ven impeached members being accufed as caufes of the berty, if he could not proteft him. The promife would
tumult, were expelled; and moft of them retired to the have been but a very flender fecurity: yet even without
continent. The mayor, fherHF, and three aldermen, exafting it, Afhburnham imprudently, if not treach-
were fent to the tower ; feveral citizens, and officers of eroufly, brought Hammond to Tichfield; and the king
the militia, were committed to prifon ; and, the lines a- was obliged to put himfelf into his hands, and to at-
bout the city levelled with the ground. The command tend him toCarilbroke caftle in the ifle of Wight, where,
of the Tower was given to Fairfax, the general; and though he was received with great demonftrations of
the parliament ordered him their hearty thanks for dif- refpeCt and kindnefs, he was in reality a prifoner. IJ3
obeying their commands. While the king continued in this forlorn fituation, CromweH!
It now only remained to difpofe of the king, who Cromwell found himfelf upon the point of lofing all the danger froi
remained a prifoner at Hampton-court. The indepen- fruits of his former fchemes, by having his own prin- jg,* *eVC*'
dent army, at the head of whom was Cromwell, on one ciples turned againft himfelf. Among the Indepen- elS‘
hand; and the prdbyterians, in name of both houfes, dents, who in general were for no ecclefiaftical fubor-
on the other ; treated with him feparately in private, dination, a fet of men grew up called levellers, who
Fie had fometimes even hopes, that, in thefe ftruggles difallowed all fubordination whatfoever, and declared
for power, he might have been chofen mediator in the that they would have no other chaplain, king, or ge-
difpute; and he expefted that the kingdom at laft, be- ’ * ' * ^ 'rt rn'
ing fenfible of the miferies of anarchy, would of its own
accord be hulhed into its former tranquil condition.
At this time he was treated with fome flattering marks
of diftinftion ; he was permitted to converfe with his
old fervants; his chaplains were admitted to attend
him, and celebrate divine fervice their own way. But
the moft exquifite pleafure he enjoyed was in the com¬
pany of his children, with whom he had feveral inter¬
views. The meeting on thefe occafions yvas fo pathe¬
tic, that Cromwell himfelf, who was once prefent, could
not help being moved, and was heard to declare, that
he never beheld fuch an affe&ing fcene before. But
thefe inftances of refpeft were of no long continuance.
As foon as the army had gained a complete viftory over
the houfe of commons, the king was treated not only
with the greateft difrefpeft, but even kept in continual
- alarms for his own perfonal fafety. The confequence
of this was, that Charles at laft refolved to withdraw
himfelf from the kingdom. Accordingly, on the 1 Ith
of November 1647, attended only by bir John Berke¬
ley, Affiburnham, and Legj he privately left Hamp«
neral, but Jefus Chrift. Though this would have gone
down very well with Cromwell as long as it was only
directed againft his enemies, he did not fo well relifti it
when applied to himfelf. Having intimation that the
levellers were to meet at a certain place, he unexpec¬
tedly appeared before them at the head of his red regi¬
ment, which had hitherto been deemed invincible. He
demanded, in the name of God, what thefe meetings
and murmurings meant; he expoftulated with them
upon the danger and confequence of their precipitant
fchemes, and defined them immediately to depart. In-
ftead of obeying, however, they returned an infolent
anfwer ; wherefore, ruftiing on them in a fury, he laid
two of them dead at his feet. His guards difperfing
the reft, he caufed feveral of them to be hanged upon
the fpot, and fent others to London ; and thus dif-
fipated a fa&ion no otherwife criminal than in having
followed his own example.
Cromwell’s authority was greatly increafed by the He defeats
laft mentioned action ; but it became irrefiftible in con- Scots,
fequence of a new and unexpefted addition to his fuc-
ceffes. The Scots, perhaps alhamed of the reproach
of
B R I [ 1425 ] B R I
Britain.
»ss
'fegociation
)etween the
dng and
>arliamcnt.
IS5
Colonel
Pride’s
purge.
of having fold their king, and ftitnulated farther by the
Independents, who took all occafions to mortify them,
railed an army in his favour, and the chief command
was given to the earl of Hamilton ; while Langdale,
who profeffed himfelf at the head of the more bigotted
party who had taken the covenant, marched at the
head of his feparate body, and both invaded the north
of England. Though thefe two armies amounted to
above 20,000 men, yet Cromwell, at the head of 8000
of his hardy veterans, feared not to give them battle.
He attacked them one after another; routed and dif-
perfed them ; took Hamilton prifoner ; and, following
his blow, entered Scotland, the government of which
he fettled entirely to his fatisfa&ion. An infurredtion
in Kent was quelled by Fairfax with the fame eafe ;
and nothing but fuccefs attended all this ufurper’s at¬
tempts.
During thefe contentions, the king, who was kept
a prifoner at Cariibrook caftle, continued to negociate
with the parliament for fettling the unfpeakable cala¬
mities of the kingdom. The parliament now Taw no
other method of deftroying the military power, but to
deprefs it by the kingly. Frequent propofals for an ac¬
commodation pafied between the captive king and the
commons ; but the great obftade which had all along
flood in the way, ftill kept them from agreeing. This was
the king’srefufingto abolifh epifcopacy, tho! heconfent-
ed to alter the liturgy. However, the treaty was ftill car¬
ried on with vigour, and the parliament for the firft time
feemed in earneft to conclude their negociations. But all
was now too late. The victorious army, with Cromwell
at their head, advanced to Windfor, and with furious
remonftrances began to demand vengeance on the king.
The unhappy monarch had been lately fent under con¬
finement to that place ; and from thence he was now
conveyed to Hnrft-caftle in Hamplhire, oppofite to
the ifle of Wight. The parliament in the mean time
began to iffue ordinances for a more effectual oppofition
to thefe military encroachments, when they were afto-
nifhed by a meffage from Cromwell, that he intended
paying them a vifit next day with his whole army ; and
in the mean time ordering them to raife him 40,000 /.
on the city of London.
The commons, though deftitute of all hopes of pre¬
vailing,. had ftill the courage to refift, and to attempt
in the face of the whole army to finifh the treaty they
had begun with the king. They had taken into con-
fideration the whole of his conceflions; and though
they had formerly voted them unfatisfaftory, they now
renewed the confultation with great vigour. After a
violent debate which lafted three days, it was carried
in the king’s favour by a majority of 129 againft 83,
that his conceffions were a foundation for the honfes to
proceed upon in fettling the affairs of the nation. This
was the laft attempt in his favour; for the next day
colonel Pride, at the head of two regiments, blockaded
the houfe ; and feizing in the paffage 41 members of
the preibyterian party, fent them to a low room be¬
longing to the houfe, that paffed by the denomination
of Hell. Above 160 members more were excluded;
and none were allowed to enter but the moft furious
and determined of the Independents, in all not exceed¬
ing 60. This atrocious invafion of parliamentary rights
commonly paffed by the name of Pride's purge, and
the remaining members were called the Rump. Thefe
foon voted, that the tranfa&ions of the houfe a few Adtain.
days before were entirely illegal, and that their gene¬
ral’s conduCt was juft and neceffary. ,jy
Nothing now remained, to complete the wicked- Charge a-
nefs of this parliament, but to murder the king. In gdnft the
this affembly, therefore, compofed of the moft obfeure bought ir
citizens, and officers of the army, a committee was ap¬
pointed to bring in a charge againft the king ; and
on their report, a vote paffed declaring it treafon in a
king to levy war againft his parliament. It was there¬
fore refolved, that an high court of juftice fhould be
appointed, to try his majefty for this new invented
treafon. For form’s fake, they defired the concurrence
of the few remaining lords in the upper houfe; but
there was virtue enough left in that body unanimoufly
to rejeCt the propofal. The commons, however, were
not to be flopped by fo fmall an obftacle. They voted
that the concurrence of the houfe of lords was unnecef-
fary, and that the people were the origin of all juft
power. To add to their zeal, a woman of Hereford-
ffiire, illuminated by prophetical vifions, defired ad¬
mittance, and communicated a revelation (he pretended
to have received from heaven. She affured them that
their meafures were confecrated from above, and rati¬
fied by the fan&ion of the Holy Ghoft. This intelli¬
gence gave them great comfort, and much confirmed
them in their prefent refolutions.
Colonel Harrifon, the fon of a butcher, was com¬
manded to conduft the king from Hurft-caftle to Wind¬
for, and from thence to London. His afflicted fub-
jeCts, who ran to have a fight of their fovereign, were
greatly affeCted at the change that appeared in his face
and perfon. He had permitted his beard to grow ;
his hair was become venerably grey, rather by the
preffure of anxiety than the hand of time ; while the
reft of his apparel bore the marks of misfortune and
decay. He had long been attended by an old decrepid
fervant whofe name was Sir Philip Warwick, who could
only deplore his mafter’s fate without being able to re¬
venge his caufe. All the exterior fymbols of fovereignty
were now withdrawn, and his attendants had orders to
ferve him without ceremony. He could not, how¬
ever, be perfuadedthat his adverfaries would bring him
to a formal trial; but he every moment expeCIed to be
difpatched by private affaffination. 158
From the 6th to the 20th of January was fpent in His trial,
making preparations for this extraordinary trial. The
court of juftice confifted of 133 perfons named by the
commons; but of thefe never above 70 met upon the
trial. The members were chiefly compofed of the prin¬
cipal officers of the army, moft of them of very mean
birth, together with fome of the lower houfe, and a
few citizens of London. Bradlhaw a lawyer was cho-
fen prefident; Coke was appointed follicitor for the peo¬
ple of England; Doriflaus, Steele, and Alke, were
named affiftants. The court fat in Weftminfter-hall.
When the king was brought forward before the court,
he was conducted by the mace-bearer to a chair placed
within the bar. Though long detained a prifoner,
and now produced as a criminal, he ftill maintained the
dignity of a king. His charge was then read by the
foltcitor, accufing him of having been the caufe of all
the bloodftied which followed fince the commencement
of the war ; after which Bradihaw direded his difeourfe
to him, and told him that the court expeCted his anfwer.
The
B R I [ 1426 ] B R I
Britain, The king began his defence with declining the au-
- thority of the court. He reprefented, that having
been engaged in treaty with his two houfes of parlia¬
ment, and having finifhed almoft every article, he ex-
pefted a different treatment from what he had now re¬
ceived. He perceived, he faid, no appearance of an
upper houfe, which was neceffary to conflitute a juft
tribunal. Pie alleged that he was himfelf the king and
fountain of law, and confequently could not be tried
by laws to which he had never given his affent ; that
having been intrufted with the liberties of the people,
he would not now betray them by recognizing a power
founded in ufurpation ; that he was willing, before a
proper tribunal, to enter into the particulars of his de¬
fence ; but that before them he muft decline any apo¬
logy for his innocence, left he fhould be confidered as
the betrayer of, and not a martyr for, the conllitution.
Bradfhaw, in order to fupport the authority of the
court, infilled, that they had received their authority
from the people, the fource of all right. He prefied
the king not to decline the authority of the court that
was delegated by the commons of England, and inter¬
rupted and over-ruled him in his attempts to reply. In
this manner the king was three times produced before
the court, and as often perlifted in declining its jurif-
diftion. The fourth and lalt time he was brought be¬
fore this felf-created tribunal, as he was proceeding
thither, he was infulted by the foldiers and the mob,
who cried out, “ Juftice! juftice ! Execution! execu¬
tion!” but he coiitinued undaunted. His judges ha¬
ving now examined fome witnefles, by whom it was
proved that the king had appeared in arms againft the
forces commiilioned by parliament, they pronounced
fentence againft him. He feemed very anxious at this
time to be admitted to a conference with the two
houfes, and it was fuppofed that he intended to refign
the crown to his fon ; but the court refufed compli¬
ance, and conlidered his requeft as an artifice to delay
159 juftice.
lie is infult- The behaviour of Charles under all thefe inftances of
ed by the low-bred malice-was great, firm, and equal. In going
foldiers. through the hall from this execrable tribunal, the fol¬
diers and rabble were again inlligated to cry out, Ju-
ftice and execution! They reviled him with the moft
bitter reproaches. Among other infults, one mifcreant
prefumed to fpit in the face of his fovereign. He pa¬
tiently bore their infolence : “ Poor fouls (cried he),
they would treat their generals in the fame manner for
fixpence.” Thofe of the populace who ft ill retained the
feelings of humanity expreffed their forrow in fighs and
tears. A foldier more compafiionate than the reft could
not help imploring a blefllng on his royal head. An
officer overhearing him, ftruck the honeft centinel to
the ground before the king; who could not help faying,
that the punifhment exceeded the offence.
At his return to Whitehall, Charles defired permif-
fion of the houfe to fee his children, and to be attended
In his private devotions by Dr Juxon late bifhop of
.London. Thefe requeits were granted, and alfo three
days to prepare for execution. Every night between
his fentence and execution, the king flept found as ufual,
though the noife of the workmen employed in framing
1(So the fcaffold continually refounded in his ears. The fatal
His execu- morning being at laft arrived, he rofe early ; and call- •
tion. ing one of his attendants, he bad him employ more
than ufual care in dreffing him,, and preparing him for Britain,
fo great a folemnity. The ftreet before Whitehall was
the place deftined for his execution ; for it was intend¬
ed that this fhould increase the feverity of his punifh¬
ment. He was led through the banqueting-houfe to the
fcaffold adjoining to that edifice, attended by his friend
and fervant bifhop Juxon, a man of the fame mi!d and
fteady virtues with his mafter. The fcaffold, which was
covered with black, was guarded by a regiment of fol¬
diers under the command of colonel Tomlinfon ; and
on it were to be feen the block, the ax, and two exe¬
cutioners in mafques. The people, in crowds, flood at
a greater diftance. The king furveyed all thefe folemn
preparations with calm compofure ; and, as he could
not expeft to be heard by the people at a diftance, he
addreffed himfelf to the few perfons who flood round
him. He there juftified his own innocence in the late
fatal wars : he obferved, that he had not taken arms till
after the parliament had fhewn him the example ; and
that he had no other object in his warlike preparations,
than to preferve that authority entire which had been
tranfmitted to him by his anceftors. But, though inno¬
cent towards his people, he acknowledged the equity
of his execution in the eyes of his Maker : he owned
that he was juftly punifhed for having confented to the
execution of an unjuft fentence againft the earl of Straf¬
ford. Lie forgave all his enemies; exhorted the people
to return to their obedience, and acknowledge his fon
as his fucceffor; and fignified his attachment to the
Proteftant religion as profeffed by the church of Eng¬
land. So ftrong was the impreffion made by his dying
words on thofe who could hear him, that colonel Tom¬
linfon himfelf, to whofe care he had been committed,
acknowledged himfelf a convert. At one blow his head
was fevered from his body. The other executioner then,
holding up the head, exclaimed, “ This is the head of
of a traitor.” Jgt
It is impoffible to deferibe the grief, indignation, Grief of the
and aftoniiliment, which took place, not only among nation on
the fpedlators, who were overwhelmed with a flood of that ac*
forrow, but throughout the whole nation, as foon as C0Un *
the report of this fatal execution was conveyed to them.
Each blamed himfelf either with adlive difloyalty to
the king, or a paffive compliance with his deftroyers.
The very pulpits that ufed to refound with iufplence
and fedition were now bedewed with tears of unfeigned
repentance; and all united in their deteftation of thofe
dark hypocrites who, to fatisfy their own enmity, in¬
volved a whole nation in the guilt of treafon.—Charles
was executed on the 30th of January 1649, in the 49r]l
year of his age, and 24th of his reign. He was of a
middling ftaturc, robuit, and well-proportioned. His
vifage was pleafant, but melancholy; and it is probable
that the continual troubles in which he was involved
might have made that impreffion on his countenance. 1g}t
It being remarked, that the king, the moment be- Piety of the I
fore he ftretched out his neck to the executioner, had ki,,g in h** i
faid to Juxon, with a very earned accent, the Angle rn0~
word Remember; great myfteries were fuppofed to be
concealed under that word; and the generals vehe¬
mently infifted with the prelate that he Ihould inform
them of the king’s meaning. Juxon told them, that the
king, having frequently charged him to inculcate on
his fon the forgivenefs of his murderers, had taken tin’s
opportunity in the laft moment of his life, when his
commands,
B R I [ 1427 ] B R I
commands, he fuppofed, would be regarded as facred and inceflafitly importuned by the fanatical clergymen, tiritain.
and inviolable, to reiterate that defire ; and that his who, having brought royalty under their feet, were re- ’’
mild fpirit thus terminated its prefent ccurfe by an aft folved to keep it ftill fubfervient, and to trample upon
of benevolence to his greateit enemies. it with all the contumely of upftarts. Charles pretended
The difiblution of the monarchy in England foon to give ear to their difcourfes; but, however, made an
\ monar-” hollowed the death of the monarch. When the peers attempt to efcape. He was overtaken and brought
met on the day appointed in their adjournment, they back; when he owned the greatnefs of his fault, and 167
entered upon bnfmefs; and fent down feme votes to teftified his repentance for what he had done. Cromwell, Cromwell’s
the commons, of which the latter deigned not to take in the mean time, who had been appointed by the par- iuclce,s ln
the Jeaft notice. In a few days after, the commons h'ament to command the army in Ireland, profecuted Ire,anti■
voted, that the houfe of lords was ufclefs and danger- the war in that kingdom with his ufual fuccefs. He
ous; for which reafon it was aholilhed. They voted it had to encounter the royalifts commanded by the duke
high treafon to acknowledge Charles Stuart, fon of the of Ormond, and the native Irifh led on by O Neal,
late king, as fuccefibr to the throne. A great feal Thefe troops he quickly overcame ; and moft of the
was made : on one fide of which Were engraven the towns, intimidated by his cruelty, opened their gates
arms of England and Ireland, with this infeription, at his approach. He was on the point of reducing the
“ The great feal of England.On the reverfe was re- whole kingdom, when he was recalled by the parlia-
prefented the houfe of commons fitting, with this mot- ment to defend his country againft the Scots, who
to: “ On the firft year of freedom, by God’s bleffing bad railed a confiderable army in fupport of the royal
reftored, 1648.” The forms'of all public hufinefs were caufe. lCg
changed from being tranfa&ed in the king's name, to On the return of Cromwell to England, he was cho- Infatuation
ithufiafm that of the keepers of the liberties ofEngland. The court fell commander in chief of the parliamentary forces, ;a of the Scots,
rliejeniL k’n.8!,8 bench was called the court of public bench, the room of Fairfax, who declined oppofing the pref-
t ie arm - . this head, it is faid, were fome of byterians. The new general immediately fet forward
Nay, fo cautious c
the republicans, that, in reciting the Lord’s prayer,
they would not fay, “ thy kingdom,” but “ thy common¬
wealth, come.” The king’s liatue in the exchange was
thrown down ; and on the ptedeilal thefe words were
inferibed: Exit iyrannus, regum ultimus ; ii The ty¬
rant is gone, the laft of the kings.” The commons, it
is faid, intended to bind the princefs Elizabeth appren¬
tice to a button-maker ; the duke of Gloucefter was to
be taught fome other mechanical employment: but the
former fpon died, of grief, as is fuppofed, for her fa¬
ther’s tragical end ; the latter was fent beyond fea by
Cromwell.
The commons next proceeded to punifii thofe who
had been moft remarkable for their attachment to their
late fovereign. The duke of Hamilton, lord Capel, and
the earl of Holland, were condemned and executed ;
the earl of Norwich and Sir John Owen were alfo con¬
demned, and afterwards pardoned. Thefe executions
irritated the Scots.: their loyalty began to return; and
the infolence of the independents, with their vi&ories,
for Scotland with an army of 16,000 men, where he
was oppofed by general Lefly, who formed an excel¬
lent plan for his own defence. This prudent com¬
mander, knowing his men to be inferior in valour and
difeipline, however fuperior in numbers, to thofe of
Cromwell, kept himfelf carefully in his intrenchments.
At laft Cromwell was drawn into a very difadvan-
tageous poll near Dunbar, where his antagonift waited
deliberately to take advantage of him. From this im¬
minent danger, however, he was delivered by the mad-
nefs of the Scots clergy. They, it feems, had been
w reft ling in prayer with the Lord night and day, and
at laft fancied that they had obtained the fuperiorftv.
Revelations were made them, that the heretical army,
together with Agag their general, would be delivered
into their hand. Upon the affurances of thefe vifions,
they obliged their general to defeend into the plain,
and give the Englifh battle. When Cromwell faw this
mad aftion, he aflured his followers, that the Lord had
delivered them into his hands, and ordered his army toTIley 31
inflamed them ftill more. They determined, therefore, fing pfalms, as if alrc-ady certain of vidfory. The Scots defeatefl ’’V
to acknowledge prince Charles for their king, but at though double the number of the Engiifh, were fooiv r0mW£l1’
the fame time to abridge his power by every limitation put to flight, and purfued witli great daughter, while
m>S which they had attempted to impofe on his father. Cromwell did not lofe in all above 40 men,
Bvited iut'o Charles, after the death of his father, having pafled After this defeat, Charles put himfelf at the head of
fcotland"10 ^ome t'me 3t Parisj and finding no likelihood of aflift- the remains of his army; and thefe he further ftrength-
ance fr6m that quarter, was glad to accept of any con- ened by the royalifts, who had been for fome time ex-
ditions. The Scots, however, while they were thus pro- eluded from his fervice by the covenanters. He was fo
felling loyalty to their king, were neverthelefs cruelly clofely purfued by Cromwell, however, that he foon
puniihing his adherents. Among others, the brave mar- found it impoffible to maintain his army. Obferving,
quis of Montrofe was taken prifoner, as he endeavoured therefore, that the way was open to England, he im-
to raife the Highlanders in the royal caufe; and, being mediately direded his march towards that country,
brought to Edinburgh, was hanged on a gibbet 30 feet where he expeded to be reinforced by all the royalifts
high, then quartered, and his limbs ftnek up in the in that part of the kingdom. In this, however, he was
principal towns of the kingdom. Yet, notwithilanding deceived: the Englifh, terrified at the name of his op-
all this feverity, Charles ventured into Scotland, and ponent, dreaded to join him. But his mortification was
had the mortification to enter the gate of Edinburgh greatly increafed, when at Worcefter he was informed,
where the limbs of that faithful adherent were ftill ex- that Cromwell was marching with hafty ftrides from ,
166 pofed. . Scotland with an army of 40,000 men. This news was Charles de-
His hard The young king foon found that he had only ex- fcarcely arrived, when Cromwell himfelf was there. He feare<1«
ilfage there, changed his exile for imprifonment. He was furrounded fell upon the town on all fides : the whole Scots army Worcefter.
B R I . [ 1428 ] B R I
Britain, was either killed or taken prifoners; and the king him-
felf, having given many proofs of perfonal valour, was
, I?1 obliged to fly.
His adven- rpjje y0ung k;ng now entered upon a fcene of ad-
wards? ttr" ventures the mofl: romantic that can be imagined. Af¬
ter his hair was cut off, the better to difguife his per-
fon, he worked for fome days in the habit of a peafant,
cutting faggots in a wood. He next made an attempt
to retire into Wales, under the conduft of one Pendrel,
a poor farmer, who was fincerely attached to his caufe.
In this attempt, however, he was difappointed; every
pafs being guarded to prevent their efcape. Being ob¬
liged to return, he met one colonel Carelefs, who
had efcaped the carnage at Worcefter. In his company
the king was obliged to climb a fpreading oak; among
the thick branches of which they fpent the day toge¬
ther, while they heard the foldiers of the enemy in
purfuit of them below. From thence he pafied with
imminent danger, feeling all the varieties of famine, fa¬
tigue, and pain, till he arrived at the houfe of colonel
Lane, a zealous royalift in Staflbrdfhire. There he de¬
liberated about the means of efcaping into France; and
Briftol being fuppofed the propereft port, it was refol-
ved that he Ihould ride thither before this gentleman’s
fifter, on a vifit to one Mrs Norton, who lived in the
neighbourhood of that city. During this journey, he
every day met with perfons whofe faces he knew, and
at one time pafled through a whole regiment of the
enemy’s army.
When they arrived at Mrs Norton’s, the firfl; perfon
they faw was one of his own chaplains fitting at the
door, and amufing himfelf with feeing people play at
bowls. The king, after having taken proper care of his
horfe in the liable, was fliewn to an apartment which
Mrs Lane had provided for him, as it was faid he had
the ague. The butler, however, being fent to him with
fome refrefhment, no fooner beheld his face, which was
very pale with anxiety and fatigue, than he recollected
his king and matter; and, falling on his knees, while the
tears ftreamed down his cheeks, cried out, “ I am re¬
joiced to fee your majefty.” The king was alarmed ;
but made the butler promife that he would keep the
fecret from every mortal, even from his matter; and the'
honeft fervant punctually obeyed him.
No (hip being found that would for a month fet fail
from Briltol either for France or Spain, the king was
obliged to go elfewhere for a paflage. He therefore re¬
paired to the houfe of colonel Wyndham in Dorfet-
Ihire, where he was cordially received. His mother, a
venerable matron, feemed to think the end of her life
nobly rewarded in having it in her power to give pro¬
tection to her king. She exprefled no diffatisfaCtion at
having loft three fons and one grandchild in the defence
of his caufe, fince flie was honoured in being inftrumen-
tal in his own prefervation.
Purfuing from thence his journey to the fea-fide, he
once more had a very narrow efcape at a little inn,
where he fet up for the night. The day had been ap¬
pointed for a folemn fail; and a fanatical weaver, who
had been a foldier in the parliamentary army, was
preaching againft the king in a little chapel fronting
the houfe. Charles, to avoid fufpicion, was himfelf
.among the audience. It happened that a fmith, of the
fame principles with the weaver, had been examining
the horfes belonging to the paffengers, and came to af-
fure the preachei*. that he knew by the fafhion of the Britain>
ftioes, that one of the ftrangers horfes came from the
north. The preacher immediately affirmed, that this
horfe could belong to no other than Charles Stuart,
and inftantly went with a conftable to fearch the inn.
But Charles had taken timely precautions, and left the
inn before the conftable’s arrival. 17*
At Shoreham, in Suflex, a veffel was at lad found, He
in which he embarked. He was known to fo many,10 ranc *|
that, if he had not fet fail at that critical moment, it had
been impoffible for him to efcape. After 41 days con¬
cealment, he arrived fafely at Fefchamp in Normandy.
No lefs than 40 men and women had, at different times,
been privy to bis efcape. 173
Cromwell in the mean time returned in triumph; Cromwell
and his firft care was to deprefs the Scots, on account jtsaj 3°]
of their having ’withjiood the work of the gofpel as he conquered!
called it. An aft was paffed for abolilhing royalty in province.
Scotland, and annexing that kingdom as a conquered
.province to the Englilh commonweajth. It was em¬
powered, however, to fend fome members to the Eng-
liih parliament. Judges were appointed to diftribute
juftice ; and the people of that country, now freed
from the tyranny of the ecclefiaftics, were not much
diffatisfied with'the government. ]
All parts of the Britiih dominions being now redu- wZ/vyh], ‘
ced to perfeft fubjeftion to the parliament, they next the Dutch*
refolved to chaftife the Dutch, who had given but very
flight caufes of complaint. It happened that one Dr
Doriflaus, who Was of the number of the late king’s
judges, being fent by the parliament as their envoy to
Holland, was affaffinated by one of the royal party
who had taken refuge there. Some time after, alfo, Mr
St John, appointed their ambaffador to that court, was
infulted by the friends of the prince of Orange. Thefe
were thought fufficient reafons for a declaration of war
againft the Hollanders by the commonwealth of Eng¬
land. The parliament’s chief dependence lay in the ac- !
tivity and courage of Blake their admiral; who, though
he had not embarked in naval command till late in life,
yet furpaffed all that went before him in courage and
dexterity. On the other fide, the Dutch oppofed to
him their famous admiral Van Tromp, to whom their
country never fince produced an equal. Many were the
engagements between thefe celebrated admirals, and
various was their fuccefs. Several dreadful encounters
ferved rather to fhew the excellency of the admirals,
than to determine their fuperiority. At laft the Dutch,
who felt many great difadvantages by the lofs of
their trade, and by the total fufpenfion of their fiiheries,
were willing to treat of a peace. The parliament, how¬
ever, gave but a very unfavourable anfwer. They ftu-
died to keep their navy on foot as long as they could;
rightly judging, that, while the force of the nation was
exerted by fea, it would diminiih the formidable power
of Cromwell by land. 175 |
This great afpxrer, however, quickly perceived their Cromwell j
defigns; and therefore, fecure in the attachment of Jy^v*5cto
the army, refolved to feize the fovereign power. He foyereignty.
perfuaded the officers to prefent a petition for payment
of arrears, and redrefs of grievances. His orders were
obeyed: a petition was drawn up and preiented, in
which the officers, after demanding their arrears, de-
fired the parliament to confider how many years they
had fat, and what pretenfions they had formerly made
of
B R I [ 1429 ] B R I
of their defigns to new-model the houfe, and eftablifh called Barehone's parliament. They were chiefly com- Britain.
* freedom on its broadelt baiis- They alleged, that it poied of Antinomians ; a fe£l that, after receiving the 
was now full time to give place to others ; and however fpirit, fuppofed themfelves incapable of error; and the
meritorious their actions might have been, yet the red fifth-monarchy-men, who every hour expedted Chrilt’s
of the nation had fome right, in their turn, to manifeft fecund coming on earth. They began by chufing
their patrioiifm in defence of their country. The eight of their tribe to feek the Lord in prayer, while
houfe was highly offended : they appointed a committee the reft calmly fat down to deliberate upon the fuppref-
to prepare an ad, ordaining that all perfons who pre- fion of the clergy, the univerfities, and courts of ju-
fented fuch petitions for the future fhould be deemed ftice; and inftead of all this, it was their intent to fub-
guilty of high treafon. To this the officers made a ftitnte the law of Mofes. 173
very warm remonffrance, and the parliament as angry It was impoffible fuch a legiflature as this could Who are a-
a reply. Cromwell, being informed of this altercation, fiand; even the vulgar began to exclaim againft it, and Uwae^
ftarted up in the utmoft feeming fury, and turning to Cromwell himfelf to be afhamed of their abfurdities. °Ul’
major Vernoti, cried out, that “ he was compelled to He had carefully chofen many perfons among them
do a thing that made the very hair of his head ftandon who were entirely devoted to his interefts, and thefe
end.’' Then, haftening to the houfe with 300 fol- he commanded to difmifs the affembly. Thefe accord-
r' diers, and with the marks of violent indignation on his ingly met by concert earlier than the reft of their fra-
countenance, he entered, took his place, and attended ternity ; and obferving to each other that this parlia-
to the debates for fome time. When the queftion was ment had fat long enough, they haftened to Cromwell,
ready to be put, he fuddenly ftarted up, and began to with Roufe their fpeaker at their head, and into his
load the parliament with the vileft reproaches for their hands refigned the authority with which he had invefted
tyranny, ambition, oppreffion, and robbery of the pu- them. Cromwell accepted their refignation with plea-
blic. Upon which, ftamping with his foot, which was fure ; but being told that fome of their number were
the lignai for the foldiers to enter, the place was im- refra&ory, he fent colonel White to clear the houfe of
mediately filled with armed men. Then, addreffing fuch as ventured to remain there. They had placed
himfelf to the members, “ For ftiame, (faid he), get one Moyer in the chair by the time that the colonel
you gone. Give place to honefter men ; to thofe who had arrived; and he being aiked by the colonel what
will more faithfully difeharge their truft. You are no they did there, Moyer replied very gravely, That they
longer a parliament ; I tell you, you are no longer a were feeking the Lord. “ Then you may go elfe-
parliament; the Lord has done with you.” Sir Harry where, (cried White) ; for, to my certain knowledge,
Vane exclaiming againft this conduft, “ Sir Harry ! the Lord hath not been here thefe many years.” ,7p
(criesCromwell with a loud voice), O Sir Harry Vane ! The fhadow of a parliament being thus difiblved, the Cromwell
The Lord deliver me from Sir Harry Vane !” Taking officers, by their own authority, declared Cromwell declarcd
hold then of one of the members by his cloak, “ Thou prote&or of the commonwealth of England. The Proteftor'
art awhoremafter,” cries he; to another, “ Thou art mayor and aldermen were fent for to give folemnity
an adulterer ;” to a third, “ Thou art a drunkard ;” to to his appointment, and he was inftituted into his
a fourth, “ Thou art a glutton, &c.” “ It is you, new office at Whitehall, in the palace of the kings of
(continued he to the members), that have forced me England. He was to be addrefied by the title of
upon this. 1 have fought the Lord night and day, nefs; and his power was proclaimed in London, and
that he would rather flay me than put me upon this other parts of the kingdom. It was now, indeed, in
work.” Then, pointing to the mace, “ Take away a great meafure necefiary that fome perfon ftiould take
that bauble,” cried he: after which, turning out all the fupreme command ; for affairs were brought into
the members, and clearing the hall, he ordered the doors fuch a fituation, by the furious animofities of the con-
to be locked ; and putting the keys in his pocket, re- tending parties, that nothing but abfolute power could
turned to Whitehall. prevent a renewal of former bloodflied and confufion. ,8o
ts Thus, the whole civil and military power centered The government of the kingdom was adjufted in the He fettles
in Cromwell, who by this bold tranfadlion became, in following manner. A council was appointed, which ’fie govern-
effedt, king of Great Britain, with uncontroulable au-• was not to exceed 21, nor to be under 13 perfons. n'ent'
thority. Being willing, however, to amufe the peo- Thefe were to enjoy their offices for life, or during
pie with the form of a commonwealth, he propofed to good behaviour ; and, in cafe of a vacancy, the remain-
give his fubje&s a parliament; but fuch an one as ing members named three, of whom the protedlor chofe
fliould be altogether obedient to bis commands. For one. The proteftor was appointed the fupreme magi-
this purpofe it was decreed, that the fovereign power ftrate of the commonwealth, with fuch powers as the
ftiould be veiled in 144 perfons, under the denomina- king was poffeffed of. The power of the fword was
lion of a parliament ; and he undertook to make the veiled in him jointly with the parliament when fitting,
choice himfelf. The perfons pitched upon were the or with the council at others. He was obliged to fum-
loweft, meaneft, and moft ignorant among the citizens, mon a parliament once every three years, and to allow
and the very dregs of the fanatics. To go further than them to fit five months without adjournment. A Hand-
others in the abfurdities of fanaticifm was the chief ing army was eftablilhed of 20,000 foot, and 10,000
qualification upon which each of thefe valued himfelf. horfe; and funds w^ere affigned for their fupport. The
Their very names, borrow'ed from feripture, and ren- proteftor enjoyed his office for life; and on his death,
dered ridiculous by their mifapplication, ferved to his place was to be fupplitd by the council. Of all thefe
fhew their excefs of folly. One of them particularly, claufes the Handing army was fufficient for Cromwell’s
who was called Goaf a canting leather- purpofe; for, while poffeffed of that inftrument, he
feller, gave his name to this odd affembly, and it was could mould the reft of the conftitution to his pleafure
Vol. II. 8 S at
E R I [ 1430 1 B R I
Brita'n. at any time. He chofe his council from among his of- plexion fliould enter the houfe, guards were placed at
' fleers, who had been the companions of his dangers the door, and none admitted but fuch as produced a
and vi&ories, to each of whom he affigned a penfion warrant from his council.
of 1000/. a-year. He took care to have his troops, The principal defign of convening this aflembly was,
upon whofe fidelity he depended for fupport, paid a that they (hould offer him the crown, with the title of h
month in advance ; the magazines were alfo well pro- king, and all the other enfigns of royalty. His crea- Cl
vided, and the public treafure managed with frugality tures, therefore, took care to infinuate the confuflon
and care ; while his a&ivity, vigilance, and refolution, there was in legal proceedings without the name of a
were fo well exerted, that he difeovered every confpi- king; that no man was acquainted with the extent or
racy againft his perfon, and every plot for an infurrec- limits of the prefent magillrates authority, but thofe
tion, before they tookefFeft. of a king had been well afeertained by the experience
Thus Cromwell continued to govern, though with- of ages. The motion was at lafl; formally made in the
,81 out affuming the title of king, in as abfolute a manner houfe, eafily carried through, and nothing was now
Hisvigo- as the moft defpotic prince in Europe. As he was wanting but Cromwell’s own confent to have his name
rous ad mi- feared at home, fo he made himfelf refpeAed abroad, enrolled among the kings of England. This confent,
niftration. having been humbled by repeated defeats, however, he never had refolution enough to give. His
were obliged to fue for peace. Cromwell obliged them doubts continued for fome days; and the conference
to pay deference to the Britifh flag. He compelled carried on with the members who made him the offer,
them to abandon the interefts of the king, to pay fo far as it is on his part intelligible, feems to argue
85,000/. as an indemnification for former expences, that he was defirous of being compelled to accept the v
and to reftore to the Englifh Eaft India company a offer: however, the conference ended in his total re- rf
part of thofe dominions which they had been dif- fufal.
pofleffed of by the Dutch during the former reign. With all thefe proffered honours, and with all his
The miniftry of France thought proper to pay defe- defpotic power, the fituation of Cromwell was far from
rence to the imperious chara&erof the protedtor; and being enviable. Perhaps no fituation, however mean, ^
he having lent that court a body of 6000 men to at- or loaded with contempt, could be more truly diftrefs- t:
tack the Spanifh dominions in the Netherlands, who fnl than his, at the time the nation was loading him
obtained a fignal viftory, the French put Dunkirk in- with congratulations and addreffes. He had at lall
to his hands as a reward for his attachment. By means rendered himfelf hateful to every party, and he owed
of the celebrated admiral Blake f he humbled Spain pro- his fafety to their mutual hatred and diffidence of one
digioufly, as alfo the Algerines and Tunefines. Penn another. His arts of diffimulation were exhaufted ;
and Venables, two other admirals, made an attempt on none could be deceived by them ; e ven thofe of his own
the ifland of Hifpaniola ; but failing of this, they fleered party and principles difdaining the ufe to which he had
to Jamaica, which was furrendered to them without a converted his zeal and profefiions. Though the whole
iquered. |J]ow> Yet fo little was thought of the importance of nation filently detefted his adminiftration, he had not
this conqueft, that, on their return, the two admirals been completely wretched if he could have found do-
were committed to the tower, on account of the failure meftic confolation. But even his own family had em-
of the principal objeft of their equipment. braced republican principles with fo much vehemence,
It is not to be fuppofed that a numerous ftanding that they could not without indignation behold him in¬
army could be maintained, and fo many foreign wars veiled with uncontroulable power ; and Mrs Claypole,
carried on, without incurring extraordinary expences. his favourite daughter, upbraided him, on her death-
The prote&or’s revenues were fo much exhaufted, that bed, with all the crimes which led him to trample on
he was obliged to have recourfe to methods which he the throne. To add to all this, not only were confpi-
probably would not have chofen, had he not been driven racies formed againft him, but he was at laft taught
to them byneceffity. One or two confpiracies entered in- upon reafoning principles, that his death was not only
to by the royalifts, which were detedled and punifhed, defirable, but his affaflination would be meritorious,
ferved him as a pretence to lay a heavy tax upon all A book was publifhed by colonel Titus, a man who
that party, of the tenth penny on all their pofleffions, had formerly been attached to his caufe, entitled Kill-
In order to raife this opprelfive impofition, ten major- ing no murder. Of all the pamphlets that appeared at
generals were inftituted, who divided the whole king- that time, or perhaps of thofe that have fince ap-
dom into fo many military jurifdidions. Thefe men peared, this was the moft eloquent and mafterly. Crom-
had power to fubjedl whom they pleafed to this tax, well read it, and is faid never to have fmiled afterwards;
and to imprifon fuch as denied their jurifdidion. Un- The ufurper now found, that the grandeur to which
der colour of thefe powers they e^ercifed the moft ar- he had facrificed his former tranquillity was only an in-
bitrary authority ; the people had no protection againft; let to frefh inquietudes. He was haunted with perpe-
their exactions ; the very mafic of liberty was thrown tual fears of aflaflination. He wore armour under his
off, and all property was at the difpofal of a military clothes, and always kept piftols in his pockets. His
tribunal. It was in vain that the nation cried out for afpedt was clouded by a fettled gloom, and he regarded
a free parliament. Cromwell affembled one in confe- every ftranger with fufpicion. He was always at-
184 quence of their clamours ; but as fpeedily diffolved it tended by a numerous guard, and travelled in a hurry.
He con- when he found it refra&ory to his commands. At laft. He never returned from any place by the road he went;
venes a par- as -par];aments were always held in fuch eftimation by and never fleeped above three nights together in the
iiament. ^ peop]ej ref0lved to give them one, but fuch as fame chamber. At laft he was delivered from this life A
fhould be entirely of his own chufing, and chiefly com- of borror and anxiety by a tertian ague, of which he
pofed of his creatures. Left any of a different com- died September 3d, 1658, after having ufurped thego-
•J-See the a:
tide Blake.
Jam.
,83.
His arbi¬
trary me¬
thods of
procuring
money.
B R I
Is depofed.
BLump par-
nftated.
DifTolved
by the
army.
Military go*
vernment
cftablifhed.
• 9*
General
motions.
vernment nine years.
Oliver Cromwell was fucceeded in his office of pro-
te&or by his fon Richard, who immediately called a
parliament. To this affembly the army prefented a re-
monftrance, defiring fome perfon for their general in
whom they could confide. The houfe voted fuch meet¬
ings and remonftrances unlawful: upon which the of¬
ficers, furrounding Richard’s houfe, forced him to dif-
folve the parliament ; and foon after he figned an ab¬
dication of the government. His younger brother
Henry, who had been appointed to the command in
Ireland, followed Richard’s example, and refigned his
commiffion without ftriking a blow.
f 143" 1 Bill
inflexible taciturnity, at laft came to St Alban’s, with- Britain.
in a few miles of the capital, leaving all the world in
doubt as to his motives and defigns. Here he fent the
parliament a meflage, defirrng them to remove fuch
forces as remained in London to country quarters.
Some of the regiments willingly obeyed this order;
and fuch as did not. Monk turned out by force : after 's><5
which he took up his quarters with his army in Weft-
minfter. The houfe voted him thanks for his fervices : tersatWeft-
he defired them to call a free parliament; and this foon minder,
infpired the citizens to refufe fubmiffion to the prefent
government. They refolved to pay no taxes until the
members formerly excluded by colonel Pride fhould be
The officers, thus left at liberty, refolved to reftore replaced. For this they were puniflted by Monk, at the Punidiestbe
. . /•   r*. ^.^11 f, il-tK-if Auftriz t Vi T-Tf3 T T of tVlP mnff O OQ-
the rump parliament as it was called, confifting of that
remnant of a parliament which had condemned Charles.
They were no fooner reinftated in their authority, how¬
ever, than they began to humble the army by caihier-
ing fome of the officers, and appointing others on
whom they could have more dependence. The officers
immediately refolved to diffolve the affembly. Lambert;
defire of the parliament. He arrefted 11 of the moft'“y°
obnoxious of the common-council; broke the gates
and portcullifes; and, having expofed it to the fcorn
and contempt of all who hated it, he returned in tri¬
umph to his quarters at Weftminfter. The next day,
however, he made an apology for this conduft, and pro-
mifed for the future to co-operate with the mayor and
one of the £eneral officers, drew up a chofen body of common-council in fuch fchemes as they ftiould approve. ,9s
P , . . • , n . i • u i rpL         rpr>p,.rw.
Rump par¬
liament re-
ftored.
troops; and placing them in the ftreets which led to
Weftminfter-hall, when the fpeaker Lenthall proceeded
in his carriage to the houfe, he ordered the horfes to be
turned, and very civilly conducted him home. The other
members were likewife intercepted; and the army re¬
turned to their quarters to obferve a folemn faft, which
generally either preceded or attended their outrages.
A committee was then ele&ed, of 23 perfons; of whom
feven were officers. Thefe they pretended to inveft with
fovereign authority; and a military government was
eftabliftied, which gave the nation a profped of endlefs
fervitude and tyranny without redrefs.
Upon hearing that the officers had by their own au¬
thority difiblved the parliament, general Monk, who
was then in Scotland with 8000 veteran troops, pro-
tefted againft the meafure, and refolved to defend the
national privileges. As foon as he put his army in mo¬
tion, he found himfelf eagerly fought after by all par¬
ties ; but fo cautious was he of declaring his mind,
that, till the very laft, it was impoffible to know which
fide he defigned to take. A remarkable inftance of this
cautious behaviour was, that, when his own brother
came to him with a meflage from lord Granville in the
name of the king, he refufed all converfation with him
upon hearing that he had told his errand to Mr Price,
the general’s own chaplain, and a man of known pro¬
bity and honour.
Hearing that the officers were preparing an army to
oppofe him, Monk amufed them with negociations ;
and the people, finding themfelves not entirely defence-
lefs, began to declare for a free parliament. The Rump,
finding themfelves invited alfo by the navy and part of
the army, again ventured to refume their feats, and to
thunder votes in their turn againft the officers and that
part of the army by which they had been ejefted.
Without taking any notice of Lambert, they fent or¬
ders to the troops to repair immediately to the garri-
fons appointed for them. The foldiers obeyed; and
Lambert at laft. found himfelf deferted by his whole
army. Monk in the mean time proceeded with his
army to London. The gentry, on his march, flocked
round him with addrefles expreffing their defire of a   0 0
new parliament; but that general, ftill continuing his dangerous enterprize of the reftoration. Sir John Gram
8 S ? villcj
The commons were now greatly alarmed. They Rehores the
tried every method to gain off the general from his new ^
alliance. Some of them even promifed to inveft him paer^amen°,
with the dignity of fupreme magiftrate, and to fupport
his ufurpation. But Monk was too juft, or too wife,
to hearken to fuch wild propofals ; he refolved to re¬
ftore the fecluded members, and by their means to bring
about a new election.
The reftoration of the expelled members was eafily
elfedled ; and their number was fo much fuperior to
that of the Rump, that the chiefs of this laft party now
thought proper to withdraw in their turn. The refto-
red members began with repealing all thofe orders by
which they had been expelled. They renewed and en¬
larged the general’s commiffion ; fixed a proper ftipend
for the fnpport of the fleet and army; and, having
pafled thefe votes, they diflblved themfelves, and gave
orders for the immediate aflembling of a new parlia- New parlia¬
ment. Mean while, Monk new-modelled his army to the ment alkm-
purpofes he had in view. Some officers, by his direftion, ed*
prefented him with an addrefs, in which they promifed
to obey implicitly the orders of the enfuing parliament.
He approved of this engagement, which he ordered
to be figned by all the different regiments ; and this
furnilhed him with a pretence for difmiffing all the
officers by whom it was reje&ed.
In the midft of thefe tranfa&ions, Lambert, who had
been confined in the Tower, efcaped from his prifon,
and began to raife forces; and as his activity and prin¬
ciples were fufficiently known, Monk took the earlieft
precautions to oppofe his meafures. He difpatched
againft him colonel Ingoldlby, with his own regiment,
before Lambert had time to affemble his dependents.
That officer had taken poffeffion of Daventry with four
troops of horfe: but the greater part of them joined
Ingoldfby; to whom he himfelf furrendered, not with¬
out exhibiting ftrong marks of pufilanimity.
All this time, Monk flill perfifted in his referve; nor
would he intruft his fecret intentions with any perfon,
except one Morrice, a gentleman of Devonlhire. He
was of a fedentary and ftudious difpofition ; and with
him alone did the general deliberate on the great and
B R I [ 1432 ] B R 1
Britain, ville, who had a commiffion from the king, applied for
' accefs to the general; but he was delired to communi¬
cate his bufinefs to Morrice. Granville refufed, though
twice urged, to deliver his meffage to any but the ge¬
neral himfelf: fo that Monk now, findiftg he could de¬
pend on this mihifter’s fecrecy, opened to him his whole
aoo intentions; but, with his ufual caution, refufed to com-
Charles II. mit any thing to paper. In confequence of thefe, the
leaves king left the Spanilh territories, where he very nar-
Spain. rowly efcaped being detained at Breda by the gover¬
nor, under pretence of treating him with proper refpedl
and formality. From thence he retired to Holland,
where he refolved to wait further advice.
The new parliament being affembled. Sir Harbottle
Grimftone was chofen fpeaker, a man known to be a
royalift in his heart. The affections of all were turned
towards the king ; yet fuch were their fears, and fuch
dangers attended a freedom of fpeech, that no one
dared for fome days to make any mention of his name.
At length Monk gave directions to Annefly, prefident
of the council, to inform them that one Sir John Gran¬
ville, a fervant of the king’s, had been fent over by his
101 majefty, and was now at the door with a letter to the
His melfage houfe of commons. This meffage was received with
to the par- joy. Granville was called in, the letter
lament. reac]} anc] the king’s propofals immediately accepted
of. He offered a general amnelty to all perfonswhat-
foever, and that without any exceptions but what
fhould be made by parliament. He promifed to in¬
dulge fcrupulous confciences with liberty in matters of
religion ; to leave to the examination of parliament the
claims of all fuch as pofTeffed lands with contefted titles ;
to confirm all thefe conceffions by aft of parliament ;
to fatisfy the army under general Monk with refpeft
to their arrears, and to give the fame rank to his of¬
ficers when they fhould be enlifted in the king’s army.
In confequence of this good agreement between king
and parliament, Montague the Englifh admiral waited
on his majefty to inform him that the fleet expefted his
orders at Scheveling. The duke of York immediately
10l went on board, and took the command as lord high
He lands iu admiral. The king embarked, and landing at Dover,
England, was received by the general, whom he tenderly em¬
braced. He entered London in 1660, on the 29th of
May, which was his birth-day; and was attended by an
innumerable multitude of people, who teftified their
joy by the loudeft acclamations.
Charles II. was 30 years of age at the time of his
reftoration. Being naturally of an engaging counte¬
nance, and pofTefied of an open and affable difpofition,
he was the favourite of all ranks of his fubjefts. They
had now felt the miferies of anarchy, and in propor-
103 tion to thefe miferies was the fatisfaftion they felt on
His firft the acceflion of their young monarch. His firfl: mea-
meafures fures were calculated to give univerfal fatisfaftion. He
popular. feemed defirous of loling the memory of paft animofities,
and of uniting every party in affeftion for their prince
and country. He admitted into his council the moll
eminent men of the nation, without regard to former
diftinftions. The prelbyterians (hared this honour e-
qually with the royalifts. Calamy and Baxter, pref-
byterian clergymen, were even made chaplains to the
king. Admiral Montague was created earl of Sand¬
wich, and general Monk duke of Albemarl. Morrice,
the general’s friend, was created fecretaf y of ftatc. But
what gave the greateft contentment to the nation was Britain.
the judicious choice which the king at firft made of his   *
principal minifters and favourites. Sir Edward Hyde,
created earl of Clarendon, was prime minifter and
chancellor. The marquis, created duke of Ormond,
was fteward of the houfehold ; the earl of Southamp¬
ton high-treafurer ; Sir Edward Nicholas fecretary of
(late. Thefe men, united together in the drifted
friendfliip, and combining in the fame laudable incli¬
nations, fupported each others credit, and purfued the
interefts of the public.
The parliament having been fummoned without the
king’s confent, received at firil only the title of a con¬
vention ; and it was not till after an aft pafifed for that
purpofe, that they were acknowledged by the name of
parliament. Both houfes owned the guilt of the for¬
mer rebellion, and gratefully received in their own
name, and in that of all the fubjefts, his majefty’s
gracious pardon and indemnity. The king had be¬
fore promifed an indemnity to all criminals, but fuch
as (hould be excepted by parliament: he now iffued a
proclamation, declaring, that fuch of the late king’s
judges as did not furrender themfelves within 14 days
(hould receive no pardon. Nineteen furrendered them¬
felves ; fome were taken in their flight ; others efcaped
beyond fea. The peers feemed inclined to great feve-
rity on this occafion ; but were reftrained by the king,
who in the mod earned terms prefled the aft of gene¬
ral indemnification. 204
After repeated folicitations, the aft of indemnity paf- Regicides ^
fed both houfes, with the exception of thofe who had Puni,lleL
an immediate hand in the king’s death. Even Crom¬
well, Ireton, and Bradlhaw, though dead, were con-
fidered as proper objefts 'of refentment: their bodies
were dug from their graves ; dragged to the place of
execution ; and, after hanging fome time, buried under
the gallows. Of the reft who fat in judgment on the
late monarch’s trial, fome were dead, and Tome thought
worthy of pardon. Ten only, out of 80, were doomed
to immediate deftruftion ; and thefe were enthufiafts
who had all along afted from principle, and who, in
the general fpirit of rage excited againll them, (hewed
a fortitude that would have done honour to a better
caufe.
This was all the blood that was (hed at the reftora¬
tion. The reft of the king’s judges were reprived, and
afterwards difperfed into feveral prifons. The army
was difbanded, that had for fo many years governed
the nation ; prelacy, and all the ceremonies of the
church of England, were reftored ; at the fame time
that the king pretended to preferve the air of modera¬
tion and neutrality. In faft, with regard to religion,
Charles, in his gayer hours, was a profefled deift ; but
in the latter part of his life he (hewed an inclination to
the Catholic perfuafion, which he had ftrongly imbibed
in his infancy and exile.
On the 13th of September this year, died the young Death*ofthe 1
duke of Gloucefter, a prince of great hopes. The king duke of
was never fo deeply affefted by any incident in his life. Gloucefter, I
The princefs of Orange, having come to England, in
order to partake of the joy attending the reftoration
of her family, with whom (he lived in great friendftiip,
foon after fickened and died. The queen-mother paid
a vifit to her fon, and obtained his confent to the mar¬
riage of the princefs Henrietta with the duke of Or-
B R I [ ,433 ] B R I
idling Charles
ouhiniilive
di(pofition
of both par
liaraents.
leans, brother to the French king. The parliament
having met on the 6th of November, and carried on
bufinei's with the greateft unanimity and difpatch, were
diffolved by the king on the 29th of December 1660.
During the reign of Charles II. the fpirit of the
people feemed to take a turn quite oppofite to that in
the time of Charles I. The latter found his fubjefts
animated with a ferocious though ignorant zeal for
liberty. They knew not what it was to be free, and
therefore imagined that liberty confifted in throwing
off entirely the royal authority. They gained their
point: the unhappy monarch was dethroned and mur¬
dered; but inftead of liberty, they found themfelves in¬
volved in much worfe tyranny than before. Being
happily freed from this tyrrany by the reftoration, they
ran into the contrary extreme; and inftead of an un¬
bounded fpirit of oppofition, there was nothing now
to be found but as unbounded a fpirit of fubmiffion ;
and through the flavifh fubmiflions and conceffions of
the people in this reign, Charles found means to ren¬
der himfelf at laft almoft quite abfolute, and to govern
without requiring, or indeed without having any oc-
cafion for parliaments.
A like revolution took place with regard to religious
matters. During the former reigns, a fpirit of the mpft
gloomy enthufiafm had overfpread the whole ifland,
and men imagined that the Deity was only to be
pleafed by their denying themfelves every focial plea-
fure, and refufing every thing that tended to make life
agreeable. The extreme hypocrify of Cromwell and
his affociates, and the abfurd condu6hof others, fhowed
that this was not religion: but, in avoiding this error,
they ran into one equally dangerous ; and every thing
religious or ferious was difcountenanced. Nothing but
riot and diffipation took place every where. The court
fet them the example ; nothing but fcenes of gallantry
and feftivity were to be feen ; the horrors of the late
war became the fubjedl of ridicule ; the formality of
the feftaries was difplayed on the ftage, and even
laughed at from the pulpit. In ftiort, the beft mode
of religion now was to have as little as pofiible; and to
avoid not only the hypocrify of the fedtaries, but even
the common duties of morality.
In the midft of this riot and diflipation, the old and
faithful followers of the royal family were left unre¬
warded. Numbers who had fought both for the king
and his father, and who had loft their whole fortunes
in his fervice, ftill continued to pine in want and ob¬
livion ; while in the mean time their perfecutors, who
had acquired fortunes during the civil war, were per¬
mitted to enjoy them without moleftation. The wretch¬
ed royalifts petitioned and murmured in vain ; the mo¬
narch fled from their expoftulations to fcenes of mirth
and feftivity ; and the a£t of indemnity was generally
faid to have been an aft of forgivennefs to the king’s
enemies, and of oblivion to his friends.
In 1661, the Scots and Englifh parliaments feemed
to vie with each other in their proftrations to the king.
In England, monarchy and epifcopacy were raifed to
the greateft fplendour. The bifhops were permitted to
refume their feats in the houfe of peers ; all military
authority was acknowledged to be veiled in the king.
He was empowered to appoint commiffioners for regu¬
lating corporations, and expelling fuch members as
had intruded themfelves by violence, or profeffed pri».
ciples dangerous to the conftitution. An aft of uni- Britain.
formity was paffed, by which it was required that e- 
very clergyman fiiould be re-ordained, if he had not
before received epifcopal ordination; that he Ihould
declare his affent to every thing contained in the book
of Common prayer, and Ihould take the oath of cano¬
nical obedience. In confequence of this law, above
2000 of the prefbyterian clergy refigned theif cures at
once. In Scotland the right of the king was afferted
in the fulleft and moft pofitive terms to be hereditary,
divine, and indefeafible. His power was extended to
the lives and poffefiions of his fubjefts, and from his
original grant was faid to come all that they enjoyed.
They voted him an additional revenue of 40,000 L;
and all their former violences were treated with a de¬
gree of the utmoft deteilation. JIO
This intoxication of loyalty, however, began foon The natioa
to wear off. The king’s profufion and extravagance difgufted
in his pleafures, together with his indolence in admi- ,tlie
niftration, furnilhed opportunities of making very dif- trav^gance.
advantageous comparifons between him and Oliver
Cromwell. Thefe animofities were heightened by the
ejefted clergy, Specially when they faw Dunkirk, which
had been acquired during the ufurper’s vigorous admi-
niftration, fold to the French for 40,000/. and that mere¬
ly to fupply the king’s extravagance. From this time
(Auguft 17th 1662), Charles found himfelf perpetually
oppofed, and his parliaments granted fupplies much
more reluftantly than before. 2rr
A few months before, the continual exigencies of Marriage
the king had forced him to conclude a marriage with with thein-
the Infanta of Portugal for the fake of her portion, fanta ot.
which was 500,000/. in money, together with the for- PortuSal*
trefs of Tangier in Africa, and of Bombay i(j the Eaft
Indies. The chancellor Clarendon, the dukes of Or¬
mond and Southampton, urged many reafons againft:
this match, particularly the likelihood of her never
having any children ; but all their objeftions could
not prevail, and therefore Clarendon fet himfelf to pro¬
mote it as far as lay in his power. Still, however, the
king’s neceffities were greater than his fupplies. He
therefore refolved to facrifice his minifter the great Cla¬
rendon to the refentment of the parliament, to whom
he was become obnoxious, in order to procure fome
more fupplies for himfelf. In 1663, an extraordinary
fupply wrs demanded : the king lent for the commons,
on the 12th of June, to Whitehall. He complained
of their inattention ; and by acquainting them of a
confpiracy to feize the caftle of Dublin, he hoped to
furnifti a reafon for demanding a prefent fupply.
Fourfubfidies were immediately granted, and the clergy
in convocation followed the example of the commons.
On this occafion the earl of Briftol ventured to impeach
the chancellor in the houfe of peers; but as he did not
fupport his charge, the affair was dropped for the pre¬
fent.
With a view probably of having the money to be War'wkh
employed for that purpofe in his hands, Charles was theDutch.
induced to declare war againft the Dutch in 1664.
In this war the Engliih, under the command of Sir
Robert Holmes, expelled the Dutch from Cape-Corfe
caftle on the coaft of Africa, and likewife feized on their
fettlements of Cape Verd and the ifle of Goree. Sail¬
ing from thence to America, the admiral poffeffed him¬
felf of Nova Belgia, fince called New Vork; and which
has
B R I [ 1434 ] B R I
Britain, lias ever finee continued fubje& to Britain. On the
~ ' other hand, De Ruyter, the Dutch admiral, difpoflefled
the Englifh of all their fettlements in Guinea except
Cape Corfe. He afterwards failed to America, where
he attacked Barbadoes and Long Ifland, but was re-
pulfed. Soon after, the two molt confiderable fleets of
each nation met; the one under the duke of York, to
the number of 114 fail ; the other commanded by Op-
113 dam admiral of the Dutch navy, of nearly equal force.
Terrible The engagement began at four in the morning, and
battles at fJ(ies f0Ught with equal intrepidity. The duke
of York was in the hottefl part of the engagement, and
behaved with great fpirit and compofure, while many
of his lords and attendants were killed befide him. In
the heat of the a&ion the Dutch admiral’s fltip blew up;
which fo difcouraged and difheartened them, that they
fled towards their own coaft, having 30 fliips funk and
taken, while the vi&ors loft only one. This fuccefs
of the Englilh fo much excited the jealoufy of the
neighbouring ftates, that France and Denmark im¬
mediately refolved to protedl the republic from fuch
formidable enemies. De Ruyter the great Dutch ad¬
miral on his return from Guinea was appointed, at the
the head of 76 fail, to join the duke of Beaufort the
French admiral, who it was fuppofed was then enter¬
ing the Britiih channel from Toulon. The duke of
Albemarle and prince Rupert now commanded the
Britifti fleet, which did not exceed 74 fail. Albemarle
detached prince Rupert with 20 (hips to oppofe the
duke of Beaufort; againft which piece of rafhnefs Sir
George Ayfcue protefted in vain. The fleets thus en-
gaging upon unequal terms, a moft memorable battle
cnfued. The firft day, the Dutch admiral Evertzen
was killed by a cannon-ball, one of their (hips was blown
up, and three of the Englifti (hips taken ; the comba¬
tants were.parted by darknefs. The fecond day they
renewed the battle with incredible fury. Sixteen fre(h
fhips joined the Dutch; and the Englifti were fo (bat¬
tered, that their fighting (hips were reduced to 28.
Upon retreating towards their own coaft, the Dutch
followed them; where another dreadful conflift was be¬
ginning, but parted by the darknefs of the night as
before. The morning of the third day the Englifti
continued their retreat, and the Dutch their purfuit.
Albemarle came to the defperate refolution of blowing
up his own (hip rather than fubmit to the enemy,
when he found himfelf happily reinforced by prince
Rupert with 16 (hips of the line. By this time it was
night; and the next day the fleets came again to a clofe
combat, which was continued with great violence, till
they were parted by a mift. Sir George Ayfcue ha¬
ving the misfortune to ftrike on the Galoper fands, was
taken, with a (hip of 100 guns.
Both Tides claimed the vidtory, but the Dutch cer¬
tainly had the advantage in this engagement. A fe¬
cond, however, equally bloody, happened foon after,
with larger fleets on both fides, commanded by the
fame admirals. In this the Dutch were vanquiftied;
a,4 but they were foon in a condition to face their enemies,
Dutch fleet by the jundlion of Beaufort the French admiral. The
appears in Dutch fleet appeared in the Thames, conduced by
the Thames. their great admiral. The Englifti were thrown into
the utmoft confternation: a chain had been drawn a-
crofs the river Medway; and fome fortifications had been
added to the forts along the bank. But all thefe were
unequal to the prefent force : Sheernefs was foon taken ; Britain,
the Dutch pafied forward and broke the chain, though ' "
fortified by fome (hips funk by Albemarle’s orders.
Deftroying the (hipping in their paflage, they ftill ad¬
vanced, with fix men of war and five fire-ftiips, as far
as Upnore caftle, where they burned three men of war.
The whole city of London was in confternation ; it
was expedted that the Dutch might fail up next tide
to London-bridge, and deftroy not only the (hipping,
but even the buildings of the metropolis. The Dutch,
however, were unable to profecute that projedt from
the failure of the French who had promifed them af-
fiftance. Spreading therefore an alarm along the coaft,
and having infulted Norwich, they returned to their
own coafts. ^
During thefe tranfadlions abroad, happened a great Plague ami
plague at London, which deftroyed 100,000 of the in- fiieatLon-
habitants. This calamity was foon followed by ano- ^on•
ther, ftill more dreadful if poffible. A fire broke out
in a baker’s houfe in Pudding-lane near the bridge, and
fpread with fuch rapidity, that no efforts could extin-
gui(h it, till it laid in afties the moft confiderable part
of the city. This calamity, though it reduced thou-
fands to beggary, proved in the end both beneficial and
ornamental to the city. It rofe from its ruins in greater
beauty than ever;^the ftreets being widened, and the
houfes built of brick inftead of wood, became thus more
wholefome and fecure. In fo great a calamity it is re¬
markable that not a Angle life was loft.
Thefe complicated misfortunes did not fail to excite
many murmurs among the people: The blame of the
fire was laid on the Papifts : the Dutch war was ex¬
claimed againft as unfuccefsful and unneceflary, as be¬
ing an attempt to humble that nation who were equal
enemies to Popery with themfelves. Charles himfelf alfo
began to be fenfible, that all the ends for which he had
undertaken the Dutch war were likely to be entirely
fruftrated. Inftead of being able to lay up money for
himfelf, the fupplies of parliament had hitherto been
fo fcanty, that he found himfelf confiderably in debt. anf
A treaty was therefore fet on foot, which was conclu- Peace with
ded at Breda on the 2 tst of July 1667. By this treaty
the only advantage gained by Britain was, the ceffation
of the colony of New York. It was therefore judged
difgraceful, and the blame of it thrown upon the un- u*r
happy earl of Clarendon. Along with this, he was C,aren(Ioii
charged with the fale of Dunkirk; the bad payment of difgrac£<i*
the feamen ; the difgrace by the Dutch fleet; and his
own ambition. His daughter, while yet in Paris, had
commenced an amour with the duke of York; and un¬
der a folemn promife of marriage had admitted him to
her bed. Her lover, however, either of his own ac¬
cord, or through the perfuafions of his brother Charles,
afterwards married her; and this too was imputed as a
crime to Clarendon. On thefe accufations, the king,
who on account of his rigid virtue had never much lo¬
ved this nobleman, ordered the feals to be taken from
him, and given to Sir Orlando Bridgemen. Clarendon
was again impeached; and though the charges were
manifeftly frivolous, yet fo ftrong was the popular tor¬
rent againft him, that he thought proper to withdraw ll8
into France. Soon after, the king formed an alliance Alliance
with Holland and Sweden, in order to prevent the
French king from completing his conqueft of the Ne-
tberlands. The greateft part of this country he had al¬
ready
B R I [ 1435 ] B R I
rath Hoi-
Britain. ready fubdued, when he was unexpe&edly flopped by
1 this league; in which it was agreed by the contradling
powers, that they would conftitute themfelves arbiters
of the differences between France and Spain, and check
219 the exorbitant pretenfions of either.
•bitrary The king now began to a£l in a very arbitrary tnan-
Charlef5 ner* ^onS w>fhed to extend his prerogative,
and to be able to furnifh himfelf with whatever furas he
might want for his pleafures, and therefore was mofl
likely to be pleafed with thofe miniflers who could flat¬
ter both his wiflies at once. Thefe he found in Clif¬
ford, Afhley, Buckingham, Arlington, and Lauderdale,
a junto diftinguifhed by the name of the cabal; a word
formed by the initials of their names. The firfl effedls
of their advice was a fecret alliance with France, and
a rupture with Holland. Soon after this, the duke of
York declared himfelf a Papift; and liberty of confci-
ence wfas proclaimed to all fe&aries, whether diffenters
or Papifts : a proclamation was iffued containing very
rigorous claufes in favour of prefling ; another full of
menaces againfl thofe who fhould fpeak undutifully of
his majefly’s meafures; and even againfl thofe who
heard fuch difcourfes, unlefs they informed in due time
againfl the offenders. All thefe things gave very great
and juft offence to the people; but they were efpecially
alarmed at the alliance with France, and juftly afraid of
the treachery of that nation.
defperate Qn the 28th of May 1672, the Englifh fleet under
wernent York was furprifed by the Dutch in South-
wold bay. About eight in the morning began a moft
furious engagement. The gallant Sandwich, who com¬
manded the Englifh van, drove his (hip into the midft
of the enemy, beat off the admiral that ventured to at¬
tack him, funk another fhip that attempted to board
him, and three fire-fhips that offered to grapple with
him. Though his veffel was torn with (hot, and out of
iooo men there only remained 400, he flill continued
to fight. At laft, a fire-fhip, more fortunate than the
reft, having laid hold of his veffel, her deflrudlion be¬
came inevitable, and the earl himfelf was drowned in
attempting to fwim to fome other fhip. Night parted
the combatants; the Dutch retired, and were not fol¬
lowed by the Englifh. The lofs fuftained by the two ma¬
ritime powers was nearly equal; but the French fuffered
very little, not having entered into the heat of the en¬
gagement. It was even fuppofed that they had orders
for this condu<ft, and to fpare their own (hips, while
the Dutch and Englifh fhould weaken each other by
their mutual animofities.
uccefs of The combined powers were much more fuccefsful a-
^ewis XIV. gainft the Dutch by land. Lewis conquered all before
futch 116 cr°tfed the Rhine, took all the frontier towns of
the enemy, and threatened the new republic with a fi¬
nal difiblution. Terms were propofed to them by the
two conquerors. Lewis offered them fuch as would
have deprived them of all power of refilling an invafion
from France by land. Thofe of Charles expofed them
equally to every invafion by fea. At laft the murmurs
of the Englifh at feeing this brave and induftrious peo¬
ple, the fupporters of the Proteflant caufe, totally
funk and on the brink of deftrudlion, were too loud
t parlia- not to reach the king. He was obliged to call a par-
neut called, liament, to take the fenfe of the nation upon his con-
duft ; and he foon faw how his fubje&s flood affected.
The parliament met on the 4th of February 1673.
They began with reprefiing fome of the king’s extra- Britain,
ordinary ftretches of prerogative, and taking means for
uniformity in religious matters. A law was paffed en- 124
titled the tejl a{lt impofing an oath on all who fhould a<^
enjoy any public benefice. Befides the taking the oaths framed*
of allegiance and the king’s fupremacy, they were ob¬
liged to receive the facrament once a-year in the efta-
blifhed church, and to abjure all belief in the dodlrine
of tranfubftantiation. As the diffenters alfo had fe-
conded the efforts of the commons againft the king’s
declaration of indulgence to Roman Catholics, a bill
was palled for their eafe and relief, which, however,
went with fome difficulty through the houfe of peers.
The Dutch in the mean time continued to defend them¬
felves with fuch valour, that the commons began to
defpair of fuccefs. They therefore refolved that the
Handing army was a grievance; they next declared,
that they would grant no more fupplies to carry on the
Dutch war, unlefs it appeared that the enemy were fo
obftinate as to refufe all reafonable conditions. To cut
fhort thefe difagreeable altercations, the king refolved
to prorogue the parliament; and, with that intention,
went unexpedledly to the houfe of peers, from whence
he fent the ufher of the black-rod to fummon the houfe 3.1$
of commons to attend. It happened that the ufher and Tumu!t >»
the fpeaker met nearly at the door of the houfe; buttlle houfeof
the fpeaker being within, fome of the members fudden- commons'
ly fhut the door, and cried “ To the chair.” Upon
which the following motions were inftantly made in a
tumultuous manner: That the alliance with France was
a grievance ; that the evil counfellors of the kirio- were
a grievance; that the earl of Lauderdale was a grie¬
vance : and then the houfe rofe in great confufion. The.
king foon faw that he could expert no fupply from the
commons for carrying on the war which was fo difa¬
greeable to them; he refolved, therefore, to make a fe-
parate peace with the Dutch, on terms which they had
propofed by the Spanifh ambaflador. For form’s fake,
he afkedthe advice of his parliament; who concurring
heartily in his intentions, a peace was concluded ac¬
cordingly. 1I(-
The prepofleffion which Charles had all along fhewn National
for France, and his manifeft inclination upon all occa- difcontents.
lions to attach himfelf to that kingdom, had given great
offence to his people. Along with this, other circum-
ftances confpired to raife a general difcontent. The to¬
leration of Catholics, fo much wifhed for by the king;
the bigotry of the duke of York, the heir apparent to
the crown, and his zeal for the propagation of the Ca¬
tholic religion; excited a conflernation not altogether
without foundation, as if the Proteftant religion was in
danger. This fear and difcontent was carefully kept
up and fomented by wicked and defigning men, who
to promote their own interefts would not fcruple to ad¬
vance the grofleft falfehoods. In 1678, an account of
a plot formed {by the Papifts for deflroying the king
and the Proteftant religion, was given in by one Kirby
a chemift, Dr Tong, a weak credulous clergyman, and
Titus Oates, who had likewife been a clergyman, but
one of the moft abandoned mifcreants that can be ima¬
gined. The circumftances attending this pretended dif-
covery were fo perfedlly incredible, that it appears a-
mazing how-any perfon of common fenfe could give ear
to them f. Neverthelefs, fo much were the minds off See
the nation in general inflamed againfl the Catholics at
the.
B R I [ 1436 ] B R I
^l'’ta^a, this time, that it not only produced the deftruftion of
individuals of the Romifh perfuafion, but an univerfal
maflacre of that unhappy fe6t was apprehended. The
parliament, who ought to have repreffed thefe delufions,
and brought back the people to calm deliberate in¬
quiry, were found more credulous than even the vulgar
themfelves. The cry of plot was immediately echoed
from one houfe to the other; the country party could
not let flip fo favourable an opportunity of managing the
paffions of the people; the courtiers were afraid of being
thought difloyal if they fliould doubt the guilt of thofe
who were accufed of defigns againft the king’s perfon.
Danby, the prime minifter, himfelf entered into it very
furioufly, and perfifted in his inquiries notwithftanding
all the king’s advices to the contrary. Charles himfelf,
who was the perfon that ought to have been moft con¬
cerned, was the only one who treated it with contempt.
Nothing, however, coul’d flop the popular fury; and for
X21 a time the king was obliged to give way to it.
Lord Dan- During the time of this general uproar and perfecu-
by impeach-tj)e jor(j treafurer Danby was impeached in the
houfe of commons by Seymour the fpeaker. The prin¬
cipal charge againft him was, his having written a let¬
ter to Montague the king’s ambafladorat Paris, direc¬
ting him to fell the king’s good offices at the treaty of
Nimeguen, to the king of France, for a certain fum of
money; contrary to the general interefts of the confe¬
derates, and even of thofe of his own kingdoms. Tho’
the charge was juft, yet Danby had the happinefs to
find the king refolved to defend him. Charles affured
the parliament, that, as he had afted in every thing by
his orders, he held him entirely blamelefs; and though
he would deprive him of all his employments, yet be
w'ould pofitively infill on his perfonal fafety. The lords
were obliged to fubmit; however, they went on to im¬
peach him, and Danby was fent to the Tower, but no
worfe confequences followed.
Thefe furious proceedings had been carried on by
an houfe of commons that had continued undiffolved for
above 17 years. They were now diffolved, and another
parliament was called; which, however, proved as un¬
manageable as the preceding. The members refolved
to check the growth of Popery by ftriking at the root
Lxdufion 0f evj]. antj therefore brought in a bill for the total
in. r°U^ 1 exclufion of the duke of York' from the crown of Eng¬
land and Ireland, which palled the lower houfe by a
majority of 79. They next voted the king’s Handing
army and guards to be illegal. They proceeded to efta-
blifli limits to the king’s power of imprifoning delin¬
quents at will. It was now alfo that the celebrated fta-
tute called the habeas corpus ad was palled, which con¬
firms the fubjeft in an abfolute fecurity from oppreffive
power.
During thefe troubles the duke of York had retired
to Bruffels ; but an indifpofnion of the king led him
back to England, to be ready, in cafe of any finifter ac¬
cident, to aflert his right to the throne. After pre¬
vailing upon his brother to difgrace his natural fon the
duke of Monmouth, who was now become very popu¬
lar, he himfelf retired to Scotland, under pretence of
quieting the apprehenfions of the Englilh nation, but
in reality to ftrengthen his interefts in that part of the
empire. This feceffion ferved Hill more to inflame the
country party, who were ftrongly attached to the duke
of Monmouth, and were refolved to fupport him againlt
the duke of York. Mobs, petitions, pope-burnings, firitain.
were artifices employed to keep up the terrors of Popery,
and alarm the court. The parliament had Ihown favour
to the various tribes of informers, and that ferved to in-
creafe the number of thefe mifereants; but plots them¬
felves alfo became more^pumerous. Plot was fet up a-
gainft plot; and the people were kept fufpended in the
moft dreadful apprehenfion.
But it was not by plots alone that the adverfe parties
endeavoured to fupplant each other. Tumultuous pe-
tions on the one hand, and flattering addrefles on the
other, were fent up from all quarters. Wherever the
country party prevailed, petitions were fent to the king
filled with grievances and apprehenfions. Wherever the
church or court-party prevailed, addrtfies were framed,
containing expreffions of the higheft regard to his ma-
jefty, and the deepeft abhorrence of thofe who endea-
voured to difturb the public tranquillity. Thus the na- Pcinoner
tion came be diftinguilhed into petitioners and abhor- a"rl ahllot
rers. Whig and Tory, alfo., were now firlt ufed as terms rcrs’ w*10'
of reproach. The whigs were fo denominated from a
cant name given to the four prefbyterian conventiclers,
(whig being milk turned four). The tories were deno¬
minated from the Irilh banditti fo called, whofe ufual
manner of bidding people deliver was by the Irifh word
Toree, or “ Give me.” J3o
All this time the king had tyrannized over the Scots Attempts
in a very cruel manner. Being apprized of the ten •
dency of prelhyterian principles to a republican form Pifewf
of government, Charles, like his predeceflbrs, had en- C°l aI1 ' ]
deavoured to introduce epifcopacy there, but in a much
more violent manner than had been formerly attempted.
The rights of patrons had for fome years been abo-
IHhed; and the power of elefting minifters had been
veiled in the kirk-feffion and lay elders: but it was now
enadted, that all incumbents who had been admitted up¬
on this title fliould receive a prefentation, and be inftt-
tuted anew by the biftiop, under the penalty of depri¬
vation. In confequence of this, 350 parilhes were at
once declared vacant. New minifters were fought for
all over the kingdom, and none was fo vicious or igno- a3,
rant as to be reje&ed. The people, as might have o-cafions; !
been expedled, were difpleafed to the higheft degree ; difeontentj 1
they refolved, however, to give no fign of mutiny or
fedition, notwithftanding their difeontent. This fub-
miffion made their cafe ftill worfe; it being fooliihly
imagined, that, as they did not complain for a little ill
ufage, they would fubmit altogether if they were worfe
treated.
Affairs remained in a peaceable fituation, till, in 1664,
a very fevere aft was paffed in England againft conven¬
ticles ; and this feverity was imitated by the Scots par¬
liament, who palled an aft of the fame kind. Military preftfyterji
force was next let loofe. Wherever the people had ge- ans perfecii
nerally forfaken their churches, the guards were quar- ted.
tered throughout the country. They were commanded
by Sir James Turner, a man of a very furious temper
and diffolute life. He went about and received lifts
from the clergy of thofe who abfented themfelves from
the churches, or were fuppofed to frequent conventi¬
cles. Without any proof, or legal conviftion, he de¬
manded a fine from them ; and quartered foldiers on
the fuppofed criminals till he received payment. An
infurreftion being dreaded during the Dutch war, new
forces were levied, and entrufted to the command of
Dalziel
ifurgents
efeated at
itlaud-
Iruelty of
rchbiihop
(bar pc.
»3<S
•Lad words
of Mr Mac-
Aff again ft
conventi¬
cles.
B R I [ 1437 ] B R I
Dalzlel and Drummond, two men of a very cruel dif- fenting affembly where more than five befide the family Britain,
pofition, and the Scots parliament gave full fcope to all were prefent), was fined 5 s. for the firil offence, and
their enormities. IOS* for the fecond; the preacher 20/. for the firft of-
Reprefentations were now made to the king, who fence, and 40/. for the fecond. The perfon in whofe
pro mi fed fome redrefs. But his lenity came too late, houfe the conventicle met was fined a like fum with the
The people, in 1668, rofe in arms. They furpri- preacher. One remarkable claufe was, that if any dif-
fed Turner in Dumfries, and refolved to have put pute fiiould arife with regard to the interpretation of
him to death} but finding his orders to have been any part of the aft, the judges fiiould always explain the
more violent than his execution of them, they fpared doubt in the fenfe leaft favourable to conventicles, it be-
his life. At Laneric they renewed the covenant, and ing the intention of parliament entirely to fupprefs them, of
publifhed their maniferto ; where they profeffed their As the violent methods ufed by the king were found comprehen‘.
fubmiffion to the king, and only delired the re-efta- ineffeftual to obtain his purpofe in Scotland, in 1678 fi0n and in-
blifiiment of prefbytery, and of their former minifters. a fcheme of comprehenlion was tried, by which it*vas diligence.
Their force never exceeded 2000 men; and though the propoftd to diminifii greatly the authority of the bi¬
country in general bore them great favour, mens fpi- (hops, to abolilh their negative voice in the ecclefiafti-
rits were fo fubdued, that the infurgents could expeft cal courts, and to leave them little more than the right
no farther increafe of numbers. Dalziel took the field of precedency among the prefbyters : but this too was
to oppofe them. The number of the covenanters was rejeded by the people, who well knew its tendency,
now reduced to 800, and thefe no way capable of con- The next fcheme was an indulgence. By this, the moil
tending with regular'forces. Having advanced near popular of the expelled preachers, without requiring
Edinburgh, they attempted to find their way back into any terms of fubmifiion to the eftabliflied religion, were
the weft by Pentland hills. Here they were attacked fettled in vacant churches; and fmajl Salaries of about
by the king’s troops, and received the firft charge very 201. a-year were offered to the reft, till they ftiould be
refolutely ; but that was all the ad ion. Immediately otherwife eftablifhed. This bounty was rejeded as the
they fell into confufion, and fled. About 40 were kill- wages of criminal filence, and the replaced minifter*
ed on the fpot, and 130 taken prifoners. foon repented of their compliance ; conventicles multi-
So long ago as the year 1661, the prefbyterians had plied, and the covenanters daily met in arms at their
deputed one Sharpe to lay their grievances before the places of worfiiip, though they ufually difperfed them-
king. Inftead of this, their deputy abandoned the felves after divine fervice.
caufe altogether, became their violent enemy, and as a Thefe mild methods being rejeded, a renewal of the Perfecutios
reward of his treachery was made archbifliop of St An- perfecution commenced under the adminiftration of the renewed.
drews. After the battle of Pentland-hills, this man was duke of Lauderdale, and in which archbifhop Sharpe had
the foremoft to take vengeance on the unhappy infur- a principal hand. It was an old law, and but feldom
gents, whofe oppreffed ftate and inoffenfive behaviour put in execution, that a man who was accufed of any
had made them objeds of univerfal compaffion. Ten crime, and did not appear to take his trial, might be
were hanged on one gibbet in Edinburgh; 35 before intercommuned; that is, he might be publicly outlaw-
their own doors in different places. They might all ed; and whoever afterwards, either on account ofbu-
have faved their lives, if they would have renounced the finefs, relation, or charity, had the leaft intercourfe
covenant; but this they refolutely refufed. The exe- with him, was fubjeded to the fame penalties which
cations were going on, when the king wrote a letter the law could inflid on the criminal himfelf. A great
to the privy council, in which he ordered that fuch of many writs of intercommuning were now iffued againft
the prifoners as (hould Amply promife to obey the laws the covenanters; by which abfurd method of proceed-
for the future fhould be fet at liberty, and that the in- ing, crimes and punilhments were multiplied to an ex-
corrigible ftiould be fent to the plantations. This let- treme degree.
ter was brought to the council by Burnet, but was not Application was made to Charles for fome redrefs of
immediately delivered by Sharpe. What his motives thefe grievances: but he was too much taken up with
were for this delay, we pretend not to fay; but certain his pleafures to take any effedual means, of putting a
it is, that no adion of his life will bear a worfe con- flop to them; nay, even while he retraded them, he
ftrudion than this. It had been cuftomary to put thefe was perfuaded to avow and praife them in a letter to J4»
poor creatures to very fevere tortures, in order to make the privy council. The confequence of all this was, Archbifliop
them confefs that to be falfehood which they believed that the covenanters were at laft fo much enraged a-
to be true. By Sharpe’s delay, one Hugh Maccail had gainft Sharpe, whom they confidered as an apoftate,
been tortured, who would otherwife have efcaped; and and experienced to be an unrelenting perfecutor, that,
fo violent were the torments he endured, that he expi- . on the 3d of May 1679, he was way-laid and murder-
red under them. He feemed to die in an eeftafy of joy. ed with all the circumftances of unrelenting cruelty.
His laft words were uttered with an accent which ftruck The murder of Sharpe produced a perfecution ftill more
all the byftanders with aftoniftmnent. “ Farewell, violent, which at laft brought on another infurreftion. 34r
(faid he), fun, moon, and ftars; farewell world and The covenanters finding themfelves obliged to meet Second in-
time; farewell weak, frail body; welcome eternity; in large bodies, and bring arms along with them for furreaion*
welcome angels and faints ; welcome Saviour of the their own fecurity, fet forth a declaration againtt pre¬
world; and welcome God the judge of all.” lacy, which they publilhed at Rutherglen, a final] bo-
In 1670, an aft againft conventicles was paffed, feem- rough near Glafgow ; and in the market-place, there
;ng]y ^th a defign of mitigating the former perfecu- they burned feveral afts of parliament which had efta-
ting laws; though even this was fevere enough. By blilhed that mode of ecclefiaftical government, and had
this aft, the hearer in a conventicle, (that is, in a dif- prohibited all conventicles. For this purpofe they chofe
Von. II. * T the
Britain.
B R I [ 1438 ] B R I
the 29th of May, the anniverfary of the reftoration;
and previoufly extinguifhed the bonfires that had been
kindled on that occafion. Count Graham, afterwards
vifcount Dundee, an aftive and enterprizing officer, at¬
tacked a great conventicle upon Loudon-hill, but was
repulfed with the lofs of 30 men. The covenanters then
finding themfelves unwarily engaged in rebellion, were
obliged to perfevere; and therefore pufhed on to Glaf-
gow, which, though repulfed at firft, they afterwards
made themfelves mafters of. Here they difpoffeffed the
eftabliffied clergy, and iffiied proclamations in which
they declared that they fought againft the king’s fu-
premacy, againft Popery and prelacy, and againft a
Popiffi fucceffor.
Charles, being now alarmed, difpatched againft the
covenanters a fmall body of Englifh cavalry under the
duke of Monmouth. He joined the Scots guards, and
fome regiments of militia levied from the well-affefted
14a counties ; and with great celerity marched in queft of
Infnrgents the Jnfurgents. They had taken poll; at Bothwel-bridge
Botfiwel-31 between Hamilton and Glafgow ; where there was no
bridge. accefs but by the bridge, and where a fmall body was
able to defend it againft the king’s army. The whole
army of the covenanters never exceeded 8000 men, and
they had in reality no other generals than their clergy¬
men. Monmouth attacked the bridge, and the cove¬
nanters maintained their poll as long as their ammuni-
, tion lafted. When they fent for more, they received
orders to quit their poll: and retire ; and this imprudent
meafure occafioned an immediate defeat. Monmouth
palled the bridge without oppofition, and drew up his
forces oppofite to the enemy. His cannon alone put
them to the rout. About 700 were killed in the pur-
fuit; for, properly fpeaking, there was no a&ion.
Twelve hundred were taken prifoners, and treated with
humanity by Monmouth. Such as promifed to live
peaceably under the prefent government were difmified;
and about 300 who refufed this condition were ffiipped
for Barbadoes, but unfortunately perilhed by the way.
Two of their clergymen were hanged. Soon after, an
adl of indemnity was palled: but Lauderdale took care
that it Ihould afford little proteftion to the unhappy
covenanters ; for though orders were given to connive
thenceforward at all conventicles, he found means un¬
der a variety of .pretences to elude the execution of
them.
It is now certainly known, that king Charles II. had
formed a fcheme of overturning the eftabliffied religion,
and fubftituting Popery in its place; as alfo of render¬
ing himfelf abfolute. In this, however, he met with vio¬
lent oppofition from his parliaments; and as this one of
, *43 1679 feemed even to furpafs their predeceffofs in vio-
(reedfiTTof* ^ence> tbe king was induced to diffolve them and call
parliament, another in 1689. By this ftep, however, he was no
ainer. They voted the legality of petitioning the
ing; and fell with extreme violence on the abhorrers,
who in their addreffes to the crown had expreffed their
difapprobation of thofe petitions. Great numbers of
thefe were feized by their order in all parts of Eng¬
land, and committed to clofe cuftody: the liberty of
the fubjeft, which had been fo carefully guarded by
their own recent law, was every day violated by their
arbitrary and capricihus imprifonments. One Stowel of
Exeter put a ftop to their proceedings: he refufed to
obey the ferjeant at arms who was fent to apprehend
him; he flood upon his defence, and faid he knew no Britain,
law by which the houfe of commons pretended to com- 1
mit him. The houfe, finding it equally dangerous to
proceed or recede, got off by an evafion. They voted
that Stowel was indifpofed; and a month’s time was al¬
lowed him for his recovery. It is happy for the na¬
tion, that ffiould the commons at any time overleap the
bounds of their authority, and capricioufly order men
to be put in prifon, there is no power, in cafe of re-
fiftance, that can compel the prifoner to fubmit to their
decrees.
The chief point, however, laboured by the prefent
parliament was, to obtain the exclufion bill, which,
though the former houfe had voted, was never yet paf- j
fed into a law. It paffed by a great majority in the
houfe of commons, but was thrown out by the. houfe of
peers. All the biffiops, except three, voted agaipft it;
for they were of opinion that the church of England
was in much greater danger from the prevalence of
preffiyterianifm than Popery. The commons were ex¬
tremely mortified at the rejeiftion of their favourite bill:
in revenge, they paffed feveral other difagreeable a£ts,
among which one was, That, till the exclufion bill was
paffed, they could not, confiftent with the truft re-
pofed in them, grant the king any manner of fupply;
and that whoever ffiould hereafter lend, by way of ad¬
vance, any money upon any branches of the king’s re¬
venue, ffiould be refponfible to parliament for his con-
dudl. Charles, therefore, finding that there were no
hopes of extorting either money or obedience from the
commons, came to a refolution of once more diffolving
the parliament. His uffier of the black-rod according- Parliament 1
ly came to diffolve them while they were voting that dflblved. |
the diffenters ffiould be encouraged, and that the Pa-
pifts had burned the city of London.
It was for fome time a doubt whether the king would
ever call another parliament: his neceffities, however,
furmounted all his fears of their violence; and, in 1681,
he fummoned his parliament to meet him at Oxford, 14S |
that he might thus have an opportunity of puniffiing ^mW.0I1q |
the city of London by ffiewing his fufpiefons of their at |
loyalty. In this, as in all former parliaments, the coun¬
try party predominated; and they trode exa&ly in the
fame paths with their predeceffors. The fame fpeaker
was chofen, and the exclufion bill urged more fiercely
than before. Ernely, one of the king’s minifters, pro-
pofed that the duke ffiould be baniffied 500 miles from
England; and that, on the king’s deceafe, the next heir
ffiould be conftituted regent with regal power. Yet
even this expedient, which left the duke the bare title
of king) could not obtain the attention of the houfe.
Nothing but a total exclufion could fatisfy them.
Each party had now for fome time reviled and ridi¬
culed each other in pamphlets and libels; and this prac¬
tice at laft was attended with an incident that deferves ^
notice. One Fitzharris, an Iriffi Papift, employed a CafeofFitz- ]
Scotfman named Everhard to write a libel againft the hards. |
king and the duke of York. The Scot was adfually a
fpy for the contrary party ; and fuppofing this a trick
to entrap him, he difeovered the whole to Sir William
Waller, an eminent juftice of the peace ; and, to con¬
vince him of the truth of his information, polled the
magiftrate and two other perfons privately, where they
heard the whole conference between Fitzharris and him¬
felf. The libel compofed between them was replete
with
B R I [ 1439 J b R I
Britain, with the utmoft rancour and fcurrility. Waller carried
  the intelligence to the king, and obtained a warrant
for committing Fitzharris, who happened at that very
time to have a copy of the libel in his pocket. Seeing
himfelf in the hands of a party from whom he expec¬
ted no mercy, he refolved to fide with them, and throw
the odium of the libel upon the court, who, he faid,
were willing to draw up a libel which (hould be impu¬
ted to the exclufioners, and thus render them hateful to
the people. He enhanced his fervices to the country-
party by a new Popilh plot more tremenduous than any
of the foregoing, and in which he brought in the duke
of York as a principal accomplice.
The king imprifoned Fitzharris; the commons a-
vowed his caufe. They voted that he (hould be im¬
peached by themfelves, to fcreen him from the ordinary
forms of juftice: the lords reje&ed the impeachment;
the commons afierted their right: a commotion was
•arliament likely to enfue; and the king, to break off the conteft,
iHelved, went to the houfe and diffolved the parliament, with a
248 fixed refolution never to call another,
krbitrary From this moment the king ruled with defpotic
roceedlngs power> His temper, which had always been eafy and
f thc kln8'merciful, now became arbitrary and cruel; he enter¬
tained fpies and informers round the throne, and im-
prifoned all fuch as he thought moft daring in their de-
figns. He refolved to humble the prelbyterians : they
were diverted of their employments and their places ;
and their offices given to fuch as held with the court,
and approved the doftrine of non-refiftance. The clergy
began to teftify their zeal and their principles by their
writings and fermons; but though among thefe the
partizans of the king were the moft numerous, thofe of
the oppofite fa&ion were the moft. enterprizing. The
king openly efpoufed the caufe of the former; and
s thus placing himfelf at the head of a faction, he depri-
L.ondon de- ved the city of London, which had long headed the
>rived of its popular party, of their charter. It was not till after
harter. ln abjea fubmiffion that Tie reftored it to them, having
previoufiy fubjedted the ele&ion of their magiftrates to
his immediate authority.
Terrors alfo were not wanting to confirm this new
fpecies of monarchy. Fitzharris was brought to a trial
before a jury, and condemned and executed. The
whole gang of fpies, witneffes, informers, fuborners,
which had long been encouraged and fupported by the
leading patriots, finding now that the king was entire¬
ly mailer, turned fhort upon their ancient drivers, and
offered their evidence againft thofe who firft put them
in motion. The king s minifters gave them encourage¬
ment ; and in a Ihort time the fame injuftice and the fame
cruelties were pradtifed againft prefbyterian fchemes, that
had formerly been pra&ifed againft Catholic treafons.
The king’s chief refentment was levelled againft the earl
of Shaftelbury; and, indeed, not without reafon, as he
had had a very adlive hand in the late difturbances. No
fums were fpared to feek for evidence, or even to fuborn
witneffes, againft this intriguing and formidable man.
A bill of indiament being prefented to the grand jury,
witneffes were examined, who fwore to fuch incredible
circumftances as mull have invalidated their teftimony,
even if they had not been branded as perjured villains.
Among his papers, indeed, a draught of an affociation
was found, which might have been conftrued into trea-
fon; but it was not in the earl’s hand-writing, nor
could it be proved that he had ever communicated this Crhain.
fcheme to any body, or fignified his approbation of
any fuch projedl. The fheriffs had fummoned a jury,
whofe principles coincided with thofe of the earl ; and
that probably, more than any want of proof, procured
his fafety.
In 1683, the city of London was deprived of its
charter; which was reftored only upon terms of the ut¬
moft fubmiflion, and giving up the nomination of their 2jo
own magiftrates. This was fo mortifying a circum- °der cor-
fiance, that all the other corporations in England foon ^fign0”*
began to fear the fame treatment, and were fucceflively theirs,
induced to furrender their charters into the hands of the
king. Confiderable fums were exafted for reftoring
thefe charters ; and all the offices of power and profit
were left at the difpofal of the crown. Refiftance now,
however juftifiable, could not be fafe; and all prudent
men faw no other expedient but fubmitting patiently to
the prefent grievances. jji
There was a party, however, in England, that ftill Confpiracy’
cherifhed their former ideas of freedom, and refolved to ‘‘2ainft d»e
reftore liberty to their country by dethroning the king lng"
who a<5ied in fuch a defpotic manner. The principal
confpirators were Monmouth, Shaftelbury, Ruffel, Ef-
fex, Howard, Algernon Sidney, and John Hambden
grandfon to the great man of that name. Monmouth
engaged the earl of Macclesfield, Lord Brandon, Sir
Gilbert Gerard, and other gentlemen in Chelhire.
Lord Ruffel fixed a correfpondence with Sir William
Courtney, Sir Francis Knowles, and Sir Francis Drake,
who promifed to raife the weft. Shaftefbury, with
one Fergufon, an independent clergymen, and a reft-
lefs plotter, managed the city, upon which the confe¬
derates chiefly relied. Thefe fchemes had been laid in
1681: but the caution of lord Ruffel, who induced
the duke of Monmouth to put off the enterprize, faved
the kingdom from the horrors of a civil war ; while
Shaftefbury was fo ftruck with a fenfe of his impending
danger, that he left his houfe, and, lurking about the
city, attempted, but in vain, to drive the Londoners
to an open infurre&ion. At laft, enraged at the num-
berlefs cautions and delays which clogged and defeated
his projefts, he threatened to begin with his own friends
fingly. However, after a long rtruggle between fear
and rage, he abandoned all"hopes of fuccefs, and fled to
Amfterdam, where .he foon .after died.
The lofs of Shaftefbury, though it retarded, did not
fupprefs, the defigns of the confpirators. The remain¬
ing fix formed a council ; they correfponded with Ar-
gyle and the malecontents in Scotland ; and refolved
to profecute the fcheme of the infurre&ion, tho’ they
widely differed in principles from one another. Mon¬
mouth afpired at the crown ; Ruffel and Hamden pro-
pofed to exclude the duke of York from the fucceffion,
and redrefs the grievances of the nation ; Sidney waa
for reftoring the republic, and Efl'ex joined in the fame
wifh. Lord Howard was an abandoned man, who, ha¬
ving no principles, fought to embroil the nation, to gra¬
tify his private intereft in the confufion.
Befides thefe, there was a fet of fubordinate confpi- Defign of
rators, who frequently met together, and carried on affaffinating
projedls quite unknown to Monmouth and his coun- form'
cil. Among thefe was colonel Rumfey, an old repub¬
lican officer; lieutenant-colonel Walcot, of the fame
jjamp; Goodenough, under-fheriff of London, a zealous
S T 2 and
B R I [ 1440 ] B R I
Britain, and noted party-man; Fergufon, an independent mini-
— — fter; and feveral attorneys, merchants, and tradefmen
of London. But Rumfey and Fergufon were the only
perfons that had accefs to the great leaders of the con-
fpiracy. Thefe men undertook the defperate refolution
of afiaffinating the king in his way to New-msyket;
Rumbold, one of the party, poiTeffed a farm upon that
road, called the Rye-houfe, and from thence the confpi-
racy was called the Rye-houfe plot. They deliberated
on a fcheme of Hopping the king’s coach by overturn¬
ing a cart on the high way at this place, and Ihooting
him through the hedges. The houfe in which the king
IS3 lived at New-market accidentally took fire, and he was
It miicar- obliged to leave New-market eight days fooner than
*ks. was expedted; to which circumttance.he owed his fafe-
ty. Soon after this, the confpiracy was difcovered;
RuffeL Sidney, andWalcot, were executed; Effex cut
his own throat; Hambden was fined 40,000/.; and
fcarce one efcaped who had been in any manner con¬
cerned, except the duke of Monmouth, who was the
mod culpable of all.
This was the laft blood that was fired on account
of plots or confpiracies, which continued during the
greateft part of this reign. Severe punifiiments, how¬
ever, were infli&ed on many who treated the duke of
York unworthily. The famous Titus Oates was fined
100,0001. for calling him a Popiih traitor; and he
was imprifoned till he fhould pay it, which he was ab-
folutely incapable of. A fimilar fentence was palled
upon Dutton Colt. Sir Samuel Barnadifton was fined
10,0001. for having, in fome private letters, refle&ed
on the government. The government of Charles was
now as abfolute as that of any prince in Europe ; but,
to pleafe his fubjeds by an ad of popularity, hejudged
it proper to marry the lady Anne, his niece, to prince
George brother to the king of Denmark. This was
aJ4 the laft remarkable tranfadion of this extraordinary
Death of reign. On February 2d 1685, about eight in the
Charles II. morning, the king was feized with a fit of the apo¬
plexy ; being dreffed, and juft come out of his clofet,
where he had been for fome time after he rofe from
bed. By being blooded, he was reftored perfedly to
his fenfes ; and there were great hopes of his recovery
the next day. On the fourth day the phyficians de-
fpaired of his life, and therefore fent for the queen.
He was in his perfed fenfes when Ihe arrived. She
threw herfelf on her knees, and alked his pardon for all
her offences. He replied, that flue had offended in no¬
thing ; but that he had been guilty of offences againft
her, and alked her pardon. He fpoke with great af-
fedion to the duke of York, and gave him excellent
counfel for his future condud. He advifed him to ad¬
here to the laws with ftridnefs, and invariably to fup-
port the church of England. The duke feemed anxious
to convince him before he died how little he intended
to follow his advice. Having removed the bilhops,
and feveral of the lords who attended the bed of the
king, he fent for Huddlelton, a Romilh prieft. In the
prefence of the duke, the earl of Bath, and Trevannion
a captain in the guards, Huddlefton gave the extreme
undion to the king, and adminiftered to him the facra-
ment according to the rites of the church of Rome.
AH this was done in the fpace of half an hour. The
doors were then thrown open. Six prelates, who had
before attended the king, were fent for to give him the
facrament. Kenn, bilhop of Bath and Wells, read the Biitain. «
vifitation of the fick; and, after he faid that he re-  
pented of his fins, the abfolution. The king aflifted
with feeming devotion at the fervice ; but his mouth
being diftorted with fits, and his throat contraded, he
could not fwallow the elements. He profeffed, how¬
ever, his fatisfadion in the church of England^ and ex¬
pired on the 6th of February, between 1 l and 12 o’clock;
having reigned 25 years, and lived 55.
The firft ad of James II.’s reign was toaffemble the
privy council : where, after fome praifes bellowed on
the memory of his predeceffor, he made profellions of
his refolution to maintain the eftablifhed government
both in church and Hate; and as he had heretofore ven¬
tured his life in defence of the nation, he would Hill go
as far as any man in maintaining all its juft rights and
privileges. ajy II
This difcourfe was received with great applaufe, not Servile ad-S
only by the council, but by the whole nation. Ad- to B
drtffes came from all quarters, full of duty, nay of the James II* 1 j
moft fervile adulation. From this charge, however, we
mull except thofe of the Quakers, which is remarkable 1S$ 1
for its good^ fenfe and iimplicity. “ We ar^ come Quakers a*
(faid they) to teftify our forrow for the death of our <lre^s-
good friend Charles, and our joy for thy being made
our governor. We are told that thou art not of the
perfuafion of the church of England no more than we :
wherefore we hope that thou wilt grant us the fame li¬
berty which thou allowed thyfelf. Which doing, we
wilh thee all manner of happinefs.”
The king, however, foon Ihowed, that he either was impuident
not fincere in his promifes, or that he entertained fo behaviour I
lofty an idea of his own legal power, that even his ut- °ftlie new I
moft fineerity could tend very little to the fecurity of klllg’
the liberties of the people. All the cuftoms, and the
greater part of the excife, which had been voted to the
late king for his life only, were levied by James with¬
out a new a£t for that purpofe. He went openly to
mafs with all the enfigns of his dignity ; and even fent
one Caryl as his agent to Rome to make fubmifiions
to the Pope, and to pave the way for the re-admiffion
of England into the bofom of the Catholic church.
From the fuggeftions of thefe men all his meafures were
undertaken. One day when the Spanifti ambaflador
ventured to advife his majefty againft putting too much
confidence in fuch kind of people, “ Is it not the cu-
ftom in Spain (faid James), for the king to confult with
his confeffor,.” “ Yes, (anfwered the ambaffador), and
that is the reafon why our affairs fucceed fo very ill.”
James’s firft parliament, which was compofed moftly
of zealous lories, was ftrongly inclined to comply with
the meafures of the crown. They voted unanimoufly,
that they fhould fettle on the prefent king, during life,
all the revenue enjoyed by the late king till the time
of his deceafe. For this favour, James affured them,
that he would fecure them in the full enjoyment of their
laws; but with regard to religion, no anfwer could be a
extorted, for that he was refolvedtojalter. In every thing, jn fbme rc-i
however, religion excepted, James merited every praife. fpeftshebe-’;
He applied himfelf to bufinefs with unremitting atten- haves well, t
tion. He managed his revenue with the ftri&eft ceco-
nomy. He retrenched fuperfluous expences, and Ihewed
himfelf zealous for the glory of the nation. He endea¬
voured to expel from court the vice which had pre¬
vailed fo much during the former reign, and to rellore
decency
I
'll fiiitain,
f 
Defeat and
death of
Argyle.
Monmouth
lands in
England.
B R I [ 1441 ] B R I
_ decency and morality. He prefided daily at the coun-
” cil, at the boards of admiralty and treafury. He even
entered into the whole detail of the concerns of the
great departments of the ftate. But his bigotry for the
Romiih religion fttllied all his good qualities, and ren¬
dered him feared for his violence, where he was not
defpifed for his weaknefs.
But whilft every thing was fubmitted in tranquillity
to James at home, a ftorm was gathering abroad to
difturb his repofe. For a long time the prince of O-
range had entertained hopes of afcending the Britifh
throne, and had even ufed all his endeavours to ex¬
clude James from it. Monmouth who, fince his laft
confpiracy, had been pardoned, but ordered to de¬
part the kingdom, had retired to Holland. He was
received by the prince of Orange with the higheft
marks of diftin&ion, and even became his chief favou¬
rite through whom all favours were to be obtained.
When the news of Charles’s death arrived, indeed, the
prince made a ihew of altering his note,, and difmifTed
Monmouth, though he ftill kept a clofe correfpondence
with him. The duke retired to Bruffels, where, un¬
der the aufpices of the prince of Orange, he refolved
to invade England, with a defign of feizing the crown
for himfelf. He was feconded by the,duke of Argyle,
who formed the fcheme of airinfurre&ion in Scotland ;
and while Monmouth attempted to make a rifing in the
weft of England, it was refolved that Argyle fhould
alfo try his endeavours in the north. The generofityof
the prince of Orange, however, did not correfpond with
the warmth of his profeftions. The unfortunate duke
derived from his own plate and jewels his whole fup-
ply for the war ; and the enthufiafm of a rich widow
fupplied Argyle with 10,0001. wherewith he purcha-
fed three veffels, which he loaded with arms and am¬
munition.
Argyle was the firft who landed in Scotland, where
he publifhed his manifeftoes, put himfelf at the head of
2500 men, and ftrove to influence the people in his fa¬
vour. But a formidable body of the king’s forces co-
ming againft him, his army fell away; and he himfelf,
after being wounded in attempting to efcape, was taken
prifoner by a peafant who found him ftandingup to the
neck in water. He was from thence carried to Edin¬
burgh, where after fuffering many indignities he was
publicly executed.
By this time Monmouth had landed in Dorfetfhire
with fcarce 100 followers. His name, however, was
fo popular, and fo great was the hatred of the people
to James on account of his religion, that in four days
he had aflembled a body of above 2000 men. They
were indeed all of them the loweft of the people, and
his declarations were fuited entirely to their prejudices.
He called the king the duke of York; and denominated
him a traitor, a tyrant, a murderer, and a Popifh ufur-
per. He imputed to him the fire of London, and even
affirmed that he had poifoned the late king.
Monmouth continued to make a rapid progrefs, and
in a (hort time found himfelf at the head of 6000 men;
but was daily obliged to difmifs great numbers for
want of arms. The king was not a little alarmed at
his invafion. Six regiments of Britifh troops were
called over from Holland; and a body of regulars, to
the number of 3000, were fent, under the command of
the earl of Feverlham and Churchill, to check the pro¬
grefs of the rebels. ^ They took poft at Sedgemore, a Britain.
village in the neighbourhood of Bridgewater, and were 
joined by confiderable numbers of the country militia. Defeated at
Here Monmouth refolved, by a defperate effort, to lofe Sedgemore.
his life, or gain the kingdom. He drove the royal
'infantry from their ground, and was on the point of
gaining a complete vi&ory, when the cowardice of
Gray, who commanded the horfe, brought all to ruin.
This nobleman fled at the firft onfet ; and the rebels,
being charged in flank, gave way after a three-hours
conteft. About 300 were killed h the engagement,
and 1000 in the purfuit. Monmouth fled above 20
miles from the field of battle, till his horfe funk under
him. He then alighted; and, exchanging clothes with
a (hepherd, fled on foot, attended by a German count
who had accompanied him from Holland. Being quite
exhaufted with hunger and fatigue, they both lay down
in a field, and covered themfelves with fern. The
fhepherd, being found in Monmouth’s clothes by the
purfuers, increafed the diligence of the fearch; and by
the means of blood-hounds he was detefted in his mi- is ^0 in
ferable fituation, with raw peafe in his pocket, on which a moft mi-
he had lived for fome days. He burft into tears when Arable fitu-
feized by his enemies ; and petitioned, with the moft atlon'
abjedl fubmiffions, for his life. On his way to London, *64
he wrote a fubmiffive letter to the king, promifing dif- Attempts m
coveries, ftiould he be admitted into his prefence. The ^4,"mercy,
curiofity of James being excited by the letter, he fent
Sheldon a gentleman of the bed-chamber to meet Mon¬
mouth. In hisconverfation with Sheldon, he alkedwho
was in chief confidence with the king ; and being an-
fwered that it was Sunderland, Monmouth knocked his
breaft in a furprife, and faid, “ Why then, as I hope
for falvation, he promifed to meet me.” He defired
Sheldon to inform the king, that feveral of his accom¬
plices in rebellion were in the confidence of his majefty;
and he gave him a particular account of the part which
the prince of Orange had afted in his whole affair.
Sheldon, on his return from the duke of Monmouth,
began to give an account to the king of what he had
learned from the unhappy prifoner. Sunderland, pre¬
tending bufinefs, came into the room. Sheldon flop¬
ped, and fignified his defire to fpeak in private with
the king. James told him he might fay any thing be¬
fore that lord. Sheldon was in great perplexity ; but
being urged, he told all that Monmouth had afferted.
Sunderland appeared, for fome time, confufed: at
length he faid, with a laugh, “ If that is all he can dif-
cover to fave his life, he will derive little good from his
information.” Monmouth himfelf was foon after
brought before the king. Sunderland by an artifice
enfured the death of the unfortunate duke, to fave him¬
felf and the other adherents of the prince of Orange.
When he faw Monmouth’s letter to James, and heard
the difcoveries made by Sheldon, he is faid to have ad-
vifed him, that, as he could affure him of the certainty
of a pardon, he ought to deny what he had faid in pre¬
judice of his friends, who could ferve him on fome
other more favourable occafion. The credulous duke,
fwayed by the advice of Sunderland, fuppreffed what
he had faid to Sheldon, when he was examined by the
king. He mentioned nothing of the concern which
the prince of Orange had taken in the invafion ; tho’
a point on which James was already fufficiently inform¬
ed. D’Avaux, the French minifter to the States, had
given,
B R I [ 1442 ] B R I
Britain, given a clrcumftantial account of the whole condudt of
“ the prince to Lewis XIV. who had ordered it to be
• privately communicated to the king of England. The
minifter who had been fent from Holland to congra¬
tulate James on the fuppreffion of Argyle’s rebellion,
was in a grievous agony when he heard that the king
was refolved to fee Monmouth. “ Though he found
that he faid nothing of his mafter, (faid James), he was
never quiet till Monmouth was dead.”
The unfortunate duke made various attempts to ob¬
tain mercy. He wrote to the queen dowager ; he fent
a letter to the reigning queen, as well as to the king
himfelf. He begged his life, when admitted into his
prefence, with a meannefs unfuitable to his pretenlions
and high rank. But all his entreaties and fubmiffions
were of no avail. James told him, that he was much
afifedifed with his misfortunes, but that his crime was
too dangerous in its example to be left unpunifhed. In
his laft moments he behaved with a magnanimity wor¬
thy of his former courage. When he came to the fcaf-
fold, he behaved with decency and even with dignity.
He fpoke little; he made noeonfeffion; nor didheac-
cufe any of his friends. Circumftances are faid to have
a5S attended his death that created a horror among the
Terribly fpe&ators. The executioner miffed his blow, and ftruck
mangled by Jjjjj, (lightly on the fhoulder. Monmouth raifed his
iiQnerCCU* ^eac^ from t^le block, and looked him full in the face,
as if reproaching him for his miflake. He ftruck him
twice again, but with feeble ftrokes ; and then threw
the ax from his hands. The fheriff forced him to re¬
new his attempt; and the head of the duke, who feemed
zgg already dead, was at laft fevered from his body.
Rebels cm- Thofe concerned in the duke of Monmouth’s confpi-
elly treated. raCy were punifhed with the utmoft feverity.^ Imme¬
diately afterthe battle of Sedgemore, Feverfham hanged
- up above aoprifoners ; and was proceeding in his exe¬
cutions, when the bifhop of Bath and Wells informed
him that thefe unhappy men were now by law intitled
to a trial, and that their execution would be deemed a
real murder. Nineteen were put to death in the fame
manner at Bridgewater, by colonel Kirke, a man of a
favage and bloody difpofition. This vile fellow, prac-
tifed in the arts of flaughter at Tangier, where he
ferved in garrifon, took pleafure in committing inftan-
ces of wanton barbarity. He ravaged the whole coun¬
try, without making any diftinftion between friend
and foe. His own regiment, for their peculiar barba¬
rity, went under the ironical title of Kirke’s lambs. It
doth not, however, appear that thefe cruelties were
committed by the dire&ion, or even with the appro¬
bation, of James; any more than the legal flaughters
that were committed by judge Jefferies, who was fent
down to try the delinquents. The natural brutality
of this man’s temper was inflamed by continual intoxi¬
cation. No fewer than 80 were executed by his orders
at Dorchefter ; and on the whole, at Exeter, Taun¬
ton, and Wells, 250 are computed to have fallen by
the hand of juftice as it was called ; nor were women
exempted from the general feverity, but fuflered for
harbouring their neareft kindred. Jefferies on his re¬
turn was immediately created a peer, and foon after
vefted with the dignity of chancellor. In juftice to the
king, however, it muft be owned, that in his memoirs
he complains, with apparent indignation, of “ the
llrange havock made by Jefferies and Kirke in the
weft }” and that he attributed the unpopularity, which Britair*. '
afterwards deprived him of the crown, to the violence V
and barbarity of thofe pretended friends of his autho¬
rity. He even afcribes their feverities, in fome degree,
to a formed defign of rendering his government odious
to his fubjedts ; and from hence it is probable, that no
exadt or impartial accounts of thefe cruelties had
reached his ears, at leaft till long after they were com¬
mitted.
James now began to throw off the mafic, and to en- James en¬
deavour openly to eftablifh Popery and arbitrary power.^^i.1^510
He told the houfe of commons, that the militia were p0pe'ry.
found by experience to be of no ufe ; that it was necef-
fary to augment the ftanding army ; and that he had
employed a great many Catholic officers, in whofe fa¬
vour he had thought proper to difpenfe with the tefl
required to be taken by all who were employed by the
crown. He found them ufeful, he faid, and he was
determined to keep them employed. Thefe ftretches
of power naturally led the lords and commons into
fome degree of oppofition ; but they foon acquiefced
in the king’s meafures, and then the parliament was zss
diffolved for their tardy compliance. This was happy Parliament
for the nation ; for it was perhaps impoffible to pick (hfk>lved.
out another houfe of commons that could be more ready
to acquiefce in the meafures of the crown ; but the
diffolution of this parliament was generally looked up¬
on as a fign that James never intended to call another.
The parliament being difmiffed, James’s next ftep
was to fecure a Catholic intereft in the privy council.
Accordingly four Catholic lords were admitted, viz. Catholics
Powis, Arundel, Belafis, and Dover. Sunderland, promoted,
who faw that the only way to gain preferment was by
Popery, became a convert. Rochefter, the treafurer,
was turned out of his office, becaufe he refufed to con¬
form. Even in Ireland, where the duke of Ormond
had long fupported the royal caufe, this nobleman was
difplaced as being a Proteftant; and the lord Tyrcon-
nel, a furious Roman-catholic, was placed in hisftead.
In his zeal for Popery, it is faid, that Tames {looped
fo low as even to attempt the converfion of colonel
Kirke : but the daring foldier told him, that he was
pre-engaged ; for he had promifed the king of Mo¬
rocco, when he was quartered at Tangiers, that, if
ever he changed his religion, he would turn Maho¬
metan. jjo
At laft the clergy of the church of England began Englilh
to take the alarm, and commenced an oppofition to
court meafures. The pulpits now thundered out a-
gainft Popery; and it was urged, that it was more for- Cures,
midable from the fupport granted it by the king. It
was in vain that James attempted to impofe lilence on
thefe topics ; inftead of avoiding the controverfy, the
Proteftant preachers purfued it with greater warmth.
Toeffedlhis defigns, the king determined to revive the
highcommiffion court, which had formerly given the
nation fo much difguft, and which had been abolifhed
for ever by aft of parliament. An ecclefiaftical com-
miffion was iffued out anew, by which feven commif-
fioners were inverted with a full and unlimited autho¬
rity over the whole church of England.—The next ftep
was to allow a liberty of confcience to all feftaries; and
he was taught to believe that the truth of the Catholic
religion would then, upon a fair trial, gain the viftory.
In fuch a cafe, the fame power that granted liberty of
confcience
B R I '[ 1443 ] B R I
Brita’m. confclence might reftrain it; and the Catholic religion
alone be allowed to predominate. He therefore iflued
a declaration of general indulgence, and aflerted that
non-conformity to the eftablilhed religion was no longer
penal. In Scotland, he ordered his parliament to grant
a toleration only to the Catholics, without interceding
in the lead for the other diflenters who were much
more numerous. In Ireland, the Proteftants were to¬
tally expelled from all offices of truft and profit, and
Catholics put in their places. Thefe meafures fuffi-
ciently difgufted every part of the Britifh empire ; but,
to complete the work, James publicly fent the earl
imeVfends of Caftlemaine ambaflador extraordinary to Rome, in
1 ambafla- order to exprefs his obedience to the Pope, and recon-
ar to c;]e his kingdoms to the Catholic communion. This
ome' proceeding was too precipitate to be relifhed even by
the Pope himfelf; and therefore the only return he made
to this embaffy was the fending a nuncio into Eng¬
land. The nuncio made a public and folemn entry
into Windfor ; which did not fail to add to the gene¬
ral difcontent; and becaufe the duke of Somerfet re-
fufed to attend the ceremony, he was difmiffed from
his employment of one of the lords of the bed-chamber.
Soon after this, the Jefuits were permitted to eredfi:
colleges in different parts of the kingdom, and to ex-
ercife the Catholic worfhip in the molt public manner.
Father Francis, abenediitipe monk, was recommended
Difpute iby the king to the univerfity of Cambridge, for the
“with the u- degree of mailer of arts. The univerfity rejected him
inverfity of on account 0f his religion ; and prefented a petition to
Cam ridge. ^ king, befeeching him to recal his mandate. James
difregarded their petition, and denied their deputies a
hearing ; the vice-chancellor himfelf was fummoned to
appear before the high commiffion court, and deprived
of his office: yet the univerfity perfifted, and father
Francis wak refufed. The place of prefident of Mag¬
dalen college being vacant, the king fent a mandate in
favour of one Farmer, a new convert, and a man of
bad charafter in other refpedts. The fellows of the
college made very fubmiffive applications for recalling
his mandate ; but the ele£tion-day coming on before
they received an anfwer, they chofe Dr Hough, a man
of learning, integrity, and refolution. The king was
incenfed at their prefumption; an inferior ecclefiattical
court was fent down, who finding Farmer a man of
fcandalous chara&er, iffued a mandate for a new elec¬
tion. The man now recommended by the king was
do£tor Parker; a man of an abandoned charafter, but
very willing to embrace the Catholic religion. The
fellows refufed to comply with this injundtion ; which
fo irritated, the king, that he came down to Oxford in
perfon, and ordered the fellows to be brought before
him. He reproached them with their infolence and
difobedience ; and commanded them to choofe Parker
without delay. Another refufal on their fide ferved
ftill more to exafperate him ; and finding them refolute
in the defence of their privileges, he ejedted them all
except two from their benefices, and Parker was put
College fill- *n poffeffion of the place. Upon this, the college was
ed with Ca- filled with Catholics ; and Charnock, one of the two
tholics. that remained, was made vice-prefident.
In 1688, a fecond declaration for liberty of con-
fcience was publiihed almoft in the fame terms with the
former ; but with this peculiar injundtion, that all di¬
vines fhould read it after fervice in their churches. The
clergy refolved to difobey this order. Loyde bilhop Britain,
of St Afaph, Ken of Bath and Wells, Turner of Ely, '
Lake of Chichefter, White of Peterborough, and Tre-
lawney of Briftol, together with Sancroft the primate,
concerted an addrefs in form of a petition to the king,
which, with the warmeft expreffions of zeal and fub-
miffion, remonftrated, that they could not read his de¬
claration conliftent with their confidences, or the ref-
pedl they owed the Proteftant religion. The king re¬
ceived their petition with marks of furprife and difplea-
fure. He faid he did not expedl fuch an addrefs from
the church of England, particularly from fome amongft
them; and perfifted in his orders for their obeying his
mandate.
As the petition was delivered in private, the king
fummoned the bilhops before the council, and there
queftioned them whether they would acknowledge it.
They for fome time declined giving an anfwer; but
being urged by the'chancellor, they at laft owned the m
petition. On their refufal to give bail, an order was Bifhops im»
immediately drawn for their commitment to' the Tower, Prif°ned'
and the crown lawyers received directions to profecute
them for a feditious libel. The king gave orders that
they (hould be conveyed to the Tower by water, as the 17 j
whole city was in commotion in their favour. The The whole
people were no fooner informed of their danger, than CIty.m c?m"
^ , . r , • .. . 1 . , motion in
they ran to the river-hde in prodigious multitudes, their favour,
craving their bldfing; calling upon heaven to proteCl
them, &c. The very foldiers by whom they were
guarded, kneeled down before them, and implored
their forgivennefs.
The 29th of June 1688 was fixed for the trial of the
bifhops; and their return was ftill more fplendidly at¬
tended than their imprifonment. Twenty-nine peers,
a great number of gentlemen, and an immenfe crowd
of people, waited upon them to Weftminfter-hall. The
difpute was learnedly managed by the lawyers on both
fides. The jury withdrew into a chamber where they
palled the whole night; but next morning they returned l?(J
into court, and pronounced the bifhops not guilty. They are
Weftminfter-hall inftantly rang with loud acclamations, acquitted,
which were communicated to the whole extent of the
city* They even reached the camp at Hounflow, where
the king was at dinner in lord Feverfham’s tent. Hia
majefty demanding the caufe of thofe rejoicings, and
being informed that it was nothing but the foldiers
fhouting for the delivery of the bifhops ; “ Call you
that nothing ! (cried he) ; but fo much the worfe for
them.” Immediately after this, the king ftruck out
two of the judges, Powel and Holloway, who had ap¬
peared to favour the bifhops. He iffued orders to pro¬
fecute all thofe clergymen who had not read his decla¬
ration, and all had refufed it except 206. He fent alfo
a mandate to the new fellows, whom he had obtruded
on Magdalen college, to eledl for prefident, in the
room of Parker lately deceafed, one Gifford, a dodlor
of the Sorbonne, and titular bifhop of Madura.
As the king found the clergymen every where averfe Attachment
tp his meafures, he was willing next to try v/hat he °fthe army
could do with the army. He thought, if one regiment t0 the Prt;-
fhould promife implicit obedience, their example would gio,*'11 rel1*
foon induce others to comply. He therefore ordered
one of the regiments to be drawn up in his prefence,
and defired that fuch as were againft his late declaration
of liberty of confcicnce fhould lay down their arms.
He
B R I [ 1444 ] B
He was furprifed to fee the whole battalion ground be procured to fuckle him.
R I
Birth of a
prince of
Wales.
Treachery
of Sunder¬
land.
their arms, except two officers and a few Roman-
catholic foldiers.—A fortunate circumftance happened
about this time in his family. A few days before the
acquittal of the bifhops, the queen was brought to bed
of a fon, who was baptized by the name of James.
This would, if any thing could at that time, have fer-
ved to eftablifh him on the throne: but fo great was
the animofity againft him, that a ftory was propagated
that the child was fuppofititious ; and fo great was the
monarch’s pride, that he fcorned to take any precau¬
tions to refute the calumny.
Though the enthufiafm of James himfelf bordered
upon madnefs, the moft wild of his religious projects
feem to have been fuggefted by his enemies to accom-
plilh his ruin. The earl of Sunderland, whom he chiefly
trufted, was a man of abandoned principles, infatiable
avarice, and fitted by nature for ftratagem, deception,
and intrigue. The love of money was his ruling paffion,
and he fold his influence to the higheft bidder. To fuch
a degree was he mercenary, that he became at once the
The prince of Orange, feeing the national difcontent *
now raifed to the higheft pitch, refolved to take ad- He^pplii
vantage of it. He began by giving one Dykevelt, his to Jamei-
envoy, inftru&ions to apply in his name to every reli- Inbjefts,
gious fedt in the kingdom. To the church-party he
fent affurances of favour and regard; and protefted,
that his education in Holland had noway prejudiced
him againft epifcopacy. To the non-conformifts he fent
exhortations, not to be deceived by the infidious careflea
of their known enemy, but to wait for a real and fin-
cere protestor, &c. In confequence of thefe infinua- By whom
tions, the prince foon received invitations from the moft I1618 ‘nvite<l
confiderable perfons in the kingdom. Admirals Her- n^'
bert and Ruflel affured him in perfon of their own and
the national attachment. Henry Sidney, brother to
Algernon, and uncle to the earl of Sunderland, came
over to him with affurances of an univerfal combination
againft the king. Lord Dumblaine, fon to the earl of
Danby, being mafter of a frigate, made feveral voyage*
to Holland, and carried from many of the nobility
aSo penfioner of the prince of Orange and of the king of tenders of duty and even confiderable fums of money
Schemes of France. The former, who had long fixed his eye on the
the prince of Fjjgjjfh throne, watched James’s motions, and took
® * every advantage of his errors. He had laid his fchemes
fo extenfively, that nothing but the birth of a male
heir to the crown of England could poffibly prevent
him from an almoft immediate poffeffion of the king¬
dom. He had the addrefs to render two thirds of the
powers of Europe interefted in his fuccefs. The treaty
of Augiburg, formed to break the power of France,
to the prince of Orange. Soon after, the bifhop of
London, the earls of Danby, Nottingham, Devonftiire,
Dorfet, and feveral other lords, gentlemen, and princi¬
pal citizens, united in their addrefles to him, and in-
treated his fpeedy defcent. The people, though long
divided between whig and tory, now joined againft
their unhappy fovereign as a common enemy. William
therefore determined to accept of their invitations; and
this the more readily, as he perceived the malecontents
could not accomplifh its objedt without the acceffion of had condudted themfelves with prudence and fecrecy,
England. The houfe of Auftria, in both its branches,
preferred their political wiews to their zeal for the Ro-
mifh faith, and promoted the dethronement of James
as the only means to humble Lewis XIV. Odefchalchi,
who under the name of Innocent XI. filled then the
papal chair, was gained to the meafures of the prince
of Orange by other confiderations, as well as through
his fixed averfion to France. The prince of Orange
fent his intimate friend the prince of Vaudemont to
Rome, to procure the aid of the Pope. He explained
to his Holinefs, that the Catholic princes were in the
Having the principal fervants of James in pay, he was
minutely informed of the moft fecret a&ions and even
defigns of that prince. His intelligence came, through
Sidney, from Sunderland, who betrayed the very mea¬
fures which he himfelf had advifed. The prince had a
fleet ready to fail, and troops provided for adlion, be¬
fore the beginning of June 1688.
The king of France was the firft who gave James Jan
warning of his danger, and offered to affift him in re- ne(1 of bis |
pelling it. But he declined this friendly offer, left it danger by
ftiould be faid that he had entered into a private treaty evm *
wrong to expeft any advantage to their faith from with that monarch to the prejudice of the Proteftant
James, as his being a declared Papift rendered his peo¬
ple averfe to all his meafures. As for himfelf, fhould he
have the good fortune to mount the throne of Eng¬
land, he might take any ftep in favour of the Roman-
catholics without jealoufy; and he promifed to pro¬
cure a toleration for the Papifts, ihould the Pope, the
emperor, and the king of Spain, favour his attempt.
This negotiation procured the defired effetff. Innocent
contributed, with the money of the church, to expel a
Roman-catholic prince from his throne.
Though the conteft with the bifliops had completed
religion. Being alfo deceived and betrayed by Sunder¬
land, he had the weaknefs to believe, that the reports
of an invafion were invented in order to frighten him
into a ftridt connexion with France. He gave credit to
the repeated affurances of the ftates, that the armament
prepared in their ports was not defigned againft Eng¬
land. Nay, he even believed the affertions of the prince
himfelf, whole intereft it was to deceive. Sunderland
defcanted againft the poffibility of an invafion, and
turned to ridicule all who believed the report. Having
by the prior confent of James taken poffeffion of all
the king’s unpopularity, he derived the fuddennefs of the foreign correfpondence, he fuppreffed every intelli-
his ruin from the birth of a prince of Wales. That cir¬
cumftance increafed the fears of his fubje&s in proper-
gence that might alarm ; and even all others whom
James trufted, except Dartmouth, affe&ed long to give
tion as it raifed his fecurity and hopes. In the reign of no faith to the reports of an invafion,
a prince to be educated under the prejudices of fuch a
father nothing but a continuance of the fame unconfti-
tutional meafures could be expefted. So low indeed
was his credit funk among his people at this time, and
fuch prefcience they all feemed to have of his fate, that
the child had like to have died before a wet nurfe could
Lewis, finding his firft offers rejected, next propofed He rejefts
to march down his army to the frontiers of the Dutch all aifift-
provinces, and thus detain their forces at home for ance*
their own defence. But this propofal met with no bet¬
ter reception than the former. Still Lewis was unwil¬
ling to abandon a friend and ally whole intereit he re¬
garded
B R I [ 1445 ] B R I
[Britain, garded as clofely conneded with his own. He ventured to find himfelf joined by very few'. He continued for
1 to remonftrate with the Dutch againft the preparations ten days in expectation of being, joined by the malcon- ~
■ they were making to invade England. The Dutch tents, and at lafl. w'as going to defpair of fuccefs. But
treated his remonftrance as an officious impertinence, juft when he began to deliberate about reimbarking
and James himftlf declined his mediation. his forces, he was joined by feveral perfons of confe-
- The king of England, having thus rejected the affift- quence, and the whole country foot) after flocked to
ton ance of his friends, and being left to face the danger
' t d0! a^orie* ''ras aftonifhed with an advice from his minifter
ivaiion. Holland, that an invaflon was not only proje&ed,
but avowed. When he firft read the letter containing
this information, he grew paid, and the letter dropt
front his hand. He faw ’ ’
tion, and knew' 1
his flandard. The firft perfon that joined the prince
was major Burrington, and he was quickly followed by
the gentry of the counties of Devon and Somerfet. Sir
Edward Seymour made propofals for an affociation,
which was figned by great numbers ; and every day
v himfelf on the brink of deftruc- there appeared fome effeft of that univerfal combination
whom to apply for protection, into which the nation had entered againft the meafures
einpts to
Sacify his
ubjefts.
of the king. j
This was followed by the defection of the army. Defe£tioa
Lord Colchefter, fon to the earl of Rivers, firft deferted of king
to the prince. Lord Cornhury, fon to the earl of Cla- James s ar*
rendon, carried off the greateft part of three regiments
of cavalry at once ; and feveral officers of diftinCtion
informed Feverfham their general, that they could not
in honour fight againft the prince of Orange. Soon af¬
ter this, the unhappy monarch found himfelf deferted
by his own fervants and creatures. Lord Churchill had
been raifed from the rank of a page, and had been in-
vefted with an high command in the army; he had
been created a peer, and owed his whole fortune to the
king’s bounty : yet even he deferted among the reft ;
^ and carried wdth him the duke of Grafton natural fon
inextricable diftrefs. He paid court to the Dutch, and to the late king, colonel Berkley, and fome others. lpr
offered to enter into any alliance with them for their In this univerfal defection, James, not knowing where Diftreffed
common fecurity. He replaced in all the counties of to turn, began to think of requefting affiftance from filiation of
England all the deputy lieutenants and. juftices who France when it was now too late. He wrote to Leo- t^ie ^nS*
j 1 j—s—j .u„: :m— r„_  ju_ po]^ emperor of Germany : but in vain ; that monarch
only returning for anfwer. That what he had forefeen
had happened. James had fome dependence on his
fleet; but they were entirely difaffeCted. In a word,
his interefts were deferted by all, for he had long de¬
ferted them himfelf. He ftill found his army, however,
to amount to 20,000 men ; and had he led them im¬
mediately to battle, it is poffible they might then have
fought in his favour. But James’s misfortunes had de¬
prived him of his natural firmnefs and refolution ; and,
In this emergency, Lewis wrote , to James in his own
hand, that, to divert the Dutch from their intended in-
valion ,of England, he would lay fiege to Maeftricht
with 30,000 men. James communicated this intelli-
5 . gence to Sunderland, and he to the prince of Orange,
etra eTb" ^IX t^ou^an^ nien were thrown into Maeftricht; and
nderland. t^ie deffign of Lewis, as being impradticable, was laid
afide. On this, Lewis, being difgufted with James,
turned his arms towards^Germany. The dauphin laid
fiege to Philipfburgh on the 5th of Oftober; and prince
Clement of Bavaria, by throwing a ftrong garrifon into
Cologn, effe&ually fecured the ftates of Holland from
jg7 any fudden danger from the arms of France,
mes at- James had novy no refource but in retreating from
thofe precipitate meafures which had plunged him into
had been deprived of their commiffions for their adhe¬
rence to the left and penal laws. He reftored the char-
tets of fuch corporations as he had poffeffed himfelf of;
he annulled the high commiffion court ; he reinftated
the expelled prefident and fellows of Magdalen college;
and was even reduced to carefs thofe bifhops whom he
had fo lately perfecuted and infulted.
1. All thefe conceffions, however, were now too late ;
they were regarded as the effefts of fear, and not of re¬
pentance. Indeed, it is faid, he very foon gave proofs
William
lands in
England.
of his infincerity: for, hearing that the Dutch fleet feeing himfelf deferted by thofe in whom he thought
was difperfed, he recalled thofe conceffions he had made he could have placed moft confidence, he became fufpi-
in favour of Magdalen college; and, to fhow his at- cious of all, and was in a manner deprived even of the
tachment to the Romilh church, at the baptifm of the power of deliberation. In this extremity of diftrefs, the
prince of Wales he appointed the Pope one of the prince of Denmark, and Anne James’s favourite daugh-
fponfors. ter, perceiving the defperation of his circumftances.
In the mean time, William fet fail from Helvoetfluys cruelly refolved to take part with the prince of Orange,
with a fleet of near 500 veffels, and an army of above When the king was informed of this, he was flung with
14,000 men. Fortune, however, feemed at firft every the moft bitter anguilh. “ God help me (cried he), my
way unfavourable to his enterprize. He was driven
back by a dreadful ftorm ; but he foon refitted his fleet,
and again fet fail, for England. It was given out that
this invafion was defigned for the coafts of France; and
own children have forfaken me.” To add to his diftrefs
as a parent, he was accufed of being acceffary to the
death of his own child. Her nurfe, and her uncle the
earl of Clarendon, went up and down like diftra&ed
many of the Englifn, who faw the fleet pafs along their perfons, affirming that the Papifts had murdered the
coafts, little fufpe&ed the place of its deftination. It princefs. They publicly aflced the queen’s fervants
happened that the fame wind which fent the Dutch to whither they had conveyed her ? and they contributed
their place of deftination, detained the Englifh fleet in to inflame the populace, whofe zeal had already infla^
the river: fo that the Dutch paffed the ftreights of med them to tumult and diforder. It was, however,
Dover without moleftation; and, after a voyage of two foon known that fhe fled, under the condudt of the
days, landed at Broxholme in Torbay, on the y'h of biftiop of London, to Northampton.
November, the anniverfary of the gunpowder treafon. On the 30th of November 168S, James fent three of Haltfhat
But though the invitation from the Englifti was very his noblemen to treat with the prince of Orange. But behaviour ’
general, the prince for foine time had the mortification though the latter knew very well that the king’s com- of William.
Vol. II. 8 U miffioners
B R I [ 1446 ] B R I
Britain, miflioners were in his interefts, his behaviour fhowed
plainly that he now thought the time of treating was
pait. For fome time he would not admit them to an
audience; and, when he did, would give no fatisfa&ory
anfwer. James now began to be afraid of his perfonal
fafety. But what moft affe&ed him was the terrors of
the queen for herfelf and her infant fon. He therefore
refolved to fend them abroad. They croffed the river
in a boat, at Whitehall, in a ftormy and rainy day.
They were carried to Gravefend in a coach, under the
conduct of the count de Lauzun. A yacht, commanded
by captain Gray, which lay there ready for the pur-
293 P°fe> f°on tranfported them in fafety to Calais.
James at- The king was now fo difpirited and diftratfted, that
tempts to jje ref0lved to leave the kingdom at once, and thus
kinedom throw every thing into confufion. Fie threw the great
feal into the Thames ; he left none with any authority
to conduft affairs in his abfence ; and he vainly hoped
to derive advantage to his affairs from anarchy and dif-
order. About twelve at night, on the 10th of Decem¬
ber, he difguifed himfelf, took boat at Whitehall, and
croffed the river. Sir Edward Hales, with another
friend, met him at Vauxhall with horfes. He mounted;
and being conduced through by-ways by a guide, he
paired in the night-time to the Medway, which he
croffed by Ailesford-bridge. At Woolpeck he took
frefh horfes, fent thither before by Sheldon one of his
equerries who was in the fecret of his flight. He ar¬
rived at ten o’clock at Embyferry near Feverfham,
where a cuflomhoufe hoy, hired by Sir Edward Hales,
lay ready to receive them on board. But the wind
blew frefh, and the veffel had no ballaft. The mafter,
therefore, eafily perfuadcd the king to permit him to
take in ballall at Shilnefs. It being half ebb when they
ran afhore, they defigned to fail as foon as the veffel
Is feized and fbould be afloat. But when the veffel was almoft afloat,
infulted. file was boarded by three fifher-boats belonging to Fe¬
verfham, containing 50 men. They feized the king and
his two companions, under pretence of their being Pa-
pifts that wanted to efcape from the kingdom. They
turned up Feverfham water with the tide ; but ftill the
king remained unknown. Sir Edward Hales placed
privately 50 guineas in the hands of the captain, as an
earneft of more fhould he permit them to efcape. He
promifed : but was fo far from keeping his word, that
he took what money they had, under pretence of fecu-
ring it from the feamen ; and, having poffeffed himfelf
of their all, he left them to their fate. The unfortunate
fugitives were at length carried in a coach to Feverfham,
amid the infults, clamours, and fhouts, of the failors.
When the king was brought to the inn, a feaman, who
had ferved under him, knew him, and melted into tears;
and James himfelf was fo much moved at this inftance
of his affedfion, that he wept. The other fifhermen, who
had treated him with fuch indignity before, when they
faw his tears, fell upon their knees. The lower inhabi¬
tants of the whole village gathered round him; but the
better fort fled from his prefence. The feamen, how
ever, formed themfelves into a guard round him, and
declared that “a hair of his head fliould not be touch¬
ed.” In the mean time, Sir James Oxendon, under the
29J pretence of guarding him from the rabble, came with
Bis great the militia to prevent his efcape. The king found a
diflrefs. change in his condition when he was taken out of the
hands of the failors. The commanders of the militia
fhowed him no refpedl. He was even infulted by the Britain.
common foldiers. A letter which he intended to fend 
to London for clothes, a change of linen, and fome
money, was flopped by thofe who pretended to protect
his perfon.
All things in the mean time ran into confufion at
London, and the prince of Orange exercifed in his own
perfon all the functions of royalty. He iffued a decla¬
ration to the difbanded army to reaflemble themfelves.
He ordered the fecretary at war to bring him a lift of
the king’s troops. He commanded the lord Churchill
to' colledl his troop of horfe-guards. He fent the duke
of Grafton to take poflefiion in his name of Tilbury
fort. The affembly of peers adjourned to the council-
chamber at Whitehall; and, to give the appearance of
legality to their meeting, chofe the marquis of Hali¬
fax for their prefident. While this affembly was fitting,
on the 13th of December, a poor countryman, who had
been engaged by James, brought an open letter from
that unfortunate prince to London. It had no fuper-
fcription ; and it was addrefled to none. It contained,
in one fentence only, his deplorable condition when in
the hands of a defperate rabble. This poor meffenger
of their fallen fovereign had long waited at the council
dopr, without being able- to attrail the notice of any
who pafled. The earl of Mulgrave at length, apprifed
of his bufmefs, had the courage to introduce him to
the council. He delivered his open letter, and told
the flate of the king with tears. The afiembly were
fo much moved, tjiat they fent the earl of Feverfliam
with 200 of the guards towards Feverlham. His in-
ftrudlions were to refcue him firft from danger, and af¬
terwards to attend him to the fea-coaft, fliould he chufe j s I
to retire. He chofe, however, to return to London; James re- 1
but the prince of Orange fent a meffage to him defir- turns to I
ing him to advance no nearer the capital than Rochefter. London. |
The meffenger miffed James by the way. The king
fent Feverfliam with a letter to the prince of Orange,
requefting his prefence in London to fettle the nation.
He himfelf proceeded to that place, and arrived on
the 16th of December. Doubting the fidelity of the
troops who were quartered at Weftminfter, he chofe
to pafs through the city to Whitehall. Never prince
returning with vidlory to his capital was received with
louder acclammations of joy. All the ftreets were co¬
vered with bonfires. The bells were rung, and the air
was rent with repeated ftiouts of gladnefs. All orders
of men crowded to his coach ; and, when he arrived
at Whitehall, his apartments were crowded with people
who came to exprefs their joy at his return.
The prince of Orange received the news of his re¬
turn with an haughty air. His aim from the begin¬
ning was to force him by threats and feverities to re-
linquifli the throne. The Dutch guards were ordered
to take poffefiion of Whitehall, and to difplace the a
Englifti. The king was foon after commanded by a Command-
meffage, which he received in bed at midnight, to ed by Wil-
leave his palace next morning, and to depart for Ham, liam to leave
a feat of the duchefs of Lauderdale’s. He defired, hls Palace‘ (
however, permiflion to retire to Rochefter, a town not
far from the fea-coaft, and oppofite to France. This
was readily granted; and it was now perceived that
the harfti meafures of the prince had taken effedl, and
that the king meditated an efcape to France.
The king, furrouuded by the Dutch guards, arrived
at
B R I [ 1447 ] B R I
4 Britain, at Rochefter, on the 19th of December. The reftraint
put upon his perfon, and the manner in which he had
been forced from London, raifed the indignation of
many, and the compaflion of all. The Englifh army,
both officers and foldiers, began to murmur; and had it
I not been for the timidity and precipitation of James
J93 himfelf, the nation had certainly returned to their al-
eispreffid legiance. He remained three nights at Rochefter, in
(tayinjthe the midft of a few faithful friends. The earls of Ar-
ngdoni; ran, Dumbarton, Aileffiury, Litchfield, and Middle-
ton, werethere; and, with other officers of merit, the gal¬
lant lord Dundee. They argued againft his flight with
united efforts. Several bifhops, fome peers, and many
officers, intreated his flay in fome part of England.
Meffage followed melfage from London. They repre-
lented that the opinions of men began to change, and
that events would daily rife in favour of his authority.
Dundee added his native ardour to his advice. “ The
queftion, Sir, (faid he), is, Whether you fhall flay in
England, or fly to France? Whether you fhall trufl
the returning zeal of your native fubjeils, or rely on
a foreign power ? Here you ought to (land. Keep
poffeffion of a part, and the whole will fubmit by de¬
grees. Refume the fpirit of a king. Summon your
fubje&s to their allegiance. Your army, though dif-
banded, is not difperfed. Give me your commiffion.
I will gather 10,000 of your troops. I will carry your
ftandard at their head through England, and drive be¬
fore you the Dutch and their prince.” The king re¬
plied, “thathe believed it might be done ; but that it
would raife a civil war, and he would not do fo much
mifchief to a nation that would fo foon come to their
fenfes again.” Middleton urged his flay, though in
the remotefl part of the kingdom. “ Your majefty,
(faid he), may throw things into confufion by your de¬
parture ; but it will be but the anarchy of a month : a
new government will foon be fettled, and you and your
ip? family will be ruined.” Thefe fpirited remonftrances
But refufes. jia(j no effect Up0n James. He refolved to quit the
kingdom ; and having communicated his defign to a
few of his friends, he pafied at midnight through the
back-door of the houfe where he lodged, and with his
fon the duke of Berwick, and Biddulph one of his fer-
vants, went in a boat to a fmack, which lay waiting
for him without the fort of Sheernefs. By reafon of
a hard gale they were forced to bear up toward Leigh,
and to anchor on the Eflex-fide, under the lee of the
land. When the gale flackened, they reached the
Buoy of the Narrows without tacking ; but not being
able to weather the Goodwin, they were forced to fail
through the downs. Seven (hips lay there at anchor ;
300 but the fmack pafled unqueftioned along. Unable to
He lands in fetch Calais, fhe bore away for Boulogne, and anchored
; *ralice* before Ambleteufe. The king landed at three o’clock
in the morning of Tuefday, December 25th ; and ta¬
king poft, foon joined his queen at St Germains.
James having thus abandoned his dominions, the
prince of Orange remained mailer of them of courfe.
By the advice of the houfe of lords, the only member
of the legiflature remaining, he was defired to fummon
a"parliament by circular letters ; but the prince, unwil¬
ling to a6t upon fo imperfedt an authority, convened
all the members who had fat in the houfe of commons
during any parliament of Charles II. and to thefe were
added the mayor, aldermen, and fifty of the common
council of London; and the prince, being thus flip-
ported by an aflembly deriving its authority from him¬
felf, wrote circular letters to the counties and corpora¬
tions of England to call a new parliament.
The houfe being met, which was moftly compofed
of the Whig party, thanks were given to the prince of
Orange for the deliverance he had brought them; after
which they proceeded to fettle the kingdom. A vote
foon pafled both houfes, that king James II. having
endeavoured tb fubvert the conllitution of the kingdom,
by breaking the original contract between the king and
his people ; and having by the advice of Jefuits and
other wicked perfons violated the fundamental laws,
and withdrawn himfelf out of the kingdom; had abdi¬
cated the government, and that the throne was thereby
vacant.
The king being thus depofed, it was eafy for Wil¬
liam to get himfelf appointed as his fucceflbr. Pro-
pofals were made for elediing a regent. Others were
for invefting the princefs of Orange with regal power,
and declaring the young prince fuppofititious. To
thefe propofals, however, William oppbfed the - fol¬
lowing decifive argument, viz. that “ he had been
called over to defend the liberties of the Britilh nation,
and that he had happily efledled his purpofe ; that he
had heard of feveral fchemes propofed for the eftabliflt-
ing of the government; that if they chofe a regent,
he thought it incumbent upon him to inform them that
he would not be that regent; that he would not ac¬
cept of the crown under the princefs his wife, though
he was convinced of her merits : that therefore, if ei-
their of thefe fchemes was adopted, he could give them
no affiftance in the fettlement of the nation ; but would
return home to his own country, fatisfied with his aims
to fecure the freedom of theirs.” Upon this, after a
long debate in both houfes, a new fovereign was pre¬
ferred to a regent by a majority of two voices. It was
agreed that the prince and princefs of Orange fhould
reign jointly as king and queen of Britain ; while the
adminiftration of government fliould be placed in the
hands of the prince only. The marquis of Halifax,
as fpeaker of the houfe of lords, made a folemn tender
of the crown to their Highnefles, in the name of the
peers and commons of Britain. The prince accepted
the offer; and that very day, February 13th 1689,
William and Mary were proclaimed king and queen of
Great Britain.
Though Mary was comprehended in the royal title,
file never poffeffed either the authority of a queen, or
the influence of a wife. Her eafy temper had long
been fubdued by the ftern feverity of a hulband who
had very few amiable qualities. Being brought up in
a manner under the tuition of her fpoufe, and in fome
degree confined by his orders, flie was aecuftomed to
adopt implicitly his political maxims and even his
thoughts,; and in confequence of her want of impor¬
tance with him, fhe ceafed to be an objedl of confe¬
quence in the eyes of the nation.
William began his reign with iffuing a proclamation
for continuing in office all Proteftants that had been in
place on the firft of the preceding December. On
the 17th of the month he formed his privy council,
which confifted chiefly of fuch perfons as had been moil
adlive in railing him to the throne. To gratify as
many as poffible of his friends, the feveral boards, and
8 U 2 even
Britain.
joi
The throne
declared va-
301
William
railed to the
fovereignty.
B R I [ 1448 1 B R I
• Britain, even the chancery, were put into cotnmiflion. The
„ benches of the exchequer and common law were
filled with perfons who had diftinguifhed themfelves a-
gainll the meafuresof the late king. The earl of Not¬
tingham who had violently oppofed the elevation of
William, and the earl of Shrewfbury who had ad¬
hered to his views, were made fecretaries of ftate. The
marquis of Halifax, and the earl of Danby, though
rivals in policy, were admitted into the cabinet ; the
firft as lord privy feal, the fecond as prefid’ent of the
council. His Dutch friends in the mean time were
not forgotten by the king. Bentinck, his favourite, was
made a privy counfellor, groom of the dole, and privy
purfe. Auverquerque was appointed mafter of the
horfe. Zuylftein received the office of mafter of the
robes. Schomberg was placed at the head of the
ordnance.
303 Though thefe inftances of gratitude were no doubt
Naticma neceffary to William, the generality of the nation were
1 con en s. qqie tor;es were offended at being excluded
from his favour, efpecially as they had departed from
theii* principles in order to ferve him. The nation in
general were much prejudiced againft foreigners, and
univerfal difcontent enfued upon feeing them preferred.
The king, who had been bred a Calvinift, was alfo
very ftrongly inclined to favour that fed; and his pre¬
judices in favour of Calvinifm were almoft equal to thofe
of James in favour of Popery. Finding, therefore, the
clergy of the church of England little inclined to take
the oaths to the new government, he began openly to
indulge his own prejudices in favour of diffenters. Ha¬
ving come to the houfe of lords to pafs fome bills, on
the 16th of March, he made a fpeech, urging the ne-
304 ceffity of admitting all Proteftants indifcriminately into
HU fcheme the public fervice. He told his parliament, that he
in favour of had fomething to communicate, which would conduce
diirenters as yflycfo t0 their fettlement as to the dtfappointment
reje e . o£ enem;es> He informed them, that he was em¬
ployed in filling up the vacancies in offices of truft ; and
he hoped that they were fenfible of the neceffity of a
law to fettle the oaths to be taken by fuch perfons as
fhould be admitted into place. As he doubted not, he
faid, that they would fufficiently provide againft Pa-
pifts, fo he hoped that they would leave room for the
admiffion of all Proteftants that were able and willing
to ferve.
This propofition was rejefted with vehemence. The
adherents of the church complained that the ruin which
they feared from the Papifts in the preceding reign was
now to be dreaded from the Proteftant diffenters. They
affirmed, that if the eftablifhed religion was to be de-
ftroyed, it mattered little by whofe hands it muft fall.
A bill brought in by the miniftry for abrogating the
former oaths of fupremacy and allegiance was reje&ed.
An attempt to difpenfe with the facramental teft
was made without fuccefs in another form. The court
party propofed that any man fhould be fufficiently qua¬
lified for an office by producing a certificate of his ha¬
ving received the facrament in any Proteftant congre¬
gation. But this motion was alfo rejefted in the houfe
of lords by a great majority. William repeated his
attempts of a comprehenfion ; but he was ultimately
vmfuccefsful, and in the coronation-oath the church-
party inferted a claufe highly favourable to themfelves,
viz. that the king fhould maintain the Proteftant reli¬
gion “as eftablifhed by law.” To this claufe William Britain,
is faid to have difcovered an apparent unwillingnefs to |
fwear. 305
For thefe and other reafons the government of Wil- Tottering
Ham was for fome time but in a very tottering condi-
tion. The king, either through want of health or in- government
clination, interfered but little in the affairs of the na¬
tion. Ireland was ftrangely negle&ed. Halifax and
Danby, who had in a manner railed the king to the
throne, caballed with his enemies. They perceived
that the people, with the fame levity that induced them
to defert their former fovereign, were beginning to be
difcontented with their new prince. Every thing feemed
to tend to a change. Halifax himfelf declared, that
were James to conform with the Proteftants, he could
not be kept four months from reafcending his throne.
Danby averred, that, were the late king to give fatif-
fa&ion for the fecurity of religion, it would be difficult
to oppofe his reftoration. From thefe apparent dif-
contents of the nation, the friends and emiffaries of
James affumed more boldnefs. They tampered with
the fervants of the crown, and inflamed the army.
The former they alarmed with the profpeCt of a fudden
change ; thib latter they roufed into indignation by the
manifeft preference given by William to his country¬
men the Dutch.
Though the kingdom of Scotland did not at firft re- He is ac-
cognize the authority of William, yet the party of knowledge^
James never attained fufficient ftrength to be of any ef-
feftual fervice to him in that kingdom. Thirty Scots
peers, and near 80 gentlemen, then in London, had
waited in the beginning of January on the prince of
Orange. Without any authority from the regency
ftill fubfifting in Edinburgh, they formed themfelves
’ into a kind of convention. The prince of Orange in
a formal manner afked their advice. He withdrew,
and they adjourned to the council-chamber at White¬
hall. The duke of Hamilton being chofen prefident, ex¬
plained the diftrafted ftate of Scotland. He reprefent-
ed, that diforders, anarchy, and confufion, prevailed;
and he urged the neceffity of placing the power fome-
where till a convention of ftates ftiould be called to form
a lading and folid fettlement. When the heads of
their addrefs to the prince of Orange were fettled, and
ordered to be engroffed, the earl of Arran unexpefted-
ly arofe, and propofed to invite back the king. The
meeting, however, adhered to the prince of Orange;
and waited on him in a body, requefting him to take
the adminiftration into his hands. He thanked them
for the truft they had repofed in him ; and a conven¬
tion was ordered to meet at Edinburgh on the 14th of
March, and it was provided that no exception or limi¬
tation whatever ffiould be made, except that the mem¬
bers Ihould be Proteftants.
A feceffion, however, was made from this conven¬
tion, in favour of James. The archbifhop of Glaf-
gow, the earl of Balcarras, and the vifcount Dundee,
were authorized by an inftrument figned by the late
king, at that time in Ireland, to call a convention of
the ftates at Stirling. But this meafure was difap-
pointed, firft by the wavering difpofition of the marquis
of Athol, and afterwards by the delay and folly of the
party. At laft, the vifcount Dundee, being alarmed
by an information of a defign formed by the covenan¬
ters to affaffinate him, left Edinburgh at the head of
5°
B R I [ 1444 ] B R I
Iritain. horfe. When he pafled under the walls of the
' caftle, the duke of Gordon who held that place, and
favoured the caufe of James, called him to a conference.
He fcrambled up the precipice, and informed the duke
of his defigns in favour of the late king. He conjured
him to hold out the caftle, under a certainty of being
relieved. The novelty of the fight collefted multi¬
tudes of fpe&ators. The convention were alarmed.
The prefident ordered the doors to be locked, and the
keys to be laid upon the table. The drums were beat
to alarm in the town. A parcel of ill-armed retainers
were gathered together in the ftreet by the earl of Le-
ven. Dundee in the mean time rode off with his party.
But when they found themfelves fecure, the duke of
Hamilton adjourned the convention, which relieved the
adherents of James from dreadful apprehenfions for
their own fafety. Fifty members retired from Edin¬
burgh ; and that circumftance procured an unanimity
in all the fucceeding refolutions of the convention.
Soon after this it was determined in a committee, that
James had forefaultedhis right to the crown, by which
was meant that he had perpetually excluded himfelf
and his whole race from the crown, which was there¬
by become vacant. This refolution was approved by
the convention, and another was drawn up for raifing
William and Mary to the vacant throne; in confequence
of which they were proclaimed at Edinburgh on the
1 ith of April 1689.
The caftle of Edinburgh was ftill kept, in the name
of James, by the duke of Gordon : but defpairing of
any relief, and preffed by a fiege, he furrendered it
on the 13th of June, upon honourable terms. The ad¬
herents of James, terrified with this unexpected mif-
fortune, now turned their eyes to the vifcount Dun-
Utemptsof That noblenjan having been in vain urged by
>rd Dim- the convention to return, they had declared him a fa¬
ce in fa- gitive, an outlaw, and a rebel. General Mackay had
ames^ been fent to Scotland by William with four regiments
of foot, and one of dragons ; and Dundee being ap-
prifed of his defign to furprife him, retired to the Gram¬
pian mountains with a few horfe. He marched from
thence to Gordon caftle, where he was joined by the
earl of Dunfermline with 50 gentlemen. He then paf-
fed through the county of Murray to Invernefs. Mac¬
donald of Keppoch lay with 700 men before that town;
after having ravaged in his way from his own country
the lands of the clan of Macintofti. Dundee, having
promifed to the magiftrates of Invernefs to repay, at
the king’s return, the money extorted from them by
Macdonald, induced the latter to join him with all his
men. He could not prevent them, however, from firft
returning home with their fpoil. He accompanied
them to Lochabcr, and on the 8th of May arrived in
Badenoch. From thence he wrote letters to the chiefs
of all the clans, appointing them to meet at a general
rendezvous in Eochaber, on the 18th of the fame
month. In the mean time, paffing fuddenly through
Athol, he furprifed the town of Perth. In hopes of
gaining to his party the two troops of Scots dragoons,
who lay at Dundee, he marched fuddenly to that place:
but the fidelity of captain Balfour, who commanded
them,difappointed his views. Having raifed the land-
tax as he paffed, Dundee returned through Athol and
Rannoch to hold the diet of rendezvous at Lochaber.
Here he was reinforced by feveral Highland chieftains.
fo that his army amounted to 1500 men. • He purfued Britain.
Mackay for four days, who had advanced to Invernefs, “
but afterwards retreated to Strathbogie, leaving the
whole Highlands expofed to the enemy.
Soon after, however, Dundee found himfelf fur-
rounded with many difficulties. The officers of the
Scots dragoons, who held a fecret correfpondence with
him, wrote him falfe intelligence, as an excufe for their
own fears. They informed him that a party of Irifii,
who had endeavoured to land in Scotland, under the
duke of Berwick, were driven back, and the duke him¬
felf taken prifoner ; and that Mackay had been rein¬
forced with a regiment of Englifti horfe, and another
of foot. On this intelligence, Dundee retreated to Ba¬
denoch. The natives of the low country who ferved
in his army quitted him without leave ; and the High¬
landers plundered the country wherever they came : at
laft he himfelf fell fick, while Mackay hovered on his
rear. A flight Ikirmiih happened, in which the High¬
landers prevailed ; but they loft their baggage during
the aflion. Dundee at length arrived at Ruthven ;
but Mackay being reinforced with a body of 1200 men
advanced againft him, and other regiments had arrived
at Perth andDumblain. The Highlanders now defected
every night by hundreds ; their gallant leader himfelf
was forced to retire to Lochaber, where only 200 of
his whole force remained with him; and, to complete
his misfortunes, he received at the fame time news of
the furrender of the caftle of Edinburgh.
On the 23J of June, letters arrived from king James,
u'ith a promife of immediate fuccours from Ireland;
upon which Dundee ordered the neighbouring clans to
affemble round his ftandard. But ftill he had fcarce
any thing but the mere bodies of his men with which
he could profecute the war. The Highlanders were
armed only with their own proper weapons, and he had
no more than 40 pounds of powder in his whole army.
All difficulties., however, were furmounted by the adlive
fpirit of the general, for whom the army entertained
an enthufiaftic zeal. On the I7rh of July, he met the Hefs°flainat
king’s forces under general Mackay, near the pafs of Killicranky.
Killicranky. An engagement enfued, in which the
Highlanders were victorious. Two thoufand of Mac-
kay’s men were loft either in the field or in the purfuit;
but the vidlory coft the Highlanders very dear, for their
brave general was mortally wounded. He furvived the
battle, however; and wrote an account of the victory
to king James : he even imagined his wound was not
mortal; but he died the next morning at Blair. With,
him ended all the hopes of James in Scotland. Colo¬
nel Cannon, who fucceeded Dundee in the command,
poffeffed neither his popularity nor his abilities. After
fome infignificant aCtions, in which the valour of the
foldiers was more confpicuous than the conduCt of their
leader, the Highlanders difperfed themfelves in difguft;
and the war foon after ended favourably for William,
without any repulfe given to his enemies. 30{>
During the troubles in England, which had term!- Jreland ne-
nated in placing William on the throne, the two parties Pie^<l by
in Ireland were kept in a kind of tranquillity by their ^r‘fi‘ara-
mutual fears. The Proteftants were terrified at the
profpeCt of another maffacre ; and the Papifts expeCted
every day to be invaded by the joint force of the En¬
glifti and Dutch. Their terrors, however, were ill
founded; for though Tyrconnel fent feveral meffages
to
B Pv I
to tlie prince, that he was ready to deliver op the king-
“ dora to any force that might make a furrender decent,
his offers were always reje&ed. William was perfuaded
by the marquis of Halifax, that, fhould Ireland yield,
no pretence could remain for keeping an army in pay ;
that then, having no army to proteA his authority, he
might as eafily be turned out as he had been brought
in ; that the Englifh nation could never remain long in
a ftate of good humour; and that he might perceive
they already began to be difcontented. Thefe infi-
dious arguments induced William to negleft Ireland in
fuch a manner as is juftly looked upon to be one of the
greatefl blemifhes in his whole reign. His enemies,
indeed, though perhaps without any good foundation,
affign a worfe caufe; viz. that fhould England be
confirmed under his government, Ireland could not
long holdout; and that the obftinacy of his Irifh ene-
[ I45° 1
B R I
ment and feryices, that he created him a duke; after
which, he himfelf advanced towards Dublin. The con- ~
dition of the rabble, who poured round him under the
name of an army, was not calculated to raife his hopes
of fuccefs. The moft of them were only provided with
clubs; fome had flicks tipt with iron; and even of
thofe who were befl armed, fcarce two in a hundred
had mufkets fit for fervice. Their very numbers di-
ftreffed their fovereign, and ruined the country; info-
much that James refolved to difband the greatefl part
of them. More than 100,000 were already on foot in
the different parts of the ifland. Of thefe he referved
14 regiments of horfe and dragoons, and 35 regiments
of foot; the reft he ordered to their refpettive homes,
and armed thofe that were retained in the befl manner
he could.
Being received at Dublin with an appearance of u-
mies would give a pretence for forfeitures to gratify his niverfal joy, James proceeded immediately to bufinefs.
Englifh, but efpecially his foreign, friends.
He ordered by proclamation all Proteflants who had
Tyrconnel, difappointed in his views of furrender- abandoned the kingdom to return. He commanded in
ing Ireland to the prince of Orange, affedled to adhere a fecond proclamation, all Papifts, except thofe in his
to James. The whole military force of the kingdom army, to lay up their arms, and put an end to the rob-
at that time amounted only to 4000 men, and of thefe beries and depredations which they had committed in
only 600 were in Dublin ; and what was flill worfe, all the violence of their zeal. He raifed the value of the
of them werefo muchdifpofed to quit the fervice, that currency by a proclamation; and he fummoned a par-
the lord deputy was obliged to iffue commiffions for liament to meet on the 7th of May, to fettle the affairs
levying new forces. Upon this, an half-armed rabble, of the kingdom. The Proteflant clergy reprefented
rather than army, rofe fuddenly in various parts of their grievances in an addrefs; and the univerfity of
the kingdom. Having no pay from the king, they Dublin appeared with complaints and congratulations.
fubfifted by depredation, and regarded no difeipline
Proteftants The Proteftants in the north armed themfelves in their
takear
their own
defence.
' own defence; and the city of Londonderry, relying on
its fituation, and a flight wall, fhut its gates againft
the new-raifed army. Proteftant parties in the mean
time rofe every where, declaring their refolution to u-
nite in felf-defence, to preferve the Protellant religion,
to continue their dependence on England, and to pro¬
mote the meeting of a free parliament.
To preferve appearances, William now fent general
He affured the firfl of his abfolute prote&ion, apd a full
redrefs; and he promifed the latter not only to defend,
but even to enlarge, their privileges. 3t4
On the 8th of April, James left Dublin, refolving to Is forced tJ
lead his army againft; the infurgents in perfon. They raife 'he
retired before him, and the king laifl fiege to London- J^dmi
derry. The befleged made fuch a vigorous reliftance aerry.
as has made the place remarkable ever fince f: but be- f See Lott¬
ing reduced to the laft extremity, they would have been donderry.
obliged to furrender, had not they been relieved on the
Hamilton, an Irifhman and a Roman-catholic, to treat 28th of July, by feven fhips laden with provifions; up-
with Tyrconnel; but inftead of perfuading that lord
to yield to William, this meffenger advifed him to ad-
which, the fiege was immediately raifed.
In the mean time, the diftreffed fituation of James, isdriven in
here to James. In the meantime James himfelf affured and his abfolute dependence upon France, drove him to difagrec--
They are
defeated at
Drumore.
into meafures which otherwife he would never have able n
thought of. His foldiers for fome time had been fup- fures-
ported by their officers, or fubfifted by depredation.
The funds of the officers were at laft exhaufted, and
the country itfelf could no longer bear the riot and in-
juftice of the foldiers. Preffed by thefe difficulties,
James, by the advice of his council, refolved to coin
pieces of copper, which fhould be received for filver.
He faw well enough the inconveniencies of this mea-
the lord deputy, that he was ready to fail from Breft
with a powerful armament. Hamilton, affuming fpi-
rit from the hopes of this aid, marched againft the
northern infurgents. They were routed with confider-
able flaughter at Drumore; and Hillfborough, where
they had fixed their head-quarters, was taken without
refiftance: the city of Londonderry, however, refolved
to hold out to the jaft extremity.
On the 7th of March 1689, James embarked at Breft.
The whole force of his expedition confided of 14 (hips fure; but all Ireland poffeffed not the means of paying
of war, 6 frigates, and three fire-lhips. Twelve hun- the army, in current coin, to the middle of June. Of
dred of his native fubjedls in the pay of France, and the French remittances only 200,000 livres remained;
313 100 French officers, compofed the whole army of James, and the king found it abfolutely neceffary to referve that
James 1 nds He landed at Kinfale without oppofition on the 12th fum, to forward his meafures with regard to Britain,
in Ireland. 0f t^e jpontJjj where he was received with the utmoft and to procure intelligence of the motions of his ene-
demonftrations of joy. His firft care was to fecure in mies. The army was fatisfied even with this appear-
the fort of Kinfale, the money, arms, and ammunition,
which he brought from France; and put the town in
fome pofture of defence: which having done, he advan¬
ced to Corke. Tyrconnel arrived at this place foon
after, and brought intelligence of the route at Dru-
more. The king was fo much pleafed with his attach-
e of money, and the people received the fictitious
coin in hopes of being repaid in a more favourable ftate
of affairs. A tax of 20,000/. a month, granted for 13
months by the parliament, furnilhed government with
an appearance of refources; and in the mean time the
king endeavoured to fupport the former revenue. He
opened
B R I [ 1451 ] B R I
Britain, opened a trade with France to fupply the want of com¬
merce with England. But the French, knowing their
own importance, and the neceflity of the unfortunate
monarch’s affairs, claimed and obtained advantages in
316 traffic, which offended his own fubje&s.
eland in- To add to the diftrefs of James, Ireland was now in-
'ihiam’s va^et^ ^7 lOyOOO men under the command of the duke
J|my; of Schomberg. They appeared on the t2th of Auguft
1 ' 1689, in 90 tranfports, on the coaft of Donaghadee,
in the county of Down. Next day Schomberg landed
without oppofition his army, horfes, .and train of artil¬
lery. Having marched to Belfaft on the 15th, he con¬
tinued in that place four days to refrefh his troops. He
invefted Carrickfergus, and threw into it 1000 bombs,
which laid the houfes in afhes. The garrifon having
expended their powder to the lafl: barrel, marched out
with all the honours of war. But Schomberg’s foldiers
broke the capitulation. They difarmed and ftripped
the inhabitants, without any regard to fex or quality;
even women, dark naked, were publicly whipped be¬
tween the lines; and all this under pretence of cruel¬
ties of the fame kind having been committed by the
Papifts.
Though Schomberg was an experienced general, who
had paffed a life of 80 years almott continually in the
field, he found himfelf at a lofs how to carry on the
war in Ireland. He did not confider the dangers that
threatened the health of his troops by confining them
too long in one place ; and he kept them in a low moifl
camp near Dundalk, almoft without firing of any kind;
fo that the men fell into fevers and fluxes, and died in
great numbers. The enemy were not lefs afflifted with
fimilar diforders. Both camps remained for fome time
in fight of each other; and at laft, the rainy feafon ap¬
proaching, both armies quitted their camps at the fame
time, and retired into winter quarters,
tnd by The bad fuccefs of the campaign, and the miferable
Villiam in fituation of the Proteflants in Ireland, at length induced
erfon. William to attempt their relief in perfon. Accordingly
he left London on the 4th of June 1690, and arrived
at Carrickfergus on the I4rh of that month. From
thence he paffed to Lifburn, the head quarters of the
duke of Schomberg. He reviewed at Lough-Britland
his army, which confifted of 36,000 men, and was com-
pofed of Englifh, Dutch, Germans, Danes, and French.
Being fupplied with every neceffary, and in high health
and fpirits, they feemed abfolutely certain of viftory.
S’S The Irifh army, having abandoned Ardee at their ap-
8oyneatthe Proac^> ^ t>ac^ to ^ fouth of the Boyne. On the
banks of that river they were joined by James, who had
marched from Dublin at the head of his French auxi¬
liaries. The banks pf the Boyne were fteep ; the fouth
fide hilly, and fortified with ditches. The river itfelf
was deep, and it rofe very high with the tide. Thefe
advantages induced James, contrary to the opinion of
his officers, to keep poffeffion of this poll. His army
was inferior in numbers, difcipline, and every thing, to
his enemies s but flight, he thought, would difpirithis
troops, and tarnifh his own reputation; he therefore re-
folved to put the fate of Ireland on the iffue of a battle.
Urged by his friends in England, and encouraged by
a projefted invafion of that kingdom by France, he had
refolved to quit Ireland ; and to this he was farther en¬
couraged by the aflurance of aid from a powerful fleet
that had already entered the narrow feas. But the
ftrength of his fituation, and the fudden appearance of Britain,
the enemy, which made even a retreat dangerous, in- "
duced him to defer his purpofe. 3IJ)
William was no fooner arrived, than he rode along William in
the river’s fide, in fight of both armies, to make pro- danger,
per obfervations on the plan of battle; but in the mean
time, being perceived by the enemy, a cannon was pri¬
vately brought out and planted againft him where he
was fitting. The (hot killed feveral of his followers,
and he himfelf was wounded in the flioulder. The
news of his being flain was inftantly propagated thro*
the Irilh camp, and even fent off to Paris ; but Wil¬
liam, as foon as his wound was dreffed, rode through
the camp, and quickly undeceived his army.
The next morning, (June 30rh), the battle began
at fix in the morning. James’s forces behaved with 340
great refolution, but were at laft defeated with the lofs James de-
of 1500 men. The Proteftants loft but about one third featec5,
of that number; but among thefe was their brave ge¬
neral the duke of Schomberg. He was killed by a dif*
charge from his^ own troops, who, not knowing that
he had been accidentally hurried into the midft of the
enemy, fired upon the body of men who furrounded
him. During the a&ion, James flood on the hill of
Dunmore, furrounded with fome fquadrons of horfe ;
and at intervals was heard to exclaim, when he faw his
own troops repulfing thofe of the enemy, “ O fpare
my Englifh fubjefts!” While his troops were yet fight¬
ing, he quitted his ftation; and leaving orders to guard
the pafs at Duleek, made the beft of his way to Dub¬
lin. He advifed the magiftrates of that city to make
the beft terms they could with the va&ors; and he him- He flies t*
felf fet out for Waterford, where he immediately em- France,
barked for France. When he firft deferted his troops
at the Boyne, O’Regan, an old Irifti captain, was heard
to fay, “ That if the Englilh would exchange generals,
the conquered army would fight them over again.”
The vi&ory at the Boyne was by no means decifive, War conti-
and the friends of James refolved to continue their op- nued in his
pofition to William. Sarsfield, a popular and expe- lienee,
rienced general, put himfelf at the head of the army
that had been routed at the Boyne, ^nd went farther
into the country to defend the banks of the river Shan¬
non. James appointed one St Ruth to command over
Sarsfield, which gave the Irifti univerfal difcontent. On
the other hand, general Ginokle, who had been ap¬
pointed to command the Englifti army in the abfence
of William, who was gone over to England, advanced
towards the Shannon to meet the enemy. The only
place where it was fordable was at Athlone, a ftrong
walled town built on both Aides of the river, and in the
hands of king James’s party. The Englifti foon made .
themfelves mafters of that part which was on the hither
fide of the river; but the part on the oppofite bank be¬
ing defended with great vigour, was for a long while
thought impregnable. At length it was refolved in a
council of war, that a body of forlorn hope ftiould ford
the ftream in the face of the enemy; and this dcfperate
enterprize was performed with great refolution ; the
enemy were driven from their works, and the town fur-
rendered at difcretion. St Ruth marched his army to
its relief, but he came too late ; for he no fooner ap¬
proached, than his own guns were turned againft him:
upon which he inftantly marched off and took poft at
Aughrim, at ten miles diftance, where he determined
to
B R I [ 1452 ] B R I
fti'itasn, to wait the Englifli army. Ginckle did not decline the
combat, though he had only 18,000 men, while the
St Ruth were above 25,000 ftrong. A defperate engage-
Tames’s g«- ment enfued; but at laft St Ruth being killed, his
reral, de- troops gave way on all tides, and retreated to Limeric,
fcated and wiiere they determined to make a final Hand, after ha-
1 e ‘ ving loft near 5000 of their beft men.
Ginckle, wifiring to put an end to the war at once,
5l4 fuffered as many of the Irifir as chofe, to retire to Li-
Limcric be- meric. In this laft retreat the Irifh forces made a
lieged. brave defence. The fiege commenced Auguft 25th
1691. Six weeks were fpent before the place without
any decifive effeft. The garrifon was well fuppliecTwith
provifions, and provided with all means of defence.
5. j The winter was approaching, and Ginckle had orders
Favourable to finifti the war upon any terms. He therefore offered
terms allow- fuch conditions as the Irilh, had they been vidtors, could
Gin-kl” fcarce ^ave refufed with prudence. .He agreed, that all
in arms ftiould receive their pardon: that their eftates
fttould be reftored, their attainders annulled, and their
outlawries reverfed: that none ftiould be liable for debts
incurred through deeds done in the courfe of hoftilities:
that all Roman-catholics ftiould enjoy the fame tolera¬
tion with regard to their religion, as in the reign of
Charles II.: that the gentry ftiould be permitted to
make ufe of arms: that the inferior fort ftiould be al¬
lowed to exercife their callings and profeffions: that no
oaths but that of allegiance ihould be required of high
or low: that ftiould the troops, or any number of them,
choofe to retire into any foreign fervice, they ftiould be
conveyed to the continent, at the expence of the king:
Sarsfield, who had obtained the title of earl of Lucan
from James after his abdication, was permitted to re¬
tain a dignity which the laws could not reeognife. The
lords juftices had arrived from Dublin on the firft of
October. They figned the articles together with Ginc¬
kle ; and thus the Irifti Papifts put a happy period to
a war which threatened their party with abfolute ruin.
In confequence of this treaty, about 14,000 of thofe
who had fought for king James went over to France,
having tranfports provided by government for convey¬
ing them thither. When they arrived, James thanked
them for their loyalty, and told them that they ftiould
ftill fight for their old matter; and that he had obtain¬
ed an order from the king of France, for their being
new clothed, and put into quarters of refrefliment. In
this manner all James’s expectations from Ireland were
entirely fruftrated, and the kingdom fubmitted quietly
to the Englifti government.
In the beginning of the year 1692, an action of un-
Mafiacre at exampled barbarity difgraced the government of Wil-
Glenco. ]{am jn Scotland. In the preceding Auguft, in con¬
fequence of a pacification with the Highlanders, a pro¬
clamation of indemnity had been iffued to fuch infur-
gents as ftiould take the oaths to the king and queen,
on or before the laft day of December. The chiefs of
the few tribes who had been in arms for James complied
foon after with the proclamation : but Macdonald of
Glenco failed in fubmitting within the limited time;
more, however, from accident than defign. In the end
of December, he came to colonel Hill, who commanded
the garrifon in fort William, to take the oaths of allegi¬
ance to the government. Hill, having furniftied Mac¬
donald with a letter to Sir Colin Campbell, flieriff of the
county of Argyle, directed him to repair immediately to
Inverary, to make his fubmiflion in a legal manner before Britain,
that magiftrate. The way to Inverary lay through al-
moll impaffable mountains ; the feafon was extremely
rigorous, and the whole country covered with a deep
fnow. So eager, however, was Macdonald to take thg
oaths, before the limited time Ihould expire, that, tho’
the road lay within half a mile of his own houfe, he
would not ft op to vifit his family. After various ob-
ftruftions, he arrived at Inverary. The time was elap-
fed, and the ftieriff hefitated to receive his fubmiffion ;
but Macdonald prevailed on him by his importunities,
and even tears. Sir John Dalrymple, afterwards earl
of Stair, attended king William as fecretary of ftate
for Scotland. He took advantage of Macdonald’s ne-
gledting to take the oaths within the time prefcribed,
and procured from the king a warrant of military exe¬
cution againtt him and his whole tribe. As a mark of
his own eagernefs, or to fave Dalrymple, William
figned the warrant, both above and below, with his
own hand. The fecretary, in letters exprefiive of a
brutal ferocity of mind, urged the officers who com¬
manded in the Plighlands to execute their orders with
the utmoft rigour. Campbell of Glenlyon, a captain
in Argyle’s regiment, and two fubalterns, were order¬
ed, with 120 men, to repair to Glenco on the firft of
February. Campbell, being uncle to young Macdo¬
nald’s wife, was received by the father with all manner
of friendftiip and hofpitality. The men were treated
in the houfes of his tenants with free quarters and kind
entertainment. Till the 13th of the month, the troops
lived in good humour and familiarity with the people.
The officers, on the very night of the maffacre, paffed
the evening and played at cards in Macdonald’s houfe.
In the night, lieutenant Lindfay, with a party of fol-
diers, called in a friendly manner at his door. He was
inftantly admitted. Macdonald, as he was rifing to
receive his gueft, was fliot dead behind his back, with
two bullets. His wife'had already put on her clothes;
but file was dripped naked by the foldiers, who tore
the rings off her fingers with their teeth. The {laugh¬
ter was become general. To prevent the pity of the
foldiers to their hofts, their quarters had been changed
the night before. Neither age nor infirmity was fpared.
Some women, in defending their children, were killed.
Boys, imploring mercy, were fhot by officers, on whofe
knees they hung. In one place, nine perfons, as they
fat enjoying themfelves at table, were ffiot dead by the
foldiers. At Inveriggen, in Campbell’s own quarters,
nine men were firft bound by the foldiers, and then
ffiot at intervals, one by one. Near 40 perfons were
maffacred by the troops. Several, who fled to the
mountains, periffied by famine and the inclemency of
the feafon. Thofe who efcaped owed their lives to a
terr.peftuous night. Lieutenant colonel Hamilton,
who had the charge of the execution from Dalrymple,
was on his march with 400 men, to guard all the paf-
fes from the valley of Glenco ; but was obliged to ftop
by the feverity of the weather, which proved the fafety
of the unfortunate tribe. He entered the valley next
day; laid all the houfes in afhes; and carried away all
the cattle and fpoil, which were divided among the of-
cers and foldiers.
The entire redudlion of Ireland, and the difperfion
and extermination of the Highland chieftains who fa¬
voured his caufe, did not entirely put an end to the
hopes
B R I [ 1453 ] B R 1
hopes of James. His chief expectations next were (hips of the line, befides frigates ami firc-ihips. At the Brlraim
founded on a confpiracy among his Engliih adherents, head of this formidable fleet he fet fail for the coaft of *
plots in fa- and in the fuccouvs promifed him by the French king. France ; and, near La Hogue, he difcovered the ene-
vour of A plot was firft formed in Scotland by Sir Jairtes Mont- my under Tourvilie, who prepared to give him battle.
James. gomery ; a perfon who, from being an adherent to The engagement began between the two admirals with W!l
William, now turned againft him : but as the project great fury, and the reft of the fleet foon followed their fe-ueil.
was ill contrived, fo it was as lightly difcovered by the example. The battle lafted for ten hours ; but at laft
inftigator. To this another fueceeded, which feemed victory declared on the fide of numbers : the French
to threaten more ferious confequences, as it was ma- fled for Conquet road, having loft four fliips in the firft
raged by the whig party, who were the moft form!- day’s aftion. The purfuit continued for two days fol¬
dable in the ftate. A number of thefe joined them- lowing : three French {hips of the line were deftroyed
felves to the tories, and both made advances to the ad- the next day ; and 18 more, which had taken refuge in
herents of the late king. They afletnbled together ; the bay of La Hogue, were burned by Sir George
and the refult of their deliberations was, that the re- Rooke. In this manner were all the French prepara-
ftoration of James was to be effeCted entirely by foreign tions fruftrated ; and fo decifive was the blow, that
forces : that he fhould fail for Scotland, and be there from this time France feemed to relinquiih ail claims to
joined by 5000 Swedes; who, becaufe they Were of
the Proteftant religion, would, it was thought, remove
a part of the odium which attended an invafion by fo¬
reigners : it was concerted that afliftance (hould at the
fame time be fent from France, and that full liberty of
confcience {hould be proclaimed throughout the king¬
dom. In order to lofe no time, it was refolved to fend
over to France two trufty perfons to confult with the
baniftied monarch ; and lord Prefton and Mr Aftiton
were the two perfons appointed for this embaffy. Both
of them, however, were feized when they leaft expeCted
it, by order of lord Carmarthen. Both were con¬
demned, and Aftiton was executed without making
any confeffion; but lord Prefton had not the fame re-
folution. Upon an offer of pardon, he difcovered a
great number of affociates; among whom the duke of
Ormond, lord Dartmouth, and lord Clarendon, were
foremoft.
He is fup- The French at laft became fenfible of their bad po-
ported by licy in not having better fnpported the caufe of James,
theFrench. anj therefore refolved to make a defeent upon England
in his favour. In purfuance of thisfeheme, the French
king fupplied James with an army confiding of a body
of French troops, fome Englifh and Scots refugees,
and the Irifh regiments, which had been tranfported
into France from Limeric, and were now become ex¬
cellent foldiers by long difcipline and fevere duty. This
army was affembled between Cherbourg and La Hogue,
and commanded by king James in perfon. More than
300 tranfports were provided for landing it on the op-
pofite coaft;; and Tourvilie, the French admiral, at
the head of 63 ftiips of the line, was appointed to favour
the defeent. His orders were, at all events, to attack
the enemy, in cafe they {hould oppofe him ; fo that
every thing promifed the baniftied king a change of
fortune.
Thefe preparations on the fide of France were foon
known at the Englifti court, and every precaution ta¬
ken for a vigorous oppofition. All the fecret machi¬
nations of the baniftied king’s adherents were difcovered
to the Englifti miniftry by fpies; and by thefe they
found that the tories were more faithful than even the
whigs who had placed king William on the throne.
The duke of Marlborough, lord Godolphin, and even
the princefs Anne herfelf, were violently fufpedted of
difaffeftion. Preparations, however, were made, with
great tranquillity and refolution, to refill the growing
ftorm. Admiral Ruffel was ordered to put to fea with
all poffible expedition ; and he foon appeared with 99
Vol. IL
the ocean.
This engagement, which happened on the 21st of
May 1692, put a final period to the hopes of James.
No further attempts were made in his favour, excent
fome plots to affaflinate king William, which ended
only in the deftrudtion of thofe who formed them. But
it was never thoroughly proved that James countenanced
thefe plots in the leaft ; it rather appears, that in all
cafes he expreffed the utmoft abhorrence of fuch at¬
tempts. In 1697, the abbe de Polignac, ambaffador james^of-
from France in Poland, wrote to his mafter, that fered the
thoughts were entertained of the late king of Britain, c>rown °f
in the new ele&ion which happened on the death 0f io‘ant1,
John Sobielki king of Poland ; and that James had
been already named by fome of-the diets as his fuc-
ceffor. Lewis was eager to feize an opportunity of
ridding himfelf with honour of a prince whofe preten- 331
fions he could no longer fupport. The friends of Which he
James were alfo fangulne for the projedl; but he himfelf rcfcfcs*
refufed it. He told them, that “ he would ever retain a
rateful remembrance of his friends in Poland. That,
owever, he would not accept of the crown, had it ac¬
tually been offered ; much lefs would he endeavour to
obtain by felicitation any crown which was not ac¬
tually his due. That his acceptance of any other feeptre
would amount to an abdication indeed of that which he
deemed his right. Tiiat therefore he was refolved to
remain in his prefent forlorn condition, poffefiing Id’s
hopes than ever of being reftored, rather than to do
the leaft aft of prejudice to his family.” The fame
year, at an interview between king William and William en-
Lewis XIV. it was propofed that the prince of Wales g-<gestoown
(James’s fon) {hould fucceed to the throne of England James’s {hn
after the death of William. The king with little hefi- K£«$or0wa
tation agreed to this requeft. He even folemnly en¬
gaged to procure the repeal of the a& of fettlement;
and to declare by another, the prince of Wales hisfuc-
ceffor to the throne. Even this propofal was rejefled by
James. He told the king of France, that though he which3
could fuffer with patience the ufurpation of his nephew James re-
upon his right, he would never permit his own fon to fufes.
be guilty of the fame injuftice. He urged, that ftiould
the fon reign in his father’s lifetime, that circumftance
would amount to a formal renunciation. That the
prince of Wales by fucceeding to the prince of Orange,
would yield his foie right, which was that of his fa¬
ther, &c.
From this time James loft every hope of being re- His death,
ftored to the throne, and refigned himfelf entirely to
8 X the
B R I [ 1454 J B R I
Britain, the aufterities of religious enthufiafm. His conftitution,
though vigorous and athletic, had for fome time begun
to yield to the infirmities of age, and to that melan¬
choly which fuperftition as well as his uncommon mif-
fortunes had imprefled on his mind. In the beginning
of September 1701, when he was, according to his
daily cuftom, at public prayers, he fell fuddenly into a
lethargy ; and though he recovered^his fenfes foon af¬
ter, he languilhed for fome days, and expired on the
6t!l of September. The French king, with great huma¬
nity, paid him feveral vifits during his ficknefs ; and
exhibited every fymptom of compaffion, affe&ion, and
even refpe&.
Lewis, being under a difficulty how to proceed upon
* the expe&ed death of James, called a council to take
their advice, whether he ihould own the prince of Wales
as king of Great Britain and Ireland. The king him-
felf had hefitated long on this delicate fSoint. But the
dauphin, the duke of Burgundy, and all the princes of
the blood, declared, that it was unbecoming the dig¬
nity of the crown of France not to own that the titles
of the father devolved immediately upon the fon. Lewis
approved of this refolution, and determined to acquaint
the dying king with it in perfon. When he arrived at
St Germains, he acquainted firft the queen, and then
her fon, of his defign. He then approached the bed in
which James lay almofl infenfible with his diforder.
The king, roufing himfelf, began to thank his moft
Chriftian majefty for all his favours ; but Lewis inter¬
rupted him. “ Sir (faid he), what I have done is but a
335 fmall matter; but what I have to fay,is of the utmoft
Pretender importance.” The people then began to retire. “ Let
Lewis mbe n° Per^on withdraw (faid Lewis). I come to acquaint
ttieking^of* X00’ t^at when G°cl (hall pleafe to call your ma-
Britain. jehy from this world, I fhall take your family into my
proteftion, and acknowledge your fqn, as he then will
certainly be, king of Great Britain and Ireland.”
Though the defeat of the French fleet at La Hogue
had put king William<out of all danger from any fur¬
ther attempts from that quarter, he by no means pof-
fefied his throne with any kind of tranquillity. The
want of a common enemy produced diffenfions among
the people, and William began to find as much uneafi-
nefs from his parliament at home as from an enemy in
the field. The uneafinefs he felt from the re'fradtory
difpofition of his fubje&s was not a little heightened
335 by the death of his queen, who was taken off by the
Death of fmall-pojc on the 28th of December 1694. For fome
quceuMary. time he was under a fincere concern for her lofs ; but
as politics had taken entire poffeffion of his mind, he
loft all other concerns in the greatnefs of his apprehen-
fions for the balance of power and the fluctuating in-
337 terefts of Europe.
National His chief motive for accepting the crown was to en-
difcontent. gage England more deeply in the concerns of Europe.
His great objeCt had been to humble the French, and
all his politics confifted in forming alliances againft
them. On the other hand, many of the Englifli had no
fuch animofity againft the French: and thefe, therefore,
coniidered the intereft of the nation as facrificed to fo¬
reign connexions; and complained that the continental
war fell moft heavily on them, though they had the
leaft intereft in its fuccefs. Thefe complaints were heard
by William with the moft phlegmatic indifference ; he
employed all his attention only on the balance of power,
and the interefts of Europe. He became unmindful of Britain,
the cultivation of internal polity ; and, as he formed
alliances abroad, increafed the influence of party at
home. Patriotifm began to be ridiculed as an ideal vir¬
tue ; and the pra&ice of bribing a majority in parlia¬
ment became univerfal. The example of the great was
caught up by the vulgar; principle, and even decency,
was gradually banifhed ; talents lay uncultivated, and
the ignorant and profligate were received into favour.
The king, upon accepting the crown, was refolved
to preferve as much of the prerogative as poffible ;
and he fometimes exerted a branch of it which his
predeceflbrs had never chofen to make ufe,of, viz.
the power of refufing his aflent to fome bills that had
pafled both houfes. From this and other caufes there
were perpetual bickerings between him and his parlia¬
ments. At laft William became fatigued with oppofi- f
tion. He admitted every reftraint upon the prerogative
in England, upon condition of being properly fupplied
with the means of humbling France. Provided the par¬
liament fupplied him with the means of executing this,
he permitted them to rule the internal polity as they
pleafed. For the profecution of the French war, the
fums granted were indeed incredible. The nation, not
contented with furnifliirig him fuch fums of money as
they were capable of raifing by the taxes of the year,
mortgaged thofe taxes, and involved themfelves in debts
which they have never fince been able to difcharge.
The war with France continued during the greateft
part of this king’s reign ; but at length the treaty of
Ryfwick, in 1697,. put an end to thofe contentions in
which England had engaged without policy, and came •
off at laft without advantage. In the general pacifica¬
tion, her interefts feemed entirely deferted ; and for all
the treafures {he had fent to the continent, and all the
blood which had been died there, the only equivalent
received was an acknowledgement of William’s title
from the king of France. 33g
The king, 'being now freed from a foreign war, fet William ob
himfelf to {Lengthen his authority at hopie. As he dii
could not bear the thoughts of being a king without
military command, he conceived hopes of keeping up,
in the time of a profound peace, thofe forces which had
been granted during the time of danger. The com¬
mons, however, to his great mortification, paffed a vote,
that all the forces in the Englilh pay, exceeding 7000
men, fttould be forthwith dilbanded; and that thofe
retained ftiould be natural-born fubje&s of England.
With this vote the king was excedingly difpleafed. His
indignation, indeed, was kindled to fuch a degree, that
he adhially conceived a defign of abandoning the go¬
vernment. From this, however, his minifters diverted
him, and perfuaded him to confent to the paffing of
the bill.
Thefe altercations continued during the remainder
of this reign. William confidered the commons as a
body of men defirous of power for themfelves, and
confequently bent upon obftru&ing all his proje&s to
fecure the liberties of Europe. He feemed but little at¬
tached to any particular party in the houfe, all of whom
he found at times deferted or oppofed him. He there¬
fore veered to whigs and tories indifcriminately, as in¬
tereft or the immediate exigence demanded. He con¬
fidered England as a place of labour, anxiety, and
altercation. If he had any time for amufement or re¬
laxation.
B R I 1455 13 R I
Britain, taxation, he retired to Loo in Holland, where, among
’ ~ a few friends, he gave a loofe to thofe cparfe feftivities
which he alone was capable of relilhing. Here he plan¬
ned the different fucceffion of the princes ©f Europe,
and laboured to undermine the fchemes and the power
of Lewis his rival in politics and fame,
lie engages But however feeble William’s defire of other amufe-
Britain in a ments might be, he could fcarce live without being at
■confede- variance with France. Peace had fcarce been made with
Rfrancc'3111" t^at nat,onJ when he began to think of refources for
carrying on a new war, and for inlifting his Englifh
fubje&s in the confederacy againft that nation. Several
arts were ufed for inducing thepeople tofecond his aims;
and the whole nation feemed at laft to join in defiring
a French war. He had been in Holland concerting
with his allies operations for a new campaign. He had
engaged in a negociation with the prince of Heffe ;
who aflured him, that, if he would befiege and take
Cadiz, the admiral of Caftile and feveral other grandees
of Spain would declare for the houfe of Auftria. The
eledtor of Hanover had refolved to concur in the fame
meafures; the king of the Romans, and prince Lewis
of Baden, undertook to inveft Laudan, while the em¬
peror promifed to fend a powerful reinforcement into
Italy : but death put a period to his projedts and his
ambition.
His death. William was naturally of a very feeble conftitution ;
and it was by this time almoft quite exhaufted by a fe-
ries of continual difquietude and adlion. He had endea¬
voured to repair his conftitution, or at leaft to conceal
its. decays, by exercife and riding. On the 2i,t of Fe¬
bruary 1702, in riding to Hampton-court from Ken-
fington, his horfe fell under him ; and he was thrown
with fuch violence, that his collar-bone was fradtured.
His attendants conveyed him to the palace at Hamp¬
ton-court, where the fradture was reduced; and in the
evening he returned to Kenfington in his coach. The
jolting of the carriage difunited the fradture ; and the
bones were again replaced by Bidloo his phyfician.
This, in a robuft conftitution, would have been a trifling
misfortune ; but to him it was fatal. For fome time he
appeared in a fair way of recovery ; but falling afleep
on his couch, he was feized with a Ihivering, which ter¬
minated in a fever and diarrhsea, that foon became dan¬
gerous and defperate. Perceiving his end approaching,
the objedts of his former care lay next his heart; and
the fate of Europe feemed to remove the fenfations he
might be fuppofed to feel for his own. The earl of Al¬
bemarle arriving from Holland, he conferred with him
in private on the pofture of affairs abroad. Two days
after, having received the facrament from archbifhop
Tennifon, he expired, on Sunday March 8th; having
lived .52 years, and reigned 13.—He was in his perfon
of a middle ftature, a thin body, and a delicate confti¬
tution. He had an aquiline nofe, fparkling eyes, a targe
forehead, and a grave folemn afpedt. He left behind
him the charadfer of a great politician, though he had
never been popular ; and of a formidable general, tho’
he had been feldom vidforious. His deportment was
rave, phlematic, and fullen ; nor did he ever fhow any
re but in the day of battle.
Acceffion William was fucceeded by the princefs Anne, who
of queen married George prince of Denmark. She afeended
Anne. the throne in the 38th year of her age, to the ge¬
neral fatisfadlion of all parties. William had died at
the eve of a war with France : and the prefent queen,
who generally took the advice of her miniftry on every
important occafion, was now urged by oppofite coun¬
cils ; a part of her miniftry being inclined to war, and
another to peace. At the head of thofe who oppofed a
war with France was the earl of Rochefter, lord lieute¬
nant of Ireland, firft coufin to the queen, and the chief
of the tory fa&ion. At the head of the oppofite party
was the earl afterwards duke of Marlborough, and fince
fo much renowned for his vi&ories over the French.
After giving the reafons for both their opinions, that
of Marlborough preponderated: the queen refolved to
declare war ; and communicating her intentions to the
houfe of commons, by whom it was approved, war 34*
was proclaimed accordingly. In this declaration ^arade-cI^*
war, Lewis was taxed with having taken poflefiion of’praa^eain
a great part of the Spanifh dominions ; with defigning
to invade the liberties of Europe, to obftrudl the free¬
dom of navigation and commerce ; and with having
offered an unpardonable infult to the queen and her
throne by acknowledging the title of the pretender:
he was accufed of attempting to unite the crown of
Spain to his own dominions by placing his grandfon
upon the throne of that kingdom, and thus of endea¬
vouring to deftroy the equality of power that fubfifted
among the ftates of Europe. This declaration of war
on the part of England was feconded by fimilar de¬
clarations by the Dutch and Germans, all on the
fame day.
Lewis XIV. whofe power had been greatly eircum-
feribed by William, expefted, on the death of the tat¬
ter, to enter on a field open for new conquefts and
fame. At the news of the Englifti monarch’s death,
therefore, he could not fupprefs his rapture; the peo¬
ple of Paris, and indeed through the whole kingdom,
teftified their joy in the moft public manner. At feeing,
therefore, fuch a combination againft him, the French
monarch was filled with indignation.; but his refent-
ment fell chiefly on the Dutch. He declared with great
emotion, that as for thofe gentlemen pedlars the Dutch,
they ftiould one day repent their infolence and prefump-
tion in declaring war againft him whofe power they had
formerly felt and dreaded. By thefe threats, however,
the affairs of the allies were no way influenced. Marl- Duke of
borough was appointed general of the Britifh forces, Marlbo-
and by the Dutch he was chofen generaliflimo of the ro1Sh
allied army ; and indeed his after conduft fhowed, that neral? ^C*
no perfon could poflibly have been chofen with greater
propriety. He had learned, the firft rudiments of war
under the famous marthal Turenne, having been a vo¬
lunteer in his army ; and by that general his future
greatnefs was prognofticated.
The firft attempt that Marlborough made to deviate
from the general pra<ftice.s of the army was to advance
the fubaltern officers, whofe merits had been hitherto
negle&ed. Regardlefs of feniority, wherever he found
abilities, he was fure to promote them; and thus he
had all the upper ranks of commanders rather remark¬
able for their {kill and talents, than for their age and
experience. In his firft campaign, in the beginning of His fi^cefs
July 1702, he repaired to the camp at Nimeguen, in his firft
where hv found himfelf at the head of 60,000 m*en campaign,
well provided with all neceffaries, and long difeiplined
by the heft officers of the age. He was oppofed on the
part of France by the duke of Burgundy, a youth of
8X2 - very
r.rila'n.
B R I [ ] B R I
very little experience in the art of war; but the real
a&ing general was the marihal Boufflers, an officer of
courage and aftivity. But wherever Marlborough ad¬
vanced, the French were obliged to retire before him,
leaving all Spanifh Guelderland at his difcretion. The
duke of Burgundy finding himfelf obliged to retreat be¬
fore the allied army, rather than expofe himfelf longer to
fuch a mortifying indignity, returned to Verfailes, lea¬
ving Boufflers to command alone. Boufflers retired to
Brabant: and Marlborough ended the campaign by
taking the city of Liege ; in which was found an im-
menfe fum of money, and a vaft number of prifoners.
i4> This good fortune feemed to confole the nation for
Lcfiesatfea. feme unfuccefsful expeditions at fea. Sir John Munden
had permitted a French fquadron of 14 fhips to efcape
him by taking (belter in the harbour of Corunna ; for
which he was difmified the fervice by prince George.
An attempt was made upon Cadiz by fea and land, Sir
George Rooke commanding the navy, and the duke of
Ormond the land forces ; but this alfo mifearried. At
Vigo, however, the Brithh arms were-attended with
better fuccefs. The duke of Ormond landed with 2500
men at the diftance of fix miles from the city, while the
fleet forcing their way into the harbour, the French fleet
that had taken refuge there were burned by the enemy
to prevent their falling into the hands of the Englifli.
Eight (hips were thus burned and run afhore ; but ten
345 (hips of war were taken, together with eleven galleons,
Bravery and and above a million of money in filver. In the Weft
death of ad- Indies, admiral Bembow had been ftationed with ten
nnral Bern- ^jpS to jjqrefg the enemy’s trade. Being informed
that Du Cafle the French admiral was in thofe feas
with a force equal to his own, he refolved to attack
him; and foon after difeovered the enemy’s fquadron
near St Martha, (leering along the (hore. He quickly
gave orders to his captains, formed the line of battle,
and the engagement began. He found, however, that
the reft of the fleet had taken fome difguft at his con-
duft; and they permitted him to fuftain, almoft alone,
the whole fire of the enemy. Neverthelefs, the engage¬
ment continued till night, and he determined to renew
it next morning. But he had the mortification to per¬
ceive that all the reft of his (hips had fallen back, ex¬
cept one, who joined him in urging the purfuit of the
enemy. Four days this intrepid feaman, affifted by only
one, (hip, purfued and engaged the enemy, while his
cowardly officers remained at a diftance behind. His
laft day’s battle was more furious than any of the for¬
mer : alone, and unfupported by any of the reft, he
engaged the whole French fquadron; when his leg was
(battered by a cannon-ball, and he himfelf died foon
after of his wounds. Two of his cowardly affociates
were (hot on their arrival in England ; one died on his
paflage thither; the reft were difgraced.
The next parliament, which was convened by the
347 queen, were highly pleafed with the fuccefs of the Bri-
Cominental ti(h arms on the continent. The houfe of commons
army in- was compofed chiefly of tories, who voted 40,000 fea-
ereaied. men, and the like number of land-forces, to aft in con-
junftion with thofe of the allies. Soon after, the queen
informed her parliament, that (lie was prefled by the
allies to augment her forces ; and upon this it was re¬
folved that 10,000 more men (hould be added to the con-
tinental army, but on condition that the Dutch fliould
immediately break off all commerce with France and
Spain ; and this condition was very readily complied Britain,
with. _ 4 ^
In the beginning of April 170 j, the duke of Marl- Succefs of
borough croffed the fea, and, affembling the allied army, Marlbo-
opened the campaign with the fiege of Bonn, the refi- rough,
dence of the eleftor of Cologne. This held out but a
(hort time. He next.retook Huy; the garrifon of which,
after a vigorous defence, furrendered prifoners of war.
Limburg was next befieged, and furrendered in two
days; and thus the campaign concluded, the allies ha¬
ving fecured the country of Liege, and the eleftorate
of Cologne, from the defigns of the enemy.
In the campaign of 1704, the duke of Marlborough
informed the Dutch that it was his intention to march
to the relief of the empire, which had been for fome
time opprefled by the French forces; and the dates
gave him full powers to march as he thought proper,
with aflurances of their affiftance in all his endeavours.
The French king, finding Boufflers no longer capable
of oppofing Marlborough, appointed the marftial de
Villeroy to command in his place. But Marlborough,
who, like Hannibal of old, was remarkable for ftudy-
ing the difpofition of his antagonifts, having no great
fears from Villeroy, immediately flew to the afiuiance
of the emperor. Taking with him about 13,000 Bri-
tifli troops, .he advanced by hafty marches to the banks
of the Danube; he defeated a body of French and Ba¬
varians ftationed at Donavert to oppofe him; then paf-
fedthe river, and laid under contribution the dukedom
of Bavaria that had fided with the enemy. Villeroy,
who at firft attempted to follow his motions, feemed all
at once to have loft fight of his enemy; nor was he ap-
prifed of his route, till informed of his fucceffes. But,
in the mean time, marlhal Tallard prepared by another
route to obftruft Marlborough’s retreat, with an army
of 30,000 men. He was foon after joined by the duke
of Bavaria’s forces ; fo that the French army in that
part of the continent amounted to 60,000 veterans,
commanded by the two beft reputed generals then in
France. 34!,
To oppofe thefe powerful generals, the duke of Marl- French de-
borough was joined by a body of 30,000 men under at
the celebrated prince Eugene. The allied army, with B en clm*
this reinforcement, amounted, to about 52,000. After
various marches and countermarches, the two armies
met at Blenheim f. A terrible engagement enfued, in t Set B/eK-
which the French were entirely defeated, and a country ^em'
of 100 leagues extent fell into the hands of the con¬
querors. Soon after finilhing the campaign, the duke
repaired to Berlin, where he procured a reinforcement
of 8000 Prufiians to ferve under prince Eugene in Italy.
Thence he proceeded to negociate for fuccours at the
court of Hanover; and foon after returned to England,
where he was received with every-poflible demonftration
of joy. ... . .35®
The arms of Britain, in the mean time, were not Gibraltar
lefs fortunate by fea than by land. The town of Gi- ,akcn*
braltar was taken by the prince of Heffe and Sir George
Rooke: but fo little was the value of the conqueft at
that time underftood, that it was for fome time in debate
whether it was a capture worth thanking the admiral
for; and at laft it was confidered as unworthy of pub- 3Jr
lie gratitude. Soon after, the Britilh fleet, to the French de¬
number of 53 (hips of the line, came up with that of featedadea,
France, confifting of 52 men of war, commanded by
the
B R I [ 1457 ] B R I
the count de Thouloufe, off the coaft of Malaga. This the duke gained a vi&ory almoft as complete as that of ^n'taip.
“was the lad great naval engagement in which the Blenheim had been; and the whole country of Brabant
French ventured to face the British on equal terms. The was the reward of the vi&ors. The French troops were
battle began at ten in the forenoon, and continued with now difpirited; the cityofPariswas in confufion; Lewis,
great fury for fix hours; when the van of the French who had long been flattered with conqueft, was now
began to give way. The Britifh admiral, for two days, humbled tofuch a degree as almoft to excite the compaf- 3J7
attempted to renew the engagement; but this was as fion of his enemies. He entreated for peace, but in vain; Lewis fues
cautioufly declined by the French, who at laft difap- the allies carried all before them; and his very capital*11 vain fur
peared totally. Both lides claimed the vi&ory, but the began to dread the approach of the conquerors. But Peace*
3Jl confequences decided it in favour of the Britifti
Ineffedtual In the mean time, the Spaniards, alarmed at the ta-
attempt of king of Gibraltar, fent the marquis of Villadurias with
the Spa- a jarge artny to retake it. France alfo fent a fleet of
niar s on ^ fhipS 0f the line: but part of them were difperfed
by a tempeft, and part taken by the Britifh. Nor was
the land army more fuccefsful. The fiege continued for
four months; during which time the prince of Heffe,
who commanded the town for the Englifli, gave many
proofs of valour. At length, the Spaniards having at¬
tempted to fcale the rock in vain, finding no hopes of
taking the place, were contented to draw off their men,
and abandon the enterprife.
While the Britifh were thus vi&onous by land and
of Srafn11S ^ea> a new ^cene contention was opened on the fide
f ’ of Spain. Philip IV. grandfon of Lewis XIV. had
been placed on the throne of that kingdom, and
^Gibraltar.
Charles ap-
what neither his armies nor his politics could effefl,
was brought about by a party in England. The dif-
fenfion between the whigs and lories faved France that
now feemed tottering on the brink of ruin. 3j8
The councils of the queen had hitherto been govern- Revolution
ed by a whig miniftry; for though the duke of Marl- m thecoun-
borough ftarted in the intereft of the oppofite party, ^l*°*<l0eea
he foon joined the whigs, as he found them moft fin-
cere in the defign of humbling France. The people,
however, were now, in faft, beginning to change, and
a general fpirit of toryifm to take place. The queen’s
perfonal virtues, her fucceffes, her deference for the
clergy, and their great veneration for her, began to
have a prevailing influence over the whole nation. Peo¬
ple of every rank were not afhamed to defend the moft
fervile tenets, when they tended to flatter or increafe the
power of the fovereign. They argued in favour of ftrifl
ved with the joyful concurrence of the greateft part of hereditary fucceflion, divine right, and non-refiftance
his fubjefts. He had alfo been nominated fucceffor to to the regal power. The lories, though joining in
the crown by the late king of Spain’s will. But in a vigorous meafures againft France, were never ardently
former treaty among the powers of Europe, Charles, their enemies: they rather fecretly hated the Dutch,
fon of the emperor of Germany, was appointed heir to as of principles very oppofite to their own; and longed
that crown ; and this treaty had been guarantee’d by for an opportunity of withdrawing from their friend-
France herfelf, though fhe now refolved to reverie that Ihip. They began to meditate fchemes of oppofition to
confent in favour of a defcendant of the houfe of Bour- the duke of Marlborough. Him they conlklered as a
bon. Charles was ftiil farther led on to put in for the felf-interefted man, who facrificed the real advantages
crown of Spain, by the invitation of the Catalonians, of the nation, in protradling a ruinous war for his own
who declared in his favour; and, with the affiftance of private emolument and glory. They faw their country
the Britifh and Portuguefe, promifed to arm in his oppreffed with an increafing load of taxes, which by a
caufe. Upon his way to his newly affumed dominion,
he landed in England; where he was received on fhore
b-ythe dukes of Somerfet and Marlborough, who con-
Hs is fup- du&ed him to Windfor. He was kindly received by
ported by t^e qUeen- anc} furni{hed with 200 tranfports, 30 Ihips
<iueen Anne ^ war, an(j gQOO men> for the conqueft of that exten-
five empire. The earl of Peterborough, a man of ro¬
mantic bravery, offered to conduft them ; and his fingle
35S fervice was reckoned equivalent to armies.
continuance of the war muft inevitably become an in¬
tolerable burden. Their difeontents began to fpread,
and the lories wanted only a few determined leaders to
aflift them in removing the prefent miniftry.
In the mean time a fuccelfion of Ioffes began to dif- e iglilh de-
fipate the conquering frenzy that had feized the nation felted at Al¬
in general, and to incline them to wilh for peace. The manza-
earl of Galway', who commanded the army in Spain, was
utterly defeated at Almanza f by the duke of Berwick; f See .
The firft attempt of this general was on the city of and in confequence 'of this vidtory, all Spain, except
3S«
French de¬
feated at
Ramillies.
Barcelona, at that time defended by a garrifon of 5000
men. The fort Monjuc, fituated on a hill that com¬
manded the city, was attacked; the outworks were ta¬
ken by ftorm, and the powder-magazine was blown up
by a fhell; upon which the fort immediately furrender-
ed, and the city capitulated in a Ihort time after. The
conqueft of all Valencia fucceeded the taking of Bar¬
celona. Charles became mafter of Arragon, Cartha-
gena, Grenada, and Madrid. ThS Britilh general en¬
tered the capital in triumph, and there proclaimed
Charles king of Spain without oppofition,
the province of Catalonia, returned to their duty, to
Philip their lawful fovereign. An attempt was made
upon Toulon, by the duke of Savoy and prince Eugene
by land, and an Englifli fleet by fea; but to no pur- '
pofe. The fleet under Sir Cioudefly Shovel, having fet s[,i„wreek
fail for England, was driven by a violent ftorm on the of SirCloud-
rocks of Scilly. His own fliip was loft, and every/ foul fley Shovel.
on board periftied. Three more (hips met with the fame
fate; while three or four others were faved with the
utmoft difficulty. In Germany, marfhal Villars the
French general carried all before him, and was upon
To thefe fucceffes, however, very little regard was the point of reftoring the elector of Bavaria. The only
paid in Britain. The vidlories of the duke of Marl- hopes of the people lay in the -aAivity and conduft of
borough alone engroffed their attention. In 1*706, he the duke of Marlborough, who opened the campaign
opened the campaign with an army of 80,000 men. of 1707, about the middle of May; but even here they
He was met by the French under Villeroy near the vil- were difappointed. The duke declined an engagement;
lage of Ramillies f. An engagement enfued, in which and after feveral marchings and countermarchings, both
B R I
[ H58 ]
B R I
Britain, armies retired into winter-quarters about tbe end of Scotland fliould be reprefented in the parliament of Britain.
3<Si
Union be¬
tween Scot,
land and
England.
O&ober. The French made vigorous preparations for
the next campaign; and the duke returned to England
to meet with a reception he did not at all expeft, and
which, as far as appears, he did not deferve.
The moft remarkable tranfaftion, however, of this
year, and indeed of this whole reign, was the union be¬
tween the two kingdoms of Scotland and England.
Great Britain by x6 peers, and 45 commoners, to be -
defied in fuch a manner as fhould be fettled by ithe
prefent parliament of Scotland ; that all peers of Scot¬
land Ihould be confidered as peers of Great Britain,
and rank immediately after the Engliih peers of the like
degrees at the time of the union, and before fuch as
fhould be created after it; that they (hould enjoy all
Though governed by one fovereign fince the time of the privileges of Englilh peers, except fitting in the
James I. of England, yet each nation continued to be houie of lords and voting on the trial of a peer; that
ruled by its refpe&ive parliament ; and often profeffed all the infignia of royalty and government fliould re-
to purfue oppofite interefts to thofe of its neighbour, main as they were ; that all laws and ftatutes in either
The union had often been unfuccefsfully attempted be- kingdom, as far as they might be in'confiftent with the
fore. A new attempt commenced with the beginning terms of thefe articles, fliould ceafe, and be declared
of Anne’s reign: but fome.difputes arifing relative to void by both parliaments.
the trade of the eaft, the conference was broke up, and The obtaining the fan&ion of the Englifli and Scots
it was thought that an agreement would be impollible. parliaments to thefe articles, was found to be a matter
It was revived by an a£l in either parliament, granting of much more difficulty than had been at firft imagined,
power to commiffioners named on the part of both na- To induce the Scots parliament to come into the mea-
tioris to treat on the preliminary articles of an union, fure, it was alleged by the miniftry and their fup-
which fliould afterwards undergo a more thorough dif- porters, that an entire and perfeft union would be the
cuffion by the legiflative body of both kingdoms. The foundation of a folid and lading peace. It would fe-
choice of thefe commiffioners was left to the queen; and cure their religion, liberty, and property; remove the
flie took care that none ftiould be employed but fuch animoflties that prevailed among themfelves, and the
as heartily concurred in the meafure. jealoufies that fubfifted between the two nations. It
The commiffioners met in the council-chamber of the would increafe their ftrength, riches, and commerce.
cock-pit near Whitehall; which was the place appoint¬
ed for their conferences. Their commiffions being o-
pened, and introduflory fpeeches pronounced by the
The whole ifland would be joined in affe&ion, and freed
from all apprehenfions of different interefts, fo as to be
enabled to refill all its enemies, to fupport the Prote-
lord keeper of England and by the lord chancellor of ftant intereft, and maintain the liberties of Europe. It
Scotland, the conference began. The Scots commif- was obferved, that the lefs the wheels of government
fioners were inclined to a federal union like that of the were clogged by a multiplicity of councils, the. more
United Provinces ; but the Englilh were bent upon an vigorous would be their exertions. They were ftiown,
incorporation, fo that no Scottilh parliament Ihould that the taxes, which in confequence of this union
they were to pay, were by no means proportionable to
their lhare in the legiflature : that their taxes did not
amount to a 70th part of thofe fupplied by the Englifli,
and yet their (hare in the legiflature was not a tenth
part lefs. In the Englifli houfes ft was obferved, that
a powerful and dangerous nation would thus for ever be
prevented from giving them any difturbance: that in
cafe of any future rupture, England had every thing
to lofe, and nothing to gain, againft a nation that was
courageous and poor.
On the other hand, the Scots were fired with indig¬
nation at the thoughts of lofing their ancient and inde¬
pendent government. The nobility found themfelves
r have power to repeal the articles of this treaty.
The lord keeper Cowper propofed, that the two king¬
doms of Scotland and England fliould be for ever united
into one, under the name of Great Britain; that it
fliould be reprefented by one and the fame parliament,
and governed by the fame hereditary monarch. The
Scqts commiffioners, on their part, infilled that the
fubje£ts of Scotland fliould forever enjoy the fame rights
and privileges with thofe of England ; and that all fta¬
tutes, contrary to the tenor of thefe privileges in either
kingdom, fliould be repealed. As the queen frequently
exhorted them to difpatch, the articles of this famous
union were foon agreed to by the commiffioners ; and
it only remained to lay them before the parliaments of degraded in point of dignity and influence, by being
excluded from their feats in parliament. The trading
part of the nation beheld their commerce loaded with
heavy duties, and confidered their new privilege of
trading to the Englifli plantations in the Weft Indies
as a very uncertain advantage. In the Englifti houfes
alfo it was obferved, that the union of a rich with a
poor nation would be always beneficial to the latter,
and that the former cpuld only hope for a participation
of their neceffities.—«It was faid, that the Scots reluc¬
tantly yielded to this coalition, and that it might be
likened to a marriage with a woman againft her con-
fent. It was fuppofed to be an union made up of fo
many unmatched pieces, and fuch incongruous ingre¬
dients, that it could never take effect. It was c
both nations.
By thefe articles it was ftipulated,That the fucceffion
to the united kingdoms ftiould be veiled in the houfe
of Hanover; that the united kingdoms ftiould be re¬
prefented by one and the fame parliament; that all the
fubje&s of Great Britain {hould enjoy a communica¬
tion of privileges and advantages; that they fliould
have the fame allowances and privileges with refpeft to
commerce and cuftoms; that the laws concerning pu¬
blic right, civil government, and policy, fliould be the
fame throughout the two united kingdoms ; but'that
no alteration fliould be made in laws which concerned
private right, except for the evident benefit of the fub-
je&s of Scotland ; that the courts of feffion, and all
other courts of judicature in Scotland, fliould remain as plained, that the proportion of the land-tax paid by the
then'conftituted by the laws of that kingdom, with the Scots was frnall, and u 1 n _r i.
fame authority and privileges as before the union ; that giflature.
equal to their {hare of the le-
To
Britain.
B R I [ 1459 ] B R I
To thefe arguments in both nations, befides the
fhew of a particular anfwer to each, one great argu¬
ment was added, which preponderated againft all the
leffer ones. It was obferved, that all inconveniences
were to be overlooked in the attainment of one great
folid advantage ; viz. that of a&ing with an unifor¬
mity of councils for the benefit of a community natu¬
rally united. The party therefore for the union pre¬
vailed ; and this meafure was carried in both nations,
through all the obftacles of pretended patriotifra and
private intereft.
Notwithftanding all the oppofition of the Englifh
tories, every article of the union was approved in the
houfe of lords ; and being fent to be ratified by the
houfe of commons, Sir Simon Harcourt prepared the
bill in fuch an artful manner as to prevent all debates.
All the articles as they paffed in Scotland were recited
by way of preamble ; and in the cdnclufion there was
one claufe by which the whole was ratified arid ena&ed
into a law. By this contrivance, thofe who were de-
firous of darting new difficulties found themfelves dif-
abled from purfuing their aim : they could not objeft
to the recital which was merely a matter of fa6l; and
they had not ftrength fufficient to oppofe all the ar¬
ticles at once, which had before paffed with the majo¬
rity. It pafied in the houfe of commons by a majority
of 114 ; it made its way through the houfe of lords a
fecond time with equal eai'e; and when it received the
royal fandlion, the queen exprefled the utmoft fatif-
faction.
French <le- The duke of Marlborough in the mean time return-
feated at ed to Flanders, where he feemed refolved to pufh his
Oadenarde. gOOCj fortune. Peace had been offered more than once ;
treaties entered upon, and as often fruffrated. After
the battle of Ramillies, the king of France had em¬
ployed the eleftor of Bavaria to write letters in his
name to the duke of Marlborough, containing propo-
fals for opening a congrefs. He offered to give up ei¬
ther Spain and its dominions, or the kingdoms of Naples
and Sicily, to Charles of Auftria, and to give a barrier
to the Dutch in the Netherlands. But thefe terms
were rejefted. The two armies once more met in num-
* See Oude- bers nearly equal at Oudenarde *. An engagement
narde. enfued, in which the French were defeated, and Lifle
the ftrongeft town in Flanders, Ghent, Bruges, and
all the other towns in that country, foon after fell into
the hands of the viftors. The campaign ended with
fixing a barrier to the Dutch provinces, and it now
only remained to force a way into the provinces of the
enemy.
The French king, being now in a manner reduced to
defpair, again fued for peace ; but the demands of the
allies were fo high, that he was obliged to rejeft them,
and prepare for another campaign. This was in the
year 1709. The firft: attempt of the allies was on the
city of Tournay, garrifoned by 12,000 men, and ex¬
ceedingly ftrong both by nature and art. After a
terrible fiege of 21 days, the town capitulated; and a
month afterwards the citadel, which was ftill ftronger
than the town. Next followed the bloody battle of
* See Mai- Malplaquet * ; where the allied army, confiding of
flaguct. j io^oomen,attackedtheFfenchconfiftingof 120,000,
3*53 ftrongly polled and fortified in fuch a manner that they
And at Mai-peerne(j qUite inacceffible. Nothing, however, was able
P aquet. tQ ftan(j before the allied army ; they drove the French
from their fortifications: but their viftory coll them Britain,
dear ; 20,000 of their bell troops lay dead on the field
of battle. The confequence of this vidlory was the
furrender of the city of Mons, which ended the cam-
Paign- . 3C4
The laft campaign of the duke of Marlborough, Laft cam-
which happened in the year 1711, is faid to have ex- paignofthe
celled all his former exploits. He was oppofed by the j^arlbo^
marlhal Villars, the fame who had commanded the rough. *
French in the battle of Malplaquet. He contrived his
meafures fo, that, by marching and countermarching,
he induced the enemy to quit a llrong line of entrench¬
ments without llriking a blow, which he came after¬
wards and took poffeffion of. This enterprize was fol¬
lowed by the taking of Bouchain, which was the lalt 35j
military atchievement of this great general. By a con- His excel-
tinuance of condudl and fuccefs almoll unparallelled, he lent conduit
had gained to the allies a prodigious tradi of country.
From the beginning of the war, which had now con¬
tinued nine years, he had perpetually advanced, and
.never retreated before his enemies, nor loft an advan¬
tage he had obtained over them. He moll frequently
gained the enemy’s polls without fighting ; but where
he was obliged to attack, no fortifications were able to
refill him. He had never befieged a city which he did
not take, nor engaged in a battle in which he did not
come off vidlorious. Thus the allies had reduced un¬
der their command Spanilh Guelderland, Limbourg,
Brabant, Flanders, and Hainault; they were mailers
of the Scarpe, the capture of Bouchain had opened for
them a way into the heart of France, and another cam¬
paign might have made them mailers of Paris: but on
the duke’s return from this campaign, he was accufed
of having taken a bribe of 6000 1. a-year from a Jew Heisdifmif-
who had contrafted to fupply the army with bread ; from al*
and the queen thought proper to difinifs him from all hls employ*
his employments.
The difgrace of the duke of Marlborough had been
owing to the prevalence of the tory party, who had
now got the whig miniftry turned out: the confe¬
quence of this was, that in fpite of all the remonltran-
ces, memorials, &c. of the allies, the Britifir army in
Flanders was ordered not to a£l offenfively; and in -c7
1713, a peace was concluded between France and Bri- Peace with
tain. In this treaty it was ftipulated, that Philip, now I'’r“llCe-
acknowledged king of Spain, Ihould renounce all right
to the crown of France, the union of two fuch power¬
ful kingdoms being thought dangerous to the liberties
of Europe. It was agreed, that the duke of Berry,
Philip’s brother, and after him in fucceffion, Ihould al-
fo renounce his right to the crown of Spain, in cafe he
became king of France. It was ftipulated, that the
duke of Savoy fhtmld poffefs the ifland of Sicily, with
the title of king; together with Feneftrelles, and other
places on the continent; which increafe of dominion was
in fomfe meafure made out of the fpoils of the French
monarchy. The Dutch had the barrier granted them
which they fo much defired ; and if the crown of France
was deprived of feme dominions to enrich the duke of
Savoy, on the other hand the houfe of Auftria was
taxed to fupply the wants of the Hollanders, who were
put in poffeffion of the ftrongeft towns in Flanders.
The fortifications of Dunkirk were demoliflied. Spain
gave up Gibraltar and the ifland of Minorca. France
refigned her pretenfionsto Hudfon’s bay, Nova Scotia,
and
B R I [ 1460 ] B R T
Jjchain. ancj jSJ^\vfoundland ; but was left in pofiefilon of Cape
Breton, and the liberty of drying fifh upon the ihore.
Among the articles glorious to the Britiih nation, their
fetting free the French Proteftants confined in the pri-
fons and gallies for their religion, was not the leaft me¬
ritorious. For the emperor it was ftipulated, that he
fhould poffefs the kingdom of Naples, the duchy of
Milan, and the Spanifii Netherlands. The king of
Prufiia was to have Upper Guelder; and a time was
fixed for the emperor’s acceding to thefe articles, as he
had for fome time obftinately refufed to aifift at the rae-
.gociation.
This famous treaty, which was figned at Utrecht on
the 1 aft day of March 1713, was the laft remarkable
tranfa&ion of this reign. The reft of its hiftory con-
fifts entirely of the intrigues of the whigs and tories a-
gainft one another ; which, as they are now of no im¬
portance, it is needlefs to take up time in relating, fur¬
ther than that the tory influence continued to pre¬
vail. Whether the miniftry at this time wifhed to al¬
ter the fucceffion from the Hanoverian line, cannot now
be clearly made out; but certain it is, that the whigs
firmly believed it, and the tories but faintly denied the
charge. The fufpicions of the former became every
day ftronger, particularly when they faw a total re¬
moval of the whigs from all places of truft and confi¬
dence throughout the kingdom, and their employments
beftovved on profefled tories, fuppofed to be maintainers
3fi8 of an unbroken hereditary fucceffion.
Death of the The violent diflenfions between thefe twoparties, their
queen. unbounded licentioufnefs, cabals, and tumults, made
the queen’s fituation very difagreeable ; her health de¬
clined ; and on the 28th of July 1714, fhe fell into a
lethargic infenfibility. Notwithftanding all the medi¬
cines the phyficians could prefcribe, the diftemper
gained ground fo fall, that next day they defpaired of
her life. All the members of the privy council, with¬
out diftindtion, were now fummoned from the different
parts of the kingdom; they began to provide for the
fecurity of the conftitution. A letter was fent to the
eledfor of Hanover, informing him of the queen’s de-
fperate fituation, and defiring him to repair to Hol¬
land, where he would be attended by a Britifh fqua-
dron to convey him to England. At the fame time
they difpatched inftructions to the earl of Strafford at
the Hague, to defire the States-general to be ready to
perform the guaranty of the Proteftant fucceffion. Pre¬
cautions were taken to fecure the fea-ports; and the
command of the fleet was beftowed upon the earl of
Berkely, a profeffed whig. Thefe meafures, which
were all di&ated by that party, anfwered a double end.
They argued the alacrity of the whigs in the caufe of
their new fovereign, and feemed to imply that the ftate
was in danger from the difaffedlion of the oppofite party.
On the 30th of July the queen feemed to be fome-
what relieved by the medicines which had been given
her. She rofe from her bed about eight in the morn¬
ing, and walked a little. After fome time, cafting her
eyes on a clock that flood in her chamber, flie conti¬
nued to gaze at it for fome minutes. One of the la¬
dies in waiting aiked her what ffie faw there more than
ufual; to which the queen only anfwered by turning
her eyes upon her with a dying look. She was foon
after feized with an apople&ic fit; from which, how¬
ever, flie was fomewhat recovered by the affiftance of
Dr Mead. She continued all night in a ftate of ftu- Britain.
pefaftion. She gave fome figns of life betwixt twelve   •
and one the next day; but expired the following morn¬
ing, a little after feven o’clock, having lived 49 years,
and reigned upwards of twelve. This princefs was re¬
markable neither for her learning nor her capacity.
Like all the reft of her family, ffie feemed rather fitted
for the duties of private life than a public ftation ; be¬
ing a pattern of conjugal fidelity, a good mother, a
warm friend, and an indulgent miftrefs; and to her
honour it certainly muft be recorded, that during her
reign none fuffered on the fcaffold for treafon. In her
ended the line of the Stuarts; a family who never re¬
warded their friends, nor ever avenged them of their
adverfaries ; a family whofe misfortunes and mifcon-
dufts are not to be parallelled in hiftory. 3ffj>
The queen had no fooner refigned her breath, than She is fuc-
the privy-council met, and three inftruments were pro- reeded by
duced, by which the eletftor of Hanover appointed fe- ®C0roi:
veral of his known adherents to be added as lords ju-
ftices to the feven great officers of the kingdom. Or¬
ders alfo v/ere immediately iffued out for proclaiming
George king of England, Scotland, and Ireland. The
regency appointed the earl of Dorfet to carry him the
intimation of his acceffion to the crown, and to attend
him in his journey to England. They fent the general
officers, in whom they could confide, to their polls ;
they reinforced the garrifon of Portfmouth, and ap¬
pointed the celebrated Mr Addifon fecretary of ftate.
No tumult, no commotion, arofe againft the acceffion
of the new king; and this gives a ftrong proof that
the tories, had they really intended to exclude him,
never took any rational meafures to accomplilh their
purpofe. _ '
The king firft landed at Greenwich ; where he was fje arrives
received by the duke of Northumberland, captain of in England,
the lifeguard, and the lords of the regency. From the
landing-place he walked to his houfe in the park, ac¬
companied by a great number of the nobility and other
perfons of diftindtion, who expedled to make their court
in this reign in confequence of their turbulence and
oppofition to the reigning party in the laft. George I.
was 54 years old when he afcended the Britiih throne.
His mature age, his fagacity and experience, his nu¬
merous alliances, and the general tranquillity of Eu¬
rope, all contributed to eftablilh his interefts, and pro-
mife him a peaceable and happy reign. His virtues,
though not fhining, were folid ; and he was of a very-
different difpofition from the Stuart family whom he
fucceeded. Thefe were known to a proverb for leaving
their friends in extremity ; George, on the contrary,
foon after his arrival in England, was heard to fay,
“ My maxim is, never to abandon my friends, to do
juftice to all the world, and to fear no man.” To thefe
qualities of refolution and perfeverance, he joined great
application to bufinefs. One fault, however, with re¬
gard to England, remained behind : he ftudied the in¬
terefts of the kingdom he had left, more than of thofe
he came to govern. ^
The new king foon difcovered his inclination to fup- He favours
port thofe who had railed him to the throne, that is, whigs.
the whig party. When he retired to his bed-chamber,
after his firft landing, he fent for fuch of the nobility
as had diftinguiftied themfelves by their zeal for his
fucceffion. He expreffed the greateft regard for the
duke
B R I [ 1461 J B R I
Britain, duke of Marlborough juft then arrived from the conti-
!—' nent, whither he had been driven by the violence of
the tories. The fame friendfhip he profefled for the
other leaders of the whigs ; but the tories found them-
felves excluded from the royal favour. The king did
not feem fenfible that the monarch of a faftion rules
but one half of his fubje&s. It was his misfortune,
and confequently that of the nation, that he was hem¬
med round by men who foured him with all their own
interefts and prejudices. The whigs, while they pre¬
tended to fecure the crown for the king, were ufing all
their art to confirm their own interefts, extend their
conneftions, and give laws to their fovereign. An in-
ftantaneous change was made in all the offices of trull,
honour, or advantage. The names of the contending
parties were changed into thofe of Hanoverians and Ja¬
cobites. The former governed the fenate and court, op-
preffed whom they would, bound the lower orders of
people byfevere laws, and kept them at a dillance by
vile diftinftions; and then taught them to call this //-
I 371, berty.
National In confequence of thefe partialities, the higheft dif-
difcontents. contents were raifed through the whole kingdom. The
tories or Jacobites raifed the moft terrible outcries; and
had the pretender been a man of any judgment or abi¬
lities, a fair opportunity was now offered him of linking
a decifive blow. Inftead of this, he continued a calm
fpe£lator on the continent, and only fent over his emif-
faries to difperfe ineffe&ual manifeftoes and delude the
unwary. In thefe papers he obferved, that the late
queen had intentions of calling him to the crown. He
expoftulated with his people upon the injuftice they
had done themfelves in proclaiming a foreign prince for
their fovereign, contrary to the law's of the country,
that gave him alone the real claim. Copies of a printed
addrefs were fent to the dukes of Shrewlbury, Marlbo¬
rough, Argyle, and other noblemen of the firll diftinc-
tion; vindicating his right to the crown, and complain¬
ing of the injuftice of his people. Yet, though he Hill
complained of their conduct, he never took any Hep to
corredl his own, or remove that obftacle by which his
father had loft his throne. He Hill continued to profefs
the trueft regard to the Catholic religion ; and, inftead
of concealing his fentiments on that head, gloried in his
principles.
But, however much the Popifti religion was at that
time hated in England, the principles of the diffenters
were not in the lead more agreeable to the generality.
The tories affirmed, that, under a whig adminiftration,
herefy and impiety were daily gaining ground. The
lower orders of theclergy joined in thefe complaints, and
pointed out feveral trails publiftied in favour of Arian-
ifm and Socinianifm. The miniftry not only refufed
to punifti the delinquents, but filenced the clergy them-
! ? felves, and forbad their future difputations on thefe to-
Parliament pics.—The parliament was now diffolved, and another
ditfulvcd. called by a very extraordinary proclamation. In this
the king complained of the evil defigns of men difaf-
fe&ed to his fucceffion ; and of their having mifrepre-
fented his conduct and principles. He expreffed his
hopes, that his fubjeils would fend up to parliament
the fitted perfons to redrefs the prefent diforders. He
intreated that they would eleft fuch in particular as
had expreffed a firm attachment to the Proteftant fuc¬
ceffion when it was ia danger. In the eleftion of this
Vox,. II.
important parliament, uncommon vigour was exerted Britain,
on both fides ; but by dint of the monied intereft that
prevailed in corporations, and the activity of the mi¬
niftry, a great majority of whigs was returned both
in England and Scotland. 574
Upon the firft meeting of this new parliament, the Vio'ent pro-
moft violent meafures were refolved upon againft the
late miniftry. Part of them kept away from bufinefs. iiamnent.Par'
A committee was appointed to infpedl all the papers
relative to the late treaty, and to pick out fuch of
them as might ferve for grounds of accufation againft
the late miniftry. The earl of Oxford was impeached
of high treafon, and fent to the Tower. The violence
of the commons was anfwered with equal violence with¬
out doors. Tumults became every day more frequent,
and every tumult ferved only to increafe the feverity of
the legiflature. They now paffed an adl, declaring,
that if any perfons to the number of 12, unlawfully af-
fembled, ffiould continue together one hour after being
required to difperfe by a juftice of peace or other of¬
ficer, and after hearing the adl againft; riots read in
public, they ftiould be deemed guilty of felony with¬
out benefit of clergy. This is a very fevere a6l, and
one of the greateft reftritftions on the liberty of the fub-
je& that has paffed during this century; as by it, all
meetings of the people, either for the purpofes of a-
mufement or redrefs, are rendered criminal, if it fhall
pleafe any magillrate to confider them as fuch.-
Thefe vindidlive proceedings excited the indignation
of the people, who perceived that the avenues of royal
favour were clofed to all but a fa&ion. A rebellion
commenced in Scotland, where to their other grievances
they joined that of the union, which they were taught
to confider as an oppreffion. The malcontents of this
country had all along maintained a correfpondence with
their friends in England, who were now driven by re-
fentment and apprehenfion into a fyftem of politics they
would not otherwife have dreamed of. Some of the
tory party, who were men attached to the Proteftant
religion, and of moderate principles in government,
began to affociate with the Jacobites, and to wifh in
earneft for a revolution. Scotland firft ftiewed them Rebellion in
the example. The earl of Mar, affembling 300 of his Scotland,
vaffals in the Highlands, proclaimed the pretender at
Caftleton; and fetting up his ftandard at Braemar, af-
fumed the title of lieutenant-general of his majejly's for¬
ces. To fecond thefe attempts, two veffels arrived
from France, with arms, ammunition, and a number
of officers, together with affurances to the earl, that
the pretender himfelf would ftiortly come over to head
his own forces. In confequence of this promife, the
earl foon found himfelf at the head of 10,000 men well
armed and provided. He fecured the pafs of Tay at
Perth, where his head-quarters were eitablifhed ; and
made himfelf mailer of the whole province of Fife, and
all the fea-coaft on that fide of the frith of Forth. He
marched from thence to Dumblain, as if he had intended
to crofs the Forth at Stirling bridge ; but there he was
informed that the duke of Argyle, who on this occa-
fion was appointed commander in chief of all the forces
in North Britain, was advancing againft him from Stir¬
ling with all his own clans, affilled by fome troops from
Ireland. Upon this, he thought proper at firft to re¬
treat ; but being foon after joined by fome of the clans
under the earl of Seaforth, and others under general
8 Y Gordon,
B R I [ 1462 ] B R I
Britain. Gordon, an experienced officer, who had fignalized
  himfelf in the Ruffian fervice, he refolved to face the
37<s enemy, and dire&ed his march towards the fouth.
Battle near r[,}ie (3uke of Argyle, apprized of his intentions, and
Dumblain. at any rate w;]];ng to proVe his attachment to the pre-
fent government, refolved to give him battle in the
neighbourhood of Dumblain, though his forces did not
amount to half the number of the enemy. In the mor¬
ning, therefore, he drew up his army, which did not
exceed 3500 men, in order of battle ; but he foon found
himfelf greatly outflanked by the infurgents. The
duke, therefore, perceiving the earl make attempts to
furround him, was obliged to alter his difpofition,
which, on account of the fcarcity of general officers, was
not done fo expeditioufly as to be finifhed before the re¬
bels began the attack. The left wing of the duke’s
army received the.centre of the enemy, and fupported
the firft charge without ffirinking. It Teemed even for
a while vi&orious, and the earl of Clanronald was
killed! But Glengary, who was fecond in command,
undertook to irtfpire his intimidated forces with cou¬
rage ; and, waving his bonnet, cried out feveral times,
Revenge ! This animated the rebel troops to fuch a
degree, that they followed him clofe to the points of
the enemies bayonets, and got within their guard. A
total rout began to enfue of that wing of the royal ar¬
my ; and general Wetham, their commander, flying
full fpeed to Stirling, gave out that the rebels were
completely vi&orious. In the mean time, the duke of
Argyle, who commanded in perfon on the right, at¬
tacked the left of the enemy ; and, drove them before
him two miles, though they often faced about and at¬
tempted to rally. Having thus entirely broken that
wing, and driven them over the river Allen, he re¬
turned back to the field of battle; where, to his great
mortification, he found the enemy viftorious, and pa¬
tiently waiting for the aflault. However, inftead of
renewing the engagement, both armies continued to
gaze at each other, neither caring to begin the attack.
In the evening, both parties drew off, and both
claimed the vidfory. All the advantages of a vic¬
tory, however, belonged to Argyle. He had inter¬
rupted the progrefs of the enemy; and, in their circumr
ftances, delay was defeat. In faft, the earl of Mar foon
found his Ioffes and difappointments increafe. The
caftle of Invernefs, of which he was in poffeffion, was
delivered up by lord Lovat, who had hitherto profeffed
to a& in the intereft of the pretender. The marquis
of Tullibardine forfook the earl, in order to*defend his
own part of the country ; and many of the clans fee¬
ing no likelihood of coming to a fecond engagement,
37T returned quietly home.
Badconduft jn tjje mean the rebellion was ftill more unfuc-
party?65 * cefsfully profecuted in. England. From the time the
pretender had undertaken this wild projeft at Paris, in
which the duke of Ormond and lord Bolingbroke were
engaged, lord Stair the Engliffi ambaffador there had
penetrated all his defigns, and fent faithful accounts of
ali bis meafures and of all his adherents to the miniftry
at home. Upon the firft rumour, therefore, of an in-
furredlion, they imprifoned feveral lords and gentle¬
men, of whom they had a fufpicion. But thefe pre¬
cautions were not able to flop the infurretlion in the
weftern counties, where it was already begun. All
their 'preparations, however, were weak and ill con¬
duced ; every meafure was betrayed to government as britain. j
footi as projected, and many revolts were repreffed in the :
very outfet. The univerfity of Oxford was treated with
great feverity on this occafion. Major-general Pepper,
with a ftrong detachment of dragoons, took poffeffion
of the city at day-break, declaring that he would in-
ftantly ftioot any of the ftudents who fhould prefume
to appear without the limits of their refpeCive colleges. 37s '
The infurre&ion in the northern counties came to Expedition'
greater maturity. In the month of-OCober 1715, theearlo‘
the earl of Derwentwater, and Mr Forfter, took the J^rweil,-vva*1
field with a body of horfe, and, being joined by fome
gentlemen from the borders of Scotland, proclaimed
the pretender. Their firft attempt was to feize upon
Newcaftle, in which they had many friends ; but find¬
ing the gates ffiut againft them, they retired to Hex¬
ham. To oppofe thefe, general Carpenter was de¬
tached by government with a body of 900 men, and
an engagement was hourly expeCed. The rebels had
two methods by which they might have condudted
themfelves with prudence and fafety. The one was to
march direftly into the weftern parts of Scotland, and
there join general Gordon, who commanded a ftroog
body of Highlanders. The other was to crofs the
Tweed, and boldly attack general Carpenter, whofe
forces did not exceed their own. From the infatuation
attendant on the meafures of that party, neither of
thefe counfels was purfued. They took the-rout to
1 Jedburgh, where they hoped to leave Carpenter on one
fide, and penetrate into England by the weftern bor¬
der. This was the effeftual means to cut tbemfelves
off either from retreat or affiltance. A party of High¬
landers, who had joined them by this time, at firft re-
fufed to accompany them in fuch a defperate incurfion,
and one half of them aCually returned to their own
country. At Brampton, Mr Forfter opened his ccm-
miffion of general, which had been fent him by the earl
of Mar, and there he proclaimed the pretender. They
continued their march to Penrith, where the body of
the militia that was affembled to oppofe them fled at
their appearance. From Penrith they proceeded by
the way of Kendal and Lancafter to Prefton, of which
place they took poffeffion without any refiftance. But 379
this was the laft ftage of their ill-atlvifed txcurfion : Rebels for- j
for general Wills, at the head of 7000 men, came up ce<1 to ^ur"
to attack them ; and from his aftivity there was no ef- ^
caping. They now, therefore, began to raife barri-
cadoes about the town, and to put the place in a pof-
ture of defence, repulfing the firft attacks of the royal
army with fuccefs. Next day, however, Wills was
reinforced by Carpenter, and the town was invefted on
all Tides. In this deplorable (ituation, to which they
were reduced by their own raffinefs, Forfter hoped to
capitulate with the general; and accordingly fent co¬
lonel Oxburgh, who had been taken prifoner, with a
trumpeter to propofe a capitulation. This, however,
Wills refilled; alleging that he would not treat with
rebels, and that the only favour they had to expedl
was to be fpared from immediate {laughter. Thefe
were hard terms, but no better could be obtained.
They accordingly laid down their arms, and were put
under a ftrong guard. All the noblemen and leaders
were fecured, and a few of their officers tried for de¬
ferring from the royal army, and ffiot by order of a
court-martial. The common men were imprifoned at
Cheftesr
B R I [ 1463 ] B R I
Britain. Chefter and Liverpool ; the noblemen and confiderable
officers were fent to London, and led through the
ftreets pinioned and bound together, to intimidate
380 their party.
f Though the fchemes o£ the pretender appear to have
James’s ° ^een foolifhly enough' conduced in Britain, yet they
party in were much more fo in France. Bolingbroke had been
France. made his fecretary at Paris, and Ormond his prime
minifter. But thefe ftatefmen quickly found that no¬
thing could be done in favour of his caufe. The king
of France, wrho had ever efpoufed the intereft of the
abdicated family, was ju(l dead ; and the duke of Or¬
leans, who fucceeded in the government of the king¬
dom, was averfe to lending the pretender any affiftance.
His party, however, which was compofed of the lowed
and the mod ignorant exiles from the Britifh dominions,
affefted the utmod confidence, and boaded of a cer¬
tainty of fuccefs. The deeped fecrets of his cabinet,
and all his intended meafures, were bandied about in
coffee-houfes by perfons of the lowed rank both in
fortune and abilities. Subaltern officers refolved to be
his generals ; and even proditutes were entruded to
manage his negociations. Little, therefore, could be
381 expe6led from fuch affidants and fuch councils.
Pretender Though, by this time, the pretender plight eafily
Scotland ^ave ^een t^at affairs were defperate ; yet, with his
ufual infatuation, he refolved to hazard his perfon a-
mong his friends in Scotland at a time when fuch a
meafure was too late for fuccefs. Faffing, therefore,
through France in difguife, and embarking in a fmall
veffel at Dunkirk, he arrived, after a voyage of a few
days, on the coads of Scotland, with only fix gentle¬
men in his train. He pafied unknown through Aber¬
deen to Feterofle, where he was met by the earl of
Mar, and about 30 noblemen and gentlemen of the
fird quality. There he was folemnly proclaimed; and
his declaration, dated at Commerey, was printed and
difperfed. He went from thence to Dundee, where
he made a public entry; and in two days more he ar¬
rived at Scoon, where he intended to have the cere¬
mony of his coronation performed. He ordered thankf-
givingsto be made for his fafe arrival ; he enjoined the
miniders to pray for him in their churches ; and with¬
out the fmalled (hare of power, went through the ce¬
remonies of royalty, which threw an air of ridicule on
all his condudf. Having thus fpent fome time in un¬
important parade, he refolved to abandon the enter-
prize with the fame levity with which it was under¬
taken. Having made a fpeech to his grand council,
he informed them of his want of money, arms, and
ammunition, for undertaking a campaign, and there-
381 fore deplored that he was obliged to leave them. He
And again once more embarked on board a fmall French (hip that
leaves it. ]ay jn the harbour of Montrofe, accompanied with fe-
veral lords, his adherents; and in five days arrived at
Graveline.
General Gordon, who was left commander in chief
of the forces, with the affiftance of earl Marefchal, pro¬
ceeded at their head to Aberdeen, where he fecured
three vefiels to fail northward, which took on board
fuch perfons as intended to make their efcape to the
continent. He then continued his march through the
Highlands, and quietly difmifled his forces as he went
forward. This retreat was made with fuch expedition,
that the duke of Argyle, with all his aftivity, could
never overtake his rear, which confided of looohorfe. Britain.
The rebellion being ended, the law was put in force ^ *
with all its terrors ; and the prifons of London were Cruel treat-
crowded with thofe deluded perfons, whom the mi- ment of the
niftry feemed refolved not to pardon. The commons, rebeh'
in their addrefs to the crown, declared they would pro-
fecute, in the moft rigorous manner, the authors of
the late rebellion ; and their meafures were as vindic¬
tive as their refolutions were fpeedy. The earls of
Derwentwater, Nithfdale, Carnwath, and Wintown,
the lords Widrington, Kenmuir, and Nairne, were im¬
peached ; and, upon pleading guilty, all but lord Win-
town, received fentence of death. No intreaties could
prevail upon the miniftry to fpare thefe unhappy men.
The houfe of lords even prefented an addrefs to the
throne for mercy, but without effedl; the king only an-
fwered, that on this, as on all other occafions, he would
adf as he thought moft confident with the dignity of
the crown and the fafety of the people. Orders were
accordingly difpatched for executing the lords Der¬
wentwater, Nithfdale, and Kenmuir, immediately;
the reft were refpited to a farther time. Nithfdale,
however, had the good fortune to efcape in woman’s
clothes that were brought him by his mother.the night
before his execution. Derwentwater and Kenmuir
were brought to the fcaffold on Tower-hill at the time,
appointed. Both underwent their fentence with calm
intrepidity, and feemingly lefs moved than thofe who
beheld them.
An aft of parliament was next made for trying the
private prifoners in London, and not in Lancafhire
where they were taken in arms. This was confidered,
by fome of the bed lawyers, as an alteration of the an¬
cient conftitution of the kingdom, by which it was
fuppofed, that every prifoner (hould be tried in the
place where the offence was committed, as a jury of
neighbours would be beft qualified to enter into the
nature of the offence. In the beginning of April,
commiffioners for trying the rebels met in the court of
common pleas, when the bills were found againft Mr
Forfter, Mr Macintofti, and 20 of their confederates.
Forfter efcaped from Newgate, and reached the con¬
tinent in fafety ; the reft pleaded not guilty. Pitts
the keeper of Newgate, being fufpefted of having con¬
nived at Forfter’s efcape, was tried for his life, but ac¬
quitted. After this, Macintolh, and feveral other pri¬
foners, broke from Newgate, after having maftered the
keeper and turnkey, and difarmed the centinel. The
court proceeded to the trial of thofe that remained;
four or five were hanged, drawn, and quartered, at
Tyburn. The judges appointed to try the rebels at
Liverpool found a confiderable number of them guilty
of high treafon. Two-and-twenty were executed at
Manchefter and Prefton ; about 100a experienced the
king’s mercy, if fuch it may be called, to be tranf-
ported to North America.
The rebellion being thus extinguiftied, the danger Duration
of the date was made a pretence for continuing the, par- of the par¬
liament beyond the term fixed for its diffolution. An jiamer>t
aft, therefore, was made by their own authority, re- engtflenc^*
pealing that by which they were to be diffolved every
third year, and the term of their duration was extended
to feven years. This attempt in any delegated body
of people to increafe their own power by extending it,
is contrary to the firft principles of juiliee. If it was
8 Y 2 right
385
Britain
threatened
with an in-
vaGon by
CharlesXII
38 S
War with
Spain.
B R I [ 1464 ] B R I
right to extend their duration to feven years, they
might alfo perpetuate their authority ; and thus cut off
even the fhadow of a nomination. The bill, however,
paffed both houfes, and all obje&ions to it were con-
lidered as difafFeftton. The people might murmur at
this encroachment, but it was too late for redrefs.
Domeftic concerns being thus adjufted, the kingre-
folved upon a voyage to the continent. He forefaw a
llorm gathering from Sweden. Charles XII. was
• highly provoked againft him for having entered into a
confederacy with the Ruffians and Danes during his
abfence at Bender, and for having purchafed from the
king of Denmark the towns of Bremen and Verden,
which conftituted a part of his dominions. In con-
fequence of tliis, Charles maintained a clofe correfpond-
ence with the diffatisfied fubje&s of Great Britain ;
and a fcheme was formed for landing a confiderable
body of Swediffi forces, with the king at their head, in
fome part of the ifland, where it was expedled they
would be joined by all the malcontents in the kingdom.
Count Gyllenburg, the Swedifh minifter in London,
was peculiarly aftive in the confpiracy ; but being
feized, with all his papers, by order of the king, the
confederacy was broke for that time. A bill, how¬
ever, was palled by the commons, forbidding all com¬
merce with Sweden ; the trade with which country was
at that time of the utmoft confequence to the Englifh
merchants. George having paffed through Holland to
Hanover, in order to fecure his German dominions,
entered into a new treaty with the Dutch and the re¬
gent of France, by which they agreed mutually to af-
fift each other in cafe of an invafion ; and for his fur¬
ther fecurity the commons granted him 250,000 /.
But the death of the Swediffi monarch, who was foon
after killed at the fiege of Fredericffiall in Norway,
put an end to all difquietude from that quarter.
Among the many treaties for which this reign was
remarkable, one had been concluded, which was called
the quadruple alliance. It was agreed between the em¬
peror, France, Holland, and Britain, that the empe¬
ror ffiould renounce all pretenfions to the crown of
Spain, and exchange Sardinia for Sicily with the duke
of Savoy; that the fucceffion to the duchies of Tuf-
cany, Parma, and Placentia, ffiould be fettled on the
queen of Spain’s eldeft: fon, in cafe the prefent poffef-
fors ffiould die without male iffue. This treaty, how¬
ever, was by no means agreeable to the king of Spain ;
and confequently it became prejudicial to the Engliffi,
as it interrupted the commerce with that kingdom. A
war foon after commenced between Spain and the em¬
peror, who was confidered as the principal contriver of
the treaty; and a numerous body of Spaniffi forces
were fent into Italy to fupport Philip’s pretenfions in
that quarter. The regent of France attempted in vain
to diffuade him, and the king of Britain offered his
mediation with the like bad fuccefs; their interpofition
was confidered as partial and unjuft. A Spaniffi war
was then refolved on. A fquadron of 22 ffiips was e-
quipped with all expedition, the command of which
was given to Sir George Byng, and ordered to fail for
Naples, at that time threatened with a Spaniffi army.
He was received with the greateft joy by tlie Neapoli¬
tans; who informed him that the Spaniards, to the a-
mount of 30,000, were then a&ually landed in Sicily.
In this exigence, as no affiftance could be given by
land, he refolved to fail thither, fully determined to Britain,
purfue the Spaniffi fleet on which the army was em- ‘
barked. Upon coming round Cape Faro, he perceived
two fmall Spaniffi veffels; and purfuing them clofely,
they led him to their main fleet, which, before noon,
he difcovered in line of battle, amounting in all to 27
fail. The Spaniards, however, notwithftanding of their
fuperiority in number, attempted to fail away : but
finding it impoffible to make their efcape, they kept up
a running fight, and the commanders behaved with
great courage and activity ; in fpite of which they were
all taken, except three, which were preferved by the con-
duft of one Cammoc, their vice-admiral, a native of
Ireland. Sir George Byng behaved on this occafion
with great prudence and refolution ; and the king
wrote him a letter with his own hand, approving his
conduit. 387
The rupture with Spain was thought to be favourable Intended in¬
to the interefts of the pretender; and it was hoped that, ^es" am-
by the affiftance of cardinal Alberoni the Spaniffi mi- ^5.
nifter, a new infurreition might be excited in England.
The duke of Ormond was the perfon fixed upon to con¬
duit this expedition ; and he obtained from the Spaniffi
court, a fleet of ten ftu’ps of war and tranfports, having
on board 6000 regular troops, with arms for 12,000
more. But fortune was ftill as unfavourable as ever.
Having fet fail, and proceeded as far as Cape Finifter-
re, he was encountered by a violent ftorm, which dif-
abled his fleet, and fruitrated the expedition. This
misfortune, together with the bad fuccefsof the Spaniffi
arms in Sicily and other parts of Europe, induced Phi¬
lip to wiffi for a ceffation of arms; and he at laft con-
fented to fign the quadruple alliance, by which means
peace was again reftored to Europe. 33g
Tranquillity being thus eftabliihed, the miniftry pro- Irilh parlia-
ceeded to fecure the dependency of the Iriffi parliament ment made
on that of England. One Maurice Annefley had ap-
pealed to the houfe of peers of England from a decree Britain,
made by the Iriffi peers, and their decree was reverfed.
The Britifti peers ordered the barons of exchequer in
Ireland to put Mr Annefley in poffeffion of the lands
he had loft by the decree of the lords in that kingdom.
The barons obeyed this order; and the Iriffi peers paf¬
fed a vote againft them, as having attempted to diminiffi
the juft privileges of the parliament of Ireland ; and at
the fame time ordered the barons to be taken under the
cuftody of the black rod. On the other hand, the houfe
of lords in England refolved, that the barons of the ex¬
chequer in Ireland had afted with courage and fidelity ;
and addreffed the king to fignify his approbation of
their conduff, by fome marks of his favour. To com¬
plete their intention, a bill was prepared, by which the
Iriffi houfe of lords was deprived of all right of final
jurifdidion. This bill was oppofed in both houfes, but
particularly by the commons. It was there afferted by
Mr Pitt, that it would only increafe the power of the
Engliffi peers, who were already but too formidable.
Mr Hungerford demonftrated, that the Iriffi lords
had always exerted their power of finally deciding
caufes. Notwithftanding all oppofition, the bill was
carried by a great majority, and foon after received the
royal affent. sSp
This blow was feverely felt by the Iriffi ; but was
by no means fo great as that which the Engliffi about
this time felt from the South-fea fcheme, which com¬
menced
B R I [ 1465 ] B R I
Britain, menced in the year 1721. To explain this as concifely
 as poffible, it muft be obferved, that, ever fince the re¬
volution under king William, the government not ha¬
ving fufficient fupplies granted by parliament, or what
was granted requiring time to be collefted, they were
obliged to borrow money from feveral different compa¬
nies of merchants; and, among the reft, from that com¬
pany which traded to the South-fea. In the year 1716,
the government was indebted to this company about
nine millions and an half of money ; for which they
granted at the rate of 6 per cent, intereft. As this
company was not the only one to which government
was indebted, Sir Robert Walpole formed a defign of
leffening the national debts, giving the feveral compa¬
nies an alternative either of accepting a lower intereft,
namely 5 percent, or of being paid the principal. The
different companies chofe rather to accept of the dimi-
niftied intereft, than to be paid the principal. The
South-fea company, in particular, having augmented
their loan to ten millions, were contented to receive
500,000!. annually as intereft, inftead of 600,0001.
which they ufually received. In the fame manner, the
governors and company of the bank, and other com¬
panies, were contented to receive a diminifhed annual
intereft for their refpeftive loans ; all which greatly
leffened the debts of the nation.
In this fituation of things, one Blount a fcrivener pro-
pofed to the miniftry, in the name of the South-fea com¬
pany, to buy up all the debts of the different compa¬
nies, and thus for the South-fea company to.become
the foie creditors of the ftate. The terms he offered to
government were extremely advantageous. The South-
fea company was to redeem the debts of the nation out
of the hands of the private proprietors who were cre¬
ditors to the government, upon whatever terms they
could agree on ; and for the intereft of this money
which they had thus redeemed and taken into their
own hands, they would be contented to be allowed by
government 5 per cent for fix years ; after which the
intereft fhould be reduced to 4 per cent, and ftiould at
any time be redeemable by parliament. For thefe pur-
pofes a bill paffed both houfes. But now came the part
of the fcheme big with fraud and ruin. As the direc¬
tors of the South-fea company could not of themfelves
be fuppofed to poffefs fo much money as was fufficient
to buy up the debts of the nation, they were empowered
to raife it by opening a fubfcription to an imaginary
fcheme for trading in the South feas; from which
commerce immenfe advantages were promifed, and ftill
greater expe&ed by the rapacious credulity of the peo¬
ple. All the creditors of government, therefore, were
invited to come in, and exchange their fecurities, viz.
the fecurity of government, for that of the South-fea
company. The direftors books were no fooner opened
for the firft fubfcription, but crowds came to make the
exchange of government ftock for South-fea ftock. The
delufion was artfully continued and fpread. Subfcrip-
tions in a few days fold for double the price they had
been bought at. The fcheme fucceeded beyond even the
projector’s hopes, and the whole nation was infedted
with a fpirit of avaricious enterprize. The infatuation
prevailed; the ftock increafed to a furprifing degree,
even to near ten times the value of what it was firft
bought for.
After a few months, however, the people waked
from their dream of riches ; and found that all the ad- Britain,
vantages they expeCted were merely imaginary, while " '
thoufands of families were involved in one common Direaors
ruin. Many of the directors, by whofe arts the people punilhed.
were taught to expeft fuch great benefits from a traffic
to the South feas, had amaffed confiderable fortunes by
the credulity of the public. It was fome confolation,
however, to the people to find the parliament (haring
in the general indignation, and refolving to ftrip thoie
unjuft plunderers of their poffeffions. Orders were firft
given to remove all the directors of the South-fea com¬
pany from their feats in parliament, and the places they
poffeffed under government. The principal delinquents
were puniftied by a forfeiture of all fuch poffeffions and
eftates as they had acquired during the continuance of
this popular frenzy. The next care was to redrefs the
fufferers. Several juft and ufeful refolutions were taken
by parliament, and a bill was fpeedily prepared for re¬
pairing the late fufferings as far as the infpeCtion of the
legiflature could extend. Of the profits arifing from the
South-fea fcheme, the fum of feven millions were given
back to the original proprietors; feveral additions were
alfo made to their dividends out of what was poffeffed
by the company in their own right; and the remaining
capital ftock was alfo divided among the old proprie¬
tors at the rate of 33 per cent.—In the mean time, pe¬
titions from all parts of the kingdom were prefented to
the houfe, demanding juftice; and the whole nation
feemed exafperated to the higheft degree. Public cre¬
dit fuftained a terrible (hock. Some principal members
of the miniftry were deeply concerned in thefe fraudu¬
lent tranfaftions. The bank was drawn upon fafter
than it could fupply ; and nothing was heard but the
ravings of difappointment, and the cries of defpair.
By degrees, however, the effedls of this terrible ca- Unfuccefs-
lamity wore off, and matters returned to their former f';1* expedi-
tranquillity. A new war with Spain commenced. Ad- n)iril°Ko-'
miral Holier was fent to South America to intercept f.er.
the Spanilh galleons ; but the Spaniards, being appri¬
zed of his defign, relanded their treafure. The greateft
part of the Britilh fleet fent on that expedition was
rendered entirely unfit for fervice. The feamen were
cut off in great numbers by the malignity of the cli¬
mate and the length of the voyage, while the admiral
himfelf is faid to have died of a broken heart. In order
to retaliate thefe hoftilities, the Spaniards undertook
the liege of Gibraltar; but with as little fuccefs on
their fide. In this difpute France offered her mediation ;
and fuch a reconciliation as treaties could procure was
the confequence: a temporary peace enfued; both fides
only watching an opportunity to renew hoftilities with
advantage. _ _
Soon after the breaking up of the parliament in the Death of
year 1727, the king refolved to vilit his ele&oral do- JringGeorge
minions of Hanover. Having appointed a regency in
his abfence, he embarked for Holland, and lay, upon
his landing, at a little town called Voet. Next day he
proceeded on his journey ; and in two days more, be¬
tween ten and eleven at night, arrived at Delden, to all
appearance in perfeft health. Fie flipped there very
heartily, and continued his journey early the next morn¬
ing ; but between eight and nine ordered his coach to
flop. It being perceived that one of his hands lay mo-
tionlefs, monfieur Fabrice, who had formerly been fer-
vant to the king of Sweden, and who now attended
B R I [ 1466 ] B R I
Britain, king George, attempted to quicken the circulation, by of knavery. Sir Robert Sutton, Sir Archibald Grant, Britain.
 chafing it between his own. As this had no effect, the and George Robinfon, for their frauds in the manage- “
furgeon who followed on horfeback was called, and he ment of the charitable corporation fcheme ; Dennis
rubbed it with fpirits. Soon after, the king’s tongue Bond, and ferjeant Burch, for a fraudulent fale of the
began to fwell, and he had juft ftrength enough to bid late unfortunate earl of Derwentwater’s eftate ; and
them haften to Ofnaburgh. Then, falling infenfible laftly, John Ward, of Hackney, for forgery. It was
into Fabrice’s arms, he never recovered; but expired a- at this time afferted in the houfe of lords, that not one
bout 11 o’clock the next morning, in the 68th year of fhilling of the forfeited eftates was ever applied to the
his age, and 13th of his reign. His body was conveyed fervice of the public, but became the reward of frau-
393 to Hanover, and interred among his anceftors. dulence and venality.
George II. On the acceffion of George II. the two great parties This happened in the year 1731; and in 1732, a Excife
fucceeds. jntQ which the nation had fo long been divided, again fcheme was formed by Sir Robert Walpole of fixing fchemc re-
394 changed their names, and were now called the court a general excife. He introduced it by recounting the
Contefts be- an(j C0U7lfry parties. Throughout the greateft part of frauds pra&ifed by the faftors in London that were
court"and this reign, there feem to have been two objedts of con- employed in felling the American tobacco. To pre¬
country troverfy, which r.ofe up in debate at every feffion, and vent thefe frauds, he propofed, that inftead of having
parties. tried the ftrength of the opponents; thefe were the na- the cuftoms levied in the ufual manner upon tobacco, all
tional debt, and the number of forces to be kept in pay. hereafter to be imported ftiould be lodged in warehoufes
The government on the prefent king’s acceffion owed appointed for that purpofe by the officers of the crown;
more than 30,000,000 of money; and tho’ there was and fhould from thence be fold, upon paying the duty
a long continuance of profound peace, yet this fum was of 4 d. per pound, when the proprietor found a purcha-
found conftantly increaling. It was much wondered at fer. This propofal raifed a violent ferment, both with-
by the country party how this could happen, and it was in doors and without. At laft, the fury of the people
as conftantly the bufinefs of the court to give plaufible was worked up to fuch a pitch, that the parliament-
reafons for the increafe. Thus, demands for new fup- houfe was furrounded by multitudes, who intimidated
plies were made every feffion of parliament, either for the miniftry, and compelled them to drop the defign.
the purpofes of fecuring friends upon the continent, of The mifearriage of the bill was celebrated with public
guarding the kingdom from internal confpiracies, or of rejoicings in London and Weftminfter, and the mini¬
enabling the miniftry to a& vigoroufly in conjunftion fter was burned in effigy by the populace at London,
with the powers in alliance abroad. It was vainly al- On this occafion an attempt was made to repeal the
leged that thofe expences were incurred without pre- feptennial bill, and bring back triennial parliaments, as
fcience or neceffity; and that the increafe of the national fettled at the Revolution. But notwithftanding the
debt, by multiplying and increafing taxes, would at laft warmth of the oppofition, the miniftry, exerting all
become an intolerable burden to the poor. Thefe ar- their ftrength, were viftorious, and the motion was fup-
guments were offered, canvaffed, and rejeded; the court preffed by the majority. However, as on this occafion parUa^en
party was conftantly vi&orious, and every demand was the country party feemed to have gained ftrength, it was difiblved.
39S granted with cheerfulnefs and profufion. thought proper to diffolve the parliament; and another
Account of The next thing worthy of notice' in the reign of was called by the fame proclamation,
the charita- George II. is the charitable corporation. A fociety of The fame difputes were carried on in this parliament
tion00^0^ men un*tec^ themfelvesinto a company by this name; as in the former. New fubje&s of contraverfy offered
and their profeffed intention was to lend money at legal every day, and both fides were eager to feize them. A
intereft to the poor upon fmall pledges, and to per- convention agreed on by the miniftry, at the Prado, with
fons of higher rank upon proper fecurity. Their capi- Spain, became an objeCl of warm altercation. By this
tal was at firft limited to 30,000/. but they afterwards the court of Spain agreed to pay 95,000/. to the Eng-
increafed it to 600,000/. This money was fupplied by lifh, as a fatisfa&ion for all demands; and todifeharge
fubfenption, and the care of conducing the capital was the whole in four months from the day of ratification,
intr.ufted to a proper number of dire&ors. This com- This, however, was confidered as no equivalent to the
pany having continued for more than 20 years, the ca- damages that had been fuftained, which were faid to
finer, George Robinfon, member for Marlow, and the amount to 340,000/. On this occafion the minifter was
warehoufe-keeper, John Thompfon, difappeared in one provoked into unufual vehemence, and branded the
day. Five hundred thoufand pounds of capital were oppofite party with the appellation of traitors. The
found to be funk or embezzled by means which the miniftry, as ufual, were victorious; and the country
proprietors could not difeover. They, therefore, in a party finding themfelves out-numbered and out-voted in
petition, reprefented to the houfe the manner in which every debate, refolved to withdraw for ever: Walpole,
they had been defrauded, and the diftrefs to which many being thus left without oppofition, took the opportu-
of the petitioners were reduced. A fecret committee nity of paffing feveral ufeful laws in their abfence, in
being appointed to examine into this grievance, a moft order to render the oppofite party odious or contemp-
iniquitous feene of fraud was foon difeovered, which tible.
had been carried on by Thompfon and Robinfon, in In 1739, a new war commenced with Spain. Ever War with
concert with fome of the directors, for embezzling the fince the treaty of Utrecht, the Spaniards in America Spain,
capital and cheating the proprietors. Many perfons had infulted and diftreffed the commerce of Great
of rank and quality were concerned in this infamous Britain ; and the Britilh merchants had endeavoured
confpiracy; and even fome of the firft characters in the to carry on an illicit trade in their dominions. As
nation did not efcape cenfure. No lefs than fix mem- a right of cutting logwood in the bay of Campeachy,
i>ers of parliament were expelled for the moft fordid aCts claimed by the Britilh, gave them frequent opportuni-
B R I [ 1467 ] B R I
Britain, ties of pufhing in contraband commodities upon the
" continent, the Spaniards refolved to put a flop to the
399 evil by refufing liberty to cut logwood in that place,
Porto Bello The Spanifh guarda-coftas continued their feverities
uken' upon the Britifh, and many Britifh fubje&s were fent
to dig in the mines of Potofi. One remonftrance fol¬
lowed another to the court of Madrid ; but the only an-
fwers given were promifes of inquiry, which produced
no reformation. In 1739, war was declared with all
proper folemnity; and foon after, admiral Vernon, with
hx fhips only, deftroyed all the fortifications of Porto
Bello, and came away victorious, with fcarce the lofs
400 of a man.
Anfon’sex- As the war was thus fuccefsfully begun, fupplies
.pedition. were cheerfully granted to profecute it with all imagi¬
nable vigour. Commodore Anfon was fent with a fiqua-
dron of fitips to diftrefs the enemy in the South Seas,
and to co-operate occafionally with admiral Vernon a-
crofs the illhmus of Darien. This fquadron was defign-
ed to a£t a fubordinate part to a formidable armament
that was to be fent againit New Spain ; but through the
mifmanagement of the miniltry both thefe fchemes were
fruftrated. Anfon was detained till too late in the fea-
fon ; he then fet out with five (hips of the line, a fri¬
gate, and two ttore-ftiips, with about 1400 men. Co¬
ming into the ftormy South Seas at a very wrong fea-
fon of the year, he encountered the molt terrible Itorms;
his fleet was difperfed, and his crew deplorably afflicted
with the fcurvy; fo that with much difficulty he gained
the delightful ifland of Juan Fernandez. Here he was
joined by one (hip and a frigate of feven guns. From
thence failing along the coall of Chili, he plundered
and burnt the towm of Paita. He next traverfed the
great Pacific ocean, in hopes of meeting with one of
the immenfely rich galleons that trade from the Philip¬
pine Iflands to Mexico. Having refrelhed his men at
the ifland of Tinian, he fet forward for China ; and re¬
turning the fame way he came, at lafl difcovered the
galleon. Her he engaged, and took; and with this
prize, valued at 313,000/. together with other captures
to the value of about as much more, he returned home
after a voyage of three years. By this expedition the
public fuflained the lofs of a fine fquadron of (hips, but
<toi a few individuals became pofiefied of immenfe fortunes.
Unfitccefs- 'pfog other expedition ended Hill more unfortunately,
on Cartha- armament confifted of 29 Ihips of the line, and al-
gena. moft an equal number of frigates, furniflied with all
kinds of warlike ftores, near 15,000 feamen, and as
many land forces. The molt fanguine hopes of fuccefs
were entertained; but the minifiry detained the fleet
without any vifible reafon, till the feafon for aCtion in
America was almofi. over. At laft, however, they ar¬
rived before the wealthy city of Carthagena. They foon
became mafters of the ftrong forts which defended the
harbour. But though by this means they advanced a
good deal nearer the town, they found great difficul¬
ties ftill before them. It was afferted, that the fleet
could not lie near enough to batter the town, and there¬
fore the remaining forts muft be attempted by fcalade.
This dangerous experiment was tried; the guides were
flain by the enemies fire, and then the forces mittook
their way. Inftead of attempting the weakeft place of
the fort, they attacked the ftrongeft, and where they
were expofed to the fire of the whole town. Their fca-
ling ladders were too fhort; and, at laft, after bearing
a dreadful fire with great refolution for fome hours, nr'taiM-
they retreated, leaving 600 men dead on the fpot. The
terrors of the climate now began to be more dreadful
than thofe of war. The rainy feafon commenced with
fuch violence, that it was impoffible for the troops to
continue their encampment. To thefe calamities was
added theBiffenfion between the fea and land command¬
ers, who blamed each other, and at laft could be only
brought to agree in one mortifying meafure, viz. to re-
imbark the troops, and withdraw them as quick as pof-
fible. 4°*
The mifearriage of this enterprize produced the ^fCg.811^on
greateft difcontents; efpecially as other caufes of com- -wai.
plaint were now joined with it. Sir John Norris had pole,
twice failed to the coafts of Spain at the head of a very
powerful fquadron, without doing any thing to the pur-
pofe. The commerce of Britain was greatly annoyed
by the Spanilh privateers, who had taken 407 ftiips
fince the commencement of the war; while the Britilh
fleets feemed to be quite inaftive, and to fuffer one lofs
after another, without endeavouring in the leaft to make
proper reprifals. Thefe difcontents burft all at once
upon Sir Robert Walpole; a majority in the houfe of
commons was formed again ft him ; he was created earl
of Orford, the parliament being adjourned for a few
days for that purpofe; and he refigned all his employ¬
ments.
The removal of this minifter gave univerfal fatisfac-
tion. His antagonifts entertained great hopes of feeing
him punilhed: but he had laid his fchemes too well to
be under any apprehenfions on that account; and what
was worfe, the new miniftry were no fooner got in, than
they, trod in the footfteps of thofe they had fo much
exclaimed againft. The nation had now become dif- 4C?
gufted with naval operations. The people wifhed for An army
a renewal of their victories in Flanders, and the king ^ent
ardently joined in the fame wifh. An army of 16,000 * an el5’
men was therefore (hipped over into Flanders, to take
part in the quarrels that were then beginning on the
continent. Immenfe triumphs were expedfed from this
undertaking; but they forgot that the army was not
now commanded by the duke of Marlborough. 404
In order to give fome notion of the origin of thefe 0r*gin of
continental quarrels, it is neceflary to go back for fume
years. After the duke of Orleans, who had been re¬
gent of France, died, cardinal Fleury undertook to
fettle the confufion in which the kingdom was then in¬
volved. Under him France repaired her lodes, and en¬
riched herfelf by commerce. During the long interval
of peace which this minifter’s councils had procured for
Europe, two powers, till now unregarded, began to
attradl the notice and jealoufy of the neighbouring na¬
tions. Thefe were Ruffia and Pruffia. The other
dates were but little prepared to renew war. The em¬
pire remained under the government of Charles VI.
who had been placed on the throne by the treaty of
Utrecht. Sweden continued to languid] from the de-
ftruttive projetts of Charles XII. Denmark was power¬
ful enough, but inclined to peace; and part of Italy
ftill remained fubjeft to thofe princes who had been im-
pofed upon it by foreign treaties.
All thefe dates, however, continued to enjoy a pro¬
found peace, until the death of Auguftus king of Po¬
land, by which a general flame was once more kindled
in Europe. The emperor, affiiled by the arms of Ruf-
fiaa
B R I [ 1468 1 B R I
Britain. Ha, declared for the elector of Saxony, fon to the de-
’ ” ceafed king. On the other hand, France declared for
Staniflaus, who had longfince been nominated king of
the Poles by Charles of Sweden, and whofe daughter
the king of France had fmce married. Staniflaus was
gladly received at Dantzic, and acknowledged king of
Poland ; but h£re he was befieged by 10,000 Rufiians,
the city taken, and he himfelf with difficulty made his
efcape. France, however, ftill refolved to affift him,
as this, it was thought, would be the mod effeftual me¬
thod of diftreffing the houfe of Auftria. Thefe views
of France were feconded by Spain and Sardinia, both of
which hoped to grow rich by the fpoils of Auftria. A
French army, therefore, over-ran the empire, under the
conduft of the old marlhal Villars ; while the duke of
Montemar, the Spanifli general, was equally viAorious
in the kingdom of Naples. The emperor was foon ob¬
liged to fue for peace; which was granted, but Stani¬
flaus was negleAed in the treaty. It was ftipulated that
he (hould renounce all claim to the kingdom of Poland;
for which the emperor gratified France with the duchy
40J of Lorraine, and fome other valuable territories.
Defperate The emperor dying in the year 1740, the French be-
fuuation of gan to think this a favourable opportunity for exerting
the queen of their ambition. Regardlefs of treaties, therefore, par-
Hungary. tjcuiar]y that called the Pragmatic Sanftion, by which
the late emperor’s dominions was fettled upon his daugh¬
ter, they caufed the eleAor of Bavaria to be crowned
emperor. Thus the queen of Hungary, daughter of
Charles VI. was at once (tripped of her inheritance,
and was left for a whole year deferted by all Europe,
and without any hopes of fuccour. At the fame time
(he loft the province of Silefia by an irruption of the
young king of Pruffia, who took the opportunity of
her defencelefs ftate to renew his pretenfions to that
province, of which his anceftors had been unjuftly de¬
prived. France, Saxony, and Bavaria, attacked the reft
of her dominions: Britain was the only ally that feemed
willing to affift her; in which, however, Sardinia, Hol¬
land, and Ruffia, foon after concurred.
It muft be owned that Britain had no other reafon for
interfering in thefe difputes, than that the fecurity of
the eleAorate depended upon nicely balancing the dif¬
ferent interefts of the empire ; and the miniftry were
willing to gratify the king. His majefty informed the
parliament, that he had fent a body of Britifh forces
into the Netherlands, which he had augmented by
16,000 Hanoverians, to make a diverfion upon the do¬
minions of France, in favour of the queen of Hungary.
When the fupplies came to be confidered by which this
additional number of Hanoverian troops was to receive
pay from Britain for defending their own caufe, moft
violent parliamentary debates enfued ; but the miniftry
406 carried their point by the ftrength of numbers.
Relieved by J5utj however prejudicial thefe continental meafures
forces?1' ro'gh1 be to the true interefts of Great Britain, they ef-
feAually retrieved the queen of Hungary’s defperate
affairs, and foon began to turn the fcale of viAory on
her fide. The French were driven out of Bohemia.
Her general, prince Charles, at the head of a large ar¬
my, invaded the dominions of Bavaria. Her rival, the
nominal emperor, was obliged to fly before her; and
being abandoned by his allies, and ftripped even of his
hereditary dominions, retired to Frankfort, where he
lived in obfcurity.
In the mean time, the Britiflt and Hanoverian army Britain,
advanced, in order to cffeA a junAion with that of “
prince Charles of Lorrain,in which cafe they would have (.atj|j70f
outnumbered their enemies. To prevent this, the French Oettingen.
oppofed an army of 60,000 men, under the command
of the marftial de Noailles, who pofted his troops on
the eaft fide of that river. The Britifh army was com¬
manded by the earl of Stair, who had learned the art
of war under the great prince Eugene; neverthelefs, he
fuffered himfelf to be inclofed by the enemy on every
fide, near a village called Dettirigeri. In this fituation,
the whole army, with the king himfelf, who had by this
time arrived in the camp, muft have been taken, had the
French behaved with prudence. Their impetuofity,
however, faved the whole army. They paffed a defile,
which they ought to have contented themfelves with
guarding; and, under the conduA of the duke of Gra-
mont, their horfe charged the Britifh foot with great
fury. They were received with great refolution; and
at laft obliged to repafs the Mayne with precipitation,
and the lofs of about 5000 men. 40g
Though the Britifh were viAorious in this engage- Intended in-
ment, the French were very little difconcerted by it, vaf10? °f
They oppofed prince Charles, and interrupted his at- rtiTFrcnch
tempts to pafs the Rhine. In Italy they alfo gained
fome advantages 5 but their chief hopes were placed on
an intended invafion of England. From the violence
of parliamentary difputes in England, France had been
perfuaded that the country was ripe for a revolution,
and only wanted the prefence of the pretender to bring
about a change. An invafion was therefore aAually
projeAed. The troops deftined for the expedition a-
mounted to 1 5,000 ; and preparations were made for
embarking them at Dunkirk, and fome of the ports
neareft to England, under the eye of the young pre¬
tender. The duke de Roquefuille, with 10 fhips of
the line, was to fee them fafely landed on the oppofite
fhore, and the famous count Saxe was to command
them when landed. But the whole projeA was difcon¬
certed by the appearance of Sir John Norris, who with
a fuperior fleet made up to attack them. The French
fleet was obliged to put back; a very hard gale of wind
damaged their tranfports beyond redrefs; and the
French, now fruftrated in their fcheme of a fudden de-
feent, thought fit openly to declare war.
The national joy for Sir John Norris’s fuccefs, how¬
ever, was foon damped by the mifearriage of admirals
Matthews and Leftock; who, thro’ a mifunderftanding
between themfelves, fuffered a French fleet of 34 fail to
efcape them near Toulon. In the Netherlands the Bri-
tifti arms were attended with ftill worfe fuccefs. The 409
French had there affembled an army of 120,000 men, Battle of
commanded by count Saxe, natural fon to the late king Eonten(>y*
of Poland, an officer of great experience. The Engliffi
were headed by the duke of Cumberland, who had an
inferior army, and was much inferior in the knowledge
of war to the French general. Count Saxe, therefore,
carried all before him. In 1743, he befieged Fribourg;
and in the beginning of the campaign 1744, invefted
the ftrong city of Tournay. To fave this place, if pof-
fible, the allies refolved to hazard an engagement; and
on this enfued the bloody battle of Fontenoy, in which
the allies left on the field of battle near 12,000 men,
and the French almoft an equal number. In confe-
quence of this viAory, Tournay was foon after taken by
B R I [ 1469 ] B R I
Britain, the French. To balance this bad fuccefs, however,
jl' admirals Rowley and Warren had retrieved the honour
| 410 of the Britilh flag, and made feveral rich captures at
J«urS fea. The fortrefs of Louifburg, a place of great confe-
™ a en* quence to the Britilh commerce, furrendered to general
Pepperell; while, a Ihort time after, two French Eaft-
India fhips, and a Spanifli fliip from Peru laden with
treafure, put into the harbour, fuppofing it ftill their
411 own, and were taken.
■ Young pie- During this gleam of returning fuccefs, Charles Ed-
f !nnScotlan'dS warc*» ^ ^on t^e old'pretender to the Britifh crown,
’ refolved to make an attempt to recover what he called
his right. Being furnilhed with fome money from
France", he embarked for Scotland aboard a fmall fri¬
gate, accompanied by the marquis of Tullibardine, Sir
Thomas Sheridan, and fome others ; and for the con-
queft of the whole Britifh empire only brought with
him feven officers, and arms for 2000 men.
Fortune, however, feemed no way more favourable
to this attempt, than to others fimilar to it. His con¬
voy, a (hip of 60 guns, was fo difabled in an engage¬
ment with an Englifh man of war, that it was obliged
to return to Brelt, while he continued his courfe to the
weftern parts of Scotland. On the 27th of July 1745,
he landed on the coaft of Lochaber, and was in a little
time joined by the Highlanders, to the number of
1500 : the miniftry at firft could fcarcely be induced to
credit his arrival; but when they could no longer doubt
of it, they fent Sir John Cope with a fmall body of for-
411 ces to oppofehis progrefs.
Gains the By this time the young adventurer was arrived at
Preft rT PertW where he performed the ceremony of proclaim-
pans°n" *n8 fat^er king Great Britain. From thence,
defcending towards Edinburgh, and his forces conti¬
nually increafing, he entered the capital without oppo-
fition ; but was unable, for want of cannon, to reduce
the caftle. Here he again proclaimed his father ; and
promifed to diflblve the union, which was confidered as
one of the national grievances. In the mean time, Sir
John Cope being reinforced by two regiments of dra-
oons, refolved to give the enemy battle. The re¬
els attacked him near Preftonpans, and in a few mi¬
nutes put him and his troops to flight, with the lofs of
500 men.
This viftory gave the rebels great influence ; and had
the pretender marched dire6lly to England, the confe-
quence might have been fatal to freedom, But he was
amufed by the promife of fuccours which never came ;
and thus induced to remain in Edinburgh till the fea-
fon for aftion was loft. He was joined, however, by
the earl of Kilmarnock, lord Balmerino, lords Cro¬
marty, Elcho, Ogilvy, Pitfligo, and the eldeft fon of
lord Lovat, who with their vaflals conliderably increa-
fed his army. Lord Lovat himfelf, fo remarkable for
his treachery, was an enthufiaft in favour of the preten¬
der, but was unwilling to adt openly for fear of the
miniftry. But while Charles was thus trifling away
his time at Edinburgh, the Britilh miniftry were taking
effedtual methods to oppofe him. Six thoufand Dutch
troops, that had come over to the affiftance of the
crown, were difpatched northward under the command
of general Wade ; but, as it was then faid, thefe could
lend no affiftance, being prifoners of France upon their
parole, and under engagements not to oppofe that
power for a year. But however this be, the duke of
Vox.. II.
Cumberland foon after arrived from Flanders, and was Britain,
followed by another detachment of dragoons and in- ”
fantry, well difciplined and inured to adlion ; and be-
fides thefe, volunteers offered themfelves in every part
of the kingdom. 4,j
At laft, Charles refolved upon an irruption into Invades
England. He entered that country by the weftern England,
border, and took the town of Carlille.; after which he
continued his march fouthwards, having received affu-
rances that a confiderable body of forces would be
landed on the fouthern coafts to make a diverfion in
his favour. He eftablilhed his head-quarters at Man-
chefter, where he was joined by about 200 Englilh
formed into a regiment, under the command of colonel
Townley. From thence he purfued his march to Der¬
by, intending to go by the way of Chefterinto Wales,
where he hoped to be joined by a great number of male-
contents ; but in this he was prevented by the faftions
among his followers.
Being now advanced within 100 miles of London, Great con-
that capital was in the utmoft confternation ; and had Vernation at
he proceeded with the fame expedition he had hitherto Lon<ion-
ufed, perhaps he might have made himfelf mailer of it.
But he was rendered incapable of purfuing this, orany
other rational plan, by the difcontents which began to
prevail in his army. In faft, the young pretender was
but the nominal leader of his forces ; his generals, the
Highland chiefs, being averfe to fubordination, and ig- 4j j
norant of command. They were now unanimous in Rebels re-
their refolution to return to their own country, and ^°*ve t0 re’
Charles was forced to comply. They retreated to Car- turu*
lifle without any lofs; and from thence croffing the ri¬
vers Eden and Solway, entered Scotland. They next
marched to Glafgow, which was laid under fevere con¬
tributions. From thence advancing to Stirling, they
were joined by lord Lewis Gordon at the head of fome
forces which had been affembled in his abfence. Other
clans likewife came in ; and from fome fupplies of mo¬
ney received from Spain, and fome Ikirmilhes with the
royalifts, in which he was viftorious, the pretender’s af¬
fairs began to wear a more promiling afpeil. Being
joined by lord Drummond, he invefted the caftle of
Stirling, in the liege of which much time was con-
fumed to no purpofe. General Hawley, who com¬
manded a confiderable body of forces near Edinburgh,
undertook to raife this fiege, and advanced towards the 4I(j
rebel army as far as Falkirk. After two days fpent in Gain the
mutually examining each others ftrength, an engage- Battle of
ment enfued, in which the king’s forces were entirely Ealkick.
defeated, with the lofs of their tents and artillery. 4,7
This was the end of all the triumphs of the re- Entirely de-
bel army. The duke of Cumberland having arri- feated at
ved, was put at the head of the troops at Edin- Cullo<len'
burgh, which amounted to about 14,000 men. With
thefe he advanced to Aberdeen, where he was joined
by feveral of the nobility attached to the houfe of Ha¬
nover ; the enemy in the mean time retreating before
him. He next advanced to the banks of the Spey, a
deep and rapid river, where the rebels might have dif-
puted his paffage ; but their contentions with one ano-
there were now rifen to fuch a height, that they could
fcarce agree in any thing. At laft they refolved to wait
their purfuers. An engagement enfued at Culloden *, * See Culk-
near Invernefs ; in which the rebels were defeated with den'
great daughter, and a final end was put to all the hopes
8 Z of
13 R I [ 1470 ] B R I
Britain, of the young adventurer. The conquerors behaved
” with the greateft cruelty; refufing quarter to the
wounded, the unarmed, and the defencelefs; fome were
flain who had only been fpedtators of the combat, and
foldiers were feen to anticipate the bafe employment of
the executioner. The duke, immediately after the ac¬
tion, ordered 36 deferters to be executed : the con¬
querors fpread terror wherever they came; and after a
ihort fpace, the whole country round was one dreadful
4i3 fcene of plunder, daughter, and defolation.
Adventures Immediately after the engagement, the young pre-
prctenderIIS ten<^er away with a captain of Fitzjames’s cavalry;
and when their horfes were fatigued, they both alighted,
and feparately fought for fafety. There is a linking
refemblance between the adventures of Charles II. after
the battle of Worcelter, and thole of the young pre¬
tender after the battle of Culloden. For fome days he
wandered in the country. Sometimes he found refuge
in caves and cottages, without any attendants at all.
Sometimes he lay in forefts with one or two companions
of his dillrefs, continuajly purfued by the troops of the
conqueror, there being a reward of 30,000!. offered for
taking him either dead or alive. In the courfe of
his adventures, he had occafion to trull his life to the
fidelity of above 50 individuals; not one of whom
could be prevailed upon by fo great a reward as was of¬
fered, to betray him whom they looked upon to be
their king’s fon.
For fix months the unfortunate Charles continued to
wander in the frightful wilds of Glengary, often hem¬
med round by his purfuers, but Hill refcued by fome
providential accident from the impending danger. At
length, a privateer of St Maloes, hired by his adhe¬
rents, arrived in Lochnanach, in which he embarked in
the moll wretched attire. He was clad in a Ihort coat
of black frize, thread-bare; over which was a common
Highland plaid, girt round him by a belt, from which
hung a piftol and dagger. He had not been Ihifted for
many weeks; his eyes were hollow, his vifage wan, and
his conllitution greatly impaired by famine and fatigue.
He was accompanied by Sullivan and Sheridan, two
Irilh adherents who had lhared all his calamities; toge-
41.9 ther with Cameron of Lochiel, his brother, and a
He efcapes few other exiles. They fet fail for France ; and, after
to France, having been chafed by two Englilh men of war, arrived
in fafety at a place called Rojeau near Morlaix in Bre-
4to tagne.
Rebels exe- While the pretender was thus purfued, the fcaffolds
cmed. an(j gibbets were preparing for his adherents. Seven¬
teen officers were hanged, drawn, and quartered, at Ken-
nington-common in the neighbourhood of London ;
nine were executed in the fame manner at Carlifie, and
eleven at York. A few obtained pardons, and a con-
fiderable number of the common men were tranfported
to America. The earls of Kilmarnock and Cromarty,
and lord Balmerino, were tried and found guilty of high
treafon. Cromarty was pardoned : but Kilmarnock
and Balmerino were executed; as was alfo Mr Radcliffe
brother to the late earl of Derwentwater, who was fen-
tenced upon a former conviflion. Lord Lovat was
4JI tried, and fuffered fome time after.
New regu- Immediately after the fuppreffion of the rebellion,
tauons in the legiflature undertook to eftablilh feveral regulations
cot an . jn scot]an(j} which were equally conducive to the hap-
pinefs of the people, and the tranquillity of the united
kingdoms. The Highlanders had till that time conti« Britain,
nued to wear the military drefs of their anceftors, and 7
never went without arms. In confequence of this, they
confidered themfelves as a body of people diftindt from,
the reft of the nation, and were ready, upon the ftiorteft
notice, to fecond the infurreftions of their chiefs. Their
habits were now reformed by an aft of legiflature, and
they were compelled to wear clothes of the common fa-
fliion. But what contributed ftill more to their real
felicity was the abolition of that hereditary jurifdiftion
which their chieftains exerted over them. The power
of their chieftains was totally deftroyed, and every fub-
jeft in that part of the kingdom was granted a partici¬
pation in the common liberty.
Soon after the battle of Culloden, the duke of Cum¬
berland returned to Flanders, where he refumed the
command of an army to which he was by no means 411 i
equal. The French carried every thing before them ; Allies de- |
and they reduced under their dominion all thofe ftrong ff*red in |
towns which had been taken by the duke of Marlbo- an ers'
rough, and formed a barrier to the United Provinces.
They gained a conliderable viftory at Boucroux; which,
however, coft them as many men as they deftroyed of
the enemy ; but thefe they could more ealily fpare, as
they were much more numerous. Another viftory which
they obtained at La Feldt, ferved to deprefs the allied
army ftill lower. But the taking of Bergen-op-zoom,
the ftrongeft fortification of Brabant, reduced the Dutch
to a ftate of defperation. 42J
Thefe victories and fucceffes in Flanders were, how- LolT.s of
ever, counterbalanced by almoft equal difappointments. ^ French ;
In Italy, the marlhal Belleifle’s brother, attempting to in 0'her
penetrate, at the head of 34,000 men, into Piedmont, ^
was defeated and killed. A fleet was fitted out for the
recovery of Cape Breton, but without fuccefs. Two
others were fitted out, the one to make a defeent upon
the Britifti colonies in America, and the other to carry
on the operations in the Eaft Indies ; but thefe were
attacked by Anfon and Warren, and nine of their ftu'ps
taken. Soon after this, commodore Fox, with fix fliips
of war, took above 40 French (hips richly laden, from
St Domingo; and foon after this the French fleet was
defeated by admiral Hawke, who took feven fliips of
the line, and feveral frigates. 4,4
For a long time Lewis had been defirous of a gene- of
ral tranquillity ; and this defire he had even expreffed A'^la CIia“ |
to Sir John Ligonier, who was taken prifoner at the pe e‘
battle of La Feldt. But now the bad fucce.fs of his ad¬
mirals at fea, his armies in Italy, the frequent bankrupt¬
cies of his merchants at home, and the eleftion of a
ftadtholder in Holland who gave fpirit to the oppofi-
tion; all thefe contributed to make him weary of the
war, and to propofe terms of accommodation. This
was what the allies had long wilhed for, but had been
aftiamed to demand. A congrefs, therefore, was held at
Aix-la-Chapelle, where a treaty was concluded on the
following terms. 1. That all prifoners on each fide
Ihould be mutually given up, and all conqueftsreftored.
2. That the duchies of Parma, Placentia, and Guaftal-
la, (hould be ceded to Don Philip, heir apparent to the
Spanifli crown ; after whom thefe dominions (hould re¬
turn to the houfe of Auftria. 3. That the fortifica¬
tions of Dunkirk towards the fea (hould be demoliflied ;
and that the Britifh (hip annually fent with (laves to the
coaft of New Spain, (hould have this privilege continued
for j
15 R I [ 1471 ] 15 R I
Britain, for four years. 4. That the king of Pruflia fliould be were fent down to the coafts that lay oppofite to the
confirmed in the pofleffion of Silefia, and that the queen Britifh Ihores ; thefe were inftrufted in the manner of
of Hungary (hould be fecured in the pofleffion of her embarking and relanding from fiat-bottomed boats,
patrimonial dominions. But the molt mortifying claufe which were made in great numbers for that expedition,
was, that the king of Great Britain Ihould immediately. The number of men amounted to 50,000; but all dif-
after the ratification of this treaty, fend two perfons of covered the utmoft reluftance to the undertaking,
rank to France as hoftages, until reftitution Ihould be The miniftry were greatly alarmed. They applied -to
made of Cape Breton and all other Britilh conquefts ’ ^ '
made during the war. No mention was made of the
fearching Britilh veffels in the American feas, tho’ this
was the original caufe of the quarrel. The limits of
the Dutch for 6000 men, which they were by treaty
obliged to furnilli in cafe of an invafion. This fupply
was refufed; the Dutch alleging, that their treaty was
to fend the troops in cafe of an a£lual, and not a threat-
their refpeftive polfelfions in North America were not ened, invafion. The king, therefore, finding he could
afcertained; nor did they receive any equivalent for
thofe forts which they reftored to the enemy.
  In the year 1751, died Frederic prince of Wales, of
theprinceof a pleurify thought at firll to be no way dangerous. He
was greatly regretted ; for his good-nature had ren¬
net have the Dutch forces till their afiiftance would be
too late, defifted entirely from his demand ; and the
Dutch with great amity returned him thanks for with¬
drawing his requelt. Upon this, 10,000 Hefiians and
Hanoverians were brought over. But this occafioned
dered him popular, and thofe who oppofed the prefent great difeontent. The miniftry were reviled for fuch dif-
Hoftilities
renewed.
adminiftration had grounded all their hopes of redrels
upon his accefiion to the throne.
Some time before this, viz. in the year 1749, a
fcheme was entered upon, which the nation in general
imagined would be very advantageous. This was the
encouraging thofe who had been difeharged the army
or navy to become fettlers in Nova Scotia. This coun¬
try is cold, barren, and almoft incapable of cultivation.
Neverthelefs, on account of this barren fpot, the Eng-
lilh and French renewed the war, which foon after
graceful condefcenfion, as if the nation was unable to
defend itfelf. The people only demanded a vigorous
exertion of their own internal ftrength, and then feared
no force that could be led to invade them.
The Britilh invafion, however, never took place: but Minorca in-
a French army landed in Minorca, and invefted the ci- vaded.
tadel of St Philip’s, which was reckoned the ftrongeft
in Europe; but the garrifon was weak, and no way
fitted to ftand a vigorous fiege. To raife this fiege, ad¬
miral Byng was difpatched with a fquadron of ten men
fpread with fuch terrible devaftation over every part of of war, with orders to relieve Minorca, or at any rate
the globe. The pofiefiion of this country was reckoned
neceflary to defend the Engliih colonies to the north,
and to preferve their fuperiority in the fiflieries in that
part of the world. The French, however, who had been
long fettled in the back parts, refolved to ufe every
method to difpoffefs the new comers, and fpirited up
the Indians to begin hoftilities. Another fource of dif-
pute alfo fprung up foon after in the fame part of the
world. The French, pretending to have firft difeo-
vered the mouth of the river Miffiffippi, claimed the
whole adjacent country towards New Mexico on the
eaft, quite to the Apalachian mountains on the weft.
In order to afiert their claims, as they found feveral
Englifh who had fettled beyond thefe mountains, they
difpofiefied them of their new fettlements, and built
fuch forts
about.
to throw a body of troops into the garrifon. This laft
he reckoned too hazardous an undertaking; nor did he
even attempt it. Soon after, a French fleet appeared
nearly equal in force to his own ; but the admiral re¬
folved to adt only upon the defenfive. The French ad¬
vanced ; a flight engagement enfued with part of the
Englifti fleet; after which, the French flowly failed
away, and another opportunity never occurred of co¬
ming to a clofer engagement. After this, it was refol¬
ved in a council of war to return to Gibraltar to refit,
and that the relief of Minorca was impradficable. For
this condudl Byng was brought home under arreft, 4lS.
tried, and fentenced to death. His fentence was to be AdminJ
ftiot; and he fuffered with the greateft refolution, after Byng ex
delivering a paper filled with proteftations of his inno- cuted*
would command the whole country round cence as to any treacherous intention.
After the conqueft of Minorca, the French declared
Negotiations, mutual accufations, and hoftilities, firft that they would revenge all injuries they fttould fuftain
ok place between the two powers; at length, in 1756, in their colonies on the king of Britain’s dominions in
four operations were undertaken by the Britifli in Ame- Germany. Upon this, the court of London, eager to Treaty^with
rica at once. Colonel Monkton had orders to drive the preferve Hanover, entered into a treaty with the court RufCa.
French from their encroachments upon the province of of Ruflia, by which it was ftipulated, that a body of
^ it,,- r. 50,000 Ruffians fliould be ready to adt in the Britifli
fervice, in cafe Hanover fliould be invaded by the French.
For this the czarina was to receive ioo,oool. annually,
to be paid in advance. This treaty was oppofed by the
king of Pruffia. He had long confidered himfejf as
Nova Scotia. General Johnfon was fent againft Crown
Point; General Shirley againft Niagara, to fecure the
forts on the river ; and General Braddock againft Fort
du Quefne. In thefe expeditions, Monkton was. fuc-
cefsfuT; Johnfon alfo was vi&orious, though he failed
in taking the fort againft which he was fent; Shirley guardian of the interefts of Germany, and was there-
was thought to have loft the feafon of operation by
delay ; and Braddock was defeated and killed.
In return for this bad fuccefs, the Britifli made re-
prifals at fea ; and in this they were fo fuecefsful, that
the French navy was unable to recover itfelf during the
fore alarmed at a treaty which threatened to deluge
the empire with an army of barbarians. Befides, he was
already apprized of an agreement between the Auftrians
and Ruffians, by which the latter were to enter the 4.0
empire and ftrip him of his late conqueft of Silefia. He Oppofed by
continuance of the war that was ftiortly after declared therefore declared, that he would not fuffer any foreignthe king
on both fides. The firft ftep of the French was to forces to enter the empire, either as auxiliaries or prin- ^rul“iu
threaten an invafion. Several bodies of their troops cipals. The king of Britain now found himfelf obliged
8 Z 2 to
B R I [ 1472 ] B R I
Britain, to drop his Ruffian connexion, and conclude a treaty tions, no longer under the name of auxiliari'es, but as Britain.
 with the king of Pruffia. As both monarchs wiffied rivals in arms, government, and commerce. The molt
only to prevent the invafion of Germany, they foon powerful prince in that country declared war againft
431 came to an agreement to affift each other mutually, the Britilh ; and, levying a numerous army, laid fiege
New combi-From this alliance a new combination took place among to Calcutta, one of the principal Britilh forts in that
nation of ^ Eur0pean powers, quite oppofite to the former ; part of the world, but which was not in a condition to
ane 'l,roPe* ancj their forces were drawn out in the ^following man- defend itfclf even from thefe barbarians. But, for a par-
an poweis. ]3rjtain oppofed France in America, Afia, and on ticular account of the miferable fate of this place, and
the ocean. France attacked Hanover; which the king the fubfequent tranfadtions there, fee Bengal, n° 10,
of Pruffia undertook to protedl, while Britain promi- ^ feq-; and Calcutta. 454
fed him troops and money to affill his operations. Au- Clive, having fully revenged the lofs fuftained at Cal- General
ftria had their aims on the dominions of Pruffia, and cutta, and made the power of the Britilh irreliftible over Lally de-
drew the eledtor of Saxony into the fame defigns. In
thefe views the Auftrians were feconded by France,
Sweden, and Ruffia, who had hopes of acquiring a
fettlement in the weft of Europe.
Thus the king of Pruffia lanched into the tumult
of war, having only the king of Britain for his ally,
while the moft potent ftates of Europe were his anta-
gonifts. He now performed exploits perhaps unequal-
4?1 led in the annals of modern ages ; for a particular ac-
Unfnccefs- count of which, fee the article Prussia. The Britilh
till expedi- miniftry, in order to procure a diverfion in his favour,
F^ance**11^ planned an efiterprize againft the coaft of France. The
1 ’ deftination of the fleet equipped for this purpofe was
kept a profound fecret. At laft it appeared before
Rochford ; where the commanders, having trifled away
their time in deliberating how to proceed, fecured the
little illand of Aix, an eafy and an ufelefs conqueft :
foon after which, they returned home, without attempt¬
ing any thing elfe. By this mifearriage the miniftry
were fo difeouraged, that they had thoughts of aban¬
doning the king of Pruffia to his fate ; and the king
was actually meditating a negociation of this nature,
when he was prevented by the expoftulations of his
diftrefied ally. From motives of generofity, therefore,
more than of intereft, it was refolved to continue to af¬
fift him; and fuccefs, which had long fled from the
Britilh arms, once more began to return with double
433 fplendour.
Britifh fee- It was in the Eaft Indies where this returning fuc-
ccls in the cefs firft began to appear. The war in Afia had never
Eaft Indie.'. 5een totally fufpended. It was carried on at firft by
both nations under pretence of lending affiftance to the
contending chiefs of the country ; but the allies foon
became the principals in the contention. This war at
firft, and for a long time after the treaty of Aix-la-
Chapelle, was protradled with doubtful fuccefs; but at
length the affairs of the Englilh feemed to gain the
afeendency by the courage and condudl of Mr Clive.
By his adlivity the province of Arcot was firft cleared.
Soon after, the French general was taken prifoner;
and the nabob whom the Englilh fupported was re-
inftated in the government of which he had been for¬
merly deprived. Upon this, the French fent over a
commiffary to Europe to rettore peace. A convention
between the two companies was accordingly concluded,
importing, that the territories taken on either fide fince
the conclufion of the laft peace Ihould be mutually re-
ftored; that the nabobs advanced by the influence of
either party Ihould be acknowledged by both; and
that, for the future, neither (hould interfere in the dif¬
ferences that Ihould arife between the princes of the
country. This tranquillity, however, was of Ihort dura¬
tion. In a few months both fides renewed their opera-
all the peninfula of India, the French miniftry were
greatly alarmed. To make feme fort of oppofition, a
confiderable body of forces was fent out under the
command of general Lally; and for fome time the af¬
fairs of France feemed to wear a better afpeft from his
conduct. He took fort St David’s; plundered the coun¬
try of the king of Tanjour in alliance with the Britifh ;
and then, entering the province of Arcot, prepared for
laying fiege to Madrafs ; but in this enterprife he mif-
carried through the cowardice of his foldiers. Theie
fucceffes, however, were of Ihort duration. The Britilh
troops, headed by colonel Coote a native of Ireland,
marched againft Lally, with a defign to come to a de-
cifive engagement. On his march, Coote took the city
of Wandewafh, and afterwards reduced the fortrefs of
Carangoly. At length he came up with the French ge¬
neral, who had no thoughts of declining an engage¬
ment. In the morning early, the French advanced
within three quarters of a mile of the Britilh line,' and
the cannonading began with great fury on both fides.
The engagement continued till two in the afternoon;
when the French gave way and fled towards their
camp; which they quickly after abandoned, leaving all
their cannon and baggage to the vidtors.
The retaking the city of Arcot was the confequence Pondicher-
of this vidlory ; fo that nothing now remained to the ry taken.
French, of all their Indian dominions, but the ftrong
town of Pondicherry and fome adjacent fortreffes. Coote
began with reducing the forts in its neighbourhood ;
after which, he fat down before the city. Lally held
out to the laft extremity, but was at length obliged
to capitulate; and thus a final period was put to the
power of France in the Eaft Indies.
The Britilh conquefts in the weftern part of the world
were about this time ftill more fplendid than thofe in
the eaft. But thefe fucceffes muft, partly at leaft, be
aferibed to the vigorous adminiftration of Mr William 435
Pitt, who about this time came into power. An expe- Mr Pitt
dition was fet on foot againft Cape Breton, under ge- comes ‘“to
neral Amherft and admiral Bofcawen ; another, under Power'
general Abercrombie, againft Crown Point and Ticon-
derago; and a third, under brigadier-general Forbes,
againft Fort, du Quefne. The fortrefs of Louilburg,
which defended the ifland of Cape Breton, was very
ftrong both by nature and art ; the garrifon was nu¬
merous, the commander vigilant, and every precaution
had been taken to prevent a landing. But the a&ivity
of the Britilh furmounted every obftacle; the place was
furrendered by capitulation, and its fortifications were
demolilhed. The expedition againft Fort du Quefne
was equally fuccefsful; but that againft Crown Point
once more mifearried. General Abercrombie attacked
the French in their entrenchments, was repulfed with
great
B R I [ 1473 ] B R I
Britain, great (laughter, and obliged to retire to his camp at
Lake George. But though in this refpe£t the Bri-
tifh arms were unfuccefsful, yet, upon the whole, the
campaign of 1758 was greatly in their favour. 1’he
taking of Fort du Quefne ferved to remove from their
colonies the terror of the incurfions of the Indians,
while it interrupted the correfpondence along a chain
of forts with which the French had environed the Bri-
tifh fettlements in America, fo that the fucceeding
437 campaign promifed great fuccefs.
Qrebec ta-- jn Was refolved to attack the French in fe-
nadaTedu-3" vera^ Parts their empire at once. General Amherit
ced. with a body of 12,000 men was commanded to attack
Crown Point; General Wolfe was to undertake the
fiege of Quebec ; while general Prideaux and Sir Wil¬
liam JohnTon were to attempt a French fort near the
catara&s of Niagara. This laft expedition was the firft
that fucceeded. The fiege was begun with vigour,
and promifed an eafy conqueft ; but general Prideaux
was killed in the trenches by the burfting of a mortar,
fo that the whole command devolved on general John-
fon. A body of French troops, fenfible of the impor¬
tance of the place, attempted to relieve it; but were
utterly defeated and difperfed : foon after which, the
garrifon furrendered prilbners of war. On his arrival
at the forts at Crown Point and Ticonderago, general
Amherft found them deferted and deftroyed. There
now remained, therefore, but one decifive blow to re¬
duce all North America under the Britiili dominion ;
* See ^we- and this was by the taking of Quebec * the capital of
^ec- Canada. This expedition was commanded by admiral
Saunders and general Wolfe. The enterprize was at¬
tended with difficulties which appeared unfurmountable;
but all thefe difficulties were got over by the condudf
of general Wolfe, and the bravery of his men. He
engaged and put to flight the French under Montcalm;
but to the great regret of the Britifh, their general was
killed in the adfion. The furrender of Quebec was
the confequence of this vi&ory, which was foon fol¬
lowed by the ceffion of all Canada. The following
feafon, indeed, the French made a vigorous effort to
recover the city; but by the refolution of governor
Murray, and the appearance of a Britifh fleet under
the command of lord Colvile, they were obliged to a-
bandon the enterprize. The whole province was foon
after reduced by the prudence and a&ivity of general
Amherft, who obliged the French army to capitulate,
and it has fince remained annexed to the Britifh empire.
About the fame time alfo the ifland of Guadalupe was
reduced by commodore Mdre and general Hopfon.
Duke of The Britifh affairs in Germany had at the beginning
Cumber- of the war worn a very unfavourable afpedl. The Ha-
lates'withl> noverians were commanded by the duke of Cumberland,
the French. w^° *vas greatly outnumbered by the enemy. He was
driven beyond the Wefer, the paffage of which might
have been difputed with fome appearance of fuccefs ;
but the French were fuffered to pafs it unmolefted.
The Hanoverians were driven from one part of the
country to another, till at length it made a Hand near
a village called Hafienback, where it was hoped the
numbers of the enemy would have the leaft opportunity
of coming to a general engagement. The Hanove¬
rians, however, left the field of battle to the French,
after a faint refiftance. Their enemies purfued, and
the duke retired towards Stade ; by which means he
marched into a country from whence he could neither Britain.
procureprovifions, nor attack the enemy with any hopes
of fuccefs. Here, being unable either to efcape or ad¬
vance, he was compelled to fign a capitulation by which
the whole army laid down their arms, and were dif-
fperfed into different quarters of cantonement. By
this remarkable capitulation, which was called the ca¬
pitulation of Clojler Seven, Hanover was obliged to
fubmit quietly to the French, who were now deter¬
mined to turn their arms againft the king of Pruffia.
Soon after this capitulation, both fides began to The Hano-
complain that the treaty was not ftriftly obferved. The ver'ans ,ake
Hanoverians exclaimed againft the rapacity of the Up arras•
French general, and the brutality of his foldiers. The
French retorted the charge againft them;- accufed
them of infolence and infurredtion ; and, being fen¬
fible of their own fuperiority, refolved to bind them
ftri&ly to their terms of agreement. The Hanove¬
rians only wanted a pretence to take arms, and a ge¬
neral to head them. Neither were long wanting. The
oppreffions of the tax-gatherers whom the French had
appointed, were confidered as fo fevere, that the army
rofe to vindicate the freedom of their country, while
Ferdinand, prince of Brunfwick, put himfelf at their
head. As foon as this was known in Britain, large
fupplies were granted both for the fervice of the king
of Pruffia, and to enable the Hanoverian army to aft
vigoroufly in conjunftion with him. A fmall body of
Britifh forces was fent over to join prince Ferdinand
under the duke of Marlborough. After fome inconfider-
able fucceffes at Crevclt, the duke of Marlborough dying,
the command of the Britifh forces devolved on lord 44{J
George Sackville. A mifunderftanding arofe between French de-
him and prince Ferdinand, which appeared at the bat- feated at
tie of Minden that was fought fhortly after. Lord MlI|den.
George pretended that he did not underftand the orders
fent him by the prince, and of confequence did not o-
bey them. The allies gained the viftory, which would
have been more decifive had the Britifh commander o-
beyed his orders. He was foon after recalled, tried
by a court-martial, found guilty of difobedience, and
declared incapable of ferving in any military command
for the future. 44t
After this viftory it was imagined, that one rein- German
forcement more of Britifh troops would terminate the war c°nti-
war in favour of the allies ; and that reinforcement was "arioiis'fuc
quickly fent. The Britifh army in Germany was aug- CCfs>
mented to upwards of 30,000 men, andfanguine hopes
of conqueft were generally entertained. Thefe hopes,
however, were foon found to be ill founded. The allies
were defeated at Corbach ; but retrieved their honour
at Exdorf. A viftory at Warbourg followed fhortly
after, and another at Zierenberg : but then they fuf¬
fered a defeat at Compen; after which, both fides re¬
tired into winter-quarters. 441
On the 25th of Oftober 1760, happened the death Death of
of king George II. He had rifen at his ufual hour, king George
and obferved to his attendants, that as the weather was
fine, he would take a walk into the gardens of Ken-
fington, where he then refided. In a few minutes af¬
ter his return, being left alone, he was heard to fall
down upon the floor. The noife of this bringing his
attendants into the room, they lifted him into bed ;
where he defired with a faint voice, that the princefs
Amelia might be fent for: but before (he could reach
B R I [ 1474 ] B R I
Britain, the apartment, he expired, in the 77th year of his age,
 and 33d of his reign. An attempt was made to bleed
him, but without effeft ; and afterwards the furgeons,
upon opening him, difcovered that the right ventricle
of the heart was ruptured, and a great quantity of
44? blood difcharged through the aperture.
Great fnc- King George III. afcended the throne amid ft the
t^'5 grC3*e^ fucceifes both by fea and land. At this time,
indeed, the efforts of Britain in every quarter of the
globe were truly aftonifhing. The king of PrnfTia re¬
ceived a fubfidy ; a large body of Englifh forces com¬
manded the extenfive peninfulaof India; another army
of 20,000 men confirmed their conquefts in North A-
merica ; 30,000 men were employed in Germany; and
a great many more were difperfed in the different gar-
rifons in different parts of the world : but all this was
furpaffed by the ailonilhing naval force, which carried
command wherever it came, and had totally annihilated
the French maritime power. The courage and con¬
duit of the Englifh admirals excelled every thing that
had been heard of before ; neither fuperior force nor
number, nor even the terrors of the tempeft, could in¬
timidate them. Admiral Hawke gained a complete
viitory over an equal number of French fhips, in Quibe-
ron bay on the coaft of Bretagne, in the midft of a tem¬
peft, during the darknefs of night, and, what a feaman
fears ftill more, in the neighbourhood of a rocky fhore.
As foon as his prefent majefty had met with his
parliament, which was on November t8ih 1760, he con¬
firmed the hopes of his allies, and gave affurances of
his intentions to profecute the war with vigour. By
this time, however, the people were in fome meafure
weary with conquefts; efpecially with thofe in Germany,
from which they could never hope foranyfolid advan¬
tage, and which were gained at an immenfe expence
to the nation. Difputes concerning the propriety of
the German war were carried on, and the general run
of popular opinion feemed to be rather againft than
444 for it. For fome time, however, no change took place
Propofals of in the method of carrying on the war. In 1761, pro-
peace. pofals of peace were made between the belligerent
powers of Europe ; and for this purpofe Mr Stanley
was fent to Paris, and Mr Buffy to London: but the
French, defigningto draw Spain into a confederacy with
them, feem not to have been fincere in their intentions;
and thus the treaty came to nothing. An enterprize
was proje&ed againft the ifland of Belleifle, near the
coaft of France, which was conducted by commodore
* See Belle- Keppel and general Hodgfon f. The place was con-
quered, with the lofs of 1800 men killed and wounded
on the part of the Britilh ; and however unimportant
this conqueft might be, the rejoicings on account of it
were great. In Germany the campaign was unfuccefs-
ful on the part of the allies. At firft, indeed, they
drove the French quite out of the territory of Heffe,
and laid fiege to the city of Caffe! ; but being defeated
at Stangerode, they were forced to raife the fiege,
retire behind the Dymel, and again abandon Heffe to
their enemies. Here they were followed and attacked
by the French; who, though defeated in that attempt,
were with difficulty prevented from making themfelves
mafters of Munfter and Brunfwick.
All this time an appearance of negociation had been
carried on ; but at laft the French having brought
their defigns with the court of Spain to a bearing, Mr
Buffy delivered to Mr Pitt a private memorial, fignify- Britain,
ing, that, in order to eftabliffi the peace on a lafting ‘
foundation, the king of Spain might be induced to
guaranty the treaty ; and to prevent the differences
which then fublifted between Britain and Spain from
producing a frdh war in Europe, he propofed-, that in
this negociation, the three points which had been dif-
puted between the crowns of England and Spain might
be finally fettled. Firft, the reftitution of fome cap¬
tures made upon the Spaniffi flag. Secondly, the pri¬
vilege of the Spanifh nation to fifti upon the banks of
Newfoundland. Thirdly, the demolition of the Eng¬
lifh fettlements made in the bay of Honduras. This
memorial was returned as wholly unadmiffible. Mr
Pitt declared, that it would be looked upon as an af¬
front to the dignity of his mafter, and incompatible with
the fincerity of the negociation, to make any further
mention of fuch a circumftance. 44J
Mr Pitt, being now thoroughly convinced of the fi- Spauifh war
nifter defigns of -Spain, propofed immediately to de- propofed by
dare war againft that kingdom. But this propofal Mr Pitt*
being reje&ed, he immediately refigned his employ- 44<J
ment of Secretary of flate ; after which, he was created ^b^crea’
earl of Chatham, and had a penfion of 3000/. per an- ied eari 0f
num fettled upon him for three lives. Chatham.
Soon after this, however, the new adminiftration 44?
found that Mr Pitt was in the right, and war was de- War with
dared between Great Britain and Spain. As Portu- Spain,
gal was an ufeful ally of Britain, it was refolved by
the French and Spaniards to attack that kingdom,
which was then in no capacity of defending itfelf. The
Portuguefe monarch was by the moft haughty memo¬
rials commanded to accede to the confederacy againft
Britain, and threatened with the vengeance of France
and Spain in cafe of a refufal. It was [in vain that he
promifed to obferve a ftrid neutrality, and urged the
obligations he was under to the king of Britain ; this
moderate and reafonable reply only drew on more
haughty and infulting anfwers. His Portuguefe ma¬
jefty, however, continued to reject their propofals in
the moft refolute manner ; and concluded his laft de¬
claration with thefe words, that “ it would affedt him
lefs, though reduced to the laft extremity of which the
reat Judge is the foie arbiter, to let the laft tile of
is palace fall, and to fee his faithful fubjedls fpill the
laft drop of their blood, than to facrifice, together
with the honour of his crown, all that Portugal holds
moft dear, and to fubmit, by fuch extraordinary means,
to become an unheard of example to all pacific powers,
who will no longer be able to enjoy the benefit of
neutrality, whenever a war (hall be kindled between
other powers with which the former are connefted by
defenfive treaties.” This declaration was made on the France and
27th of April 1762 ; and foon after, France and Spain Spain de-
jointly declared war againft Portugal. ' dare war a-
As the defign of the courts of France and Spain in i>or*
making war with Portugal, was profeffedly to prevent “
Great Britain from the military and commercial ufe of
the ports of that kingdom, their principal endeavours
were aimed at the two great ports where the Britilh 44J)
ufed to refide, viz. Oporto and Lilbon. With this Pomigalin-
view, three inroads were to be made ; one to the north; vaded.
another more to the fouth ; while the third was made
in the middle provinces, in order to fuftain thefe two
bodies, and preferve a communication between them.
The
Britain.
4S0
Spaniards
defeated by
general Bur-
goyne.
B R I [ 1475 ] B R I
The firil body of troops was commanded by the mar- repulfed with lofs. Still, however, they continued Britain.
quis of Savria ; and entered the north-eaft angle of mailers of the country, and nothing remained but the 
Portugal, marching towards Miranda. This town paflage of the Tagus to enable them to take up their
might pofiibly have retarded their progrefs, had not a quarters in the province of Alentejo. This the count
powder-magazine been blown up by accident ; and the defigned to prevent; and in this iervice general Bur-
Spaniards entered on the ninth of May by the breaches goyne was employed, who formed a defign of fur- 4ji
made by this exploiion. F. am thence they marched priling them. The execution was committed to co- And by eo-
to Braganza, which furrendered fix days after Miranda, lonel Lee, who, in the night of October 6th, fell *one^ ^cc*
Moncorvo was taken in like manner; every thing was upon their rear, difperfed the whole body with confi-
clear before them to the banks of theDouro; and they derable/laughter, deftroyed their magazines, and re¬
became mafters of almoft the whole extenfive province turned with fcarce any lofs. The feafon was now far
of Tralos Montes. Oporto was given up for loft, advanced ; immenfe quantities of rain fell ; the roads
and the Britifh admiralty prepared tranfports to car- were deftroyed ; and the Spaniards, having feized no
ry off the effe&s of the Britifh merchants. On the advanced polls where they could maintain themfelves,
banks of the Douro, however, the carreer of this body and being unprovided with magazines for the fupport
was flopped. The peafants, animated, and guided by of their horfe, every where fell back to the frontiers of
fome Britifh officers, feized a difficult pafs, and drove Spain. 4JI
the enemy back to Moncorvo. No lefs fuccefsful were the Britifh arms in America, Havanmh,
The fecond body of Spaniards entered the province and the Eaft Indies. From the French were taken the ^ tilken'
of Beira, at the villages called Val de Mula and Val iflands of Martinico, St Lucia, St Vincent, and Gra-
de Cotlba. They were joined by tlrong detachments nada; from the Spaniards, the ftrong fortrefs called
amounting to almofl the whole army in Tralos Montes; Havdnnah, in the ifland of Cuba. By the acquifition
and immediately laid fiege to Almeida, the flrongeft of the firft mentioned iflands, the Britifh became the
and bell provided place on the frontiers of Portugal, foie and undifturbed poffeffors of all the Carribbees, and
This place was defended with fufficient refolution ; but, held that chain of innumerable iflands which forms an
like the reft, was obliged to furrender on the 25th of immenfe bow, extending from the eaftern point of Hif-
Auguft. The Spaniards then over-ran the whole ter- paniola almoft to the continent of South America,
ritory of Caftel Branco, a principal diftridl of the pro- The conqueft of the Havannah coil a number of brave
vince of Beira, making their way fouthward until they men ; more of whom were deftroyed by the climate
approached the banks of the Tagus. During the than the enemy *. It was in this place that the fleets * See Ka-
whole of their progrefs, and indeed during the whole from the feveral parts of the Spanifh Weft Indies, call- vannah.
of the campaign, the allied troops of Great Britain ed the galleons and flota> affembled, before they finally
and Portugal had nothing that could be called an ar- fet out on their voyage for Europe. The acquifition
my in the field, and they could not think of oppofing of this place, therefore, united in itfelf all the advan-
the enemy in a pitched battle. All that could be done tages which can be acquired in war. It was a mili- Immenfe
was by the defence of paffes, Ikirmifh, and furprife. tary advantage of the higheft clafs; it was equal to plunder
By this time the count of la Lippe Buckeburg had the greateft naval victory, by its effect on the enemy’s fc|undl11 t!ic
arrived in Portugal, to the inexpreffible joy of the whole marine; and in the plunder it equalled the produce of pace'
nation. The third Spanifh army had affembled on the a national fubfidy. Nine of the enemy’s men of war,
with four frigates, were taken; three of their capital
(hips had been funk in the harbour at the beginning of
the fiege; two more were on the flocks in great for-
wardnefs, and thefe were deftroyed. In money and
valuable merchandizes, the plunder did not fall fhort of 4;4
3,000,0001. fterling. To this fuccefs in the Weftern part Capture of
of the world may be added the capture of the Spanifh th? Her"
regifter-fhip called the Hermione, by the Antigallican mione-
_ privateer. This happened on the 2 Ist of May 1762,
general Burgoyne to attack an advanced body of Spa- juft as (he was entering one of the ports of Old Spain,
niards which lay on their frontiers, in a town called and the prize was little fhort of 1,006,0061. fterling. 4jj
Valentia de Alcantara. On the 27th of Auguft, the In the Eaft Indies an expedition was undertaken a- Philippines
town was furprifed ; the general was taken who in- gainft the Philippine iflands, which was committed to reduced-
tended to have commanded in the invafion, together colonel Draper, who arrived for this purpofe at Ma-
frontiers of Eftremadura, with a defign to invade the
province of Alentejo ; and had this body of troops
been joined to the others, they would probably, in fpite
of all oppofition, have forced their way to Lifbon it¬
felf ; had it a£led feparately, it might have greatly
diftrafted the defendants, fo as to enable fome other
body of forces to penetrate to that city. The count,
therefore, refolved to prevent their entrance into the
’ kingdom ; and with this view difpatched brigadier-
with one colonel, two captains, and 17 fobaltern of¬
ficers. One of the bell regiments in the Spanifh fer-
vice was alfo entirely deftroyed ; and thus the enemy
were in all probability prevented from entering Alen¬
tejo.
That part of the Spanifh army which adled in the
territory of Caftel Branco had made themfelves mafters
of feveral important paffes, which they obliged fome
bodies of Portuguefe to abandon. The combined ar¬
my of Britifh and Portuguefe pretended to retire be¬
fore them, in order to draw them into the mountainous
trails. They attacked the rear of the allies, but were
drafs, in the latter end of June 1762. The 79th regi¬
ment was the only regular corps that could be fpared
for this fervice. Every thing was conduiled with the
greateft celerity and judgment. The Britifh forces
landed on Manila on the 24th of September; On the
6th of Oilober the governor was obliged to .furrender
at diferetion ; and foon after, the galleon bound from Manila g*I-
Manila to Acapulco, laden with rich merchandife, to ,aken.
the value of more than half a million, was taken by two
frigates called the Argo and Panther. By the conqueft;
of Manila, 14 confiderable iflands fell into the hands
of the Britifh; which from their extent, fertility, and
con-.
Britain.
B R I [ 1476 ] B R I
Britain, convenience of commerce, furnithed the materials of a
kingdom. By this acquifition, joined to our for¬
mer fucceffes, vve fecured all the avenues of the Spanilh
trade, and interrupted all communications between the
parts of their vaft but unconnefted empire. The con-
queft of the Havannah had cut off, in a great meafure,
the intercourfe of their wealthy continental colonies
with Europe : the redu&ion of the Philippines exclu¬
ded them from Afia: and the plunder taken was far
more than fufficierit to indemnify the charges of the ex¬
pedition ; a circumftance not very common in modern
wars. It amounted to upwards of a million and a half;
of which the Eaft India company, on whom the charge
of the enterprize in a great meafure lay, were by con-
457 tra& to have a third part.
Vait extent ah this time the war in Germany had continued
tHWorni" w’t*1 t^ie utmoft violence; the allies under prince Fer-
jjions^ dinand had continued to give the higheft proofs of
their valour, but no decihve advantage could be ob¬
tained againft the French. It was, however, no lon¬
ger the intereft of Britain to continue a deftruclive
w’ar. There never had been a period fo fortunate or
glorious to this ifland. In the courfe of this war
ihe had conquered a trail of continent of immenfe ex¬
tent. Her American territory approached to the bor¬
ders of Afia, and came near to the frontiers of the Ruf¬
fian and Chinefe dominions. She had conquered 25
illands, all of them diftinguifliable for their magnitude,
their riches, or the importance of their fituation. By
fea or land (he had gained 12 battles, had reduced 9
fortified cities, and near 40 caftles and forts. She had
taken or deitroyed above 100 flips of war from her e-
nemies, and acquired at leaft 10,000,0001. in plunder.
By fuch unexampled and wide extended conquetts, it
iano wonder that the French and Spaniards were defirous
of a peace; which was at length concluded at Paris on
458 the 10th of February 1763. The terms granted them
Articles of were by many thought too favourable. The principal of
the peace in them were, That the French king fliould relinquifli all
17<53' claims to Nova Scotia: that he fiould likewife give up
all the country of Canada; and that for the future the
boundary betwixt the Britilh and French dominions in
America fiould be fixed by a line drawn along the
middle of the river Miffiflippi from its fource to the ri¬
ver Iberville, and from thence drawn by a line along the
middle of this river, and the lakes Maurepas and Pont-
chartrain, to the fea. The iflands of St Pierre, Mique¬
lon, Martinico, Guadaloupe, Marigalante, Defirade,
St Lucia, and Belleifle, were reftored to France: Mi¬
norca, Granada, and the Grenadines, St Vincent, Do¬
minica, and Tobago, were ceded to Britain. In A-
frica, the ifland of Goree was reftored to France ; and
the river Senegal, with all its forts and dependencies,
ceded to Great Britain. In the Eaft Indies, all the
forts and fa&ories taken from the French were re¬
ftored. In Europe, the fortifications of Dunkirk were
to be deftroyed ; and all the countries, fortreffes, &c.
belonging to the eleftorate of Hanover, the duke of
Brunfwic, and the count of La Lippe Buckeburg, re¬
ftored. With regard to Spain, the Britifh fortifications
on the bay of Honduras were to be demoliftied; and the
Spaniards were to defift from their claim of a right to
filh on the Newfoundland bank. The Havannah was
reftored; in confequence of which, Florida, St Augu-
ftine, and the bay of Penfacola, were ceded to Britain,
and the Spaniards were to make peace with Portugal :
all other countries not particularly mentioned were to
be reftored to their refpettive owners at the beginning
of the war.
New Britain, a large country of North America,
called alfo Terra Labrador, has Hudfon’s bay and
ftrait, on the north and weft; Canada and the river St
Lawrence, on the fouth; and the Atlantic ocean, on
the eaft. It is fubjeft to Great Britain, but yields only
Heins and furs. The following is the beft defcription
of this country that hath yet appeared. It was drawn
up by the commander of the Otter fioop, and commu-
nicated to the royal fociety by the honourable Daines Voi LXlV
Barrington in 1774. p. 372.
“ There is no part of the Britifli dominions fo little
known as the immenfe country of Labradore. So few -
have vilited the northern parts of this vaft country, that
almoft from the ftraits of Belleifle until you come to
the entrance of Hudfon’s bay, for more than ten
degrees of latitude, no chart which can give any to¬
lerable idea of the coaft hath been hitherto formed.
The barrennefs of the country explains why it has been
fo feldom frequented. Here avarice has but little to
feed on.
“ Perhaps without an immoderate fliare of vanity, I
may venture to prefume, that as far as I have been,
which is to the latitude of 59. 10. the draught which
I have been able to form is by much the beft of any
that has hitherto been made.
“ Others have gone before me bleft with abilities
fuperior to mine, and to whom I hope to be thought
equal only in affiduity. But I had advantages of which
they were deftitute: with a fmall veflel, and having an
Indian with me, who knew every rock and flioal upon
the coaft, I was enabled to be accurate in my obferva-
tions; and thefe are the reafons why I deem my own
(ketch preferable to all others.
“ As this country is one of the moft barren in the
whole world, fo its fea-coaft is the moft remarkable.
Bordered by innumerable iflands, and many of them be¬
ing a confiderable diftance from the main land, a (hip
of burden would fail a great way-along the coaft with¬
out being able to form any notion of its true fituation.
“ Hence it is that all charts of it have been fo ex¬
tremely erroneous; and hence arofe thofe opinions that
fome of the inlets extended a vaft diftance into the
country, if not quite into the fea of Hudfon’s bay.
“ Davis’s inlet, which has been fo much talked of, is
not 20 leagues from the entrance of it toils extremity.
“ The navigation here is extremely hazardous. To¬
wards the land, the fea is covered with large bodies
and broken pieces of ice; and the farther you go north¬
ward, the greater is the quantity you meet with.
“ Some of thofe maffes, which the feamen call ijtands
of ice, are of a prodigious magnitude; and they are ge¬
nerally fuppofed to fwim two thirds under water. You
will frequently fee them more than too feet above the
furface ; and to (hips in a dorm, or in thick weather,
nothing can be more terrible.
“ Thofe prodigious pieces of ice come from the
north, and are fuppofed to be formed by the freezing
of catarafts upon the lands about Eaft Greenland and
the pole. As foon as the feverity of the winter begins
to abate, their immenfe weight breaks them from the
(hore, and they are driven to the fouthward. To the
miferable
B R I [ 1477 ] B R I
miferable inhabitants of Labradore their appearance
upon the coall ferves as a token of the approach of fum-
mer.
“ This vafl; tradl of land is extremely barren, and
altogether incapable of cultivation. The furface is e-
very where uneven and covered with large {tones, fome
of which are of amazing dimenfions. There are few
fprings ; yet throughout the country there are prodigi¬
ous chains of lakes or ponds, which are produced by
the rains and the melting of the fnow. Thefe ponds
abound in trout, but they are very fmall.
“ There is no fuch thing as level land. It is a coun¬
try formed of frightful mountains, and ;unfruitful val¬
leys. The mountains are almoft devoid of every fort
of herbage. A blighted Ihrub and a little profs is fotne-
times to be feen upon them, but in general the bare
rock is all you behold. The valleys are full of crooked
low trees, fuch as the different pines, fpruce, birch,
and a fpecies of cedar. Up fome of the deep bays, and
not far from the water, it is faid, however, there are a
few flicks of no inconfiderable fize. In a word, the
whole country is nothing more than a prodigious heap
of barren rocks.
“ The climate is extremely rigorous. There is but
little appearance of fummer before the middle of July;
and in September the approach of winter is very evi¬
dent. It has been remarked, that the winters within
thefe few years have been lefs fevere than they have
been known heretofore. The caufe of fuch an altera¬
tion it would be difficult to difcover.
“ All along the coafl there are many rivers that
empty themfelves into the fea, yet there are but few of
any confideration ; and you muft not imagine that the
largeft are any thing like what is generally underflood
by a river. Cuftom has taught us to give them this
appellation; but the greatefl part of them are nothing
more than broad brooks or rivulets. As they are only
drains from the ponds, in dry weather they are every
where fordable; for, running upon a folid rock, they
become broad without having a bed of any depth be¬
low the furface of the banks.
“ The fuperficial appearance of this country is ex¬
tremely unfavourable. What may be hidden in its
bowels, we cannot pretend to fuggefl: probably it may
produce fome copper; the rocks in many places are
impregnated with an ore of that refemblance. Some¬
thing of a horny fubflance which is extremely tranfpa-
rent, and which will fcale out into a multitude of fmall
fheets, is often found amidfl the flones; there are both
black and white of this fort, but the black is the moft
rare. It has been tried in fire, but feems to be noways
affe&ed by heat.
“ The fpecies of wood here are not very various:
excepting a feW fhrubs wdiich have as yet received no
name from the Europeans, the principal produce of the
cbuntry is the different forts of fpruce and pine. Of
thefe, even in the more fouthern parts, there is not a-
bundance; as you advance northwards they gradually
diminifh; and by the time you arrive at the 6och degree
of latitude, the eye is not delighted with any fort of
herbage. Here the wretched relidents build their mi¬
ferable habitations with the bones of whales. If ever
they cheer their aching limbs with a fire, they gather a
few dicks from the fea fhore, which have probably been
tvafhed from Norway or Lapland. Here a vafl quan-
Vol. IL
tity of fnow remains upon the land throughout the year.
“ Although the winter here is fo exceffively rigid,
in fummer the heat is fometimes difagreeable ; and in-
that feafon the weather is very moderate, and remark¬
ably ferene. It is but feldom foggy, fpeaking compa¬
ratively, between this and Newfoundland; nor are you
fo frequently liable to thofe deflfudlive gales of wind
which vifit many other parts of the globe.
“ It is in general high land, and fometimes you
meet with mountains of an adonifhing height; you are
alfo frequently prefented wdth profpedls that are really
awful, and extremely romantic.
“ The inhabitants of New Britain are called l*/ki-
maux; for a particular account of whom, fee the article
Eskimaux.
BRITANNICA, in botany, the trivial name of the
rumex aquaticgs. See Rumex.
BRITANNICUS, fun to the emperor Claudius by
Meffalina, was excluded from the empire after his fa¬
ther had married Agrippina ; who put her fon Nero
on the throne, and caufed Britannicus to be poifoned,
A.D.55.
Britannicus, an Italian, one of the bed humanids
of the 15th century, was born at Brefcia. He publifh-
ed notes on Perfius, Juvenal, Terence, Statius, and O-
vid. He died in i$io.
BRITE, or Bright, in hufbandry. Wheat, bar¬
ley, or any other grain, is faid to brite, when it grows
over ripe and fhatters.
BRITTANY, or Bretagne, a confiderable province
of France, which is 150 miles in length, and 112 in
breadth. It is a peninfula, furrounded on all fides by
the ocean, except on the ead where it joins to Anjou,
Maine, Normandy, and Poitou. It is divided into the
upper and lower; and therein are large foreds. It car¬
ries on a great trade, by reafon of the many harbours
on its coads. It was united to the crown of France in
1532. Rennes is the capital town.
BRITTLENESS, that quality of bodies on ac¬
count of which they are denominated brittle, or which
fubje&s them to be eafily broken by preffure or per-
cuffion.
Brittle bodies are extremely hard; a very fmall per-
cuffion exerts a force on them equivalent to the greateft
preffure, and thus may eafily break them. This eftedl
is particularly remarkable in glafs fuddenly cooled, the
brittlenefs of which is thereby much increafed. Tin,
though in itfelf tough, gives a brittlenefs to all the o-
ther metals when mixed therewith. The brittlenefs of
glafs has been faid to arife from the heterogeneity of
the parts whereof it is compofed, as fait and fand can
never bind fufficiently together: but this cannot be the
cafe; for the pure calces of metals, or any other iimple
fubdances when vitrified, become brittle alfo. In tim¬
bers, brittlenefs feems to be connedted with durability;
the more brittle any fort of wood is, the more durable
it is found. Thus oak is of very long duration; while
beech and birch, as being tough, prefently rot, and are
of little fervice in building.
BRITTON (Thomas), the famous mufical fmall-
coal-man, was born at Higham Ferrers in,Northamp-
tonfhire. He ferved his time in London, where he fet
up in a dable, next door to the little gate of St John
of Jerufalem, on Clerkenwell-green, which he converted
into a houfe. Here, getting acquainted with Dr Ga-
9 A renders,
Eritanaici
Britton
13 R I [ 1478 ] B R O
Britton, renders his near neighbour, he became an excellent
~ ~ chemift, conftrudling a moveable laboratory which was
much admired by ail who faw it. His fkill in mufic was
noways inferior to that in chemillry, either in the
theory or pra&ice: he had for many years a well fre¬
quented mufical club, meeting at his own little cell;
and was as well refpe&ed as known by perfons of the
firft quality; being, above all, a valuable man in his mo¬
ral chara&er. In Ward’s account of clubs, we are told,
that “ Britton’s was firft. begun, or at leaft confirmed,
by Sir Roger L’Eilrange, a very mufical gentleman;
and that the attachment of Sir Roger and other inge¬
nious gentlemen, lovers of the mufes, to Britton, arofe
from the profound regard he had in general to all man¬
ner of literature.” It is obfervable, that this meeting
was the firft of the kind, and the undoubted parent of
fome of the moft celebrated concerts in London. Ward,
who was his cotemporary, fays, that at the firft infti-
tution of it, his concert was performed in his own
houfe, which is thus defcribed. “ On the ground floor
was a repofitory for fmall-coal: over that was the con¬
cert room, which was very long and narrow; and had
a ceiling fo low, that a tall man could but juft ftand
upright in it. The flairs to this room were on the out-
fide of the houfe, and could fcarce be afcended without
crawling. The houfe itfelf was very old and low built,
and in every refpeft fo mean as to be a fit habitation
only for a very poor man.” Notwithftanding all, this
manfion, defpicable as it may feem, attradled to it as
polite an audience as ever the opera did.
At thefe concerts Dr Pepufch, Mr Handel, Mr Ba-
nifter, Mr Henry Needier, and other capital mafters,
were performers. At the firft inftitution of this club,
it is certain, Britton would receive no gratuity what¬
ever from his guefts, and was offended whenever any
was offered him. According to fome, however, he-de-
parted from this; and the rules were, Britton found the
inftruments, the fubfcription was tor. a year, and they
had coffee at a penny a difh.
The Angularity of his chara&er, the courfe of his
ffudies, and the colledlions he made, induced fufpicions
that Britton was not the man he feemed to be. Among
other groundlefs conjeftures, his mufical affembly was
thought by fome to be only a cover for feditious meet¬
ings; by others, for magical purpofes; and Britton him-
felf was taken for an atheift, a preibyterian, a Jefuit, See.
The circuihftances of this man’s death are not lefs re¬
markable than thofe of his life. There lived at that
time one Samuel Honeyman, a blackfmith by trade,
who became very famous for a faculty which he pof-
feffed of fpeaking as if his voice proceeded from fome
diftant part of the houfe where he flood; in fhort, he
* See rf«/d-was one of thofe men called Ventriloqui *, i. e. thofe
loquifm. that fpeak from their bellies. One Robe, an acquain¬
tance of Britton’s, was foolifli enough to introduce this
man, unknown, to Britton, for the foie purpofe of ter¬
rifying him; and he fucceeded in it. Honeyman, with¬
out moving his lips, or feeming to fpeak, announced,
as from afar off, the death of Britton within a few'
hours, with an intimation that the only way to avert
his doom was for him to fall on his knees immediately
and fay the Lord’s prayer: the poor man did as he was
bid, went home and took to his bed, and in a few days
died, leaving his friend Mr Robe to enjoy the fruits of
his mirth. This happened in September 1714. Brit¬
ton left behind him a large colle&ion of books, mufic,
and mufical inftruments. Of the former Sir Hans
Sloane was a confiderable purchafer. His collection of
mufic, moftly pricked byhimfelf, and very neatly, fold
for near too/.
In the Britifh Mufeum there is a painting of him ta¬
ken from the life. A mezzotihto print was taken from
this piifture, for which Mr Hughes (author of the fiege
of Damafcus, and a frequent performer at Britton’s
concerts) wrote the following lines.
Tho’ mean thy rank, yet in thy humble cell
Did gentle peace and arts unpurchas’d dwell;
Well pleas’d, Apollo thither led his train,
And mulic watbied in her fweeteft ft rain.
Cyllenius fo, as fables teil, and Jove,
Came willing guefts to poor Philemon’s grove.
Let ufelefs pomp behold, and blulh to find
So low a ftation, fuch a lib’ral mind.
BRIVA isar;e, (anc. geog.), a town of Gallia Bel
gica on the river Ifara or Oyfe; now Pontoyfe.
BRIVATES, (anc. geog.), a port of Gallia Cel-
tica ; now Breji, in Brittany.
BRIVES-la-Gallard, a town of France, in lower
Limofin. It Hands in a fruitful plain, oppofite to an
ifland formed by the river Coreze, over which there are
two handfome bridges. E. Long. 1.45. N. Lat. 45.15,
BRIXELLUM, (anc. geog.), a town of Gallia
Cifpadana; remarkable fpr being the place where O-
tho killed himfelf after the battle of Bedriacum: now
Berfello, or Brefello, in the territory of Rhegio.
BRIXEN (the bilhopric of), is feated in Tirol, in
Germany, near the frontiers of Friuli and Carinthia,
towards the eaft. The bifliop has a vote and feat in
the diet of the empire, and furnifhes his contingent
when any tax is laid on Tirol. The principal places
are Brixen, Sertzingen, Breuneck, and Lientz.
Brixen, the capital of the bilhopric of the fame
name, and where the bifliop commonly refides, is feated
on the river Eifache, at fome diftance from the moun¬
tain Brenner. It is furrounded with mountains, where
there are plenty of vineyards, which yield good red
wine. It is a populous town; and the houfes are well
built with piazzas, and are painted on the outlide. The
public buildings are very handfome, and there are fe-
veral fpacious fquares. It is much frequented, on ac¬
count of the mineral waters that are near it. E. Long.
11. 50. N. Lat. 46. 35.
BRIXIA (anc. geog.), a town of the Cenomani in
the Regio Tranfpadana: now Brefcia, capital of the
Brefciano.
BRIZA, quaking-grass ; a genus of the digynia
order, belonging to the triandria clafs of plants. There
are five fpecies of briza; two of which are natives of
Britain, viz. the media or middle quaking-grafs, and
the minor or fmall quaking-grafs. They grow in pa-
fture grounds.
Brize, in hufbandry, denotes ground that has lain,
long untilled.
Brize-F<?«//, flickers ufed by gardeners who have
not walls on the north-fide, to keep cold winds from
damaging their beds of melons. They are inclofures
about fix or feven feet high, and an inch or more thick;
made of ftraw, fupported by flakes fixed into the ground,
and props acrofs on both infide and outfide; and fa-
ftened together with willow-twigs, or iron-wire.
BROACH, Bkocha (from the French broche), de¬
notes
B R O [ 1479 ] B R O
Sroadalbin notes an awl or bodkin; alfo a large packing-needle, perfe&ion, fcarcely ufe them any otherwife than in ta- drocade.
Brocade ^ *n f°me parts of England, is called a broach; peftries, and fuch other ornaments as are not intended
 L_ and from this word comes to pierce or broach a barrel, to be much worn, or expofed to moifture.
In Scotland, broach, broche, or brotche, is the name of The Venetians have carried on a large trade to the Reims's
an utenfil which the Highlanders ufe, like the Jibu/a Levant, in a kind of brocade called damafqueie, which, C°™merce af
o  c..a  „n. unu.,.. ..r..„u.. *1 u  „i . .u..   r sins.
of the Romans, to fallen their veil. They are ufually
made of fdver; of a round figure; with a tongue crofs-
ing its diameter, to fallen the folds of the garment;
fometimes with two tongues, one on each fide of a
crofs-bar in' the middle. There are preferved in feve-
ral families, ancient brotches of very elegant workman-
fhip, and richly ornamented. Some of them are infcri-
bed with names, to which particular virtues ufed to be
attributed; others are furnilhed with receptacles for re¬
lics, fuppofed to preferve from harm. So that thefe
brotches feem to have been wore not only for ufe, but
as amulets. One or two of this fort are figured and
defcribed by Mr Pennant, Tour in Scotl. i. 90. iii. 14.
edit. 3d.
BROADALBIN. See Braidalbin.
BROADSIDE, in the fea-language, denotes a vol¬
ley of cannon, or a general difcharge of all the guns on
one fide of a Ihip at once.
BROCADE, or Brocado, a Huff of gold, filver,
or filk, railed and enriched with flowers, foliages, and
other ornaments, according to the fancy of the mer¬
chants or manufa&urers.
though it has only about half the quantity of gold o
filver as that made among us, looks far more beautiful.
The flatted wire is neither wound clofe together on the
filk threads, nor the threads flruck clofe in the wea-
ving; yet, by palling the fluff betwixt rolls, the difpo-
fition and management of which is kept a fecrct, the
tiffue or flower is made to appear one entire brilliant
plate of gold or filver. The French minillry, ever vi¬
gilant for the advancement of arts and commerce, judged
this manufadlure important enough to deferve their at¬
tention ; and accordingly, for contriving the machinery,
they engaged the ingenious M. Vaucanfon, known
throughout Europe for his curious pieces of mecha-
nifm, who, in the memoirs of the academy for the year
1757, lately printed, gives an account of his fuccefs,
and of the eflablilhment of fuch a manufafture at
Lyons.
The lower roll is made of wood, 32 inches in length
and 14 in diameter; the upper one of copper, 36 inches
long and 8 in diameter: this laft is hollow, and open
at one end, for introducing iron heaters. For making
the rolls cylindrical, he has a particular kind of lathe.
Formerly the word fignified only a fluff, wove all of wherein the cutting tool, which the mofl dextrous hand
gold, both in the warp and in the woof, or all of filver, could not guide in a flraight line through fuch a length
or of both mixed together; thence it paffed tothofeof as 36 inches, is made to Hide, by means of a ferew, on
fluffs in which there was filk mixed, to raife and termi- two large fleel rulers, perfeftly flraight, and capable of
nate the gold or filver flowers: but at prefent all fluffs, being moved at pleafure, nearer, and always exadlly
even thofe of filk alone, whether they be grograms of parallel, to the axis of the roll.
1’ours or of Naples, fattins, and even taffeties or lu- He firft difpofed the rolls nearly as in the common
firings, if they be but adorned and worked with fome flatting mill. In this difpofition, ten men were fcarcely
flowers or other figures, are called brocades.
In manufacturing brocades, the flatted gilt wire is
fpun on threads of yellow filk approaching as near as
may be to the colour of gold itfelf. The wire, wind¬
ing off from a bobbin, twifls about the thread as it
fpins round; and, by means of curious machinery, too
fufficient for turning them with force enough to duly
extend the gilding; and the collars, in which the axes
of the rolls turned at each end, wore or gulled fo fall,
that the preffure continually diminifhed, infomuch that
a piece of fluff of ten ells had the gilding fenfibly lefs
extended on the lafl part than on the firfl. He endea-
complex to be defcribed here, a number of threads are voured to obviate this inconvenience by ferewing the rolls
thus twilled at once by the turning of one wheel. The
principal art confifls in fo regulating the motion, that
the feveral circumvolutions of the flatted wire on each
fide may juft touch one another, and form, as it were,
one continued covering. It is faid, that at Milan there
is made a fort of flatted wire gilt only on one fide,
which is wound upon the thread fo that only the gilt
fide appears; and that the preparation of this wire is
kept a fecret, and has been attempted in other places
with little fuccefs. There is alfo a gilt copper wire,
made in the fame manner as the gilt filver: Savary ob-
ferves, that this kind of wire, called falfe gold, is pr
clofer and clofer in proportion as the fluff paffed thro’,
or as the wearing of the collars occafioned more play
between them ; but this method produced an imperfec¬
tion in the fluff, every turn of the ferew making a fenfible
bar acrofs it. To leffen the attrition, each end of the
axis, inftead of a collar, was made to turn between three
iron cylinders called friftion-wjheels: but even this did
not anfwer fully, for now another fource of unequal
preffure was difeovered. The wooden roll, being com-
prefiible, had its diameter fenfibly diminifhed: it like-
wife loft its roundnefs, fo that the preffure varied in
different points of its revolution. On trying different
pared chiefly at Nuremberg ; and that the ordinances kinds both of European and Indian woods, all the hard
of France require it to be fpun, for its diftin&ion from ones fplit, the foft ones warped without fplitting, and,
the gilt filver, on flaxen or hempen threads. One of of more than 20 rolls, there was not one which conti-
our writers takes notice, that the Chinefe, inftead of flat¬
ted gilt wire, ufe flips of gilt paper, which they both
interweave in their fluffs, and twift upon filk threads :
this pradlice he inconfiderately propofes as a hint to the
Britifh weaver. But, whatever be the pretended beauty
of fluffs of this kind of manufacture, it is obvious that
they mull want durability. The Chinefe themfelves,
according to Du Halde’s account, fenfible of this im-
nued round for 24 hours even without being worked in
the machine.
Thefe failures put him upon contriving another me¬
thod of preffing the rolls together, fo that the force
fhould always accommodate itfelf to whatever inequa¬
lities might happen. The axis of the copper roll be¬
ing made to turn between fridlion-wheels as before, that
of the wooden one is preffed upwards by a lever at each
9 A 2 end
B 11 O [ 1/
Brocade. enil furnifted with a half collar for receiving the end
of the axis. Each lever has the end of its (hort arm
fupported on the frame of the machine, and the long _
arm is drawn upwards by an iron rod communicating
with the end of the fliort arm of another lever placed
horizontally: to the long arm of this lever is hung a
weight, and the levers are fo proportioned, that a
weight of 30 pounds prefles the rolls together with a
force equivalent to 17,536 pounds, which was found
to be the proper force for the fufficient extenfion of the
gilding. By this contrivance four men can turn the
rolls with more eafe than ten can turn thofe which are
kept together by fcrews; and the fame weight acting
uniformly in every part, the preffure continues always
equal, though the wooden roll (hould even become oval,
and though the fluff be of unequal thicknefs.
A piece of cloth, of about two ells, is fewed to the
beginning and end of the fluff, to keep it out to its
width when it enters and parts from the rolls, which
could not be done by the hands for fear of burning or
bruifing them: as it would take too much time to few
thefe cloths to every fmall piece of an ell or two, a
number of thefe is fewed together. The fluff is roll¬
ed upon a cylinder, which is placed behind the ma¬
chine, and its axis preffed down by fprings to keep the
fluff tight as it comes off. Four iron bars, made red
hot, are introduced into the copper roll, which in half
an hour acquires the proper degree of heat, or nearly
fuch a one as is ufed for the ironing of linen: the
wooden roll is then laid in its place, and the machine
fet to work. If more than 30 ells are to be pa fled at
once, the wooden roll muft be changed for another, for
it will not bear a long continuance of the heat without
danger of fplitting; and therefore the manufacturer
fhould be provided with feveral of thefe rolls, that when
one is removed, another may be ready to fupply its
room: as foon as taken off from the machine, it (hould
be wrapt in a cloth and laid in a moift place.
The principal inconvenience attending the ufe of this
machine, is, that the heat nedeffary for extending the
gilding, though it improves the brightnefs of white and
yellow filks, is injurious to feme colours, as crimfon and
green. A double preffure will not fupply the place of
heat; and the only method of preventing this injury,
or rendering it as flight as poflible, appeared to be, to
pafs the fluff through with great celerity.
Methodj>f Cleaning Brocade •when fullied. For this
purpofe neither alcalies nor foap muft be ufed ; becaufe
the former, while they clean the gold, corrode the filk,
and change or difeharge its colour; and the latter alfo
alters the ftiade, and even the fpecies, of certain colours.
But fpirit of wine may be ufed without any danger of
its injuring either the colour or quality of the fubjedf ;
and in many ca’fes proves as effeftual for reftoring the
luftre of the gold, as the moft corrofive detergents. A
rich brocade, flowered with a variety of colours, after
being difagreeably tarniflied, had the luftre of the gold
perfe&ly reftored by waftiing it with a foft brufli dipt
in warm fpirit of wine, and fome of the colours of the
filk which were likewife foiled became at the fame time
remarkably bright and lively. Spirit of wine feems to
be the only material adapted to this intention, and pro¬
bably the boa fled fecret of certain artifts is no other than
Commerce of this fpirit difguifed. Dr Lewis fays he does not know
drtsy p. 39. 0f any other that is of fufficient adivity to difeharge
Bo ] B R O
the foul matter, without being hurtful to the filk. As Brocade
to powders, however fine, and however cautioufly ufed,
they fcratch and wear the gold, which here is only fu- .
perficial, and of extreme tenuity.
Brocade-<S/^//, the Englifh name of a fpecies of
Limax.
BROCATEL, or BaotADEL, a kind of coarfe bro¬
cade ; chiefly ufed for tapeftry.
BROCCOLI, a kind of cabbage cultivated for the
ufe of the table. See Brassica.
BROCHE, or Broach. See Broach.
BROCK, among fportfmen, a term ufed to denote
a badger.—A hart, too, of the third year, is called a
brock, or brocket; and a hind of the fame year is called
a brocket's Jifler.
BROD, a town of Hungary, in the county of Pof-
fega in Sclavonia, feated on the river Save. It was
once more confiderable than at prefent ; and is memo¬
rable for a vidory obtained ovei''the Turks in 1668.
E. Long. 18. 36. N. Lat. 45. 20.
BRODEAU (John), in Latin Brodceus, a great
critic, on whom Lypfius, Scaliger, Grotius, and all the
learned, have bellowed great encomiums, was defeended
from a noble family in France, and born at Tours in
1500. He was liberally educated, and placed under
Alciat to ftudy the civil law ; but foon forfaking that,
he gave himfelf up wholly to languages and the belles
lettres. He travelled into Italy, where he became ac¬
quainted with Sadolet, Bembus, and other famous wits;
and here (fays Thuanus) he applied himfelf to the ftudy
of mathematics, philofophy, and the facred languages,
in which he made no fmall proficiency. Then, return¬
ing to his own country, he led a retired, but not an
idle, life, as his many learned lucubrations abundantly
teftify. He was a man free from all ambition -and vain
glory, and fuffered his works to be publifned rather un¬
der the fan&ion and authority of others than under his
own. His chief works are, 1. A commentary on the
Anthologia. 2. Ten books of mifcellanies. 3. Notes
on Oppian, Euripides, &c. He died in 1563, aged 63.
BRODERA, or Brodra, a town of Afia, in the
empire of the Great Mogul. It ftands in a large fandy
plain, on the little river Waffet ; and is fortified, after
the old way . with pretty good walls and towers. It is
inhabited by Banians and callico-weavers. The country
about it produces plenty of gum-lac and indigo. E.
Long. 72. 30. N. Lat. 22. 10.
BROGLING for eels; the fame withSniggling.
BROGLIO, a town of Piedmont in Italy, and ca¬
pital of a county of the fame name, fituated near the
frontiers of Provence, in E. Long. 6. 42. N. Lat.
44. 12.
BROKE (Sir Robert), lord chief iuftice of the
common pleas, was the fon of Thomas Broke, Efq; of
Claverlcy in Shropfhire, and educated at Oxford ; from
whence he removed to the Middle Temple, and foon
became a very eminent lawyer. In the year 1542, he
was chofen fummer reader, and double reader in 1550.
In 1552, he was made ferjeant at law; and the year
following (firit of queen Mary), lord chief juftice of
the common pleas ; about which time he received the
honour of knighthood. Stow fays he was recorder of
London and fpeaker of the houfe of commons; which
is confirmed by a manufeript in the Aftimolean library,
tie died and was buried at Claverly in Shropfhire, the
B R O [ 1481 J B R O
Broken, place of his nativity, in 1558. Wood gives him the
Broker, charafter of a great lawyer and an upright judge. His
" works are, t. An abridgement containing an abftraft
of the year-books till the time of queen Mary. 2. Cer¬
tain cafes adjudged in the reign of Henry VIII. Ed¬
ward VI. and queen Mary. 3. Reading on the ftatute
of limitations, 32 Hen. VIII. c. 2.
BROKEN wind, among farriers. SeeFARRiERY,$ 7.
BROKER, a name given to perfons of feveral and
very different profeflions ; the chief of which are ex¬
change-brokers, ftock-brokers, pawn-brokers, and bro¬
kers limply fo called who fell houfehold-furniture and
fecond-hand apparel.
Exc.^w^e-BROKERs, are a kind of agents, or nego-
ciators, who contrive, propofe, and conclude bargains
between merchants, and between merchants and tradef-
men, in matters of bills of exchange, or merchandife,
for which they have fo much commilfion. Thefe, by
the ftatute of 8 and 9 William III. are to be licenfed
in London by the lord mayor, who gives them an oath,
and takes bond for the faithful execution of their offices.
If any perfon (hall ad! as broker without being thus
licenfed and admitted, he (hall forfeit the Aim of 5001.;
and perfons employing him, 51.; and brokers are to rc-
ifter contradls, &c. under the like penalty : alfo bro-
ers (hall not deal for themfelves, on pain, of forfeiting
2001. They are to carry about with them a filver me¬
dal, having the king’s arms and the arms of the city,
and pay 40s. a-year to the chamber of the city.—The
exchange-brokers make it their bufinefs to know the
alteration of the courfe of exchange, to inform mer¬
chants how it goes, and to give notice to thofe who
have money to receive or pay beyond fea: they are
the'proper perfons for negotiating the exchange ; and
when the matter is accomplifhed, that is, when the
money for the bill is paid, and the bill delivered, they
have for brokerage 2 s. for tool, fterling.
They reckon at Paris, among the city-officers, who
are employed under the jurifdiclian of the provoft of
the merchants, and echevins or aldermen, three forts of
brokers. 1. The brokers of horfes for the carriage of
merchandife by water : they are eftabliffied for the na¬
vigation ; and take care to examine the horfes ufed to
draw the boats up the river, tp fet the horfes together,
to oblige the carriers to repair their boats, or to break
fuch as are no longer fit to ferve. 2. Sworn wine-
brokers on the keys, to examine and tafte all the wine
that arrives there. 3. Brokers of bacon and lard. Thefe
are eftabliftied to examine thofe forts of merchandifes
as they are landed or unloaded, and to anfwer for their
goodnefs to the buyer, and to the feller for the price
of his wares.
iStaci-BROKERs, are thofe who are employed to buy
and fell (hares in the joint (lock of a company or cor¬
poration. As the pra&ice of ftock-jobbing has been
carried to fuch an excefs as became not only ruinous to
a great number of private families, but even affedted, or
at lead might foon affedl, the public credit of the na¬
tion, the legiflature thought fit to put a ftop to it, or
at lead to bring it within certain bounds, and under
fome regulation, by ftatute 7 George II. c. viii. fed!. 1.
Paww-Brokers, perfons who keep (hops, and lend
money upon pledges to neceffitous perfons, and moft
commonly at an exorbitant intereft. They are more
properly ftyled pawn-takers, or tally-men, fometimes
fripers, or friperers. Thefe are meant in 1 Jac. I. cap. Broker,
xxi. fed!. 5. where it is declared, that the fale of goods Brofnc•
wrongfully taken to any broker, or pawn-broker, in
London, Weftminfter, Southwark, or within two miles
of London, does not alter the property. And (fed!. 7.)
if -a broker, having received fuch goods, (hall not, upon
requeft of the owner, difcover them, how and when he
came by them, and to whom they are conveyed, he
(hall forfeit the double value thereof, to be recovered
by ad!ion of debt, &c.
In the cities of Italy, there are companies eftabliffied
by authority for the letting out money on pawns, cal¬
led mounts of piety ; a title little becoming fuch inftitu-
tions. In fome parts of Italy, they have alfo mounts of
piety of another kind, wherein they only receive ready
money, and return it again with intereft, at a certain
fum per annum. At Bologna, they have feveral fuch
mounts, which are diftinguiftied into frank and perpe¬
tual: the intereft of the former is'only four per cent.',
that of the latter, feven.
Brokers are alfo thofe who fell old houfehold fur¬
niture, and wearing apparel, &c.
BROME (Alexander), a poet and attorney in the
lord mayor’s court in the reign of Charles II. was the
author of the greateft part of thofe fongs and epigrams
which were publiffied in favour of the royalifts, and
againft the rump, as well in Oliver Cromwell’s time as
during the rebellion. Thefe, together with his Epiftles
and Epigrams tranflated from different authors, were
all printed in one volume 8V0 after the Reftoration. He
alfo publiftied a verfion of Horace, by himfelf and
others, which is very far from being a bad one. He
left behind him a comedy entitled The Cunning Lovers :
and the world is indebted to him for two volumes of
Richard Brome’s plays in odlavo; many of which, but
for his care in preferving and publiihing them, would
in all probability have been entirely loft. He died in
1666.
Brome (Richard), a dramatic writer who lived in
the reign of king Charles I. and was cotemporary with
Decker, Ford, Shirley, &c. His extradlion was mean,
he having been originally no better than a menial fer-
vant to the celebrated Ben Johnfon. He wrote himfelf,
however, into high reputation, as is teftified not only
by various commendatory verfes written by his cotem¬
poraries and prefixed to many of his plays, but alfo by
fome lines which his quondam mailer addreffed to him
on account of his comedy called The Northern I.afs.
Brome, in imitation of his mafter, laid it down as his
firft great point, to apply clofely to the ftudy of men
and manners. His genius was entirely turned to come¬
dy ; and therefore his proper province was obfervation
more than reading. His plots are all his own, and arc
far from being ill conduced ; and his characters, which
for the moft part are ftrongly marked, were the offspring
of his own judgment and experience, and his clofe at¬
tention to the foibles of the human heart. In a word,
his plays in general are good ones ; met with great
applaufe when firft adled ; and, as Langbain informs
us, were thought by the players worthy to be revived,
to their own profit and the author’s honour, in that
critical age which he himfelf lived in. Nay, we have
had a proof, even in our own time, of the merit of one
of his comedies, which with a very little alteration has
lately been revived, and with great fuccefs, viz. The Jo-
B R O [ 1482 ] B R O
Uromelia. vial Crew, which for no lefs than three feafons running
. broUght crowded audiences to the theatre-royal in Co-
vent Garden at all the frequent repetitions of its per¬
formance. The comedies which the author left behind
him are 15 in number; ten of which are colle&ed to¬
gether, as above mentioned, in two volumes odlavo. He
joined alfo with Thomas Heywood in a play called The
Lancafhire Witches.
BROMELIA, the pine-apple ; a genus of the
monogynia order, belonging to the hexandria clafs of
plants.
Species. Of this genus Linnaeus enumerates feven
fpecies; but the following are the moft remarkable.
I. The ananas ; of which there are fix varieties, viz.
i.Theovatus, or oval-lhaped pine-apple. 2. Thepyra-
midalis, pyramidal, or fugar-loaf pine. 3. The glaber,
with fmooth leaves. 4. The lucidus, with fhining green
leaves. 5. The ferrotinus, with a yellowifh-coloured
fle(h. 6. The viridis, or green pine-apple. The other
fpecies are, II. The nudicaulis, with the lower leaves
indented and prickly. III. The lingulata, with obtufe,
fawed, and prickly leaves.—The firft fort hath leaves
very like fome forts of aloes, but not fo thick and fuc-
culent, which are ftrongly armed with black fpines.
From the centre of the plant arifes the flower-ftalk,
which is near three feet high, the lower part of which
is garnifhed with entire leaves placed alternately at
every joint. The upper part of the Italk is garnifhed
with flowers fet in a loofe fpike or thyrfe quite round:
thefe are fucceeded by oval feed-veflels, having a longi¬
tudinal partition, in the centre of which are fattened
fmooth cylindrical feeds.—The fecond hath fliorter
leaves than the firft, which are fharply fawed on their
edges, and of a deep green colour. The flower-ftem
arifes from the centre of the plant, which divides up¬
ward into feveral branches: the upper part of thefe
are garnifhed with fpikes of flowers, which come out
alternately from the fides of the branches, each having
a narrow entire leaf juft below it, which are longer
than the fpike. The flowers are placed very clofe on
the fpikes; and when they decay, the empalement turns
to an oval pointed feed-veflel, inclofing feeds of the
fame fhape with the other.
Culture, &c. The firft fort of ananas is the moft
common in Europe; but the fecond fort is much pre¬
ferable to it, the fruit of this being larger and much
better flavoured : the juice of this fort is not fo aftrin-
gent as that of the firft;; fo that this fruit may be eaten
in greater quantity, with lefs danger. This fort fre¬
quently produces fuckers immediately under the fruit,
whereby it may be increafed much fatter than the com¬
mon fort; fo that in a few years it may be the beft
common fort in Britain.
The third fort is preferved by fome curious perfons
for the fake of variety ; but the fruit is not worth any
thing.
The fort with very fmooth grafs-green leaves was
raifed from feeds taken out of a rotten fruit which
came from the Weft Indies to the late Henry Heath-
cote, Efq; from whom Mr Miller received one plant,
which produced large fruit: this is what the people of
America call the king pine.
The plants are propagated by planting the crowns
which grow on the fruit, or the fuckers which are pro¬
duced either from the fides of the plants or under the
fruit: both which are found to be equally good; al- Bromelia.
though by fome perfons the crown is thought preferable "
to the fuckers, as fuppofing it will produce fruit fooner
than the fuckers, which is certainly a miftake. The
fuckers and crowns mutt be laid to dry in a warm
place for four or five days, or more (according to the
moifture of the part which adhered to the old plant or
fruit) ; for if they are immediately planted, they will
rot. The certain rule of judging when they are fit to
plant, is by obferving if the bottom is healed over and
become hard ; for if the fuckers are drawn off carefully
from the old plants, they will have a hard /kin over the
lower part, fo need not lie fo long as the crowns or
thofe whofe bottoms are moift. But whenever a crown
is taken from the fruit, or the fuckers from old plants,
they fliould be immediately divefted of their bottom-
leaves, fo high *as to allow depth for their planting;
fo that they may be thoroughly dry and healed in
fevery part, left when they receive heat and moifture
they fhould perifh, which often happens when this me¬
thod is not obferved. If thefe fuckers or crowns are
taken off late in the autumn, or during the winter, or
early in the fpring, they /hould be laid in a dry place
in the ftove for a fortnight or three weeks before they
are planted ; but in the fummer feafon, they will be fit
for planting in a week at fartheft.
Thefe /hould be planted in a rich good kitchen-
garden mould, not too heavy fo as to detain the moi¬
fture too long, nor over light and fandy ; but where
this is wanting, you /hould procure fome fre/h earth
from a good pafture, which /hould be mixed with about
a third part of rotten neats dung, or the dung of an
old melon or cucumber bed which is well confumed.
Thefe /hould be mixed fix or eight months at lead be¬
fore they are ufed, but if it be a year it will be the
better; and fliould be often turned, that their parts
may be the better united, as alfo the clods well broken.
This earth /hould not be fereened very fine; for if you
only clear it of the great ftones, it will be better for
the plants than when it is made too fine. You /hould
always avoid mixing any fand with the earth, unlefs it
be extremely ftiff, and then it will be neceffary to have
it mixed at leaft fix months or a year before it is ufed;
and it muft be frequently turned, that the fand may be
incorporated in the earth fo as to divide its parts: but
you fliould not put more than a fixth part of fand; for
too much fand is very injurious to thefe plants. In the
fummer feafon, thefe plants muft be frequently water¬
ed ; but you /hould not give them large quantities at a
time: you muft alfo be very careful that the moifture is
not detained in the pots by the holes being flopped, for
that will foon deftroy the plants. If the feafon is warm,
they /hould be watered twice a-week; but in a cool
feafon, once a-week will be often enough : and, during
the fummer feafon, you /hould once a-week water them
gently all over their leaves ; which will wafh the filth
from off them, and thereby greatly promote the growth
of the plants.
There are fome perfons who frequently Zhift thefe
plants from pot to pot. But this is by no means to be
praftifed by thofe who propofe to have large well-
flavoured fruit: for, unlefs the pots be filled with the
roots, by the time the plants begin to /how their fruit,
they commonly produce fmall fruit, which have gene¬
rally large crowns on them; therefore the plants will
B R O [ 1483 1 B R O
Bromelia. not require to be new-potted oftener than twice in a
 feafon. The firft time fliould be about the end of A-
pril, when the fuckers and crowns of the former year’s
fruit (which remained all the winter in thofe pots in
which they were firft planted) Ihould be fhifted into
larger pots; /. e. thofe which were in halfpenny or
thi^e-farthing pots Ihould be put into penny or at moil
three-halfpenny pots, according to«the iize of the
plants; for you muft be very careful not to overpot
them, nothing being more prejudicial to thefe plants.
The fecond time for ihifting of them is in the begin¬
ning of Auguft ; when you fhould fhift thofe which
are of a proper fize for fruiting the following fpring
into two-penny pots, which are full large enough for
any of thefe plants. At each of thefe times of ihifting
the plants, the bark-bed fhould be ftirred up, and fome
new bark added, to raife the bed up to the height it
was at firft made; and when the pots are plunged again
into the bark-bed, the plants fliould be watered gently
all over their leaves, to wafli off the filth, and to fettle
the earth to the roots of the plants. If the bark -bed be
well ftirred, and a quantity of good frefti bark added
to the bed, at this latter ftiifting it will be ot great
fcrvice to the plants; for they may remain in the lame
tan until the beginning of November, or fomctimes
later, according to the inildnefs of the feafon, and will
require but little fire before that time. During the
winter, they will not require to be watered ottener
than once a-week, according as you find the earth in
the pots to dry : nor fliould you give them too much
at each time; for it is much better to give them a little
water often, than to over-water them.
You muft obferve never to fliift thofe plants which
{how their fruit into other pots; for if they are remo¬
ved after the fruit appears, it will flop the growth, and
thereby caufe the fruit to be fmaller, and retard its
ripening, fo that many times it will be Odober or No¬
vember before the fruit is ripe : therefore you fliould
be very careful to keep the plants in a vigorous grow¬
ing ftate from the firft appearance of the rruit, becaufe
upon this depends the goodnefs and the fize of the
fruit; for if they receive a check after this, the fruit is
generally fmall and ill-tafted.
When you have cut off the fruit from the plant
whofe kind you are defirous to propagate, you ftiould
trim the leaves, and plunge the pots again into a mode¬
rate hot-bed, obferving to refrelh them frequently with
water, which will caufe them to put out fuckers in
plenty ; fo that a perfon may be foon fupplied with
plants enough of any of the kinds, who will but obferve
to keep the plants in health.
The moft dangerous thing that can happen to thefe
plants is their being attacked by fmall wdiite infe&s,
which appear at firft like a white mildew, but foon af¬
ter have the appearance of lice : thefe attack both root
and leaves at the fame time ; and, if they are not foon
deftroyed, will fpread over a whole ftove in a ftiort
time, and in a few weeks entirely flop the growth of
the plants by fucking out the nutritious juice, fo that
the leaves will appear yellow and fickly, and have ge¬
nerally a great number of yellow tranfparent fpots all
over them. Thefe infe&s, after they are fully grown,
appear like bugs, adhering fo clofely to the leaves as
not to be eafily wafhed off, and feem to have no local
motion. They were originally brought from America
upon the plants which were imported from thence; and Bromelia
are probably the fame infe&s which have deftroyed the H .
fugar-canes of late in fome of the Leeward Iflands, for gr°ve.*
upon fome fugar-canes which were fent Mr Miller from  —
Barbadoes he obferved great numbers of thefe infe&s.
Since they have been in England, they have fpread
greatly in fuch floves where there has not been more
than ordinary care taken to deftroy them. They have
alfo attacked the orange-trees in many gardens near
London, and have done them incredible damage ; but
they do not endure the cold of our climate in win¬
ter, fo that they are never found on fuch plants as
live in the open air. The only method yet difcovered
for deftroying thefe infe&s, is by frequently wafliirig
the leaves, branches, and ftems, of fuch plants as they
attack, with water in which there has been a ftrong
infufion of tobacco {talks. But this method cannot be
pra&ifed on the ananas plants, becaufe the infe&s will
faften themfelves fo low between the leaves, that it is
impoffible to come at them with a fponge to wafli them
off; fo that if all thofe which appear to fight are
cleared off, they will foon be fucceeded by a frefli fup-
ply from below, and the roots will be alfo equally in-
felled at the fame time. Therefore, wherever thefe in¬
fe&s appear on the plants, the fafeft method will be to
take the plants out of the pots, and clear the earth
from the roots; then prepare a large tub, which ftiould
be filled with water in which there has been a ftrong
infufion of tobacco ftalks; into this tub you fliould put
the plants, placing fome fticks crofs the tub to keep
them immerfed in water. In this water they fliould re¬
main 24 hours; then take them out, and with a fponge
wafli off all the infe&s from the leaves and roots, and
dip the plants into a tub of fair water, walking them
therein, which is the moft effe&ual way to clear them
from the infe&s. After which, you fliould pot them in
frefti earth ; and, having ftirred up the bark-bed, and
added fome new tan to give a frefli heat to the bed,
the pots fliould be plunged again, obferving to water
them all over the leaves, and this fliould be repeated
once a-w'eek during the fummer feafon ; for thefe in¬
fe&s always multiply much fafter where the plants are
kept dry, than where they are fometimes fprinkled over
with water, and kept in a growing ftate.
As thefe infe&s. are frequently brought over from
America on the ananas plants which come from thence,
thofe perfons who procure their plants from thence,
fliould look carefully over them wdien they receive them,
to fee they have none of thefe infe&s on them; for if
they have, they wdll foon be propagated over all the
plants in the ftove where they are placed; therefore,
whenever they are obferved, the plants fliould be foak-
ed (as before dire&ed) before they are planted into
pots.
The other fpecies of bromelia are likewife natives of
warm countries, but require no particular dire&ions for
their culture farther than what is common to other
exotics.
BROMLEY, a town of Kent in England, fituated
on the river Ravenlburn, in E. Long. o. 5. N. Lat.
51. 23.
BROMSGROVE,a town of Worcefterftiire in Eng¬
land, feated on the river Salwarp. It is a pretty good
town, well inhabited by clothiers ; and the market is
large for corn, cattle, and all forts of provifions. W.
B R O [ 1484 ] B R O
Eromoides Long. 2. 5- N. Lat. 52. 26. than copper is alfo an advantageous property, and much Bronze
II BROMOIDES, in botany. See Festuca. facilitates the calling of large works. The operation It
lirorze' BROMUS, broom-grass; a genus .of the digynia for cafting bronze is fufEciently fimple. For this pur- Brooni'
order, belonging to the triandria clafs of plants. There pofe a brick furnace is ufed, nearly of the lhape of an
are 17 fpecies, eight of which are natives of Britain, oven for baking bread. The floor of this furnace is
viz. the fecalinus or field broom-grafs; the arvenfis, or concave, and confifts of a compofition of fand and clay,
common broom-grafs; theciliatus, or wall broom-grafs; In this hollow floor the metals to be fufed are put.—
the fterilis, or barren broom-grafs; the giganteus, or The furnace has three openings. The firft is a lateral
tall broom-grafs ; the ramofus, or wood broom-grafs ; mouth, at which enters the flame of the wood placed in
and the pinnatus, or fpiked broom-grafs. a fecond furnace, on one fide of the firft : the fecond
BROMYARD, a town of Herfordlhire in England, opening is a chimney placed on a fide .oppofite to the
feated on a riling ground, and containing about 200 mouth, by means of which the flame is drawn over the
houfes. W. Long. 2. 46. N. Lat. 52. 2o. metal. The third is a hole which is opened and Ihutat
BRON, a town of Italy, in the duchy of Milan, pleafure ; through which the inner part of the furnace
where the Imperialifts gained an advantage over the may be occafionally infpeiled, that the ftate of the metal
French in 1702. E. Long. 10. o. N. Lat. 44. CO. may be obferved. When the metal is in the ftate re-
BRONCHIA, in anatomy, the ramifications of the
trachea. See Anatomy, n® 380.
BRONCHOCELE, a tumour rifing in the anterior
* See (the part Qf tlie neck *.
•oinedto'r BRONCHOTOMY, in furgery, an incifion made
MediciJe. the afpera arteria, or wind pipe, which is neceflary
in many cafes, and efpecially in a violent quinfey, to
prevent fuffocation from the great inflammation or tu¬
mor of the parts. It is alfo called laryngotomy and tra¬
cheotomy. See Surgery, n° 33.
BRONTIiE, or Thunder-stones, in natural hi-
flory. See Belemnites.
BRONTIUM, in Grecian antiquity, a place un¬
derneath the floor of the theatres, in which were kept
brazen veffels full of ftones and other materials, with
which they imitated the noife of thunder.
BRONTOLOGY, denotes thedodlrine of thunder,
or an explanation of its caufes, phenomena, iyc. toge-
I ,^e ther with the prefages drawn from it f.
Thunder. BRONZE, a compound of copper and tin, to which
fometimes other metallic fubftances, particularly zinc,
are added.—This metal is brittle, hard, and fonorous.
It is employed for various ufes, as for making of bells,
cannons, andftatues; and the proportions of the com¬
ponent metals are varied to fuit the feveral purpofes to
which it is applied. This compound, like fome others,
is fpecifically heavier than either of the metals taken fe-
*SeeChcmi- parately *. A metallic mafs, compoftd of four fifths
firy, n° 375. 0f COpper and one fifth part of tin, weighs in water
7-ro grains more than the fame quantities of thefe two
metals would together weigh in water if not allayed.
This proves, that in the union of copper and tin there
is a penetration of parts, the one metal entering into
the pores of the other ; and this is further confirmed by
an obfervation of Mr Tillet, member of the royal aca¬
demy of Sciences. In his memoir concerning the duc¬
tility of metals, he takes notice, that when the mixture
of copper and tin is made in the proportions above-
mentioned, the colour of the copper is entirely annulled
and covered by that of the tin, although the quan¬
tity of the firft be four times greater; and this Angu¬
lar effedl cannot be underftood without admitting a to¬
tal change in the fize and difpofition of the pores of the
compound metal.
Tin being lefs fubjedl to ruft than copper, bronze is
" alfo found to be lefs liable to be covered with verdi-
greafe than pure copper is ; and this is one reafon why
it is ufed for cannons, ftatues, and works expofed to
the air and weather. The greater fufibility of bronze
quired, a fourth opening is then unclofed, communica¬
ting with the hollow floor, and thro’ which the melted
metal flows by channels into the moulds prepared to re¬
ceive it.
Bronze, alfo denotes a colour prepared by the co-
lourmen of Paris, wherewith to imitate bronze.—There
are two forts, the red bronze, and the yellow or gol¬
den. The latter is made folely of copper-duft, the
fineft and brighteft that can- be got: the former is made
of the fame, with the addition of a little quantity of
red oker well pulverized. They are both applied with
varnifh. To prevent their turning greenifli, the work
muft be dried over a chafing-difh as foon as bronzed.
BRONZES, a name given by antiquarians to figures
either of men or beafts, to urns, and, in general, to
every piece of fculpture which the ancients made of
that metal. We likewife give the name of bronzes to
ftatues or bufts call of bronze, whether thefe pieces be
copies of antiques, or original fubjedts.—Among me-
dallifts, all copper medals bear the name of bronze.
BRONZING, the art or aft of imitating bronze,
which is done by means of copper duft or leaf, faftened
on the outfide, as gold leaves are in gilding.
BROOD, the young of fifh, fowls, &c.
BROODING, the aft of a hen in hatching her
eggs. See Hatching.
BROOK, a little river or fmall current of water.—A
brook is diftinguifhed from a river, infomuch as a river
flows at all times, whereas a brook flows at fome parti¬
cular feafons only.
BRooK-Zm<?. See Veronica.
BROOM, in botany. See Genista.
Broom, in botany. See Ruscus.
Broom, in botany. See Spartium.
Broom-F/Ww, (ordre de la genifte), an order infti-
tuted by St Louis, king of France, to ftiewtheefteem
which he had for the queen his wife, he himfelf re¬
ceiving this order the evening before his queen’s coro¬
nation.
Broom-Ga//, in natural hiftory; a name given by
authors to a remarkable fpecies of galls found on the
genifta vulgaris, or common broom. This is occafioned,
like all other galls, by the punfture and eating of an
infeft : and, when opened, is found to contain a fmall
oblong worm of a red colour, but whofe fize requires
the ule of a glafs to fee it diftinftly. This gall is of a
very Angular kind: it is round and prickly ; the (talk
of the broom always grows direftly through it; as if
thruft through its middle; and, when nicely examined.
B R O [ 1485 ] B R O
the whole gall appears to be formed of a congeries of father, or the fame mother,
leaves much larger than thofe of the broom naturally The ancients ufed the term
are, and twifted into a fort of horns or cornets, ending almofl all who ftood related ir
in a point: thefe leaves are all hollowed in the middle ; uncles and nephews, coufins-german, 6v.
and are fo thick ftt and nicely fixed to one another, that According to the law of Mofes, the brother of a
they make up the fubftance of the gall, which is never- man, who died without children, was obliged to marry
thelefs a conliderably hard one, and their points make the widow of the deceafed, in order to raife up chil-
the appearance of fpines or prickles on the outfide. dren to him, that his name and memory might not be
Sometimes there is a fort of fiefhy or pulpy fubftance extindt. See Widow.
within it, which fupports the leaves; and the worms Among us, it is cuftomary for kings to give the title
are fometimes found in this, fometimes in the hollows brother to each other.
of the leaves, and fometimes between them: they are In the civil law, brothers, yr<7^rej-, in the plural num-
fo numerous, that there are often fome hundreds of ber, fometimes comprehends fillers,
them in one gall. The origin of this gall is not from Brother is alfo a cudomary term for priefts of the
the eggs of the parent animal lodged in the tree ; but fame perfuafion to addrefs one another by : but it is
they are depofited on the furface of the branches, and more particularly ufed to denote the relation between
the young worms, while very fmall, almod as foon as monks of the fame convent; as, brother Zachary: in
hatched from them, go in company to fome bud on the Englilh, we more ufually fay, Friar Zachary, from
fide of the branch : they get into the folds of this bud, the French word frere, brother.—Preachers alfo call
and wounding it in feveral parts, caufe a wrong deri- their hearers, my brethren, or my dear brethren. This
ration of the juices into it; the confequence of which is, appellation is borrowed from the primitive Chriftians,
that inftead of forming a branch (hooting out from the who all called each other brothers. But it is novvprin-
other, it only yields a congeries of leaves which every cipally ufed for fuch of the religious as are not priefts ; '
where furround it. Thefe galls are of various'fixes, thofe in orders are generally honoured with the title of
the largeft feldom exceeding that of a nut; and there father, whereas the reft are only fimply brothers,
are often three or four of them feen on one branch, BROUAGE, a maritime town of Saintonge in
placed at an inch, or a little more, diftance from one France. It confifts of fire or fix ftreets which termi-
another. nate in a great fquare. It is famous for its falt-vvorks,
Broom-7?#/><?, in botany. See Orobanche. which are the fineft in the kingdom. W. Long. 1. 0.
BROOMING, or Breaming, c/"a Ship, the walh- N. Lat. 45. 50.
ing and burning off all the filth ftie has contradled on her BROURSHAVEN, a port-town of the United
Tides with weeds, draw, broom, or the like, when (lie Provinces, in the ifiand of Schonen in Zealand, feated
is on the careen, or on the ground. See Careening, on the north fide of the ifland, in a bay of the fea, in
BROSSARD (Sebaftian de), an eminent French E. Long. 3. 35. N. Lat. 51. 50.
mufician. In the former part of his life he had been pre- BROUGH, a town of Weftmoreland in England,
bendary and chapel-mafter of the cathedral church of feated under Stanmore-hill, in E. Long. 17. 50. N.
Strafburg; but afterwards became grand-chaplain, and Lat. 54. 40. It was formerly a place of great note,
alfo maitre de chapelle in the cathedral of Meaux. being a Roman fortrefs; but is now fo much decayed,
There is extant of his a work intitled Prodromus maf- that it is little better than a village.
calls. He was author alfo of a very ufeful book en- BROUNCKER, or Brounker, (William), lord
titled Diftionaire de mufque, printed at Amfterdam, in vifeount of Caftle-Lyons, in Ireland, and the iirft pre¬
folio, 1703, and afterwards at the fame place in oc- fident of the Royal Society, was the fon of Sir William
tavo, w.ithout a date. At the end of this book is a Brounker, kin. and born about the year 1620. He
catalogue of authors ancient and modern, to the amount was diftinguilhed by his knowledge of the mathematics,
of 900, who have written on mufic; divided intoclaf- and b_y .’•he confiderable polls of honour and profit he
fes, wherein are interfperfed many curious obfervations enjoyed after the reftoration ; for he had at the fame
of the author relating to the hiftory of mufic. By Mr time the office of chancellor to the queen, and the keep-
Boivin’s Catalogue general des livres de mufque for the ing of her great feal, that of one of the commiffioners
year 1729, it appears that Broffard was the author of of the navy, and maltsr of St Catherine’s hofpital near
two fets of motets, as alfo of nine Lecons de Tenebres the Tower of London. He wrote, I. Experiments
therein mentioned. It feems that thefe feveral publi- of the recoiling of guns. 2. An algebraical paper up-
cations were at a time when the author was far advan- on the fquaring of the hyperbola ; and feveral letters
ced in years; for Walther takes notice, that in the to Dr Ulher, archbilhop of Armagh. He died in 1684.
Afenrare he is mentioned as an abbe and com- BROUWER (Adrian), a famous Dutch painter,
ponift, fo early as the year 1678. born either atOudenard or Haerlem, in 1608, of poor
BROTHEL-houses, lewd places, being the com- parentage. He became the difciple of Francis Hals,
man habitations of proftitutes. King Henry VIII. by under whom he proved an inimitable artift. His fub->
proclamation, in the 37th year of his reign, fuppreffed jedls were taken from low life, always copied from na->
all the (lews or brothel-houfes which had long continued ture ; as droll converfations, drunken brawls, boors at
on the bank-fide in Southwark, contrary to the law of cards, or furgeons dreffing the wounded. Brouwer
•jlnftioj. God and of the land*. A brothelman was a loofe idle was apprehended at Antwerp as a fpy ; where being
fellow ; and a feme bardelier, or brothelier, a common difeovered by Rubens, he procured his liberty, took
boufe.^ vt^ore‘ And horchnan is a contraftion for brothelman f. him home, clothed him, and endeavoured to acquaint
BROTHER, a term of relation between male chil- the public with his merit : but the levity of his tem-
dren, fprung from the fame parents, or from the fame per made him quit his benefadlor; and he died not
Vol. II. 9 B long
brother, indifferently, to
1 the collateral line; as
3 I Broom
| Brother.
Brother
B R O [14
Brow long after, in 1640, deftroyed by a diflblute courfe of
II life.
*'ruwn' BROW, or Eye-Brow, an hairy arch extended o-
ver the orbit of each eye. See Anatomy, n° 398, d.
Brow-Pi?/?, among builders, denotes a beam which
goes acrofs a building.
Y>%ovi-Antler, among fportfmen, that branch of a
deer’s horn next the tail.
BROWALLIA, in botany, a genus of the angio-
fpermia order, belonging to the didynamia clafs of
plants, for which there is no Englilh name.—Of this
there are two fpecies. Thedemiffa, with a fingle flower
upon each footftalk ; and the elata, with one or many
flowers on each footftalk. The feeds of the firft were
fent to Mr Miller from Panama. It ufually grows a-
bout two feet high, and fpreads out into lateral
branches on every fide of the ftalk, garniftied with
oval leaves which are entire, and have ftiort foot-
ftalks. Towards the end of the branches, the flowers
are produced fingly upon pretty long footftalks a-
rifing from the wing of the leaf. Thefe are of a light
blue colour, fometimes inclining to a purple or rtd;
and there are often three colours of flowers on the fame
plant. The plant flowers in July, Auguft, and Sep¬
tember ; and the feeds are ripe in five or fix weeks af¬
ter. The feeond fort is a native of Peru : the ftalk of
this plant is twice the fize of that of the firft, and ap¬
pears fomewhat ftirubby ; the leaves upon the flower-
branches are fmooth : the footftalks have fome with one
. flower, others with three, and others with five ; which
are of a deep violet colour. As both fpecies of bro-
wallia are annual plants, they muft be railed from feeds,
which are to be fown on a hot-bed: but they may be
tranfplanted in June, into the borders of the flower-
garden ; where, if the weather proves warm, they
will flower and perfect feeds ; but left thefe fhould fail,
there fhould be a plant or two kept in the (love to fe-
cure feeds.
BROWN (Robert), a fchifmatic divine, the founder
of the Brownifts, a numerous fed of diffenters in the
reign of queen Elizabeth. He was the fon of Mr
Anthony Brown of Tolthorp in Rutlandfhire ; whofe
father obtained the lingular privilege of wearing his
cap in the king’s prefence, by a charter of Hen¬
ry VIII. Robert was educated at Cambridge^ in Cor¬
pus Chrifti, or, according to Collier, in Bennet col¬
lege, and was afterwards a fchoolmafter in Southwark.
About the year 1580, he began to promulgate his prin¬
ciples of dilfenfion from the eftablifhed church ; and the
following year preached at Norwich, where he foon ac¬
cumulated a numerous congregation. He was violent
in his abufe of the church of England ; pretended‘to
divine infpiration ; and, like all other faints, pre¬
tended that he alone was the fure guide to heaven.
This new fed daily increafing. Dr Freake bilhop of
Norwich, with other ecclefiaftical commiflioners, called
our apoftle before them. He was infolent to the court,
and they committed him to the cuftody of the fheriff’s
officer: but he was releafed at the interceffion of lord
treafurer Burleigh, to whom it feems he was related.
Brown now left the kingdom ; and, with permif-
fion of the States, fettled at Middleburg in Zealand ;
where he formed a church after his own plan, and
preached without moleftation ; but here perfecution,
ihtjine qua non of fanaticifm, was wanting. In 1585
86 ] B R O
we find him again in England : for in that year he was
cited to appear before archbifhop Whitgift; and feem- —
ing to comply with the eftablifhed church, was, by
lord Burleigh, fent home to his father: but, relapfing
into his former obftinacy, his aged parent was obliged
to turn him out of his houfe. He now wandered a-
bout for fome time, and in the courfe of his miffion en¬
dured great hardfhips. At laft he fixed at Northamp¬
ton ; where, labouring with too much indifcretion to
increafe his fe£t, he was cited by the bifliop of Peter-
borough, and, refufing to appear, was finally excom¬
municated for contempt. The folemnity of this cen-
fure, we are told, immediately effected his reformation.
He moved for abfolution, which he obtained, and from
that time became a dutiful member of the church of
England. This happened about the year 1590; and,
in a fhort time after, Brown was preferred, to a rectory
in Northampton (hire, where he kept a curate to do his
duty, and where he might probably have died in peace:
but having fome difpute with the conftable of his pa-
rilh, he proceeded to blows; and was afterwards fo in¬
folent to the juftice, that he committed him to Nor¬
thampton jail, where he died in 1630, aged 80. Thus
ended the life of the famous Richard Brown ; the
greateft part of which was a feries of oppofition and
perfecution. He boafted on his death-bed, that he
had been confined in no lefs than 32 different prifons.
He wrote “ A treatife of reformation without tarry¬
ing for any, and of the wickednefs of thofe teachers
which will not reform themfelves and their charge, be-
caufe they will tarry till the magiftrate command and
compel them, by me Robert Brown;” and two others,
making together a thin quarto; publifhed at Middle¬
burg, 1582.
BROWN (Ulyffes Maximilian), a celebrated gene¬
ral of the x8th century, was fon of Ulyffes, baron
Brown and Camus, colonel of a regiment of cuiraffiers
in the emperor’s fervice, and defcendeYl from one of the
moft ancient and noble families in Ireland. He was
born at Bafil in 1705 ; and having finifhed his firft ftu-
dies at Limeric in Ireland, was, in 1715, lent for into
Hungary, by count George Brown, his uncle, mem¬
ber of the aulic council of war, and colonel of a regi¬
ment of infantry. He was prefent at the famous bat¬
tle of Belgrade, in 1717. Next year he followed his
uncle into Italy, who made him continue his ftudies,
in the Clementine college, at Rome, till the year 1721,
when he was fent to Prague in order to learn the ci¬
vil law. At the end of the year 1723, he became cap¬
tain in his uncle’s regiment ; and in 1725, lieutenant-
colonel: in 1730, he went into Corfica with a batta¬
lion of his regiment; and contributed greatly to the
taking of Callanfara, where he received a conliderable
wound in his thigh. In 1732, the emperor made him
chamberlain: He was railed to the rank of colonel
in 1734; and diftinguifhed himfelf fo much in the war
of Italy, efpecially at the battles of Parma and Guaf-
talla, and in burning in the prefence of the French ar¬
my the bridge which the marfhal de Noailles had
caufed to be thrown over the Adige, that he was made
general in 1736. The following year he favoured the
retreat of the army, after the unhappy battle of Ban-
jaluca in Bofnia, by an excellent manoeuvre, and faved
all the baggage. His admirable condu& upon this oc-
cafion was rewarded by his obtaining a fecond regi¬
ment
B R O [ 1487 1 B R O
Brown, merit of infantry, vacant by the death of count Francis
 de Wallis.
At his return to Vienna, in 1739, t^e emperor
Charles VI. railed him to the rank of general-field-
msrfhal-lieutenant, and made him counfellor in the
aulic council of war. After the death of that prince,
the king of Pruffia entering Silefia, count Brown, with
a fmall body of troops, difputedthe country with him
inch by inch. He fignalized himfelf on feveral other
occafions ; and, -in 1743, the queen of Hungary made
him a privy-counfellor, at her coronation in Bohemia.
He at length paffed into Bavaria, where he commanded
the van-guard of the Auftrian.army ; feized Decken-
dorf, with a great quantity of baggage ; and obliged
the French to abandon the banks of the Danube, which
the Aullrian army paifed in full fecurity. The fame
year, viz. in 1743, the queen of Hungary fent him
to Worms, in quality of her plenipotentiary to the
king of Britain ; where he put the laft hand to the
treaty of alliance between the courts of Vienna, Lon¬
don, and Turin. In 1744, he followed prince Lob-
kowitz into Italy; took the city of Veletri, on the
4th of Auguft, in fpite of the fuperior numbers of the
enemy ; entered their camp, overthrew feveral regi¬
ments, and took many prifoners. The followipg year
he was recalled into Bavaria, where he took the town
of Wilfhofen by afiault, and received a dangerous (hot
in the thigh. The fame year he was made general of
the artillery ; and in January 1746, marched for Italy,
at the head of a body of 18,000 men. He then drove
the Spainards out of the Milanefe ; and having joined
the forces under prince deLichtenftein, commanded the
left wing of the Auftrian army at the battle of Pla¬
centia on the 15th of June 1746, and defeated the
right wing of the enemy’s forces commanded by mar-
Ihal de Maillebois. After this vidlory, he commanded
in chief the army again!! the Genoefe ; feized the pafs
of Bofetta or Bochetta, though defended by above
4000 men; and took the city of Genoa. Count Brown
at length joined the king of Sardinia’s troops; and
took, in conjundlion with him, Mont-Alban, and the
county of Nice. On the 30th of November he pa!fed
the Var, .in fpite of the French troops ; entered Pro¬
vence ; took the ifles of St Margaret and St Honoraf;
and thought to have rendered himfelf mafter of a much
greater part of Provence, when the revolution which
happened in Genoa, and marfhal de Belltifle’s advanc¬
ing with his army, obliged him to make that fine re¬
treat which procured him the admiration andefteemof
all perfons flcilled in war. He employed the reft of the
year 1747 in defending the ftates of the houfe of
Auftria in Italy; and after the peace in 1748, he was
fent to Nice to regulate there, in conjunction with the
duke of Belleifle and the marquis de las Minas, the dif¬
ferences that had arifen with refpect to the execution
of fome of the articles of the definitive treaty of Aix
la Chapelle.
The emprefs queen, to reward thefe fignal fervices,
efpecially his glorious campaigns in Italy in 1749,
made him governor of Tranfylvania, where he rendered
himfelf generally admired for his probity and difinter-
eftednefs. In 1752, he obtained the government of
the city of Prague, with the chief command of the
troops in that kingdom; in 1753, the king of
Poland, eleftor of Saxony, honoured him with the
collar of the order of the white eagle; and the next Brow
year he was declared field-marfhal. — —
The king of Pruflia entering Saxony in 1756, and
attacking Bohemia, count Brown marched againit him;
and repulfed that prince at the battle of Lobofitz, on
the 1st of October, though he had only 27,000 men,
and the king of Pruflia had at lead 40,000. Seven
days after this battle, he undertook the famous march
into Saxony, to deliver the Saxon troops !hut up be¬
tween Pirna and Konigftein ; an a&ion worthy of the
greateft captains, ancient or modern. He at length
obliged the Prufiians to retire from Bohemia; for
which he was rewarded, by being made a knight of
the golden fleece. Soon after, count Brown haftily af-
fembled an army in Bohemia, to oppofe the king of
Pruflia, who had again penetrated into that kingdom
at the head of all his forces ; and on the 6th of May
fought the famous battle of Prague ; in which, while
he was employed in giving his orders for maintaining
the advantages he had gained over the Prufiians, he
was fo dangeroufly wounded, that he was obliged to
be carried to Prague, where he died of his wounds, on
the 26th of June 1757, at 52 years of age. There
is reafon to believe, that, had he not been wounded,
he would have gained the vidlory, as he had broken
the. Pruflians, and the brave count Schwerin one of
their greateft generals was flain.
Brown (Sir Thomas), an eminent phyfician and
celebrated writer, was born at London, Odlober igth
1605. Having ftudied at Winchefter college, and
afterwards at Oxford, he travelled through France and
Italy; and returning by the way of Holland, took his
degree of dodlor of phyfic at Leyden. In 1636, he
fettled at Norwich; and the year following, was incor¬
porated as dodlor of phyfic at Oxford. His Religio
Medici .made a great noife; and being tranflated into
Latin, inftantly fpread throughout Europe, and gained
him a prodigious reputation : it was then tranflated
into almoft every language in Europe. This book has
been heavily cenfured by fome, as tending to infidelity,
and even atheifm; while others, with much more rea¬
fon, have applauded the piety, as well as the parts and
learning, of the author. The reverend Mr Granger
obferves, that among other peculiarities in this book,
he fpeaks of the ultimate ad! of love as a folly beneath
a philofopher; and fays, that he could be content that
we might procreate, like trees, without conjundiion:
but, after the writing of it, he defeended from his philo-
fophic dignity, and married an agreeable woman. It
was faid, that his reafon for marrying was, becaufe he
could difeover no better method of procreation. His
treatife on Vulgar Errors was read with equal avidity;
he alfo publifhed Hydriotaphia, or a Difcourfe of Se¬
pulchral Urns lately found in Norfolk. His reputation
in his profeflion was equal to his fame for learning in
other refpedls; and therefore the college of phyficians
were pieafed to take him into their number as an ho¬
norary member ; and king Charles XL coming to Nor¬
wich in his progrefs, in 1671, was pieafed to knight
him, with Angular marks of favour and refped!. He
died on his birth-day, in 1682, leaving feveral manu-
feripts behind him, which were publiftied under the
title of The pofthutnous works of the learned Sir Thomas
Brown, Knt. M. t).
Brown (Edward), the fon of the former, phyfician
9 B 2 to
B R O [ 1488 ] B R O
to king Charles IT. and prefident of the royal college
at London. He was born in the year 1642; and ftu-
died at Cambridge, and afterwards at Merton college,
Oxford. He then travelled; and at his return publifhed
a brief account of fome travels in Hungary, Servia,
Bulgaria, Macedonia, Theffaly, Ar.ftria, Styria, Ca-
rinthia, Carniola, Fruili, &c.: he alio publifhed an ac¬
count of feveral travels through great part of Ger¬
many; and joined his name to thofe of many other e-
minent men, in a tranfiation of Plutarch’s lives. He
was acquainted with Hebrew, was a critic in Greek,
and no man of his age wrote better Latin. High-
Dutch, Italian, French, See. he fpoke and wrote with
as much eafe as his mother-tongue. King Charles
faid of him, that “ he was as learned as any of the
college, and as well bred as any at court.” He died
Auguft 27th 1708.
Bitowu (William), an Englifh poet of the 17th cen¬
tury, was defeended from a good family, and born at
Taviftock in Devonfhire in the year 1590. After he
had paffed through the grammar fchool, he was fent
to Exeter college in the univerfity of Oxford, in the
beginning of the reign of James I. and became tutor
to Robert Dormer, who was afterwards earl of Carnar¬
von, and killed at'Newbury battle, September 20tU
1643. He is Tty led in the public regifter of the uni¬
verfity, “ a man well fkilled in all kinds of polite litera¬
ture and ufeful arts;” vir onini huniana literatura et
bonarum artium cognitions injiruftus. After he had
left the college with his pupil, he was taken into the
family of William earl of Pembroke, who had a great
refpefl for him ; and he made his fortune fo well, that
lie purchafed an eftate. His poetical works procured
him a very great reputation. They are as follow, t. Bri¬
tannia’s Paftorals. The firft part was publifhed at
London, 1613, in folio; and ufhered into the world
with feveral copies of verfes made by his ingenious and
learned friends John Selden, Michael Drayton, Chrif-
topher Cook, &c. The fecond part was printed at
London in 1616, and recommended by various copies
of verfes written by John Glanville who afterwards
became eminent in the profefiion of the law, and others.
Thefetwo parts were reprinted in two vols 8vo, 1625.
2. The fhepherd’s pipe, in feven eclogues ; London,
1614, in 8vo. 3. An elegy on the never-enough
bewailed death of prince Henry, eldeft fon of king
James I. Mr Wood tells us, that it isprobable, onrauthor
wrote feveral other poems which he had not feen. It
is uncertain when he died.
Brown (Thomas), “ of facetious memory,” as he is
ftyled by Addifon, was the fon of a farmer in Shrop-
fhire ; and entered in Chrift-church college, Oxford,
where he foon diftinguifhed himfelf by his uncommon
attainments in literature. But the irregularities of his
life not fuffering him to continue long there, he, in-
ftead of returning to his father, went to London to
feek his fortune : his companions, however, being more
delighted with his humour, than ready to relieve his
neceffities, he had recourfe to the ufual refuge of half-
ftarved wits, fcribbling for bread ; and publifhed a
great variety of poems, letters, dialogues, &c. full of
humour and erudition, but often indelicate. Though
a good-natured man, he had one pernicious quality,
which was, rather to lofe his friend than his joke.
Towards the latter end of Tom Brown’s life, we
are informed by Mr Jacob, that he was in favour with Brown
the earl of Dorfet, who invited him to dinner on a II
Chriftmas day, with Mr Dryden and fome other gentle- Ihowny,
men celebrated for their ingenuity, (as his lordfhip’s
culfom was); when Mr Brown to his agreeable furprife
found a bank note of 50/. under his plate, and Mr
Dryden at the fame time was prefented with a another
of too/. Mr Brown died in the year 1704; and was
interred in the cloyfter of Weflminfter abbey, near the
remains of Mrs Behn, with whom the was intimate in
' his lifetime. His works have been printed both in 8vo
and 12 mo, making 4 vols.
Brown, among dyers, painters, &c. a dufky colour,
inclining towards rednefs. Of this colour there are
various fhades or degrees, diftinguifhed by different
appellations; for inftance, Spanifh-brown, a fad-
brown, a tawney-browu, the London brown, a clove*
brown, &c.
Spanifh-brown is a dark dull red, of a horfe-flefh
colour. It is an earth ; and is of great ufe among paint¬
ers, being generally ufed as the firft and priming
colour that they lay upon any kind of timber-work in
houfe-painting. That which is of the deepeft colour,
and freeft from ftones, is the beft. Though this is of
a dirty brown colour, yet it is much ufed, not to co¬
lour any garment, unlefs it be an old man’s gown ;
but to fhadow vermilion, or to lay upon any dark
ground behind a pitfure, or to fhadow yellow berries
in the darkeft places, when you want lake, &c. It is
beft and brighteft when burnt in the fire till it be red
hot ; although, if you would colour any hare, horfe,
dog, or the like, it fhould not be burnt : but, for o-
thcr ufes, it is beft when it is burnt ; as for colouring
wood, pofts, bodies of trees, or any thing elfe of wood,
or any dark ground of a pifhire.
BROWNIbTS, in church-hiftory, a religious fedt,
which fprung up in England towards the end of the
16th century. Their leader was one Robert Brown,
born at Northampton. They feparated from the efla-
biiflied church, on account of its difeipline and form
of government. They equally difliked epifcopacy and
prefbyterianifm. They condemned the folemn cele¬
bration of hmarriages in churches; maintaining, that
matrimony being a political contradf, the confirmation
of it ought to proceed from the civil magiftrate. They
rejedfed all forms of prayer ; and held, that the Lord’s
prayer was not be recited as a prayer, being given
only as a model upon which to form our prayers.
BROWNY, the name of a ferviceable kind of fprite,
who, according to a fnperftitions notion formerly pre¬
valent in the Hebrides and Highlands of Scotland, (as
well as among the country people in England, where
he had the name of Robin Goodfellonxi), was wont to
clean the houfes, helped to churn, threfhed the corn,
and would belabour all that pretended to make a jeft
of him. He was reprefen ted as flout and blooming,
had fine long flowing hair, and went about with a
wand in his hand. He was the very counter part of
Milton’s Lubber Fiend, who
Tells how the drudging goblin fvvet.
To earn his cream-bowl duly fet,
When in one night, ere glinip e of mom.
His (hadovvy flail hath threfh’d the corn.
That ten day-lab’rers could not end;
Then lies him down the Lubber Fiend,
And, ftretch’d along the chimney’s length.
Balks at the fire his hairy fhength.
BROWSE,
B R U [ 1489 ] B R U
Browfe
Hmges.
(Hif-
ory of)
cotland.
BROWSE, the tops of the branches of trees,
whereon beafts feed. This is fometimes alfo called
brouce and bruttls; probably from the French hr out,
which fignifies the fame thing.
Browse more properly denotes the food which deer
find in young copfes, continually fprouting anew.
BRUCE (Robert), fon of the earl of Carrick, be¬
ing competitor with Baliol for the crown of Scotland,
loft it by the arbitration of Edward I. of England,
for generoufly refufing to hold the crown of Scotland,
as depending on him, which his anccftors had left him
independent. But Baliol having afterward broke his
agreement with Edward, Bruce was eafily perfuaded
by that king to fide with him againft Baliol, upon
promife that he would fettle him on the throne. Ha¬
ving contributed much to the breaking of Baliol’s
party, he demanded the accdmpliftiment of king Ed¬
ward’s promife, who is faid to have given him this an-
fwer : “ What! have I nothing elfe to do, but to con¬
quer kingdoms for you.” However, he recovered his
crown, defeated the Englifh in feveral battles, raifed
the glory of the Scots, and extended their dominions f.
BRUCHSAL, a town of Germany, in the palati¬
nate of the Rhine, and biihopric of Spires, fituated on
the river Satz, in E. Long. 8. 30. N. Lat. 49. 15.
BRUCHUS, in zoology, a genus of infefts belong¬
ing to the order of coleoptera. The feelers are filiform,
and gradually increafe in thicknefs. There are feven
fpecies, viz. the pill, has grey elytra interfperfed
with white fpots, and a white fundament with two
black fpots. It is a native of North America, and
deftroys whole fields of peafe : It is now found in fe--
veral of the fouthern parts of Europe ; where it does
great injury to the corn. 2. The theobrotpae, with
whitifh elytra interfperfed with black points. It fre¬
quents the theobromte or chocolate-trees in the Eaft
Indies. 3. The gleditfias, with ftriated elytra of
the fame length with the belly, a pitch-coloured body,
and green feelers. It is a native of America. 4. The
baclris, with fmooth elytra, a hoary body, and the
hind part of the thighs oval. It frequents the palm-
trees of Jamaica. 5. The granarius, has black elytra ;
the fore-feet gre red, and the hind-feet are dentated.
It frequents the feeds of plants in different parts of
Europe. 6. The feminarius is Hack, with the bafe
of the feelers and fore-feet teftaceous. It is about the
fize of a loufe, and a native of Europe. 7. The pedti-
cornis, with comb-ftiaped feelers longer than the body.
It is a native of Barbary and China.
BRUGES, a city of the Auftrian Netherlands, ca¬
pital of the territory of Bruges, with a bifhop’s fee.
It is feated in a plain, eight miles from the fea; and
has a great number of canals, made for the benefit of
trade, one of which leads to Ghent, another to Oftend,
another to Sluys, to Newport, to Furnes, to Ypres,
and to Dunkirk, which you may reach in a day in the
fummer-time. All the waters about Bruges are with¬
out any current; but they may be changed in half an
hour’s time, by opening the fluices, and letting the
water run into the fea. There are feveral bridges about
the city, and that which was built in 1739 of free
Itone is very {lately.
Bruges was in a very flouriftiing condition upwards
of 200 years ago, and every nation had a conful here¬
in for the maintenance of their rights and privileges ;
but fince the enlargement of Amfterdam and Antwerp, Brug-es,
the trade is diminifhed, and its inhabitants are not nu- ^ruin'
merous enough for fo large a place. However, there
are many rich merchants, and a chamber for trade.
There are feveral fine churches ; in the firft rank of
which is the cathedral, whofe rich ornaments and trea-
fure deferve notice. The fineft fquare in the city is the
great market, in which ftand the halls, with public
galleries, and a large court in the middle, and on one
of its fides a high fteeple fupported only with four
pillars. It is full of bells, with the moft harmonious
chimes in all the country. On the fide of the great
fquare there is a ftru&ure which ferves fora public ma¬
gazine to lay cloth in. It is built on a canal, and fup¬
ported by pillars in fuch a manner, that fmall veffels can
pafs under it, to crofs the city from the canal of Oftend
to that of Ghent.
The fquare where the Wednefday’s market is kept is
very fine; for it contains feveral walks between two
rows of trees, and a new guard-houfe in the middle.
The Burg is a large fquare, in which is the town-houfe,
built in the Gothic manner, and adorned with a variety
of figures of the ancient counts and countefles of Flan¬
ders. In the fame fquare there are feveral other public
buildings. The church dedicated to the Virgin Mary
is very fine, with a high fteeple, which ferves as a fea-
mark for the {hips that come to Oftend ; on the infide
are two tombs of copper gilt, of an extraordinary mag¬
nificence. Befides the cathedral and two collegiate
churches, there are five parifh churches, fourteen cha¬
pels, and twelve convents for men and women. There
are a great many alms-houfes and hofpitals, one of
which is called the fchocl of Bogards, where there are
about one hundred and eighty boys, fome of which are
brought up to learning, others to trades, according to
their genius. Their habit is cloth, and half of them
wear blue and half red, with a black bonnet. There is
alfo a fchool for poor girls, to the number of one hun¬
dred and twenty, clothed with red or blue. In fhort,
there is no place in the Low Countries where they take
more care of widows and orphans.
It is remarkable that the knights of the golden fleece
were inftituted in this city in 1430, when the marriage
of Philip the Good was celebrated with Elizabeth
princefs of Portugal. The parts about the city, which
belong to it, are called Fra?ic of Bruges, and contain
thirty-feven villages, and enjoy perfeH liberty, accord¬
ing to the tenour of their freedom. The fortifications
of Bruges are but trifling, iufomuch that in the time
of war they always yield to the ftrongeft party. It is
eight miles eaft of Oftend, twenty-four north-eaft of
Ghent, and forty-fix weft of Antwerp. E. Long. 3.5.
N. Lat. 51. 11.
Bruges (John of), (real name, John van Eick), a
celebrated Flemifh painter, and the firft who difcovered
the method of painting in oil, flonriftied in the 15th
century. He found in the courfe of his chemical expe¬
riments, (to which fcience he alfo applied himfelf),
that, by grinding colours with linfeed or nut-oil, he
could form them into a folid body which would refift
the water, and not need the varnifti ufed in painting in
water-colours or in frefco. He prefented the firft pic¬
ture painted in this manner to Alphonfus 1. king of
Naples, who was much pleafed with it.
BRUIN (John de), profeffor of natural philofophy
and
B R U
Dmlfe and mathematics at Utrecht, was born at Gorcum in
II 1620, He had uncommon /kill in diflecting animals,
Briin' and was a great lover of experiments. He made alfo
obfervations in aftronomy. He publiflied differtations
De vi altrice ; De corporum gravitate et levitate ; De
cognitione Dei ?iaturali ; Da lucis caufa et origins, &c.
He had a difpute with Ifaac Voffius, to whom he wrote
a letter printed at Amfterdam in 1663 ; wherein he cri-
ticifes Voffius’s book De natura et proprietate lucis, and
Itrenuoufly maintains the hypothefis of Defcartes. He
died in 1675, after he had been profeffor 23 years: and
his funeral oration was pronounced four days after by
M. Graevius.
BRUISE, in furgery, the fame with Contusion.
BRUMALES plants, in botany, (from bruma
winter); plants which flower in our winter: common
about the Cape.
BRUMALIA, in Roman antiquity, feftivals of
Bacchus celebrated twice a-year ; the firft. on the 12th
of the kalends of March, and the other on the i8:h of
the kalends of November. They were inftituted by Ro¬
mulus, who during thefe feafts ufed to entertain the
fenate. Among other heathen feftivals which the pri¬
mitive Chriftians were much inclined to obferve, Ter-
tullian mentions the brumas or brumalia.
BRUMOY (Peter), a learned jefuit born at Rouen
in 1668, diftinguilhed himfelf in his youth by his ta¬
lents for the belles lettres ; and during his whole life
was beloved for his probity, his virtue, and the good-
nefs of his heart. He wrote many works, the moft con-
fiderable of which is his Theatre of the Greeks. He
died at Paris in 1742.
BRUN (Anthony le), an ambaflador of Spain, fa¬
mous for his /kill in negotiating, was of an ancient and
^ noble family, and born at Dole in the year 1600. He
was attorney-general in the parliament of Dole; du¬
ring which time he had a hand in all the ftate negotia¬
tions which concerned the provinces. He was fent
afterwards by Philip IV. to the diet of Ratilbon, and
from thence to the court of the emperor Ferdinand III.
He was one of the plenipotentiaries of his Catholic ma-
jefty, at the conferences of Munfter held in 1643 >
where, though all the other plenipotentiaries took place
of him, yet it is faid that he far exceeded them all in
capacity. The king of Spain was particularly beholden
to him for the peace which the Dutch made at Mun-
fter, exclufively of France; and the intriguing turn
which he (hewed upon this occafton made him dreaded
ever after by French ambaffadors. He was a man of
letters, as well as of politics ; and therefore employed
his pen, as well as his tongue, in the fervice of his ma¬
iler. He died at the Hague, during his embaffy, in
the year 1654.
Brun (Charles le), was defcended of a family of di-
ftinftion in Scotland, and born in the year 1619. His
father was a ftatuary by profeflion. He difcovered, it
is faid, fuch an early inclination for painting, that at
three years of age he ufed to take coals, and defign
on the hearth and fides of the chimney, only by the
light of the fire ; and at 12 he drew the pi&ure of his
uncle fo well, that it dill paffes for a fine piece. His
father being employedin thegardens at Sequier,and ha¬
ving brought his fon along with him, the chancellor
of that name took a liking to him, and placed him with
Simon Vouet, an eminent painter. He was afterwards
B R U
fent to Fountainbleau, to take off fome of Raphael’s Brim
pieces. He fent him next to Italy, and fupported him II
there for fix years. Le Brun, in his return, met with Bl,un0,
the celebrated Pouflin, by whofe converfation he great- ~
ly improved himfelf in his art, and contradled a friend-
(hip with him which laded as long as their lives. A
painting of St Stephen, which he finiftied in 1651,
railed his reputation to the highed pitch. Soon after
this, the king, upon the reprefentation of Mr Colbert,
made him his fird painter, and conferred on him the
order of St Michael. His majefty employed two hours
every day to fee him work, while he was painting the
family of Darius at Fountainbleau. About the year
1662, he began his five large pieces of the hiftory of
Alexander the Great, in which he is faid to have fet
the adtions of that famous conqueror in a more glorious
light than Quintus Curtius hath done in his hiftory.
He procured feveral advantages for the royal academy
of painting and fculpture at Paris, and formed the plan
of another for the ftudents of his own nation at Rome.
There was fcarce any thing done for the advancement of
the fine arts in which he was not confulted. It was thro’
the intereft of M. Colbert that the king gave him the
diredtion of all his works, particularly of his royal ma-
nufadlory at the Gobelins, where he had a handfome
houfe with a genteel falary afligned to him. He was
alfo made diredlor and chancellor of the royal academy,
and (hewed the greateft zeal to encourage the fine arts
in France. He was endowed with a vad inventive ge¬
nius, which extended itfelf to arts of every kind. He
was well acquainted with the manners and hiftory of all
nations. Befides his extraordinary talents, his beha¬
viour was fo genteel, and his addrefs fo pleafing, that
he attradled the regard and affedlion of the whole court
of France, where, by the places andpenfions conferred
on him by the king’s liberality, he made a very confi-
derable figure. Le Brun was the author of two trea-
tifes; one on phyfiognomy, and the other on the diffe¬
rent charafters of the paffions. He died at Paris in
1690.
The talent of this paititer, except for landfcapes, was
univerfal. He was not indeed admired for his colour¬
ing, nor for his (kill in the diftribution of his lights and
(hadows; but for a good gufto of defign, an excellent
choice of attitudes, an agreeable management of his
draperies, a beautiful and juft expreffion, and a drift
obfervance of decorum. In fine, his compofitions de¬
mand the attention and admiration of the niceft judges.
The pieces that gained him greateft reputation were,
befides what we have already mentioned, thofe which
he finiflred at Fountainbleau, the great ftair-cafe at Ver-
failles, but efpecially the grand gallery there, which
was the laft of his works, and is faid to have taken him
up 14 years.
BRUNDISIUM, or Brundusium, (anc. geog.),
a town of Calabria, with the beft harbour in Italy. It
was a very ancient town, and belonged originally to
the Salentines; but was taken by the Romans about
256 years before Chrift. Now Brindift; which fee.
BRUNO (Jordano), an atheiftical writer, was born
at Nolo in the kingdom of Naples; and about the year
1582, began to call in queftion fome of the tenets of the
Romilh church, which occafioned his retiring to Ge¬
neva: but after two years (lay there, he eXpreffed his
averfion to Calvinifm in fuch a manner that he was ex¬
pelled
[ '49° ]
B R U
[ H91 ]
B R U
pelled the city. After having ftaid fome time at Lyons, fmall fort of which is the common drink of the inhabi-
Tholoufe, and Paris, he came to London, and conti- tants of the city. The religion here is the Lutheran]
nued two years in the houfe of Mr Caftleneau the
French ambaflador. He was very well received by
queen Elizabeth and the politer part of the court.
His principal friends were Sir Philip Sidney and Sir
Fulk Greville. With thefe and fome others of their
club, Bruno held affemblies; but as they treated of fub-
jefts of a very delicate nature, which could not fuit the
tafte or capacity of every body, they kept the door al¬
ways {hut, and none but felect perfons were admitted
and they obferve it very ftridfly. The peafants are fo-
ber and laborious, but clownifh and heavy; however,
as they are robuft and ftrong, they make good foldiers.
The eledtor of Hanover is ftyled duke of Brunfwick,
though he has no property in, nor dominion over, this
city, which belongs to the duke of Bnmfwick Wolfen-
buttle. E. Long. xo. 28. N. Lat. 52. 15.
Brunswick (the duchy of), is a country of Ger¬
many, bounded on the north by the duchy of Lunen^
Here he was apprehended by order of the inquifition;
tried; condemned; and refufing to retraft, was burnt
at the ftake, February 9th 1600.
BRUNSBUTTLE, a fea-port town of Germany, in
the circle of lower Saxony, and duchy of Holltein,
feated at the mouth of the river Elbe, in E. Long. 8.
42. N. Lat. 44. 30. It is fubjeft to Denmark.
BRUNSFELSIA, a genus of the monogynia order,
belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants; of which in Scotland, fituated on the frith of Forth, eight miles
there is only one fpecies, viz. the americana. It rifes north of Edinburgh, in W. Long. 3. 5. N. Lat.,56. 12.
■with a woody, branching, rough ftem, fix or eight feet
high; garnifhed with oblong entire leaves on footftalks,
and large whitiflx flowers by threes or fours at the ends
of the branches, fucceeded by round faffron-coloured
foft fruit. This plant may be raifed from feeds fown
in pots in the fpring, and plunged in a bark-bed. It
may alfo be propagated by cuttings planted in pots in
the fame feafon, plunging them alfo in a bark-bed or capital, made it, during the troubles of 1560, a moft
other hot-bed under glaffes. The plants muft always
remain in the ftove.
BRUNSWICK, a city of Germany, in the circle
of Lower Saxony., and capital of the duchy of the fame
name. It is compofed of five towns, viz. the Old
.Town, the New Town, the Hagen or Burg, the Old
Wieck, and the Sac, which makes it a large place, but
the houfes are almoft all built of wood. There are fe-
veral churches, one of which is an ancient Gothic build¬
ing, but the appearance of its antiquity is almoft ab-
forbed by the repairs it has undergone. Brunfwick is
a fortified place, and would require a numerous army
to befiege, and not a few men to defend it. It is of a
fquare form, divided in the middle by the river Ocker.
It is about two miles in circumference, and is ftrongly
fortified. On the ramparts is a mortar-piece of brafs,
ten feet fix inches long, and nine feet two inches in cir¬
cumference, weighing 1800 quintals, and has 93 quin¬
tals of iron in its carriages. It will carry a ball of 730
pounds weight to the diftance of 33,000 paces, and was far from being rich, or rather he was very poor;
throw a bomb of a thoufand weight; but it requires
52 pounds of powder for a charge. This city is the
refidence of the prince whom we ftyle the duke of Brun¬
fwick Wolfenbuttle. The inhabitants of the city and
parts adjacent carry on a confiderable trade with Bo¬
hemia. Brunfwick mum is well known in England; a found, that appearing well dreffed
Brunfwick
II
Brufchius.
into their company. At Sir Philip’s requeft, he com- burg; on the weft, by the circle of Weftphalia, from
pofed his Spaccio della Befia Triumpbante, which was which it is feparated by the river Wefer; on the fouth,
printed in 8vo, 1584, and dedicated to that gentleman, by HefTe, and the little territory of Peichfield; and on
This work, which is remarkable for nothing but its the eaft, by Thuringia, with the principalities of An-
impiety, we are told in one of the Speftators, (n° 389), halt and Halberftadt, and the duchy of Magdeburg,
fold at an amftion in London for 30/. From England The rivers are the Wefer, the Ocker, and the Lyne;
he went to Wittemberg, and from thence to Prague, and it is fertile both in corn and paftures. It is divi-
where he printed fome trails, in which he openly dif- ded into three principalities, Wolfenbuttle, Grubenha-
covered his atheiftical principles. After vifiting fome gen, and Calenberg, which alfo comprehends the duchy
other towns in Germany, he made a tour to Venice, of Gottingen. The principality of Wolfenbuttle has
dukes; but the other two belong to the ele&or
of Hanover. The territories of the houfe of Brunfwick
are more extenfive; the principal of which are the du¬
chies of Brunfwick and Lunenburg, with the county
of Danneburg, which is annexed thereto. The reft are
Blankenburg, Dieport, and Hoye, befides two or three
fmaller diftrifts.
BRUNTISLAND, a parliament-town of Fifefhire
Here is the belt harbour on the coaft, formed by a rocky
ifle eked out with piers, for there are none on this fide
the county entirely natural. This is dry at low water.
The church is fquare, with a fteeple rifing in the centre.
The old caftle, built by the Durier, commanded both
town and harbour. The place has a natural* ftrength,
which, with the conveniency of a port oppofite to the
defireable poft. The French, allies of the queen regent,
fortified it ftrongfy. In 1715, it was furprifed' and
pofleffed by the rebels, who here formed the bold de-
fign of pafling over a body of troops to the oppofite
fliore ; which was in part executed, under the command
of brigadier Macintofh, notwithftanding all the efforts
of the men of war.
BRUSCHIUS (Gafpar), a Latin hiftorian and
poet, was born at Egra in Bohemia, in 1518. He
was devoted to books from his childhood, and efpecially
to poetry, in which he gained fo much reputation, that
he attained to the poetical crown, to the dignity of
poet laureat, and of count palatine. He wrote with
prodigious facility; and his verfes are extremely flow¬
ing, eafy, and natural. He publiihed Latin poems on
a great variety of fubje6ts ; the hiftory of the bilhops
and biftioprics of Germany; hiftory of German mona-
fteries; and a great number of other works, of which a
catalogue is given in Gefner’s Bibliotheque. Brufchius
fubfifting almoft entirely by the benefa&ions of his po¬
etical patrons, and by prefents from the abbots and ab-
beffes whofe monafteries he deferibed. The liberalities
of fome abbots, while he was with Oporin at Bafil, en¬
abled him to buy a new fuit of clothes; but when be
1 the ftreets procu¬
red'
B R U [ 1492 ] B R U
Bmfli, red him many marks of refpedf from the vulgar, he
Bruirels' tore his new finery to pieces, “ as flaves that had u-
furped their mailer’s honours.” Brnfchius feems to
have been too great a philofopber for the age he lived
in, or indeed for any age. He was murdered in the
forefi of Scalingenbach, between Rottemberg on the
Tauber, and Winfheim: and it was believed that this
afiafiination was conceited and carried into execution
by fome gentlemen againft whom Brufchius was about
to write fomething.
BRUSH, an aflemblage of hairs, or hogs briftles,
faftened in the holes of a wooden handle or board,
pierced for that purpofe, ferving to cleanfe divers bo¬
dies by rubbing therewith. The manner of making
brulhes is by folding the hair or briftle in two; and
bringing it by means of a packthread, which is enga¬
ged in the fold, through the holes with which the wood
is pierced all over, being afterwards faftened therein
with glue. When the holes are thus filled, theends of
the hair are cut to make the furface even.
Shaermens Brush, is made of wild boars briftles ;
and ferves to lay the wool or nap of cloth, after /hear¬
ing it for the laft time.
Brush, among painters, a larger and coarfer kind
of a pencil made of hogs briftles, wherewith to lay the
colours on their large pieces. The Chinefe painters
brufh confifts of the ftalk of a plant; whofe fibres be¬
ing fretted at both ends, and tied again, ferve for a
brufh.
/T/Vv-Erushes, are ufed by filver fmiths and gil¬
ders, for fcrubbing filver, copper, or brafs pieces, in
order to the gilding of them.
BRUSSELS, the capital of Brabant, in the Au-
ftrian Netherlands, and generally the feat of the Au-
ftrian governor, is fituated on the fmall river Senne,
which runs through it. It is a rich and handfome city;
and among the public ftrudlures, the ducal palace where
the governor refides, the town-houfe, and the arfenal,
are moft fuperb. No city in Europe, except Naples
and Genoa, makes a finer appearance at a diftance :
but, like them, when in the town, it is all up and down
hill. It is encompafled with a double brick wall, and
lias feven gates; but being feven miles in compafs, is
too large to hold out a long fiege. In Bruffels are feven
fine fquares, or market-places ; that of the great mar¬
ket is one of the moft beautiful in the world. The
town-houfe takes up one quarter of it; and has a very
high fteeple, on the top of which is a brazen ftatue of
St Michael, fifteen feet high. In one of the apartments,
which is handfomely adorned, the dates of Brabant
meet. In three other rooms there is the hiftory of the
refignation of Charles V. wrought in tapeftry ; which
is fo well done, that it may be miftaken for painting.
In the other parts of this fquare, are the halls of the
different trades. There are here feveral palaces of the
nobility : that of Orange now belongs to the king of
Pruffia. The opera-houfe is built after the Italian
manner, with rows of boxes, in which are chimneys.
One is covered over with looking glafs, fo that they can
fit by the fire, drink a bottle, and fee what is doing.
There-are 20 public fountains, adorned with ftatues, at
the corners of the moft public ftreets; and in the middle
of the town-houfe is one with Neptune, the tritons,
and the horfes fpouting out water from their noftrils.
The hofpitals are well endowed, fome of which are for
the maintenance of ftrangers for three days. There rimfiels,
is alfo a foundling-hofpital, and one for penitent cour- Brutf-
tezans. Among the churches, that of St Gudula is
very magnificent. It ftands on the top of a hill, near
the gate of Lovain, and is furrouuded with iron balu-
ftrades. It is an old Gothic ftrudlure, with two large
fteeples at the eaft end, and is finely adorned within. j
The Jefuits have a fine church as well as a library.
There are feveral monafteries and nunneries, two of
which laft are Englifh. The nunnery called the Be-
guinage is like a little town, being furrounded by a
wall and ditch, and has little ftreets, where each nun
has an apartment. Six or feven hundred girls are edu¬
cated here.
In 1695, Bruffelswas bombarded by marlhal Ville-
roy, who demolifhed four thoufand houfes, the ftadt-
houfe, and fevcral churches. In 1708, it was befieged
again, by the eledlor of Bavaria ; but the duke of
Marlborough foon came to its affiftance, and obliged
him to raife the fiege with precipitation. Marlhal
Saxe, the French general, took it in 1746 ; but it was
reftored by the treaty of Aix la Chapelle. It is
much fallen from its former fplendor 5 and all the trade
which is carried on there is in lace, camblets, and ta¬
peftry, which they make in great perfe&ion. E. Long.
4. 8. N. Lat. 50. 51.
Brussels (the quarter or diftrict of), is one of the
four parts of the duchy of Brabant. This quarter is
bounded on the eaft, by tha*- of Louvain; on the north,
by that of Antwerp; on the weft, by Flanders; and
on the fouth, by Hainhalt. Bruflels is the capital city
of this quarter and all Brabant.
BRUTE, a general name for all animals, except
mankind.
Among brutes, the monkey kind bear the neareft re-
femblance to man; both in the external fhape and in¬
ternal ftrudlure, but more in the former than in the
latter. In the monkey kind, the higheft, and the near¬
eft approach to the likenefs of man is the Oran Outang,
or Homo Silveftris f.—The ftrudlure and oeconomy of f See Simla'.
brutes make the objedls of what is called Comparative
Anatomy. See that article.
Philofophers have been much puzzled about the ef-
fential charadleriftics of brutes, by which they may
be diftinguifhed from man. Some define a brute to
Ire an animal not rifible, or a living creature incapable
of laughter; others call them mute animals. The peri¬
patetics allowed them a fenfitive power, but denied them
a rational one. The Piatonifts allowed themreafon and
underftanding, though in a degree lefs pure and refined
than that of men. Ladlantius allows every thing to
brutes which men have, except a fenfe of religion ; and
even this has been afcribed to them by fome fceptics.
Defcartes maintained that brutes are mere inanimate
machines, abfolutely deftitute not only of reafon, but
of all thought and perception, and that all their ac¬
tions were only confequences of the exquifite mecha-
nifm of their bodies. This fyftem, however, is much
older than Defcartes; it was borrowed by him from
Gomez Pereira, a Spanilh phyfician, who employed 30
years in compofing a treatife which he entitled slnto-
niana Margarita, from the Chriftian names of his fa¬
ther and mother. It was publifhed in 15J4: but his
opinion had not t)ie honour of gaining partizans, or
even of being refuted; fo that it died with him. Even
Pereira
B R U [ 1493 ] B R U
Pereira feems not to have been the inventor of this no¬
tion ; fomething like it having been held by fome of
the ancients, as we find from Plutarch and St Auguftin.
Others, who reje&ed the Cartefian hypothefes, have
maintained that brutes are endowed with a foul effen-
tially inferior to that of men ; and to this foul fome
have allowed immortality, others not. And, laftly, in a
treatife publilhed by one Bougeant a Jefuit, entitled A
Philofophical amufement on the language of beajls, he af¬
firms that they are animated by evil fpirits or devils.
The opinion of Defcartes was probably invented, or
at leaft adopted, by him to defeat two great objeftions:
one againft. the immortality of the fouls of brutes, if
they were allowed to have any; the other againft: the
goodnefs of God, in fuffering creatures who had never
finned, to be fubje&ed to fo many miferies. The ar¬
guments in favour of it may be ftated as follow. 1. It
is certain, that a number of human a£tions are merely
mechanical; becaufe they are done imperceptibly to the
agent, and without any dire&ion from the will; which
are to be afcribed to the imprefiion of objefts and the
primordial difpofition of the machine, wherein the in¬
fluence of the foul has no fhare; of which number are
all habits of the body acquired from the reiteration of
certain a&ions. In all fuch circumftances, human be¬
ings are no better than automata. 2. There are fome
natural movements fo involuntary, that we cannot re-
ftrain them; for example, that admirable mechanifm
ever on the watch to preferve an equilibrium, when we
ftoop, bend, or incline our bodies in any way, and
when we walk upon a narrow plank. 3. The natural
liking for, and antipathy againft, certain objects, which
in children precede the power of knowing and difcri-
minating them, and which fometimes ingrown perfons
triumph over all the efforts of reafon; are all pheno¬
mena to be accounted for from the wonderful mecha¬
nifm of the body, and are fo many cogent proofs of
that irrefiftible influence which objeAs have on the hu¬
man frame. 4. Every one knows how much our paf-
fions depend on the degree of motion into which the
blood is put, and the reciprocal impreffions caufed by
the animal-fpirits between the heart and brain, that
are fo clofely connedled by their nerves; and if fuch ef-
fe&s may be produced by fuch Ample mechanical means
as the mere increafe of motion in the blood, without
any dire&ion of the will, we are not to wonder at the
a&ions of brutes being the effeAs only of a refined me¬
chanifm, without thought, or perception. 5. A far¬
ther proof will arife from a confideration of the many
wonderful effedls which even the ingenuity of men has
contrived to bring about by mechanical means ; the
androide, for inftance, of Mr Kempell, which plays at
chefs. Now it is not to be queftioned, but that the
mechanifm of the body of the meaneft animal infinitely
furpaffes that of Mr Kempell’s machine; atid what can
be the confequence of this, but that the a&ions of that
animal muff be proportionably more furprifing than
thofe of the wooden chefs-player?
The above is a ftiort abitraft of all the arguments
that are brought in favour of the Cartefian fyftem: but
they are evidently very far from being concluiive. They
are deficient, in the firft place, becaufe, though we allow
them in the utmoft extent the Cartefians themfelves
can defire, they prove only the poffibility of brutes be¬
ing inanimate, and that the power of God a&ually
Vox.. II.
could produce fuch and fuch a&ions from inanimate Brute,
machines; but that he a&ually hath done fo, they have '
not the leaft. tendency to prove. In the fecond place,
the Cartefian argument is infufficient, becaufe it hath
no limits, and knows not where to flop; for, by the
fame method of arguing, every man might prove his
neighbour to be an inanimate machine: for though e-
very individual is confcious of his own thoughts, he is
not fo of thofe of his neighbours, and it no more ex¬
ceeds the power of God to caufe an inanimate machine
perform the a&ions of a man, than thofe of a beaft.
Neither are the two obje&ions which the hypothefis is
calculated to anfwer, to be at all admitted as arguments
in its favour. They are, 1. That if we allow brutes
to have fouls, they muff be immaterial, and confequent-
ly immortal; and, 2. It feems a contradiftion to the
goodnefs of God to think that he fhould fubjeft inno¬
cent creatures to fuch a multitude of evils as we fee the
brute creation endure in this world. The firft of thefe
is produftive of no bad confequences to us, though it
ftiould be granted : and if it is fuppofed that the brute
creatures are really immortal, the fecond obje&ion va-
nifhes; becaufe, in the enjoyment of endlefs felicity, all
temporary afflidtions, how fevere foever, muft be fwal-
lowed up as though they had never been.
As to a pofitive proof on the other fide, viz. that
brutes are really endowed with fenfation and confciouf-
nefs, there is undoubtedly the fame evidence for the
fenfibility of brutes, that there is for that of mankind.
We fee brutes avoid pain as much as we do; and we
likewife fee them feek for pleafure and exprefs their
happinefs in the enjoyment of certain things by figns
not at all equivocal. Therefore, though we grant the
poflibility of all this being the effeft of mere mecha¬
nifm ; yet as we are confcious that in ourfelves fi-
milar cffe&s are produced by a fentient principle, we
have all the reafon in the world to conclude that in
brutes they are likewife derived from a principle of
fenfation : efpecially feeing .we know of no kind of me¬
chanifm in any other part of nature that produces any
thing like the effedts juft mentioned; and until we fee
that a mechanifm of this kind does take place in fome
part of nature, we have no right to fuppofe it in any.
As to thofe adtions of the human body in which it
feems to move fpontaneoufly, like an automaton, with¬
out the diredtion of the mind or will, it is almoft fu-
perfluous to obferve, that they were not performed in
this manner originally, but required very great exer¬
tions of the will and intelledlual faculty before the body
could be brought to perform them eafily; fo that from,
this nothing can be inferred. Add to this, that di¬
vine revelation fets forth to us in many places, the brute
creation as objedls of mercy; which could not be done
without the higheft abfurdity, if they were not really
capable of feeling pleafure and pain as well as we.
The moft rational oppofers of the Cartefian fcheme
maintain, that brutes are endowed with a principle of
fenfation as well as we; though of an inferior nature
to ours. Great difputes, however, have ^rifen on this
fubjedl; fume-maintaining, that the foul of brutes is
merely fenfitive, and that they are altogether deftitute
of refledtion and underftanding; others, that they not
only reafon, but make a better ufe of it than men do.
That the brutes are endowed only with fenfation, and
totally deftitute of all power of reflediion, or even rea-
9 C foning,
Brute.
Brute.
B R U [ 1494 ] B R U
foning, is what can by no means be maintained on good
grounds: neither can it be afferted that they a& en¬
tirely from inftinft, or a blind propenfity to certain
things without knowing why or wherefore. In num-
berlefs inftances, needlefs to be mentioned here, but
which will readily occur to every reader, it is evident,
that education will get the better of many of the na¬
tural inilin&s of brutes; which could never be the cafe
were they abfolutely incapable of reafoning. On the
other hand, it is equally certain, that they are by no
means capable of education in the fame degree that men
are ; neither are the rational exertions of beatts at all
to be compared even with thofe of the meaneft fava-
ges. One remarkable inftance of this is in the ufe of the
element of fire. The moft favage nations have known
how to make this element fubfervicnt to their purpofes;
or if fome have been found who have been entirely igno¬
rant of its exiftence, they have quickly learned its ufes
on feeing it made ufe of by others: but though many
of the brute creatures are delighted with warmth, and
have opportunities every day of feeing how fire is fup-
plied with fuel, and by that means preferved, it never
was known that one of them attempted to preferve a
fire by this means. This fhews a ftrange deleft of ra¬
tionality, unaccountable upon any other fuppofition
than that the foul or fentient principle of brutes is fome
how or other inferior in its nature to that of man ; but
ft ill, it is a fentient principle, capable of perceptions
as quick, and in many inftances much more fo than
our own.
Father Bougeant fupports his opinion of the fpirits
of brute creatures being devils, in the following man¬
ner. Having proved at large that beads naturally have
underftanding, “ Reafon (fays he) naturally inclines
us to believe that beads have a fpiritual foul; and the
only thing that oppofes this fentiment is, the confe-
quehces that might be inferred from it. If brutes have
a foul, that foul muft be either matter or fpirit; it mud
be one of the two, and yet you dare affirm neither.
You dare not fay it is matter, becaufe you muft then
neceffarily fuppofe matter to be capable of thinking :
nor will you fay that it is fpirit, this opinion, bringing
with it confequences contrary to the principles of reli¬
gion ; and this, among others, that man would differ
from beafts only by the degrees of plus and minus;
which would demolifh the very foundation of all reli¬
gion. Therefore, if I can elude all thefe confequences;
if I can affign to beafts a fpiritual foul, without ftriking
at the doftrines of religion; it is evident, that my fy-
ftem, being moreover the moft agreeable to reafon, is the
only warrantable hypothefis. Now I fhall, and can do
it, with the greateft eafe imaginable. I even have
means, by the fame method, to explain many very ob-
fcure paffages in the Holy Scripture, and to refolve fome
very great difficulties which are not well confuted.
This we fhall unfold in a more particular manner.
“ Religion teaches us, that the devils, from the very
moment they had finned, were reprobate, and that
they were doomed to burn for ever in hell; but the
church has not yet determined whether they do aftually
endure the torments to which they are condemned. It
may then be thought that they do not yetfuffer them,
and that the execution of the verdift brought againft
them is referved for the day of the final judgement.—
Now what I pretend to infer from hence is, that, till
doomfday comes, God, in order not to fuffer fo many
legions of reprobate fpirits to be of no ufe, has diftri- ~
buted them through the feveral fpaces of the world, to
ferve the defigns of his Providence, and make his om¬
nipotence to appear. Some, continuing in their natu¬
ral ftate, bufy themfelves in tempting men, in feducing
and tormenting them ; either immediately, as Job’s
devil, and thofe that lay hold of human bodies; or by
the miniftry of forcerers or phantoms. Thefe wicked
fpirits are thofe whom the fcripture calls the powers of
darknefs, or the powers of the air. God, with the
others, makes millions of beafts of all kinds, which
ferve for the ufes of men, which fill the univerfe, and
caufe the wifdom and omnipotence of the Creator to
be admired. By that means I can eafily conceive, on
the one hand, how the devils can tempt us; and on
the other, how beafts can think, know, have fenti-
ments, and a fpiritual foul, without any way ftriking
at the doftrines of religion. I am no longer furprifed
to fee them have forecaft, memory, and judgment. I
ftiould rather have occafion to wonder at their having
no more, fince their foul very likely is more perfeft
than ours. But I difcover the reafon of this: it is be¬
caufe, in beafts as well as in ourfelves, the operations
of the mind are dependent on the material organs of
the machine to which it is united; and thofe organs
being groffer and lefs perfeft than in us, it follows,
that the knowledge, the thoughts, and the other fpi¬
ritual operations of the beafts muft; of courfe be lefs
perfeft than ours: And if thefe proud fpirits know
their own difmal ftate, what an humiliation muft it be
to them thus to fee themfelves reduced to the condi¬
tion of beafts! But, whether they know it or no,' fo-
ftiameful a degradation is ftill, with regard to them,
the primary efreft of the divine vengeance I juft men¬
tioned ; it is an anticipated Hell. 
Having mentioned the prejudices againft this hypo¬
thefis, fuch as particularly the pleafure which people
of fenfe and religion take in beafts and birds, efpecially
all forts of domeftic animals ; he proceeds, “ Do we
love beafts for their own fakes ? No. As they are al¬
together ftrangers to human fociety, they can have no
other appointment but that of being ufeful and amu-
fing. And what care we whether it be a devil or any
other creature that amufes us ? The thought of it, far
from {hocking, pleafes me mightily. I with gratitude
admire the goodnefs of the Creator, who gave me fo
many little devils to ferve and amufe me. If I am told
that thefe poor devils are doomed to fuffer eternal tor¬
tures, I admire God’s decrees, but I have no manner
of {hare in that dreadful fentence ; I leave the execu¬
tion of it to the fovereign Judge ; and, notwithftand-
ing this, I live with my little devils as I do with a
multitude of people, of whom religion informs me that
a great number ftiall be damned. But the cure of a
prejudice is not to be effefted in a moment; it is done
by time and refleftion ; give me leave then lightly to
touch upon this difficulty, in order to obferve a very
important thing to you.
“ Perfuaded as we are that beafts have intelligence,
have we not all of us a thoufand times pitied them for
the exceffive evils which the majority of them are ex-
pofed to, and in reality fuffer ? How unhappy is the
condition of horfes! we are apt to fay upon feeing a horfe
whom an unmerciful carman is murdering with blows.
How
B R U [ 1495 ] B R U
Brute. How miferable is a dog whom,they are breaking for
' hunting ! How difmal is the fate of beafts living in
woods! they are perpetually expofed to the injuries of
the weather; always feized with apprehenfions of be¬
coming the prey of hunters, or of fome wilder animal;
forever obliged, after long fatigue, to look out for
fome poor infipid food; often fuffering cruel hunger;
and fubjedf, moreover, to illnefs and death ! If men are
fubjeft to a multitude of miferies that overwhelm them,
religion acquaints us with the reafon of it ; viz. the
being born Tinners. But what crimes can hearts have
committed by birth to be fubjeft to evils fo very cruel ?
What are we, then, to think of the horrible exceffes of
miferies undergone by beafts ? miferies, indeed, far
greater than thofe endured by men. This is, in any
other fyftem, an incompreheniible myftery ; whereas
nothing is more eafy to be conceived from the fyftem
I propofe. The rebellious fpirits deferve a puniftiment
■dill more rigorous, and happy it is for them that their
punirtunent is deferred. In a word, God’s goodnefs is
vindicated, man himfelf is juftified : for what right can
we have, without neceffity, and often in the way of
mere diverfion, to take away the life of millions of
beafts, if God had not authorized us fo to do ? And
beafts being as fenfible as ourfelves of pain and death,
how could a juft and merciful God have given-man that
privilege, if they were not fo many guilty victims of
the divine vengeance Z
“ But hear ftill fomething more convincing, and of
greater confequence : Beafts, by nature, are extremely
vicious. We know well that they never fin, becaufe
they are not free ; but this is the only condition want¬
ing to make them finners. The voracious birds and
beafts of prey are cruel.. Many infe&s, of one and
the fame fpecies devour one another. Cats are per¬
fidious and ungrateful; monkeys are mifchievous ; and
dogs envious. All beafts in general are jealous and
revengeful to excels ; not to mention many other vices
we cbierve in them : and at the fame time that they are
by-nature fo very vicious, they have, fay we, neither the
liberty nor any helps to refift the bias that hurries them
into fo many bad adlions. They are, according to
the fchools, necefiitated to do evil, to difconcert the
general order, to commit whatever is in nature moft
contrary to the notion we have of natural juftice and
to the principles of virtue. What monfters are thefe
in a world originally created for order and juftice to
reign in ? This is, in good part, what formerly per-
fuaded the Manicheans that there were of neceffity two
orders of things, one good, and the other bad ; and
that the beafts were not the work of the good principle:
a monftrous error ! But how then fhall we believe that
beafts came out of the hands of their Creator with qua¬
lities fo very ftrange ? If man is fo very wicked and
corrupt, it is becaufe he has himfelf through fin per¬
verted the happy nature God had given him at his crea¬
tion. Of two things, then, we muft fay one : either
thaf God has taken delight in making beafts fo vicious
as they are, and of giving us in them models of what
is moft ftiameful in the world ; or that they hav.e, like
man, original fin, which has perverted their primitive
nature.
“ The firft of thefe propofitions finds very difficult
accefs to the mind, and is an exprefs contradi&ion to
the holy fcriptures; which fay, that whatever came out
of God’s hands, at the time of the creation of the Bmte.
world, was good, yea very good. What good can
there be in a monkey’s being fo very mifchievous, a
dog fofull of envy, a cat fo malicious ? But then many
authors have pretended, that beafts, before man’s fall,
were different from what they are now ; and that it
was in order to punifh man that they became fo wicked.
But this opinion is a mere fuppofition of which there
is not the leaftfootftep in Holy Scripture. It is a pi¬
tiful fubterfuge to elude a real diffidtilty : this at moft
might be faid of the beafts with whom man has a fort
of correfpondence ; but not at all of the birds, fifties,
and infedts, which have no manner of relation to him.
We muft then have recourfe to the fecond propofition.
That the nature of beafts has, like that of man, been
corrupted by fome original fin : Another hypothefis,
void of foundation, and equally inconfiftent with rea¬
fon and religion, in all the fyftems which have been
hitherto efpoufed concerning the foul of beafts. What
party are we to take? Why, admit of my fyftem, and
all is explained. The fouls of beafts are refractory
fpirits which*.have made themfelves guilty towards God.
The fin in beafts is no original fin ; it is a perfonal
crime, which has corrupted and perverted their nature
in its whole fubftance ; hence all the vices and corrup¬
tion we obferve in them, though they can be no longer
criminal, becaufe God, by irrecoverably reprobating
them, has at the fame time divefted them of their li¬
berty.”
Thefe quotations contain the ftrength of father Bcu-
geant’s hypothefis, which alfo hath had its followers ;
but the reply to it is obvious. Beafts, though remark¬
ably mifchievous, are not completely fo ; they are in
many inftances capable of gratitude and love, which
devils cannot poffibly be. The very fame paffions that
are in the brutes, exift in the human nature; and if
we chofe to argue from the exiftence of thofe paffions,
and the afcendancy they have over mankind at fome
times, we may fay with as great juftice, that the fouls
of men are devils, as that the fouls of brutes are. AH
that can be reafonably inferred from the greater pre¬
valency of the wicked paffions among the brutes than
among men, is, that the former have lefs rationality
than men; and accordingly it is found, that among fa-
vages, who exercife their reafon lefs than other men,
every fpecies of barbarity is praftifed, without being
thought a crime.
It has been much difputed whether the brutes have
any language whereby they can exprefs their minds to
each other; or whether all the noife they make confifts
only of cries inarticulate, and unintelligible even to
themfelves. We are, however, too little acquainted
with the intelle&ual faculties of thefe creatures to be
able to determine this point. Certain it is, that their
paffions, when excited, are generally productive of fome
peculiar cry; but whether this is defigned as an ex-
preffion of the paffion to others, or only a mechanical
motion of the mufcles of the larynx occafioned by the
paffion, is what we have no means of knowing. We
may indeed, from analogy, conclude, with great rea¬
fon, that fome of the cries of beafts are really expref-
fions of their fentiments; but whether one beaft is ca¬
pable of forming a defign, and communicating that de-
fign by any kind of language to others, is what we
fubmit to the judgment of the reader, after giving the
9 C 2 following
B R U [ 1496 ] B R Y
Eruttii following inftance which among others is brought as a
!l proof of it by father Bougeant. “ A fparrow finding
B,utlis' a neft that a martin had juft built, {landing very con¬
veniently for him, pofleffed himfelt of it. The mar¬
tin, feeing the ufurper in her houfe, called for help to
expel him. A thoufand martins came full fpeed, and
attacked the fparrow ; but the latter being covered on
every fide, and prefenting only his large beak at the
entrance of the neft, was invulnerable, and made the
boldeft of them who durft approach him repent of
their temerity. After a quarter of an hour’s combat,
all the martins difappeared. The fparrow thought he
had got the better, and the fpeftators judged that the
martins had abandoned their undertaking. Not in the
lead. Immediately they returned to the charge ; and
each of them having procured a little of that tempered
earth with which they make their nefts, they all at
once fell upon the fparrow, and inclofed him in the
neft to perilh there, though they could not drive him
thence. Can it be imagined that the martins could
have been able to hatch and concert this defign all of
them together, without fpeaking to each other ?”
BRUTTII, an ancient people of Italy, inhabiting
the country now called Calabria Ultra; different from
the ancient Calabria, or Meffapia, to the eaft on the
Adriatic or Ionian fea.
BRUTTON, a town of Somerfetfhire, in England.
It is fituated on the river Brew; and is a good place,
and well inhabited. It is adorned with a very beauti¬
ful church ; has a free fchool, founded by Edward I.;
and the alms-houfe or hofpital is fo good, that it has
the appearance of a college. They have a woollen ma¬
nufactory of cloth and ferges, and they are likewife
noted for their malt. W. Long. 2. 30. N. Lat. 51. 15.
BRUTUS, or Brute, according to the old explo¬
ded hiftory of this country by Geoffrey of Monmouth,
was the firft king of Britain. He is faid to have been
the fon of Sylvius, and he of Afcanius the fon of
./Eneas, and born in Italy : killing his father by chance,
he fled into Greece, where he took king Pandrafus
prifoner, who kept the Trojans in flavery, whom he
releafed on condition of providing {hips, &c. for the
Trojans to forfake the land. Being advifed by the
oracle to fail weft beyond Gaul, he, after fome adven¬
tures, landed at Totnefs in Devonftiire. Albion was
then inhabited by a remnant of giants, whom Brutus
deftroyed; and called the ifland, after his own name,
Britain. He built a city called New Troy, fince Lon¬
don ; and having reigned here 24 years, at his death
parcelled the ifland among his three fons : Locrine had
the middle, called Loegria ; Camber had Wales, and
Albanaft Scotland.
Brutus (Lucius Junius), the avenger of the rape of
Lucretia, and founder of the Roman republic, flouriflied
509 years before Chrift. See (Hiflory of) Rome.
Brutus (Marcus), the paffionate lover of his coun¬
try, and chief confpirator againft Caefar, flew himfelf on
fto/'of)* lol,ng lhe battle of Philippi, 42 years before Chrift *.
Rome, ^ Brutus’ (John Michael), a man of learning, and a
polite writer, in the i6th century. He was a native of
Venice ; and, having ftudied at Padua, fpent great part
of his life in travelling, and became hiftoriographer to
his imperial majefty. He wrote, 1. A hiftory of Hun¬
gary. 2. A hiftory of Florence. 3. Notes on Horace,
Csefar, Cicero, &c.; and other works. He was living
in the year 1590. Brutus
Brutus (Stephen Junius), the difguifed author of ll
a political work intitled Vindicia contra tyrannos *. Bryanl:‘
BRUYERE (John de la), a celebrated French au- * See Lan-
thor, was born at Dourdan in the year 1664. He guet.
wrote Characters, deferibing the manners of his age, in
imitation of Theopbraftus; which characters were not
always imaginary or general, but deferiptive, as was
well known, of perfons of confiderable rank. In the
year 1693, he was by an order of the king chofen a
member of the French academy ; and died in the year
1696.—“ The Characters of Bruyere (fays the cele¬
brated Voltaire) may juftly be ranked among the ex¬
traordinary productions of this age. Antiquity fur-
nifties no examples of fuch a work. A ftyle rapid,
concife, and nervous; expreflions animated and pic-
turefque; an ufe of language altogether new, without
offending againft its eftabliftied rules, {truck the public
at firft ; and the allufions, which are crowded in almoft
every page, completed its fuccefs. When La Bruyere
{bowed his work in manufeript to Malefieux, this laft
told him, that the book would have many readers,
and its author many enemies. It fomewhat funk in
the opinion of men, when that whole generation whofe
follies it attacked were paffed away; yet, as it con¬
tains many things applicable to all times and places,
it is more than probable that it will never be for¬
gotten.” Nge of Lewis XIV. chap. 29.
BRUYIERS, a town of Lorrain, in Vofque, with a
provoftftiip. E. Long. 6. 45. N. Lat. 48. 15.
BRYANS-bridge, a town of Ireland, in the county
of Clare and province of Connaught, feated on the*ri-
ver Shannon, eight miles north of Limeric. W. Long.
8. 30. N. Lat. 52. 31.
BRYANT (Sir Francis), a foldier, ftatefman, and a
poet of no inconfiderable fame in his time, was born of
a genteel family, educated at Oxford, and afterwards
fpent fome time in travelling abroad. In the year 1522,
the 14th of Henry VIII. he attended, in a military ca¬
pacity, the earl of Surrey, on his expedition to the coaft
of Brittany; and commanded the troops in the attack
of the town of Morlaix, which he took and burnt. For
this fervice he was knighted on the fpot by the earl.
In 1528, he was in Spain ; but on what fefvice, is
doubtful. In 1529, he was fent ambaffador to France;
and, the year following, to Rome on account of the
king’s divorce. He had alfo been there in 1522, in the
fame capacity, when cardinal Woolfey’s eleftion to the
holy fee was in agitation. He was gentleman of the
privy chamber to king Henry VIII. and to his fuccef-
for Edward VI. in the beginning of whofe reign he
marched with the protestor againft the Scots; and af¬
ter the battle of Muffelburgh, in which he commanded
the light horfe, was made banneret. In 1548, he was
appointed chief governor of Ireland, where he married
the countefs of Ormond. He died foon after, and was
buried at Waterford. He wrote, 1. Songs and fonnets;
fome of which were printed with thofe of the earl of
Surrey and Sir Thomas Wyatt. Lond. 1565. 2. Let¬
ters written from Rome concerning the king’s divorce;
manufeript. 3. Various letters of ftate ; which Ant.
Wood fays he had feen. 4. A difpraife of the life of a
courtier, &c. Lond. 1548, 8vo. from the French of A-
laygri, who tranflated it from the Caftilian language,
in which it was originally written by Guevara.
BRY-
B R Y [ 1497 ] BUB
Bryennius BRYENNIUS (Manuel), a Greek writer on mufic,
fl . is fuppofed to have flourifhed under the elder Paleolo-
Bryonia. ajj0Ut ^ year 0f Chrift 1120. He wrote
three books on Harmonics ; the firft whereof is a kind
of commentary on Euclid, as the fecond and third are
on Ptolemy. He profefies to have ftudied perfpicuity
for the fake of young men. Meibomius had given the
public expectations of a tranflation of this work : but
not living to complete it, Dr Wallis undertook it;
and it now makes a part of the third volume of his
works, publiihed at Oxford in three volumes folio, 1699.
Bryennius (Nicephorus), a prince diftinguiihed by
his courage, probity, and learning, was born at Ore-
ftia in Macedonia ; where his father by rebellion pro¬
voked the emperor to fend his general Alexis Comne-
nus againft him, who ordered his eyes to be pulled
out; but being charmed with his fon Bryennius, he
married him to Anne Comnenus his daughter, fo fa¬
mous by her writings. When Alexis came to the
throne, he gave Bryennius the title of Cxfar; but
would not declare him his fucceflbr, though folicited
to it by the emprefs Irene; and was therefore fucceeded
by his fon John Comnenus, to whom Bryennius beha¬
ved with the utmott fidelity. Being fent, about the
year 1x37, to befiege Antioch, he fell fick ; and, re¬
turning, died at Conftantinople. This prince wrote the
Hijiory of Alexis Comnenus, which he compofed at the
requeft of his mother-in-law the emprefs Irene.
BRYGMUS, among phyficians, a grating noife
made by the gnalhing of the teeth.
BRYONIA, bryony; a genus of the fyngenefia
order, belonging to the monoecia clafs of plants.
Species. 1. The alba, rough or white bryony with
red flowers, is a native of dry banks under hedges in
many parts of Britain. The roots of this plant have
by impoftors been brought into a human ihape, and
fhewn for mandrakes. The method praftifed by thefe
people was to find a young thriving plant of bryony ;
then they opened the earth all round, being careful not
to difturb the lower fibres ; and being provided with
fuch a mould as is ufed for making platter figures, they
fixed the mould clofe to the root, faftening it with wire
to keep it in its proper fituation : then they filled the
earth about the root, leaving it to grow to the thape
of the mould ; which in one fummer it will do ; fo that
if this is done in March, by September it will have the
fhape. The leaves of this plant are alfo impofed on
people' for mandrake-leaves ; although there is no re-
femblance between them, nor any agreement in quality.
2. The africana, or African tuberous rooted bryony.
3. The racemofa, or bryony with a red olive-fliaped
fruit. Thefe are natives of warm climates; and are per¬
ennial ; but their branches decay every winter. They
flower in July, and in warm fummers will perfeCt their
feeds in Britain. 4. The cretica, or fpotted bryony of
Crete. 5. The variegata, or American bryony with a
variegated fruit. 6. The bonarienfis, or bryony with
hairy palmated leaves, divided into five parts, and ob-
tufe fegments. Thefe are likewife natives of warm
countries; but merit cultivation on account of the pretty
appearance they make when the plants are full of fruit.
Culture. The fecond and third forts are to be planted
in pots filled with frefh light earth; and in winter muft
be placed in the green-houfe to proteft them from frofts
and great rains, which would deftroy them if they were
expofed thereto. In fummer, they may be expofed to Bryonia
the open air, and muft be frequently refrefhed with II
water in dry weather. The three laft forts are annual u e‘
plants: they muft be raifed on a hot-bed early in the
fpring ; and when the plants are about three inches
high, they fhould be each tranfplantcd into a fmall pot,
and plunged into a hot-bed of tanner’s bark. When the
plants are grown fo large as to ramble about on the
furface of the bed, and begin to entangle with other
plants, they fhould be fhifted into larger pots, and pla¬
ced in the bark-ftove; where their branches may be
trained to the wall, or againft an efpalier, that they may
have fun and air, which is abfolutely neceffary for their
producing fruit.
' Medicinal Ufes, &c. The roots of the firft fpecies
are ufed in medicine. Thefe are very large, fometimes
as thick as a man’s thigh : their fmell, when frefh, is
ftrong and difagreeable ; the tafte naufeoufly bitter,
acrid, and biting; the juice is fo fharp, as in a little
time to excoriate the flcin ; in drying, they lofe great
part of their acrimony, and almoft their whole fcent.—
Bryony-root is a ftrong irritating cathartic; and as fuch
has fometimes been fuccefsfully exhibited in maniacal
cafes, in fome kinds of dropfies, and in feveral chronical
diforders, where a quick folution of vifcid juices, and a
fudden ftimulus on the folids, were required. An ex-
traft prepared by water afts more mildly, and with
greater fafety, than the root in fubftance: given from
half a dram to a dram, it is faid to prove a gentle pur¬
gative, and likewife to operate powerfully by urine.—
Bryony-root, applied externally, is faid to be a power¬
ful difcutient: it enters a cataplafm for that purpofe in
the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia. See Ph ar m Ac y, n°931.
Black Bryony. See Tamus.
BRYUM, in botany, a genus of the cryptogamia
mufci clafs. The anthera is covered with an operculum;
the calyptra is fmooth. There are 41 fpecies, moft of
them natives of Britain.
BUA, an ifland of thegulph of Venice, on the coaft
of Dalmatia, near the town of Trau; called likewife
the Partridge-ifand, becaufe frequented by thofe birds.
BUANES, a town of France, in Gafcony, and in
the diocefe of Aire, feated on the river Bahus, in E.
Long. o. 5. N. Lat. 43. 47.
BUARCOS, a town of Portugal, in the province ol
Beira. W. Long. 8. 5. N. Lat. 40. 3.
BUBALIS, in zoology, the trivial name of the buf¬
falo, a fpecies of the bos. See Bos.
BUBBLE, in philofophy, fmall drops or veficles of
any fluid filled with air; and formed either on its fur-
face by an addition of more of the fluid, as in raining,
&c.; or in its fubftance, by an inteftine motion of its
component particles. Bubbles are dilatable or com-
preffible, i. e. they take up more or lefs room as the in¬
cluded air is more or lefs heated, or more or lefs prefled
from without; and are round, becaufe the included air
a&s equally from within all around.
Bubble, in commerce, a cant term given to a kind
of project for railing money on imaginary grounds,
much pra&ifed in France and England in the years
1719, 1720, and 1721.
The pretence of thofe fchemes was the raifing a ca¬
pital for retrieving, fetting on foot, or carrying on,
fome promifing and ufeful branch of trade, manufac¬
ture, machinery, or the like. To this end propofals
were
BUG
BUB [ 149& J
THibo, were made out, fhewing the advantages to be derived
Kubon. from the undertaking, and inviting perfons to be en¬
gaged in it. The fum neccffary to manage the affair,
together with the profits expe&ed from it, were divided
into {hares or fubfcriptions, to be purchafed by any
difpofed to adventure therein.
Bubbles, by which the public have been tricked, are
of two kinds, viz. 1. Thofe which we may properly
enough term trading-bubbles; and, 2. Stock or fund
bubbles. The former have been of various kinds; and
the latter at different times, as in 1719 and 1720.
BUBO, in ornithology, the trivial name of a fpecies
of ftrix. See Strix.
Bubo, or Buboe, in furgery, a tumour which arifes,
with inflammation, only in certain or particular parts
to which they are proper, as in the arm-pits and in the
groins. See [\\vt Index fubjoined to) Medicine.
BUBON, MACEDONIAN parsley; a genus of the
digynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of
plants.
Shecies. 1. The macedonicum fends out many leaves
from the root; the lowed of which grow almoft hori¬
zontally, fpreading near the furface of the ground : the
foot-ftaik of each leaf divides into feveral fmaller; which
are garnithed with fmooth rhomb-fhaped leaves, which
are of a bright pale-green colour, and fawed on their
edges. In the centre of the plant arifes the flower-ftem,
which is little more than a foot high, dividing into
many branches, each being terminated by an umbel of
white flowers, which are fucceeded by oblong hairy
feeds. This plant, in warm countries, is biennial; the
plants, which rife from feeds, one year produce flowers,
and feeds the next, and then perifli: but in Britain
they feldom flower till the third or fourth year from
the feed ; but whenever the plant flowers, it always
dies. 2. The rigidus, hard or rigid ferula, is a native
of Sicily. It is a low perennial plant, having (hort,
ftiff, and very narrow leaves: the flower-ftalk rifes a
foot high, which is terminated by an umbel of fmall
white flowers ; which are fucceeded by fmall, oblong,
channelled feeds. It is a plant of little beauty or ufe, fo
is only cultivated for the fake of variety. 3. The gal-
banum, or African ferula, rifes with an upright (talk to
the height of eight or ten feet, which at bottom is
woody, having a purpliffi bark covered with a whitifh
powder that comes off when handled. The upper part
of the ftalk is garnifhed with leaves at every joint, the
foot-ftalks half-embracing them at their bafe, and are
fet with leaves like thofe of the lovage, but fmaller, and
of a grey colour : the top of the ftalk is terminated by
an umbel of yellow flower's; which are fucceeded by
oblong channelled feeds, which have a thin membrane
or wing on their border. When any part of the plant
is broken, there iffues out a little thin milk of a cream
colour, which hath a ftrong fcent of galbanum. 4. The
gummiferum, with a mock chervil leaf, rifes with a lig¬
neous ftalk about the fame height; and is garnifhed
with leaves at each joint, which branch out like the
former; but the fmall leaves or lobes are narrow and
indented like thofe of baftard hemlock. The ftalk is
terminated by an umbel of fmall yellow flowers, which
are fucceeded by feeds like thofe of the former fort..—
Thefe plants are all propagated by feeds, and require
the common culture of other exotic vegetables. The
galbanum of the {hops is fuppofed to be procured from
the third and fourth forts. Bubonocele
BUBONOCELE, or hernia inguinalis, in fur- II
gery, a tumour in the inguen, formed by a prolapfus of Bucaneer-
the inteftines, omentum, or both, through the pro-
ceffes of the peritonaeum and rings of the abdominal
mufcles. See Surgery, n° 13.
BUBONIUM, in botany, a fynonime of the Inula.
BUC (George), a learned Englifti antiquarian, flou-
riftied in the beginning of the 17th century. In the
reign of king James I. he was made one of the gentle¬
men of his majefty’s privy-chamber, and knighted : he
was alfo conftituted mafter of the revels. What he
moftly diftinguiftied himfelf by, was his writing, i.The
hiftory of the reign of Richard III.; in which he takes
great pains to wipe off the bloody ftains that have blot¬
ted his charafter, and reprefents the perfon and a&ions
of that prince in a much lefs odious light than other
hiftorians have done. He alfo wrote, 2. A treatife of
the art of revels; and, 3. a work intitled The third
univerlitie of England.
BUCANEER, one who dries and fmokes flefh, or
fifli, after the manner of the Indians. The name was
particularly given to the firft French fettlers on the
ifland of St Domingo, whole foie employment confifted
in hunting bulls or wild boars, in order to fell their
hides and flefli. The name has alfo been applied to
thofe famous piratical adventurers, chiefly Englifti and
French, who joined together to make depredations on
the Spaniards of America. Of both thefe we ftiall give
an account.
I. The Bucaneers of St Domingo. The Spaniards
had not been long in the poffelfion of the Welt-Indies
and the continent of America, when other nations, e-
fpecially the Englifti and French, began to follow them
there. But though the Spaniards were unable to peo¬
ple fuch extenfive countries themfelves, they were re-
folved that no others ftiould do it for them ; and there¬
fore made a moft cruel war on all thofe of any other na¬
tion, who attempted to fettle in any of the Antilles or
Caribbee Iflands. The French, however, were at laft
lucky enough to acquire fome footing in the ifland of
St Chriftopher’s; but by the time they began to fub-
fide into a regular form of government, the Spaniards
found means to diflodge them. Upon this the wretch¬
ed fugitives, confidering at how great a diftance they
were from their mother-country, and how near to the
ifland of Hifpaniola or St Domingo, the northern parts
of which were then uninhabited and full of fwine and
black cattle, they immediately refolved to take poffef-
fion of that country, in conjunftion with feveral other
adventurers of their own and the Englifti nation; efpe-
cially as the Dutch, who now began to appear in thefe
feas, promifed to fupply them plentifully with all kinds
of neceffaries they might procure, in exchange for the -
hides and tallow by hunting.
Thefe new fettlers obtained the name of bucaneerst
from their cuftom of bucanning their beef and pork in
order to keep it for fale, or for their own confumption,
the method of which will be prefently defcribed. But
fome of them foon grew tired of this new way of life,
and took to planting; while many more chofe to turn
pirates, trufting to find, among thofe who remained on
fliore, a quick fale for all the plunder they could make
at fea. This new body of adventurers were called free-
, booiers} from their making free prey or booty of what¬
ever
Bucaneer.
BUG [ 1499 ] BUG
ever came in their way.
The colony now began to thrive at a great rate, by
the cheap and eafy manner in which the free-booters .ac¬
quired the greateft riches, and the profufion with which
they diftributed them among their old companions the
bucaneers and planters for the meereft trifles. This
brought numbers of fettlers from Old France in quality
of indented fervants, though they toiled rather like
flaves during the three years for which they generally
bound themfelves. One of thefe men prefuming to re-
prefent to his mafter, who al ways fixed upon a Sun¬
day for fending him with fluns to the port, that God
had forbidden fuch a pra&ice, when he had declared,
“ Six days (halt thou labour, and on the feventh day
(halt thou reft “ And I (replied the brutal buca¬
neer) fay to thee. Six days flialt thou kill bulls, and
ftrip them of their fkins, and on the feventh day flialt
thou carry their hides to the fea-ft^ore.,, This com¬
mand was followed by blows, which fometimes enforce
obedience, fometimes difobedience to the laws of God.
Thus the colony confifted of four clafles: bucaneers;
freebooters ;■ planters ; and indented fervants, who ge¬
nerally remained with the bucaneers, or planters. And
thefe four orders compofed what they now began to call
the body of adventurers. Thefe people lived- together
in a perfedft harmony under a kind of democracy: every
freeman had a defpotic authority over his own family ;
and every captain was a fovereign in his own flap, tho*
liable to be difcarded at the difcretion of the crew.
The planters, fettled chiefly in the little ifland of
Tortuga on the northern coaft of Hifpaniola : but it
was not long before fome of them going to the great
ifland to hunt with the bucaneers, the reft werefurpri-
fed by the Spaniards; and all, even thofe who.had fur-
rendered at difcretion in hopes of mercy, were put to
the fword, or hanged.
The next care of the Spaniards was to rid the great
ifland of the bucaneers; and for this reafon they aftem-
bled a body of 500 lance-men, who, by their feldom
going fewer than 50 in a company, obtained the name
of the Fifties from their enemies, whofe manners and
cuftoms we {hall now enter upon.
The bucaneers lived in little huts built on fome fpots
of cleared ground, juft large enough to dry their {kins
on, and contain their bucanning houfes. Thefe fpots
theycalled B-oucans, and the huts they dwelt in djoupas,
a word which they borrowed from the Spaniards, and
the Spaniards from the natives. Though thefe ajoupas
lay open on all fides, they were very agreeable to the
hardy inhabitants, in a climate where wind and air are
fo very defirable things. As the bucaneers had neither
wife nor child, they aflbciated by pairs, and mutually
rendered each other all the fervices a mafter could rea-
fonably expe& from a fervant, living together in fo per-
fe& a community, that the furvivor always fucceeded
his deceafed partner. This kind of union or fellowftiip
they called femateloter pnfailoring], and each other
inatelot, [failor^, whence is derived the cuftom of gi¬
ving, at leaft in fome parts of the French Antilles, the
name mateolatage (Tailorage], to any kind of fociety
formed by private perfons for their mutual advantage.
They behaved to each other with the greateft juftice
and opennefs of heart: it would have been a crime to
keep any thing under lock and key; but, on the other
hand, the leaft pilfering was unpardonable, and pu-
niftied with expulfion from the community. And in¬
deed there could be no great temptation to fteal, when
it was reckoned a point of honour, never to refufe a
neighbour what he wanted ; and where there was fo
little property, it was impoffible there fliould be many
difputes. If any happened, the common friends of the
parties at variance interpofed, and foon put an end to
the difference.
As to laws, the bucaneers acknowledged none but
an odd jumble of conventions made between themfelves,
which, however, they regarded as the fovereign rule.
They filenced all obje&ions by coolly anfwering, that it
was nof the cuftom of the coaft ; and grounded their
right of afting in this manner, on their baptifm under
the tropic, which freed them, in their opinion, from
all obligations antecedent to that marine ceremony.
The governor of Tortuga, when that ifland was again
fettled, though appointed by the French court, had
very little authority over them ; they contented them¬
felves with rendering him from time to time fome flight
homage. They had in a manner entirely fliaken off
the yoke of religion, and thought they did a great deal
in not wholly forgetting the God of their fathers. We
are furprifed to meet with nations, among whom it is a
difficult matter to difcover any trace of a religious wor-
ftiip : and yet it is certain, that had the bucaneers of
St Domingo been perpetuated on the fame footing
they fubfifted at the time we are fpeaking of, the third
or fourth generation of them would have as little reli¬
gion as the Caffres and Hottentots of Africa, or the
Topinambous and Cannibals of America.
They even laid afide their furnames, and aflumed
nick-names, or martial names, moll of which have con¬
tinued in their families to this day. Many, however,
on their marrying, which feldom -happened till they
turned planters, took care to have their real furnames
inferted in the marriage-contraft ; and this pra&ice
gave occafion to a proverb, ftill current in the French
Antilles, A man is not to be known till he takes a wife.
Their drefs confifted of a filthy greafy ftiirt, dyed with
the blood of the animals they killed ; a pair of troufers
ftill more nafty ; a thong of leather by way of belt, to-
which they hung a cafe containing fome Dutch knives,
and a kind of very fliort fabre called Manchette; a hat
without any brim, except a little flap on the front to
take hold of it by ; and flioes of hogflein all of a piece.
Their guns were four feet and a half in the barrel, and
of a bore to carry balls of an ounce. Every man had
hiscontradl fervants, more or fewer according to his a-
bilities; befides a pack of 20 or 30 dogs, among which
there was always a couple of beagles. Their chief
employment at firft was ox-hunting ; and, if at any
time they chafed a wild hog, it was rather for paftime,
or to make provifion for a feaft, than for any other ad¬
vantage. But, in procefs of time, fome of them be¬
took themfelves entirely to hunting of hogs, whofe fleth
they bucanned in the following manner: Firft, they cut
the flefti into long pieces, an inch and an half thick,
and fprinkled them with fait, which they rubbed off
after 24 hours. Then they dried thefe pieces in ftoves-
over the fire made of the fkin and bones of the beaft,
till they grew' as hard as a board, and affumed a deep
brown colour. Pork prepared in this manner will keep
in cafks a twelvemonth and longer; and when fteeped
but a little while in lukewarm water, become plump
Bucaneer.
BUG [ 1500 ] BUG
Biittmeer. an5 rofy, and yield moreover a moft grateful fmell, ei¬
ther broiled or boiled, or otherwife dreffed, enough to
tempt the moft languid appetite and pleafe the moft
delicate palate. Thofe who hunt the wild boar, have of
late been called fimply hunters.
In hunting, they fet out at day-break, preceded by
the beagles, and fallowed by their fervants with the reft
of the dogs ; and as they made it a point never to balk
their beagles, they were often led by them over the
moft frightful precipices, and through places which any
other mortal would have deemed abfolutely impaflable.
As foon as the beagles had roufed the game, the reft of
the dogs ftruck up and furrounded the beaft, flopping
it, and keeping a conftant barking till the buCaneer
could get near enough to fhoot it; in doing this, he
commonly aimed at the pit of the breaft ; when the
beaft fell, he hamftrung it, to prevent its rifing again.
But it has fometimes happened that the creature, not
wounded emough to tumble to the ground, has run fu-
rioufly at his purfuer, and ripped him open. But, in
in general, the bucaneer feldom miffed his aim ; and
when he did, was nimble enough to get up the tree be¬
hind which he had the precaution to place himfelf.
What is more ; fome of them have been feen to over¬
take the beaft in chace, and hamftring it without any
further ceremony.
As foon as the prey was half ilcinned, the mafter cut
out a large bone, and fucked the marrow for breakfaft.
The reft be left to his fervants, one*of whom always re¬
mained behind to finiih the ikinning, and bring the ikin
with a choice piece of meat for the huntfmens dinner.
They then continued the chace till they had killed as'
many beafts as there were heads in the company. The
roafter was the laft to return to the boucan, loaded
like the reft with a flcin and a piece of meat. Here
the bucaneers found their tables ready: for every one
had his feparate table ; which was the firft thing, any
way fit for the purpofe, that came in their way, a ftone,
the trunk of a tree, and the like. No table-cloth, no
napkin, no bread or wine, graced their board ; not
even potatoes or bananas, unlefs they found them ready
to their hands. When this did not happen, the fat and
lean of the game, taken alternately, ferved to fupply
the place. A little pimento, and the fqueeze of an o-
range, their only fauce ; contentment, peace of mind,
a good appetite, and abundance of mirth, made every
thing agreeable. Thus they lived and fpent their time,
till they had completed the number of hides for which
they had agreed with the merchants } which done, they
carried them to Tortuga, or fome port of the great
ifland-
As the bucaneers ufed much exercife, and fed only
on flefti meat, they generally enjoyed a good ftate of
health. They were indeed fubjeft to fevers, but either
fuch as lafted only a day, and left no fenfible impref-
fion the day following ; or little flow fevers, which did
not hinder them from a&ion, and were of. courfe fo
little regarded, that it was ufual with the patient, when
alked how he did, to anfwer, “ Very well, nothing
ails me but the fever.” It was impoffible, however,
they fliould not fuffer confiderably by fuch fatigues un¬
der a climate, to the heat of which few of them had
been early enough inured. Hence the moft confiderate
among tnern, after they had got money enough for
that purpofe, turned planters. The reft foon fpent the
fruits of their labour in taverns and tippling-houfes j Bucaneer.
and many had fo habituated themfelves to this kind of
life, as to become incapable of any other. Nay, there
have been inftances of young men, who having early
embarked through neceffity in this painful and dange¬
rous profefiion, perfifted in it afterwards, merely thro*
a principle of libertinifm, rather than return to France
and take poffefiion of the moft plentiful fortunes.
Such were the bucaneers of St Domingo, and fuch
their fituation, when the Spaniards undertook to extir¬
pate them. And at firft they met with great fuccefs ;
for as the bucaneers hunted feparately, every one at¬
tended by his fervants, they were eafily furprifed.
Hence the Spaniards killed numbers, and took many
more, whom they condemned to a moft cruel flavery.
But whenever the bucaneers had time to put themfelves
into a ftate of defence, they fought like lions, to avoid
falling into the hands of a nation from whom they
were fure to receive no quarter; and by this means they
often efcaped : nay, there are many inftances of Angle
men fighting their way through numbers. Thefe dan¬
gers, however, and the fuccefs of the Spaniards in dif-
covering their boucans, where they ufed to furprife and
cut the throats of them and their fervants in their fleep,
engaged them to cohabit in greater numbers, and even
to aft offenfively, in hopes that by fo doing they
might at laft induce the Spaniards to let them live in
peace. But the fury with which they behaved when¬
ever they met any Spaniards, ferved only to make their
enemies more intent on their deftruftion; andaffiftance
coming to both parties, the whole ifland was turned in¬
to a fiaughter-houfe, and fo much blood fpilt on both
fides, that many places, on account of the carnage of
which they had been the theatres, were intitled, of the
rnajfacre : fuch as the hill of the majfacre; the plain of
the majfacre; the valley of the majfacre; which names
they retain to this day.
At length the Spaniards grew tired of this way of
proceeding, and had recourfe to their old method of
furprife, which againft enemies of more courage than
vigilance was like to fucceed better. This put the bu¬
caneers under a neceffity of never hunting but in large
parties, and fixing their boucans in the little iflands on
the coaft, where they retired every evening. This expe¬
dient fucceeded; and the boucans, by being more fixed,
foon acquired the air and confiftency of little towns.
When the bucaneers had once fixed themfelves, as
related, each boucan ordered fcouts every morning to
the higheft part of the ifland, in order to reconnoitre
the coaft, and fee if any Spanifh parties were abroad.
If no enemy appeared, they appointed a place and
hour of rendezvous in the evening, and were never ab-
fent if not killed or prifoners. When therefore any one
of the company was miffing, it was not lawful for the
reft to hunt again till they had got intelligence of him if
taken, or avenged his death if killed.
Things continued in this fituation for a long time,
till the Spaniards made a general hunt over the whole
ifland; and by deftroying their game, put the bucaneers
under a neceffity of betaking themfelves to another
courfe of life. Some of them turned planters; and
thereby increafed fome of the French fettlements on the
coaft, and formed others. The reft, not relilhing fo
confined and regular a life, entered among the free¬
booters, who thereby became a very powerful body.
France,
BUG
Bvicaneers. France, who had hitherto declaimed for her fubje&s
~    thefe ruffians whofe fuccefies were only temporary, ac¬
knowledged them, however, as foon as they formed
themfelves :nto fettlements ; and-took proper meafures
* Sec the ar- for (heir government and defence *.
1 ^ ^unt'nS both of the bull and boar is at this day
^ carried on, and proves of confiderable importance.
That of the former furnifties France with the fineft
hides brought from America. The bucaneers put the
hides in packs which they call loads, mixing together
Savory's hides of full grown bulls, of young bullocks, and of
Did.of Com. cows< Each of thefe loads is compofed of two bull-
hides, or of aq equivalent; that is to fay, either of two
real bull-hides, or of one bull-hide and two cow¬
hides, or of four cotv-hides, or of three young bul¬
locks hides ; three bullocks hides being reckoned equi¬
valent to two full-grown bulls hides, and two cows
hides equivalent to one bull’s hide. Thefe bulls they
commonly call oxen in France, though they be not
gelt. Each load is commonly fold for fix pieces of
eight rials, which is a Spanilh coin, the French coin
being but little current, or not at all, in the ifland of
St Domingo.
The boar meat bucanned in the manner abovemen-
tioned is fold by the bundle or pack, weighing com¬
monly 6o pounds, at the rate of fix pieces of eight per
pack. The palmetto leaves ferve to pack it up in ; but
their weight is deduced, fo that there muft be in each
pack 6o pounds of net flelh. Thefe bucaneers have al-
fo a great trade of the lard of boars, which they melt,
and gather in large pots called poticbes. This lard,
which is called mantegua, is alfo fold for about eight
pieces of eight per pot. There is a great trade, and a
great confumption of each of thefe merchandizes in the
French fettlements of the ifland of St Domingo, and
in thofe of Tortuga : befides which, they ufed to fend
great qu^ptities of them to the Antilles, and even into
the continent of French America. There is alfo a great
deal of it fold for the fupport of the crews of the fliips
that come from France for trading, or which the pri¬
vateers of Tortuga fit out for cruifing againft the Spa¬
niards.
The Spaniards, who have large fettlements in the
ifland of St Domingo, have alfo their bucaneers there,
whom they call matadores or monieros. Their chace
has fomething noble, which favours of the Spanifh
pride : the huntfman being on horfeback, ufes the lance
to ftrike the bull, thinking it beneath his courage to
fhoot him at a diftance. When the fervants, who are
on foot, have difoovered the beaft, and with their dogs
have driven it into fome favannah or meadow, in which
the mafter waits for them on horfeback, armed with two
lances, that matadore goes and hamftrings it with the
firft lance, the head of which is made like a crefcent or
half-moon, and extremely (harp, and kills it afterwards
with the other lance, which is a common one. This
chace is very agreeable; the huntfman making com¬
monly, in order to attack the bull, the fame turns and
the fame ceremonies which are praftifed in thofe fefti-
vals fo famous in Spain, wherein the greateft lords ex-
pofe themfelves fometimes to the view of the people, to
make them admire their dexterity and intrepidity, in
attacking thofe furious animals : but then it is a very
dangerous chace ; thofe bulls, in their fury, often run¬
ning direflly againft the huntfman, who may think
Von- II.
BUG
himfelf very happy if he comes off only with the lofs Bucanee™.
of his horfe, and if he himfelf is not mortally wounded.
The Spaniards drefs their hides like the French, who
have learned it from them ; and thefe hides being car¬
ried to the Havannah, a famous harbour in the ifland
of Cuba, are part of the trade of that celebrated town.
The flota and the galleons fcarce ever fail touching
there, on their return from Vera Cruz and Porto Bello,
and load there thofe hides which they carry into Spain,
where they are fold forHavannah hides, the moft efteem-
ed of any that are brought from America into Europe.
II. Bucaneers,Before theEnglifh had
made any fettlement at Jamaica, and the French at St ^oynaVs
Domingo, fome pirates of both nations, who have fince
been fo much diftinguiflied by the name of Bucaneers, - les’
had driven the Spaniards out of the fmall ifland of
Tortuga ; and, fortifying themfelves there, had with
an amazing intrepidity made excurfions againft the
common enemy. They formed themfelves into fmall
companies, confifting of 50, 100, or 150 men each. A
boat, of a greater or fmaller fize, was their only arma¬
ment. Here they were expofed .night and day to all the
inclemencies of the weather, having fcarce room enough
to lie down. A love of abfolute independence, the great-
eft bleffing to thofe who are not proprietors of land,
rendered them averfe from thofe mutual reftraints which
the members of fociety impofe upon themfelves for
the common good ; fome of them chofe to fing, while
others were defirous of going to fleep. As the autho¬
rity they had conferred on their captain was confined
to his giving orders in battle, they lived in the greateft
confufion. Like the favages, having no apprehenfion of
want, nor any care to preferve the neceffaries of life,
they were conftantly expofed to the fevereft extremities
of hunger and thirft. But deriving, even from their very
diftreffes, a courage fuperior to every danger, the fight
of a fliip tranfported them to a degree of frenzy. They
never deliberated on the attack, but it was their cuftom
to board the {hip as foon as pofiible. The fmallnefs of
their veffels, and the {kill they {hewed in the manage¬
ment of them,fcreened them from the fire of the greater
fhips; and they prefented only the fore part of their
little veffels filled with fulileers; who fired at the port¬
holes with fo much exa&nefs, that it entirely con¬
founded the moft experienced gunners. As foon as they
threw out the grappling, the largeft veffel feldom efca-
ped them.
In cafes of extreme neceifity, they attacked the peo¬
ple of every nation, but fell upon the Spaniards at all
times. They thought that the cruelties the latter had ex-
ercifed On the inhabitants of the new world juftified the
implacable averfion they had fworn againft them. But
this was heightened by a perfonal pique, from the mor¬
tification they felt in feeing themfelves debarred from
the privilege of hunting and fiftiing, which they confi-
dered as natural rights. Such were their principles of
juftice and religion, that, whenever they embarked on
any expedition, they ufed to pray to heaven for the
fuccefs of it; and they never came back from the plun->
der, but they conftantly returned thanks to God for
their victory.
The {hips that failed from Europe into America fel¬
dom tempted their avidity. The merchandife they con¬
tained would not eafily have been fold,nor been verypro-
jfitable to thefe barbarians in thofe early times. They al-
9 D ways
[ 1501 1
Biicaneers.
BUG [ 1502 ] BUG
ways waited for them on their return, when they were
certain that they were laden with gold,filver, jewels, and
all the valuable productions of the new world. If they
met with a Angle {hip, they never failed to attack her.
As to the fleets, they followed them, till they failed out
of the gulph of Bahama; and as foon as any one of the
veffels was feparated by accident from the reft, it was
taken. The Spaniards, who trembled at the approach
of the bucaneers, whom they called devils, immediately
furrendered. Quarter was granted, if the cargo proved
to be a rich one ; if not, all the prifoners were thrown
into the fea.
The bucaneers, when they had got a confiderable
booty, at firft held their rendezvous at the ifland of
Tortuga, in order to divide the fpoil; but afterwards
the french went to St Domingo, and the Englifh to
Jamaica. Each perfon, holding up his hand, folemnly
protefted that he had fecreted nothing of what he had
taken. If any one among them was conviCted of per-
iury, a cafe that feldom happened, he was left, as foon
as an opportunity offered, upon fome defert ifland, as a
traitor unworthy to live in fociety. Such brave men
among them as had been maimed in any of their expe¬
ditions, were firft provided for. If they had loft a hand,
an arm, a leg, or a foot, they received 261. An eye,
a finger, or a toe, loft in fight, was valued only at
half the above fum. The wounded were allowed 2 s. 6d.
a-day for two months, to enable them to have their
wounds taken care of. If they had not money enough
to anfwer thefe feveral demands, the whole company
were obliged to engage in fome frefh expedition, and to
continue it till they had acquired a fufficient flock to
enable them to fatisfy fuch honourable contracts.
After this aCf of juftice and humanity, the remainder
of the booty was divided into as many fhares as there
were bucaneers. The commander could only lay claim
to a Gngle fhare as the reft ; but they complimented
him with two or three, in proportion as he had acquit¬
ted himfelf to their fatisfaCtion. Favour never had any
influence in the divifion of the booty ; for every fhare
was determined by lot. Inftances of fuch rigid juftice
as this are not eafilymet with; and they extended even
to the dead. Their fhare was given to the man who was
known to be their companion when alive, and therefore
their heir. If the perfon who had been killed had no
intimate, his part was fent to his relations when they
were known. If there were no friends or relations, it
was diftributed in charity to the poor and to churches,
which were to pray for the perfon in whofe name thefe
benefaClions were given.
When thefe duties had been complied with, they
then indulged themfelves in all kinds of profufion. Un¬
bounded licentioufnefs in gaming, wine, women, every
kind of debauchery, was carried to the utmoft pitch of
excefs, and was ftopt only by the want which fuch pro-
fufions brought on. Thofe men who were enriched with
feveral millions, were in an inftant totally ruined, and
deftitute of clothes and provifions. They returned to
fea ; and the new fupplies they acquired were foon la-
vifhed in the fame manner.
The Spanifh colonies, flattering themfelves with the
hopes of feeing an end to their miferies, and reduced
almoft to defpair in finding themfelves a perpetual prey
to tbefe ruffians, grew weary of navigation. They gave
isp all the power, conveniences, and fortune, which
their conneClions procured them, and formed them- Bucaneers.
felves almoft into fo many diftinCl and feparate ftates.
They were fenfible of the inconveniences arifing from
fuch a conduCt, and avowed them ; but the dread of
falling into the hands of rapacious and favage men, had
greater influence over them, than the dictates of ho¬
nour, intereft, and policy. This was the rife of that
fpirit of inactivity which continues to this time.
This defpondency ferved only to increafe the bold-
nefs of the bucaneers. As yet they had only appeared
in the Spaniih fettlements, in order to carry off fome
provifions when they were in want of them. They no
fooner found their captures begin to diminifli, than
they determined to recover by land what they had loft
at fea. The richeft and mod populous countries of the
continent were plundered and laid wafte. The culture
of lands was equally negleCled with navigation; and
the Spaniards dared no more appear in their public
roads, than fail in the latitudes which belonged to
them.
Among the bucaneers who fignalized themfelves in
this new fpecies of excurfions, Montbar, a gentleman of
Languedoc, particularly diftinguilhed himfelf. Having -
by chance, in his infancy, met with a circumftantial ac¬
count of the cruelties pradifed in the conqueft of the
new world, he conceived an averfion which he carried to
a degree of frenzy againft that nation which had com¬
mitted fuch. enormities. The enthufiafm this fpirit of
humanity worked him up to, was turned into a rage more
cruel than that of religious fanaticifm, to which fo ma¬
ny viftims had been facrificed. The names of thefe un¬
happy fufferers feemed to rouze him and call upon him
for vengeance. He had heard fome account of the bu¬
caneers, who were faid to be the moft inveterate enemies
to the Spanifti name : he therefore embarked on board
a fhip, in order to join them.
In the paffage, they met with a Spaniih veffel; at¬
tacked it; and, as it was ufual in thofe times, imme¬
diately boarded it. Montbar, with a fabre in his hand,
fell upon the enemy ; broke through them ; and, hurry¬
ing twice from one end of the {hip to the other, levelled
every thing that oppofed him. When he had compelled
the enemy to furrender, leaving to his companions the
happinefs of dividing fo rich a booty, he contented
himfelf with the favage pleafure of contemplating the
dead bodies of the Spaniards, lying in heaps together,
againft whom he had fworn a conllant and deadly
hatred.
Freth opportunities foon occurred, that enabled him
to exert this fpirit of revenge, without extinguiftiing it.
The ftn'p he was in arrived at the coaft of St Domin¬
go; where the bucaneers on land immediately applied
to barter fome provifions for brandy. As the articles
they offered were of little value, they alleged in excufe,
that their enemies had over-run the country, laid wafte
their fettlements, and carried off all they could, “ Why
(replied Montbar) do you tamely fuffer fuch infults?”
“ Neither do we (anfwered they in the fame tone) ;
the Spaniards have experienced what kind of men we
are, and have therefore taken advantage of the time
when we were engaged in hunting. But wx are going
to join fome of our companions, who have been ftill
more ill-treated than we; and then we {hall have wrarm
work.” “ If you approve of it (anfwered Montbar),
I will head you, not as your commander, but as the
fore-
BUG [ 1503 ] BUG
crs- foremolt to expofe myfelf to danger.” The bucaneers,
perceiving from his appearance that he was fuch a man
as they wanted, cheerfully accepted his offer. The fame
day they overtook the enemy, and Montbar attacked
them with an impetuolity that aftonifhed the braveft.
Scarce one Spaniard efcaped the effefts of his fury.
The remaining part of his life was equally diftinguifhed
as on this day. The Spaniards fuffered fo much from
him, both by land and at fea, that he acquired the name
of the Exterminator.
His favage difpofition, as well as that of the other
bucaneers who attended him, having obliged the Spa¬
niards to confine themfelves within their fettlements,
thefe free-booters refolved to attack them there. This
new method of carrying on the war required fuperior
forces, and their affociations in confequence became
more numerous. The firlt that was confiderable, was
formed by Lolonois, who derived his name from the
fands of Olones the place of his birth. From the ab-
jedt ftate of a bondfman, he had gradually raifed him-
felf to the command of two canoes, with 22 men. With
thefe he was fo fuccefsful, as to take a Spanifh frigate
on the coall of Cuba. He then repaired to the Port-au-
Prince, in which were four fhips, fitted out purpofely
to fail in purfuit of him. He took them, and threw all
the crew into the fea, except one man, whom he faved,
in order to fend him with a letter to the governor of
the Havannah, acquainting him with what he had done,
and alluring him that he would treat in the fame man¬
ner all the Spaniards that (hould fall into his hands,
not excepting the governor himfelf, if he Ihould be fo
fortunate as to take him. After this expedition, he
ran his canoes and prize-lhips,aground, and failed with
his frigate only to the Hand of Tortuga.
Here he met with Michael de Bafco, who had
diftinguilhed himfelf by having taken, even under
the cannon of Porto-Bello, a Spanilh (hip eftimated
at 218,500/. and by other a&ions equally brave and
daring. Thefe two gave out, that they were going to
embark together on an expedition equally glorious and
profitable; in confequence of which they foon colledted
together 440 men. This body of men, the molt nu¬
merous the bucaneers had yet been able to mutter,
failed to the bay of Venezuela, which runs up into the
country for the fpace of 50 leagues. The fort that was
built at the entrance of it for its defence, was taken; the
cannon were nailed up; and the whole garrifon, confift-
ing of 250 men, put to death. They then reimbark-
ed ; and came to Maracaybo, built on the weftern coalt
of the lake of the fame name, at the diftance of ten
leagues from its mouth. This city, which had become
flourilhing and rich by its trade in Heins, tobacco, and
cocoa, was deferted. The inhabitants had retired with
their .effects to the other fide of the bay. If the buca-
neers had not loft a fortnight in riot and debauch, they
would have found at Gibraltar, near the extremity of
the lake, every thing that the inhabitants had fecreted
to fecure it from being plundered. On the contrary,
they met with fortifications lately erefted, which they
had the ufelefs fatisfadftion of making themfelves mafters
of, at the expence of a great deal of blood; for the in¬
habitants had already removed at a diilance the moil
valuable part of their property. Exafperated at this
difappointment, they fet fire to Gibraltar. Maracaybo
would have fhared the fame fate, had it not been ran-
fomed. Befides the fum they received for its ranfom, Bucaneers.
they alfo carried off with them all the croffes, pictures,
a«id bells of the churches; intending, as they faid, to
build a chapel in the Hand of Tortuga, and to confe-
crate this part of their fpoils to facred purpofes. Such
was the religion of thefe barbarous people, who could
make no other offering to heaven than that which arofe
from their robberies and plunder.
While they were idly diflipating the fpoils they had
made on the coaft of Venezuela, Morgan, the moft re¬
nowned of the Englifti bucaneers, failed from Jamaica
to attack Porto-Bello. His plan of operations was fo
well contrived, that he furprifed the city, and took it
without oppofition.
The conqueft of Panama was an objeft of much
greater importance. To fecure this, Morgan thought
it neceffary to fail in the latitudes of Cotta-Ricca, to
procure fome guides in the Hand of St Catherine’s,
where the Spaniards confined their malefa&ors. This
place was fo ftrongly fortified, that it ought to have held
out for ten years againft a confiderable army. Notwith-
ftanding this, thegovernor,on the firft appearance of the
pirates, fent privately to concert meafures how he might
furrender himfelf without incurring the imputation of
cowardice. The refult of this confultation was, that Mor-
fan, in the night-time, ihould attack a fort at fome di-
ance, and the governor ftiould fally out of the citadel to
defend a poll of fo much confequence; that the affailants
fhould then attack him in the rear, and take him prifoner,
which would confequently occafion a furrender of the
place. It was agreed that a fmart firing ftiould be kept
on both fides, without doing mifchief to either. This
farce was admirably carried on. The Spaniards, with¬
out being expofed to any danger, appeared to have done
their duty; and the bucaneers, after having totally de-
molilhed the fortifications, and put on board their veffels
a prodigious quantity of warlike ammunitions which
they found at St Catherine’s, fteered their courfe to¬
wards the river Chagre, the only channel that was open
to them to arrive at the place which was the objeft of
their utmoft wilhes.
At the entrance of this confiderable river, a fort was
built upon a fteep rock, which the waves of the fea eon-
ftantly beat againft. This bulwark, very difficult of
accefs, was defended by an officer wbofe extraordinary
abilities were equal to his courage, and by a garrifon
that deferved fuch a commander. The bucaneers, for
the firft time, here met with a refiftance that could only
be equalled by their perfeverance: it was a doubtful
point, whether they would fucceed, or be obliged to
raife the fiege, when a lucky accident happened that
proved favourable to their glory and their fortune. The
commander was killed, and the fort accidentally took
fire: the befiegers then taking advantage of this double
calamity, made themfelves mafters of the place.
Morgan left his veffels at anchor, with a fufficient
number of men to guard them; and failed up the river
in his floops for 33 miles, till he came to Cruces, where
it ceafes to be navigable. Fie then proceeded by land
to Panama, which was only five leagues diftant. Upon
a large and extenfive plain that was before the city, he
met with a confiderable body of troops, whom he put
to flight with the greateft eafe, and entered into the
city, which was now abandoned. Here were found
prodigious treafures concealed in the wells and caves.
9 D 2 Some
B U C [ 1504 ] BUG
Bncaneers. Some valuable commodities were alfo taken upon the if the veffels of the pirates had not been laden with fil- Bucaneers.
boats that were left aground at low water; and in the ver, or if the Spanifh fleet had been freighted with any - ’
neighbouring forefts were alfo found feveral rich de- other effe&s but fuch rrierchandife as were little valued
pofits. by thefe pirates.
Having burnt the city, they fet fail with a great A year had fcarce elapfed fince their return from
number of prifoners, who were ranfomed a few days Mexico, when on a fudden they were all feized with
after; and came to the mouth of the Chagre with a the rage of going to plunder the country of Peru. It
prodigious booty. is probable, that the hope of finding greater treafures
In 1603, an expedition of the greatefl: confequence upon a fea little frequented, than on one long expofed
was formed by Van Horn, a native of Oftend, but who to piracies of this kind, was the caufe of this expedi-
had ferved all his life among the French. His intre- tion. But it is fomewhat remarkable, that both the
pidity would never let him fuffer the leaft figns of co- Englilh and French, and the particular afibciations of
wardice among thofe who aflbciated with him. In the thefe two nations, had proje&ed this plan at the fame
heat of an engagement, he went about his fliip ; fuc- time, without any communication, intercourfe, or de-
cefiively obferved his men ; and immediately killed thofe fign of a&ing in concert, with each other. About
who flirank at the fudden report of a piltol, gun, or 4000 men were employed in this expedition. Some of
cannon. This extraordinary difcipline had made him them came by Terra-Firma, others by the ftreights of
become the terror of the coward, and the idol of the Magellan, to the place that was the object of their
brave. In other refpedts, he readily (hared with the wifhes. If the intrepidity of thefe barbarians had been
men of fpirit and bravery the immenfe riches that were dire&ed, under the influence of a fltilful and refpedtable
acquired by fo truly warlike a difpofition. When he commander, to one fingle uniform end, it is certain that
went upon thefe expeditions, he generally failed in his they would have deprived the Spaniards of thisimpor-
frigate, which was his own property. But thefe new tant colony. But their natural character was an invin-
defigns requiring greater numbers to carry them into ex- cible obftacje to fo rare an union ; for they always form-
ecution, he took to his affiflance Grammont, Godfrey, ed themfelves into feveral dillinft bodies, fometimes
and Jonque, three Frenchmen diftinguifhed by their even fo few in number as ten or twelve, who added to-
exploits; and Lawrence de Graff, a Dutchman, who gether, or feparated, as the moft trifling caprice direc-
had fignalized himfelf dill more than they. Twelve ted. Grognier, Lecuyer, Picard, and Le Sage, were
hundred bucaneers joined themfelves to thefe famous the moft diftinguiflied officers among the French: Da-
commanders, and failed in fix veffels for Vera Cruz. vid, Samms, Peter, Wilner, and Towley, among the
The darknefs of the night favoured their landing, Englifli.
which was effected at three leagues from the place, Such of thofe adventurers as had got into the South
where they arrived without being difcovered. The go- Sea by the ftreights of Darien, feized upon the firft
vernor, the fort, the barracks, and the pofts of the great- veffels they found upon the coaft. Their affociates, who
eft confequence; every thing, in (hort, that could oc- had failed in their own veffels, were not much better
cafion any refiftance, was taken by the break of day. provided. Weak however as they were, they beat fe-
All the citizens, men, women, and children, were (hut veral times the fquadrons that were fitted out againft /
up in the churches, whither they had (led for (helter. them. But thefe victories were prejudicial to them, as
At the door of each church were placed barrels of gun- they interrupted their navigation. When there were
powder to blow up the building. A bucaneer, with a no more (hips to be taken, they were continually obli-
lighted match, was to fet fire to it upon the leaft ap- ged to make defcents upon the coafts to get provifions,
pearance of an infurre&ion. or to go by land in order to plunder thofe cities where
While the city was kept in fuch terror, it vyas eafily the booty was fecured. They fucceflively attacked
pillaged; and after the bucaneers had carried off what Seppa, Puebla-Nuevo, Leon, Reahjo, Puebla-Viejo,
was moft valuable, they made a propofal to the citizens ChiViquita, Lefparfo, Granada, Villia, Nicoya, Tt'co-
who were kept prifoners in the churches, to ranfom their anteca, Mucmeluna, Chiloteca, New-Segovia, and
lives and liberties by a contribution of 437,500/. Thefe Guayaquil, the moft confiderable of all thefe places,
unfortunate people, who had neither ate nor drank for Many of them were taken by furprife; and moft of
three days, cheerfully accepted the terms that were of- them deferted by their inhabitants, who fled at the
fered them. Half of the money was paid the fame fight of the enemy. As foon as they took a towm, it
day : the other part was expefted from the internal was direftly fet on fire, unlefs a fum proportioned to its
parts of the country; when there appeared on an emi- value was given to fave it. The prifoners taken in
nence a confiderable body of troops advancing, and near battle were maffacred without mercy, if they were not
the port a fleet of 17 (hips from Europe. At the fight ranfomed by the governor or fome of the inhabitants:
of this armament, the bucaneers, without any marks of gold, pearls, or precious (tones, were the oply things
furprize, retreated quietly, with 1500 (laves they had accepted of for the payment of their ranfom. Silver
carried off with them as a trifling indemnification for being too common, and too weighty for its current
the reft of the money they expefted, the fettling of value, would have been troublefome to them. The
which they referred to a more favourable opportunity, chances of fortune, that feldom leave guilt unpunifhed,
Their retreat was equally daring. They boldly failed nor adverfity without a compenfation for it? fuffering,
through the midft of the Spanifh fleet; which let them atoned for the crimes committed in the conqueft of the
pafs without firing a fingle gun, and were in faft rather new world, and the Indians were amply revenged of the
afraid of being attacked and beaten. The Spaniards Spaniards.
would not probably have efcaped fo eafily, and with While fuch piracies were committed on the fouthem
no other inconvenience but what arofe from their fears, ocean, the northern was threatened with the fame by
Gram-
BUG [ i
B*>icaneers. Grammont. He was a native of Paris, by birth a gen-
tleman, and had diftinguiihed himfelf in a military ca¬
pacity in Europe; but his paffion for wine, gaming,
and women, had obliged him to join the pirates. He
was, however, affable, polite, generous, and eloquent:
he was endued with a found judgment, and was a per-
fon of approved valour; which foon made him be con-
fidered as the chief of the French bucaneers. As foon
as it was known that he had taken up arms, he was
immediately joined by a number of brave men. The
governor of 8t Domingo, who had at length prevailed
upon his mafter to approve of the project, equally wife
and juft, of fixing the pirates to fome place, and indu¬
cing them to become cultivators, was defirous of pre¬
venting the concerted expedition, and forbad it in the
king’s name. Grammont, who had a greater fhare of
fenfe than his affociates, was not on that account more
inclined to comply, and fternly replied: “ How can
Lewis difapprove of a defign he is unacquainted with,
and which has been planned only a few days ago?”
This anfwer highly pleafed all the bucaneers; who di¬
rectly embarked, in 1685, to attack Campeachy.
They landed without oppofition. But at fome di-
ftance from the coaft, they were attacked by 800 Spa¬
niards, who were beaten and purfued to the town; where
both parties entered at the fame time. The cannon
they found there was immediately levelled againft the
citadel. As it had very little effedft, they were contri¬
ving fome ftratagem to enable them to become mafters
pf the place ; when intelligence was brought that it was
abandoned. There remained in it only a'gunner; an
Englifhman ; and an officer of fuch fignal courage,
that he chofe rather to expofe himfelf to the greateft
extremities, than bafely to fly from the place with the
reft. The commander of the bucaneers received him
with marks of diftin&ion, generoufly releafed him, gave
him up all his effefts, and befides complimented him
with fome valuable prefents: fuch influence have cou¬
rage and fidelity even on the minds of thofe who feem
to violate all the rights of fociety.
The conquerors of Campeachy fpent two months in
fearching all the environs of the city, for 12 or 15
leagues, carrying off every thing that the inhabitants,
in their flight, thought they had preferved. When all
the treafure they had collefted from every quarter was
depofited in the (hips, a propofal was made to the go¬
vernor of the province, who ftill kept the field with
900 men, to ranforn his capital city. His refufal de¬
termined them to burn it, and demolifh the citadel.
The French, on the feftival of St Louis, were celebra¬
ting the anniverfary of their king; and in the tranf-
ports of their patriotifm, intoxication, and national
love of their prince, they burnt to the value of a mil¬
lion of logwood; a part, and a very confiderable one
too, of the fpoil they had made. After this Angular
and extravagant inftance of folly* of which Frenchmen
only could boaft, they returned to St Domingo.
In 1697, 1200 bucaneers were induced to join a
fquadron of feven (hips that failed from Europe under
the command of Pointis, to attack the famous city of
Cafthagena. This was the moft difficult enterprife that
could be attempted in the new world. The lituation
of the port, the ftrength of the place, the badnefs of
the climate, were fo many obftacles that feemed infur-
mountable to any but fuch men as the bucaneers were.
505 J BUG
But every obftacle yielded to their valour and good for- Bucaneers,
tune: the city was taken, and booty gained to the a- Buccellarn.
mount of 1,750,000/. Their rapacious commander,
however, deprived them of the advantages refulting
from their fuccefs. He fcrupled not, as foon as they fet
fail, to offer 5250/. for the fhare of thofe who had been
the chief inflruments in procuring him fo confiderable a
fpoil.
The bucaneers, exafperated at this treatment, refol-
ved immediately to board the veffel called the Sceptre^
where Pointis himfelf was, and which at that time was
too far diftant from the reft of the fhips to expe& to
be affifted by them. This avaricious commander was
upon the point of being maffacred, when one of the
malecontents cried out: “ Brethren, why fhould we
attack this rafcal ? he has carried off nothing that be¬
longs to us. He has left our fhare at Carthagena, and
there we mull go to recover it.” This propofal was
received with general applaufe. A favage joy at once
fucceeded that gloomy melancholy which had feized
them; and without further deliberation, all their fhips
failed towards the city.
As foon as they had entered the city without meet¬
ing with any refiftance, they fhut up all the men in the •
great church; and exafted payment of 218,756/. the
amount of their fhare of booty which they had been
defrauded of; promifing to retreat immediately upon
their compliance, but threatening the moft dreadful
vengeance if they refufed. Upon this, the moft vene¬
rable prieft in the city mounted the pulpit, and made
ufe of the influence his charadler, his authority, and
his eloquence gave him, to perfuade his hearers to yield,
up without referve all the gold, filver, and jewels they
had. The colleftion, which was made after the fer-
mon, not furnifhing the fum required, the city was or¬
dered to be, plundered.
At length, after amaffing all they could, thefe ad¬
venturers fet fail ; when unfortunately they met with a
fleet of Dutch and Englifh fhips, both which nations
were then in alliance with Spain. Several of the pi¬
rates were either taken or funk, with all the cargo they
had on board their fhips; the reft efeaped to St Do¬
mingo.
Such was the laft memorable event in the hiftory of.
the bucaneers. The feparation of the Englifh and
French, when the war, on account of the prince of O-
range, divided the two nations: the fuccefsful means
they both made ufe of to promote the cultivation of
land among their colonies, by the affiftance of thefe
enterprifing men ; and the prudence they fhewed in fix¬
ing the moft diftinguifhed among them, and entrnfting
them with civil and military employments : the protec¬
tion they were both under a neceffity of affording to
the Spanifh fettlements, which till then had been a ge¬
neral objedl of plunder: all thefe circumftances, and
various others, btfides the impoffibility there was of
fupplying the place of thefe remarkable men, who were
continually dropping off, concurred to piit an end to a
fociety, as extraordinary as ever exifted. Without any
regular fyftem, without laws, without any degree of
fubordination, and even without any fixed revenue, they
became the aftoniihment of that age in which they li¬
ved, as they will be alfo of pofterity.
BUCCELLARII, an order of foldiery under the
Greek emperors, appointed to guard and diftribute the
aramu-
BUG [ 1506 ] BUG
ISuccsllatum ammunition bread; tho’authors arefomewhat divided as
H. to their office and quality. Among the Vifigoths, buc-
Bncciniim. c<jjarjug wag a genera] name for a client or vaffal who
lived at the expence of his lord. Some give the deno¬
mination to parafites in the courts of princes, fome make
them the body-guards of emperors, and fome fancy
they were only 1'uch as emperors employed in putting
perfons to death privately.
BUCCELLATUM, among ancient military wri¬
ters, denotes camp-bread, or bifcuit baked hard and
dry, both for lightnefs and keeping. Soldiers always
carried with them enough for a fortnight, and fometimes
much longer, during the time that military difcipline
was kept up.
BUCCINA, an ancient mufical and military inftru-
ment. It is ufually taken fora kind of trumpet; which
opinion is confirmed by Feftus, by his defining it a
crooked horn, played on like a trumpet. Vegetius ob-
ferves, that the buccina bent in a femicircle, in which
refpeft it differed from the tuba or trumpet. It is very
hard todiftinguifh it from the cornu or horn, unlefs it
was fomething lefs, and not quite fo crooked ; yet it cer¬
tainly was of a different fpecies, becaufe we never read
of the cornu in ufe with the watch, but only the buccina.
Befides, the found of the buccina was {harper, and to
be heard much farther, than either the cornu or the tuba.
In fcripture, the like inftrument, ufed both in war and
in the temple, was called rains-horns, kiren-jubel, and
fopheroth hagijobelhn.
This inftrument was in ufe among the Jews to pro¬
claim their feaft-daysj new-moons, jubilees, fabbatic
years, and the like. At Lacedaemon, notice was given
by the buccina, when it was firpper-timo ; and the like
was done at Rome, where the grandees had a buc¬
cina blown both before and after they fat down to
table. The found of the buccina was called buccinus,
or bucinus; and the mufician who played on it was called
buccinator.
BUCCINUM, or whelk, a genus of fhell-fifh be¬
longing to the order of vermes teftaceae. This animal
is one of the fnail kind. The (hell is univalve, fpiral,
and gibbous. The aperture is oval, ending in a fmall
ftrait canal. Linnarus enumerates about 60 fpecies,
moft of which are found in the fouthern feas. The fix
following are found in the Britifh feas.
1. The pullus, or brown whelk, with five fpires ftria-
ted, waved, and tuberculated. Aperture wrinkled ;
upper part replicated. Length five eights of an inch.
2. The undatum, or waved whelk, with feven fpires,
is fpirally ftriated, and deeply and tranfverfely undula¬
ted. Length three inches. Inhabits deep water.
3. The llriatum has eight fpires, with elevated ftrise,
undulated near the apex. Length near four inches.
4. The reticulatum, with fpires fcarcely raifed, and
ftrongly reticulated, is of a deep brown colour, and of
an oblong form. The aperture white, glolfy, and den¬
ticulated. Size of a hazel nut.
5. The minutum, or fmall whelk, with five fpires,
ftriated fpirally, ribbed tranfverfely. Size lefs than a
pea. Found alfo in Norway.
•Pl.LXVI. 6. The lapillus *, or maffy whelk, with about five
I< fpires; fide of the mouth {lightly toothed : a very
ftrong thick flrell, of a whitifh colour. A variety yel¬
low, or fafciated with yellow, on a white ground ; or
fulcated fpirally, and fometimes reticulated. Length
near an inch and an half. Inhabits, in vaft abundance, Encclnum
rocks near low-water mark. This is one of the Britifh , II
{hells that produce the purple dye analogous to the Bllrentaor-
purpura of the ancients. See Mu rex.
The procefs of obtaining the Englifh purpura is well Mil. Tranf.
defcribed by Mr William Cole of Briftol, in 1684, in fl^r- “•
the following words. “ The {hells, being harder than
moft other kinds, are to be broken with a fmart ftroke
of a hammer, on a plate of iron, or firm piece of timber
(with their mouths downwards).fo as not to cruffi the
body of the fifh within ; the broken pieces being pick¬
ed off, there will appear a white vein lying tranfverftly
in a little furrow or cleft next to the head of the fifh,
which muft be digged out with the ftiffpoint of a horfe-
hair pencil, being made ftiort and tapering. The let¬
ters, figures, or what elfe fhall be made on the linen,
(and perhaps lilk too), will prefently appear of a plea-
fant light green colour; and if placed in the fun, will
change into the following colours ; (/. e. if in winter,
about noon, if in the fummer, an hour or two after
funrifing, and fo much before fetting; for in the heat
of the day in fummer, the colours will come on fo faft,
that the fucceffion of each colour will fcarcely be diftin-
guifheu.) Next to the light green, it will appear of a
deep green ; and in a few minutes, change into a fea-
green ; after which, in a few minutes more, it will al¬
ter to a wotchet-blue ; from that, in a little time more,
it will be of a purple-red ; after which, (fuppofing the
fun ftill finning), it will be of a very deep purple-red,
beyond which the fun can do no more. But then, the
laft and moft beautiful colour, after wafiiing in Raid¬
ing water and foap, will (the matter being again put
into the wind or fun to dry) be of a fair bright crim-
fon, or near to the prince’s colour; which afterwards,
notwithftanding there is no ufe of any ftyptic to bind
the colour, will continue the fame if well ordered ; as I
have found in handkerchiefs, that have been wafiied
more than 40 times ; only it will be fomewhat allayed
from what it was after the firft waftiing. While the
cloth fo writ upon lies in the fun, it will yield a very
ftrong and fetid fmell, as if garlic and afafsetida were
mixed together.”
BUCCO, in ornithology, a genus belonging to the
order of picas. The beak is cultrated, turned inwards,
comprefied on the Tides, and emarginated on each fide
at the apex; and there is a long flit below the eyes.
The noftrils are covered with feathers. The feet have
four toes, two before and two behind. There is but
one fpecies, viz. the capenfis, which is of a reddith co¬
lour, with a yellow belt round the flioulders, and a black
one round the bread. It is found at the Cape of Good-
Hope.
BUCENTAUR, a galeas, or large galley of the
doge of Venice, adorned with fine pillars on both Tides,
and gilt over from the prow to the ftern. This veffel
is covered over head with a kind of tent, made of pur¬
ple filk. In it the doge receives the great lords and
perfons of quality that go to Venice, accompanied with
the ambafiadors and counfellors of ftate, and all the fe-
nators feated on benches by him. The fame veflel ferves
alfo in the magnificent ceremony of afeenfion-day, on
which the duke of Venice throws a ring into the fea to
efpoufe it, and to denote his dominion over the gulph
of Venice.
Bucentaur is alfo the name of a {hip, as great and
BUG
flncer as magnificent as that of the Venetians, built by order
Jl of the eleftor of Bavaria, and lanched on a lake which
-IuiCha,lat,• is fix leagues in length.
BUCER (Martin), one of the firft authors of the
reformation at Strafburgh, was born in 1491, in Al-
face; and took the religious habit of St Dominic, at
feven years of age : but meeting afterward with the
writings of Martin Luther, and comparing them with
the Scriptures, he began to entertain doubts concern¬
ing feveral things in the Romifh religion. After fome
conferences with Luther at Heidelburgiu 1521, head-
opted mod of his fentiments; but in 1532 he gave
the preference to thofe of Zuinglius. He^affitted in
many conferences concerning religion ; and in 1548
was fent for to Augfburg to fign the agreement be¬
tween the Papifts and Proteftants, called the interim.
His warm oppofition to this project expofed him to
many difficulties and hardihips ; the news of which
reaching England, where his fame had already arrived,
Cranmer archbifhop of Canterbury gave him an invi¬
tation to come over, which he readily accepted. In
1349, an handfome apartment was affigned him in the
univerfity of Cambridge, and a falary to teach theolo¬
gy. King Edward Vi. had the greateft regard for
him. Being told that he was very fenfible of the cold
of the climate, and fuffered much for want of a Ger¬
man ftove, he fent him too crowns to purchafe one.
He died of a complication of diforders in 1551 ; and
was buried at Cambridge with great funeral pomp.
Five years after, in the reign of queen Mary, his body
was dug up, and publicly burnt, and his tomb demo-
liihed ; but it was afterwards fet up by order of queen
Elizabeth. He compofed many works, among which
are commentaries on the evangelifts and gofpels.
BUCEROS, in ornithology, a genus belonging to
the order of picae. The beak is convex, cultrated, very
large, and ferrated outwards : the fore-head is naked,
with a bony gibbofity. The noftrils are behind the
bafe of the beak. The tongue is ffiarp and fhort.
The feet are of the greffarii kind, i. e. the toes are di-
ftinct from each other. There are four fpecies of the
buceros, viz. I. The bicornis, with a flat bony fore¬
head, and two horns before. The body is black, and
about the fize of a hen ; but the breaft, belly, and
thighs are white. There is a white fpot on the wing;
the tail is long, with ten black prime feathers, and the
four.outermoft on each are white. The feet are greenifli,
with three toes before and one behind. It is a native
of China, and called calao by Willoughby and other
authors. 2. The hydrocorax, or Indian crow of Ray,
has a plain bony fore-head without any horns. The
body is yellowifli, and blackifli below. It inhabits the
Molucca ifles. 3. The rhinoceros, has a crooked horn
in the forehead joined to the upper mandible. It is a
native of India, and feeds upon carrion. 4. The nafu-
tus, has a fmooth forehead. It is about the fize of a
magpye, and is a native of Senegal.
BUCHAN, a county or diftrift of Scotland, lying
partly in the fliire of Aberdeen, and partly in that of
Bamff: it gives the title of earl to the noble and an¬
cient family of Erikine.
BUCHANAN (George), the befl: Latin poet of
his time,perhaps inferior to none fince the Auguftanage,
was born in February 1506.
This accompliftied fcholar and diftinguifhed wit was
BUG
not defcended of a family remarkable for its rank. He Buchanan,
had no occafion for the fplendor of anceftry. He want¬
ed not a reflected greatnefs, the equivocal, and too of¬
ten the only, ornament of the rich and noble. The vil¬
lage of Killearn, in Dumbarton-fhire, Scotland, was
the place of his nativity ; and the abjed poverty in
which his father died might have confined him to toil
at the loweft employments of life, if the generofity of
an uncle had not affifted him in his education, and en¬
abled him to purfue, for two years, his ftudies at Pa¬
ris. But that fliort fpace was fcarcely elapfed, when the
death of his benefa&or made it neceflary that he fliould
return to his own country, and forfake, for a time, the
paths of fcience.
He was yet under his 20th year, and furrounded with
the horrors of indigence. In this extremity, he enlifted
as a common foldier under John duke of Albany, who
commanded the troops wffiich France had fent to affid
Scotland in the war it waged, at this period, again!!
England. But nature had notdeftined him to be a he¬
ro.. He was difgufted with the fatigues of one cam¬
paign; and, fortunately, John Major, then profefibr
of pnilofophy at St Andrew’s, hearing of his neceffity
and his merit, afforded him a temporary relief. He now
became the pupil of John Maiz, a celebrated teacher in
the fame univerfity, under whom he ftudfed the fubtil-
ties of logic ; and, contracting an attachment to his
matter, he followed him to Paris.
There, after having encountered many difficulties,
he was invited to teach grammar in the college of St
Barbe. In this flavifli occupation he was found by the
earl of Cafiels; with whom, having remained five years
at Paris, he returned into Scotland. He next acted as
preceptor to the famous earl of Murray, the natural fon
of James V. But, while he was forming this nobleman
for public affairs, he found that his life was in danger;
and from enemies, whofe vindictive rage could fufferno
abatement, and who would not fcruple the moft diflio-
nourable means of gratifying it.
The fcandalous lives of the clergy had, it feems, ex¬
cited his indignation ; and, more than reafoning or ar¬
gument, had eftranged him from the errors of Popery.
I he Francifcan monks, in return to the beautiful but
poignant fatires he had written again!! them, branded
him with the appellation of atheiji; a term which the
religious of all denominations are too apt indifcrimi-
nately to lavifh where, they have conceived a preju¬
dice ; and, notrfatisfied with the outrage of abufe and
calumny, they confpired his dettruCtion. Cardinal Bea¬
ton gave orders to apprehend him, and bribed king
James with a very confiderable fum to permit his exe¬
cution. He was feized upon accordingly; and the fir!!
genius of his age was about to perifh by the halter, or
by fire, to fatisfy a malignant refentment, when, e-
fcaping the vigilance of his guards, he fled into Eng¬
land. Henry VIII. at all times the flave of caprice
and paffion, was then burning, on the fame day, and
at the fame flake, the Lutheran and the Papift. His
court did not fuit a philofopher, or a fatyritt. After
a !hort flay, Buchanan croffed the fea to France ; and,
to his extreme difappointment, found, at Paris, cardi¬
nal Beaton, as ambaflador from Scotland. He retired
privately to Bourdeaux, dreading, perhaps, new mif-
fortunes, and concerned that he could not profecute his
ftudies in obfcurity and in filence. Here he met Andrew
Govea*
[ I5°7 J
BUG [ >5°3 ] BUG
Govea, a Portuguefe of great learning and worth, with a wonder (he replied) that I have made fo much of Buchanan,
whom he had formerly been acquainted during his tra- him.” Mackenzie relates a ftory concerning his tutelage
vels, and who was now employed in teaching a public of his pedantic majetly, which is ftrongly expreflive of
fchool. He difdained not to att as the affiitant of his Buchanan’s charader as a man of humour, and, at the
friend ; and, during the three years he refided at this fame time, Ihews the degree of his veneration for
place, he compofed the tragedies which do him fo royalty. The young king being one day at play with
much honour. It was here, alfo, that he wrote fome of his fellow-pupil the mafter of Erlkine, Buchanan, who
the moft pleafant of thofe poems, in which he has ral- was then reading, defired them to make lefs noife. Find-
lied the mules, and threatened to forfake them, as not ing that they difregarded his admonition, he told his
beinw able to maintain their votary. About this time, majefty, if he did not hold his tongue, he would cer-
too, he prefented a copy of verfes to the emperor tainly whip his breech. The king replied, he would
Charles V. who happened to pafs through Bourdeaux. be glad to fee who would bell the cat, alluding to the
His enemies, mean while, were not inaciive. Car- fable. Buchanan, in a paffion, threw the book from
dinal Beaton wrote about him to the archbilhop of him, and gave his majefty a found flogging. The old
Bourdeaux; and, by every motive which a cunning countefs of Mar, who was in the next apartment, rufhed
and a wicked heart can invent, he invited him to pu- into the room, and, taking the king in her arms, allied
nifh the moft peftilential of all heretics. The archbilhop, how he dared to lay his hand on the Lord's anointed,
however, was not fo violent as the cardinal. On inqui- “ Madam, (fays Buchanan), I have whipped his a—;
ring into the matter, he was convinced that the poet you may kifs it, if you pleafe.”
had committed a very fmall impropriety ; and allowed On the misfortunes which befel the amiable but im-
himfelf to be pacified. prudent Mary, he went over to the party of the earl
But fortune was not long to continue her fmiles. of Murray ; and at his earneft delire he was prevailed
Andrew Govea being called by the king of Portugal, upon to write his “ Dete&ion,” a work which his
his mafter^to eftablilh an academy at Coimbra, he in- greateft admirers have read with regret. Having been
treated Buchanan to accompany him. He obtained his lent with other commiffioners to England, againft his
requeft ; and had not been a year in his own country, miftrefs, he was, on his return, rewarded with the ab-
when he died, and left his affociate expofed to the ma- bacy of Crofs Raguel; made direftor to the chancery ;
lice of his inveterate enemies-the monks. They loudly and, fome time after, lord of the privy council, and privy
objeftedto him, that he was a Lutheran ; that he had ftal. He was likewife rewarded by queen Elizabeth
written poems againft the Francifcans ; and that he with a penfion of 100 1. a-year. The twelve laft years
had been guilty of the abominable crime of eating of his life he employed in compofing his hiftory of Scot-
flelh in lent. He was confined to a monaftery till he land. After having vied with aimoft all the more e-
fhould learn what thefe men fancied to be religion: minent of the Latin poets, he contefted with Livy and
and they enjoined him to tranllate the Pfalms of Da- Salluft the palm of eloquence and political fagacity.
vid into Latin verfe ; a talk which every man of taite But it is to be remembered with pain, that, like the
knows with what admirable fkill and genius he per- former of thefe hiftorians, he was not always careful
formed. to preferve himfelf from the charge of partiality. In
On obtaining his liberty, he had the offer of a fpeedy the year 1582, he expired at Edinburgh, in the 76cl*
promotion from the king of Portugal; the iffueof which, year of his age.
his averfion to the clergy did not allow him to wait. Various writers who have mentioned this author,
He haftened to England; but the perturbed ftate of- fpeak of him in very different language, according
affairs during the minority of Edward VI. not giving to their religious and political principles. From his
him the promife of any lading fecurity, he fet out for works, however, it is evident, that, both as a Latin
France. There he had not been long, when he pu- poet and profe w-riter, he hath rarely been equalled
blifhed his Jephtha, which his neceffities made him de- lince the reign of Auguftus ; nor is he lefs deferving
dicate to the marlhal de Briffac. This patron did not of remembrance as a friend to the natural liberties of
want generofity, and could judge of merit. He fent mankind, in oppofition to ufurpation and tyranny,
him to Piedmont, as preceptor to his fon Timoleon de “ The happy genius of Buchanan (fays Dr Robert-
Cofii. fon), equallyformed to excel in profe andin verfe, more
In this employ he continued feveral years; and, du- various, more original, and more elegant, than that of
ring the leifure it afforded him, he fully examined the aimoft any other modern who writes in Latin, refle&s,
controverfies which now agitated Europe; and he put with regard to this particular, the greateft luftre on
the laft hand to many of the moft admired of his fmaller his country.”
poems. The following is a lift of his works. 1. Rerum
When his pupil had no longer any ufe for him, he Scotkarum, See. 2. Pfalmorum Davidis paraphrajls
paffed into Scotland, and made an open profeffion of poetica. 3. Dejure regni apudScotos dialogus. 4. PJal-
the reformed faith. But he foon quitted his native mus civ. cum judicio Barclaii, &c. 5. Pfalmus cxx.
country for France; which appears to have been more cum analyft organica Beuzeri. 6. Baptijles, Jive ca-
agreeable to his tafte. Queen Mary, however, having lumnia. 7. AlceeJHs, tragedia. 8. Trage dice facrce,
determined that he fhould have the charge of educa- et exterce. 9. De caleto recepto carmen, apud Stephan.
ting her fon, recalled him ; and, till the prince fhould 10. Francifcanus et fratres, &c. u. Flegice, Sylvice,
arrive at a proper age, he was nominated to the prin- &c. 12. De fphera Herbornx. 13. Poemata. 14. Sa-
cipality of St Andrew’s. His fuccefs as James’s pre- tyra in cardinalem Lotharingium. 15. Rudimenta
ceptor is well known. When it was reproached to grammatices, Tho. Linacri ex Anglico fermone in La-
him, that he had made his majefty a pedant; “ It is tinum verfee. 16. An admonition to the true lords.
17. De
BUG [ 1509 j BUG
Buchannefs 17. De profodia. 18. Chameleon, 1572. 19. Ad vi-
Buckin ^ ^Ul fecu^ ep\ft0^‘e' 2o. Liter# regin# Scotic# ad
hc mg. Both’weli#. 21. A dete&ion of the doings of
Mary queen of Scots, and of James earl of Bothwell,
againft Henry lord Darnly. 22. Vita ab ipfo feripta,
biennio ante mortem, cum commentario D. Rob. Sibbaldi,
M. D. 23. Life of Mary queen of Scots. Thefe
have been feverally printed often, and in various coun¬
tries. An edition of them all colle&ed together was
printed at Edinburgh in 1704, in 2 vols folio.
^ BUCHANNESS, a cape or promontory of Scot¬
land, which is the fartheft point of Buchan, not far
from Peterhead, and the moll eallern of all Scotland.
E. Long. o. 30. N. Lat. 57. 28.
BUCHAW, a free and imperial town of Germany,
in Suabia, feated on the river Tederfee, 22 miles fouth-
weft of Ulm. Here is a monallery, whole abbefs has
a voice in the diets of the empire. E. Long. 9. 37.
N. Lat. 48. 5.
Buchaw, a fmall territory of Germany, in the
circle of the Upper Rhine, which comprehends the
dillri£t of the abbot of Find.
BUCHOREST, a pretty large town of Turky, in
Europe, feated in the middle of Walachia, and the or¬
dinary refidence of a hofpodar. The houfes are mean
and very ill built, except a few that belong to the prin¬
cipal perfons. In 1716, a party of Germans fent from
Tranfylvania entered this town, and took the prince
prifoner with all his court, and carried them off. This
expedition was the more ealily performed, as feveral
lords of the country had a fecret intelligence with the
governor of Tranfylvania. This prince had no other
way to regain his liberty, but by giving up'that part
of Walachia which lies between the river Aluth and
Tranfylvania, to the emperor of Germany, by the peace
concluded at Paflarowitz in 1718. The Germans en¬
tered again into the capital of his dominions, and le¬
vied exceflive contributions. But affairs took another
turn after the fatal battle of Crotzka, in 1737 ; for
the emperor was obliged to reftore this part of Wala¬
chia to the hofpodar, in virtue of the treaty of Bel¬
grade. E. Long. 26. 30. N. Lat. 44. 30.
BUCHOM, a fmall, free, and imperial town of
Suabia in Germany, feated on the lake of Conftance,
in E Long. 9. 20. N. Lat. 47. 41.
BUCIOCHE, in commerce, a fort of woollen cloth
manufa&ured in Provence in France^ which the French
fhips carry to Alexandria and Cairo.
BUCK, in zoology, a male horned bead of venery
* See Ctr- or chafe, whofe female is denominated a doe *.
Buck, is alfo applied to the males of the hare and
inr. Unt rabbit kind. See Lepus, and /fore-HuNTiNG.
Bvcn-Bean, in botany. See Menyanthes.
Buck-TTwv/, the Englilh name of the Rhamnus.
BvcvL-Wbeat. See Polygonum.
BUCKENHAM (New), a town of Norfolk in
England, which formerly had a (Irong caftle, but now
demolifhed. It is feated in aflat, in E. Long. 1. 10.
N. Lat. 52. 30.
BUCKET, a fmall portable veffel to hold water,
often made of leather for its lightnefs and eafy ufe in
cafes of fire.—It is alfo the veffel let down into a well,
or the fides of (hips, to fetch up water.
BUCKING, the tirft operation in the whitening of
linen yarn or cloth. See Bleaching.
VOL. II.
BUCKINGHAM, the chief town of Buckingham- Bucking-
(hire in England, Hands in a low ground, on the river
Oufe, by which it is almoft furrounded, and over which Buckle.
there are three handfome ftone-bridges. The town is 
large and populous, fends two members to parliament,
and had the title of a duchy. It feems, however, to
have been but an inconfiderable place at the conqueft ;
for, according to Doomfday-book, it paid only for one
hide, and had but 26 burgeffes. Edward the elder
fortified it in the year 918 againft the incuriionsof the
Danes, with a rampart and turrets. It alfo had for¬
merly a caftle in the middle of the town, of which no
veftiges now remain. The (brine of St Rumbald, the
patron of fifhermen, preferved in the church, was held
in great veneration. The county-goal (lands in this
town, and here the affizes are fometimes kept. It was
formerly a ftaple for wool, but that advantage it hath
now loll. It is governed by a bailiff and 12 burgeffes,
who are the foie eleftorsof the members. In its neigh¬
bourhood are many paper-mills upon the Oufe. W»
Long. q. 58. N. Lat. 51. 30.
Buckingham -Shire, (fuppofed to derive its name
from the Saxon word Buc, denoting a hart or buck),
a county of England, bounded on the fouth by Berk-
(hire, from which it is parted by the Thames ; on the
weft by Oxfordftiire ; on the north by Northampton-
(hire; and on the eaft by Bedfordftiire, Hertfordfliire,
and Middlefex. Its length is 39 miles, its breadth 18,
and circumference 138 ; in which fpace it contains
441,000 acres ; eight hundreds, three to the fouth,
and five to the north of the Cheltem ; 11 market-towns,
fix parliamentary boroughs, 185 pariflies, and about
111,000 fouls. The boroughs are, Buckingham, Chip¬
ping-Wycomb, Ayleftmry, Agmondeftiam, Wendo-
ver, and great Marlow, each of which fends two mem¬
bers to parliament, and the county two; in all 14.
It lies in the diocefe of Lincoln, and Norfolk circuit;
and gives the title of earl to the family of Hobart.—
The air is good, efpecially upon the Chiltem ; and
though in the vale it may not be altogether fo pure
and ferene as upon the hills, the foil is more fruitful:
yet that of the Chiltem is far from being barren ; for,
befides feeding large flocks of (heep, it produces very
good wheat and barley. The meadows of the vale are
among the richeft paftures in Englapd, as the (heep
are among the largelt; though the mutton is not fo
good as that of the downs, nor the beef equal to that
of Somerfetlhire. The Chiltem was formerly over-run
with wood, and infamous for being a harbour of thieves;
but it hath long been cleared of both. The graziers
of the vale are as confiderable as any in England ; and
their herds of cattle as numerous, and of as large a fize.
The country is alfo well furniflied with wood and wa¬
ter, fo that it is inferior to few in England. The chief
manufa&ures are paper and bonelace; the lad of which
is almoft equal to that of Flanders. The chief rivers
are the Thames, the Oufe, and the Cain.
Buckingham (George Villiers duke of). SeeViL-
LIERS.
Buckingham (John Sheffield duke of). See Shef¬
field.
BUCKLE, a well known utenfil, made of divers
forts of metals, as gold, filyer, fteel, brafs, &c.
The fafhion or form of buckles is various; but their
ufe, in general, is to make fad certain parts of drefs,
9 E as
BUG [ 1510 1 BUD
Euckle as the fhoes, garters, &c.
!l Buckle, in heraldry. The buckle was fo much
Buckram. efteeme(j jn forraer times, that few perfons of repute
and honour wore their girdle without it; and it may
be confidered, in coats of arms, as a token of the fure-
ty, the faith, and fervice of the bearer.
BUCKLER, a piece of defenfive armour ufed by
the ancients. It was worn on the left arm ; and com-
pofed of wickers woven together, or wood of the lighted
fort, -covered with hides, and fortified with plates of
brafs or other metal. The figure was fometimes round,
fometimes oval, and fometimes almoft fquare. Mott
of the bucklers were curioufly adorned with all forts
of figures of birds and beafts, as eagles, lions; nor of
thefe only, but of the gods, of the celeftial bodies,
and all the works of nature ; which cuftom was deri¬
ved from the heroic times, and from them communi¬
cated to the Grecians, Romans, and Barbarians.
The fcutum, or Roman buckler, was of wood, the
parts being joined together with little plates of iron,
and the whole covered with a bull’s hide. An iron
plate went about it without, to keep off blows ; and
another within, to hinder it from taking any damage
by lying on the ground. In the middle was an iron
bofs or umbo jutting out, very ferviceable to glance off
ftones and darts ; and fometimes to prefs violently upon
the enemy, and drive all before them. They are to
be diftinguilhed from the clypei, which were lefs, and
quite round, belonging more properly to other nations,
though for fome little time ufed by the Romans. The
fcuta themfelves were of'-two kinds ; the ovata, and the
imbricata: the former is a plain oval figure; the other
oblong, and bending inward like half a cylinder. Po¬
lybius makes the muta four feet long, and Plutarch
calls them rofvguc, reaching down to the feet. And it
is very probable that they covered almoft the whole
body, fince in Livy we meet with foldiers who ftood
on the guard, fometimes fleeping with their head on
their fhield, having fixed the other part of it in the
earth.
Votive Bucklers : Thofe confecrated to the gods,
and hung up in their temples, either in commemoration
of fome hero, or as a thankfgiving for a vi&ory obtained
over an enemy ; whofe bucklers, taken in war, were
offered as a trophy.
BUCKOR, a province of Afia, fubjeft tothe great
mogul. It is feated on the river Indus, on the banks
of which there are corn and cattle ; but the weft part,
which is bounded by Sageftan in Perfia, is a defert.
The inhabitants are ftrong, robuft, and apt to mutiny;
for which reafon the mogul has a garrifon at the chief
town, called Buckor, which is feated in an ifland made
by the river Indus. They are all Mahometans, and
drive a great trade in cotton cloth, and other Indian
commodities. E. Long. 70. 5. N. Lat. 28. 10.
BUCKRAM, in commerce, a fort of coarfe cloth
made of hemp, gummed, calendered, and dyed feveral
colours. It is put into thofe places of the lining of
a garment, which one would have ftiff, and to keep
their form. It is alfo ufed in the bodies of womens
gowns; and it often ferves to make wrappers to cover
cloths, ferges, and fuch other merchandifes, in order
to preferve them and keep them from the dull, and
their colours from fading. Buckrams are fold whole-
fale by the dozen of fmall pieces or remnants, each.
about four ells long, and broad according to the piece Buckflall
from which they are cut. Sometimes they ufe new II
pieces of linen cloth to make buckrams, but moft ?lK!a'
commonly old (beets and old pieces of fails.
BUCKSTALL, a toil to take deer, which muft
not be kept by any body that has not a park of his
own, under penalties.
BUCOLIC, in ancient poetry, a kind of poem re¬
lating to (hepherds and country affairs, which, accord¬
ing to the moft generally received opinion, took it*
rife in Sicily. Bucolics, fays Voffius, have fome con- ^
formity with comedy. Like it, they are pictures and
imitations of ordinary life ; with this difference, how¬
ever, that comedy reprefents the manners of the inha¬
bitants of cities, and bucolics the occupations of coun¬
try people. Sometimes, continues he, this laft poem
is in form of a monologue, and fometimes of a dia¬
logue. Sometimes there is adlion in it, and fometimes
only narration; and fometimes it is compofed both of
aftion and narration. The hexameter verfe is the moft
proper for bucolics in the Greek and Latin tongues.
Mofchus, Bion, Theocritus, and Virgil, are the moft
renowned of the ancient bucolic poets.
BUD, in botany. See the article Gemma.
BUDA, the capital city of Hungary, called Ofen
by the inhabitants, and Buden by the Turks. It is
large, well fortified, and has a caftle that is almoft
impregnable. The houfes are tolerably handfome,
being moft of them built with fquare (tone. It was
a much finer place before the Turks had it in their pof-
feffion ; but they being mafters of it 135 years, have
fuffered the fineft buildings to fall to decay. The lower
city, or Jews town, extends like fuburbs from the up¬
per city to the Danube. The upper town takes up
all the declivity of a mountain ; and is fortified with
good walls, which have towers at certain diftances.
The caftle, which is at the extremity of the hill, on
the eaft fide, and commands the greateft part of it, is
furrounded with a very deep ditch, and defended by
an old-faftnoned tower, with the addition of new for¬
tifications. There is alfo a fuburb, inclofed with
hedges, after the Hungarian manner. The moft fump-
tuous ftru&ures noware the caravanferas, themofqnes,
bridges, and baths. Thefe laft are the fineft in Eu¬
rope, for the magnificence of the building, and plenty
of water. Some of the fprings are ufed for bathing
and drinking ; and others art fo hot, that they can¬
not be ufed without a mixture of cold water. The-
Danube is about three quarters of a mile in breadth;
and there is a bridge of boats between this city and
Peft, confiding of 63 large pontoons. The Jews have
a fynagogue near the caftle-gardens. The adjacent
country is fruitful and pleafant, producing rich wines;
though in fome places they have a fulphureous flavour.
This city was the refidence of the Hungarian mo-
narchstill the Turks took it in 1526. Ferdinand arch¬
duke of Auftria recovered it the next year; but in 1529
the Turks became mafters of it again. In 1684 the
Chriftians laid fiege to it; but they were obliged to
raife it foon after, though they had an army of 80,000
men. Two years after, the Turks loft it again, it
being taken by affault in the fight of a very numerous
army. The booty that the Chriftians found there was
almoft incredible, becaufe the rich inhabitants had
lodged their treafury in this city as. a place of fafety.
However^
BUD [ 1511 ] BUD
Buda However, part of thefe riches were loft in the fire oc-
Budd* cafioned by the aflault. This laft fiege coft the Chrif-
  ^ tians a great deal of blood, becaufe there were many in
the camp who carried on a fecret correfpondence with
the Turks. When the ferafkier faw the city on fire,
and found he could not relieve it, he beat his head a-
painft the ground for anger. In 1687, this city had
like to'have fallen into the hands of the Turks again,
by treachery. After this, the Chriftians augmented
the fortifications of this place, to which the Pope con¬
tributed 100,000 crowns, for this is looked upon as the
key of Chriitendom. It is feated on the Danube, 105
miles fouth-eaft of Vienna, 163 north by weft of Bel¬
grade, and 563 north-weft of Conftantinople. E.
Long. 19. 22. N. Lat. 47. 20.
Buda (the beglerbeglic of), was one of the chief
governments of the Turks in Europe. It included all
the countries of Upper Hungary between the rivers
Teifle and Danube, and between Agria and Novigrad
all Lower Hungary, from Gran and Canifca, the eaf-
tern part of Sclavonia, and alrnoft all Servia : but a
good part of this government now belongs to the queen
of Hungary.
BUD2EUS (William), the moft learned man in
France in the 15th century, was defcended of an an¬
cient and illuftrious family, and born at Paris in 1467.
He was placed young under matters ; but barbarifm
prevailed fo much in the fchoois of Paris, that
Budaeus took a diflike to them, and fpent his whole
time in idlenefs, till hft parents fent him to the univer-
fity of Orleans to ftudy law. Here he palled three
years without adding to his knowledge ; for his pa¬
rents fending for him back to Paris, found his igno¬
rance no lefs than before, and his relu&ance to ftudy,
and love to gaming and other youthful pleafures, much
greater. They talked no more to him of learning of
any kind ; and as he was heir to a large fortune, left
him to follow his own inclinations. He was paffion-
ately fond of hunting, and took great pleafure in horfes,
dogs, and haw'ks. The fire of youth beginning to
cool, and his ufual pleafures to pall upon his fenfes,
he was feized with an irrdiftible palfion for ftudy. He
immediately difpofed of all his hunting equipage, and
even abftradted himfelf from all bufinefs to apply him-
felf wholly to ftudy, in which he made, without any
afliftance, a very rapid and amazing progrefs, particu¬
larly in the Latin and Greek languages. The work
which gained him greateft reputation was his treatife
de AJfe. His erudition and high birth were not his
only advantages; he had an uncommon ftiare of piety,
modefty, gentlenefs, and good-breeding. The French
king Francis I. often fent for him ; and at his perfua-
fion, and that of Du Bellay, founded the royal college
of France, for teaching the languages and fciences.
The king fent him to Rome with the character of his
ambaffador to Leo X. and in 1522 made him mailer
of requefts. The fame year, he was chofen provoft of
the merchants. He died at Paris in 1540. His works,
making four volumes in folio, were printed at Bafil in
1557.
BUDDiEUS (John Francis), a celebrated Lu¬
theran divine, and one of the moft learned men Ger¬
many has produced, was born in 1667, at Anclam a
town of Pomerania, where his father was minifter. He
was at firlt Greek and Latin profeflbr at Colburg ; af¬
terwards profefior of morality and politics in the uni- BucMefdale
verfity of Hall; and at length, in 1705, profeflbt-of di- J
vinity at Jena, where he fixed, and where he died, after u ge ‘ -
having acquired a very great reputation. His principal
works are, 1. A large hiftorical German diftionary.
2. Hijioria ecclefiaJUca Veteris Tejiamenti, 2 vols 4:o.
3. Element a philofopbne pratticee, injlrumentalis et theore¬
tic*, 3 vols 8vo. which has had a great number of edi¬
tions, becaufe, in moft of the univerfities of Germany,
the profefibrs take this work for the text of their leflbns.
4. Seletta juris natura et gentium. 5. Mifcellanea
facra, 3 vols 410. 6. Ifagoge bijlorico-theologica ad tbeo-
logiam univerfam, Jingulafque ejus partes, 2 vols 410 ;
which is much valued by the Lutherans. 7. A treatife
on atheifm and fuperftition.
BUDDESDALE, or Bettisdale, a town of
Suffolk in England, feated in a dale or valley, and its
ftreet takes in a good part of Ricking, all which toge¬
ther make up the town, for of itfelf it is but a hamlet,
having a fmall chapel, and an endowed grammar-fchool,
to which belong certain fcholarfhips, alfigned to Ben-
net or Corpus Chrifti-college in Cambridge, being the
gift of Sir Nicholas Bacon, lord keeper of the great
leal. E. Long. 1.8. N. Lat. 52. 25.
BUDDLE, in mineralogy, a large fquare frame of
boards, ufed in wattling the tin ore.
BUDDLEIA, in botany, a genus of the monogy-
nia order, belonging to the tetrandria clafs of plants ;
of which there are two fpecies, viz. the americana, and
occidentalis. The firft is a native of Jamaica and moft
of the other American illands; where it rifes to the
height of ten or twelve feet, with a thick woody ftem
covered with a grey bark; and fends out many branches
towards the top, which come out oppofite : at the ends
of the branches the flowers are produced in long clofe
fpikes branching out in clutters, which are yellow, con¬
fining of one leaf cut into four fegments; thefe are
fucceeded by oblong capfules filled with fmall feeds.
The fecond grows naturally at Carthagena ; and rifes •
much higher than the other, dividing into a great
number of (lender branches covered with a ruffet hairy
bark, garnilhed with long fpear-lhaped leaves ending
in (harp points : at the end of the branches are produ¬
ced branching fpikes of white flowers growing in whorls
round the ftalks, with fmall fpaces between each.—
Thefe plants grow in gullies, or other low Iheltered
fpots; their branches being too tender to refill the
force of ftrong winds. They may be propagated by
feeds procured from thofe places where they are na¬
tives ; and are to be managed like other exotics : only
their feeds mull beTown in pots as foon as they arrive,
and very lightly covered; for if they are buried deep
in the earth, they will all perifh.
BUDELICH, a town of Germany, in the eletftoral
circle of the Rhine and archbilhopric of Treves, feated
on the little river Traen, in E. Long. 6. 55. N. Lat.
49. 52.
BUDGE-barrels, among engineers, fmall barrels
well hooped, with only one head; on the other end is
nailed a piece of leather, to draw together upon firings
like a purfe. Their ufe is for carrying powder along
'with a gun or mortar; being lefs dangerous, and eafier
carried, than whole barrels. They are likewife ufed up¬
on a battery of mortars, for holding meal-powder.
BUDGELL (Euftace), Efq; an ingenious and po-
BUD [15
Budgell. Utc writer, was the fon of Gilbert Budgell, doftor of
  divinity; and was born at St Thomas, near Exeter,
about the year 1685. He was educated at Chritt-
church college, Oxford; from which he removed to the
Inner Temple, London : but inftead of ftudying the
law, for which his father intended him, he applied to
polite literature; kept company with the genteeleft
perfons in town; and particularly contra&ed a ilridt
intimacy with the ingenious Mr Addifon, who was tirtl
coufin to his mother, and who, on his being made fe-
cretary to lord Wharton lord lieutenant of Ireland,
took him with him as one of the clerks of his office.
Mr Budgell, who was about 20 years of age, and had
read the claffics, and the works of the heft Englilh,
French, and Italian authors, now became concerned
with Sir Richard Steel and Mr Addifon in writing the
Tatler, as he had, foon after, a (hare in writing the
Spectators, where all the papers written by him are
marked with an X; and when that work was com-
leted, he had likewife a hand in the Guardian, where
is performances are marked with an afterifk. He was
afterwards made under-fecretary to Mr Addifon, chief
fecretary to the lords juftices of Ireland, and deputy-
clerk of the council. Soon after, he was chofen mem¬
ber of the Irifh parliament; and in 1717, Mr Addifon,
having become principal fecretary of itate in England,
procured him the place of accountant and comptroller
general of the revenue in Ireland. But the next year,
the duke of Bolton being appointed lord-lieutenant,
Mr Budgell wrote a lampoon againft Mr Webfter his
fecretary, in which his Grace himfelf was not fpared;
and upon all occafions treated that gentleman with the
utmoft contempt. This imprudent ftep was the pri¬
mary caufe of his min : for the duke of Bolton, in fup-
port of his fecretary, got him removed from the poft
of accountant-general; upon which, returning to Eng¬
land, he, contrary to the advice of Mr Addifon, pub-
lifhed his cafe in a pamphlet, intitled “ A letter to the
lord * * *, from Eullace Budgell, Efq; accountant-
general,” &c. Mr Addifon had now refigned the feals,
and was retired into the country for the fake of his
health : Mr Budgell had alfo loft feveral other power¬
ful friends, who had been taken off by death; particu¬
larly the lord Halifax, and the earl of Sunderland: he,
however, made feveral attempts to fucceed at court,
but was conftantly kept down by the duke of Bolton.
In the year 1720 he loft 20,0001. by the South-fea
fcheme, and afterwards fpent 5000 1. more in unfuc-
cefsful attempts to get into parliament. This completed
his ruin. He at length employed himfelf in writing
pamphlets againft the miniftry, and wrote many papers
in the Craftfman. In 1733, he began a weekly pamph¬
let, called The Bee; which he continued for above ico
numbers, printed in eight volumes 8vo. During the
progrefs of this work, Dr Tindal’s death happened, by
whofe will Mr Budgell had 20001. left him ; and the
world being furprifed at fuch a gift from a man entirely
unrelated to him, to the exclufion of the next heir, a
a nephew and the continuator of Rapin’s hiftory of
England, immediately imputed it to his making the
will himfelf. Thus the faty'rift :
Let Budgell charge low Grub-ftreet 011 my quill.
And write whate’er he pleafe, except my will.
It was thought he had fome hand in publiffiing Dr
Tindal’s Cbrijlianity as old as the creation; for he often
12 ] B U E
talked of another additional volume on the fame fub-
je&, but never publilhed it. After the ceffation of the
Bee, Mr Budgell became fo involved in law-fuits, that
he was reduced to a very unhappy fituation. He got
himfelf called to the bar, and attended for fome time
in the courts of law; but finding himfelf unable to
make any progrefs, and being diftreffed to the utmoft,
he determined at length to make away with himfelf.
Accordingly, in the year 1736, he took a boat at
Somerfet-ltairs, after filling his pockets with (tones;
ordered the waterman to (hoot the bridge; and, while
the boat was going under, threw himfelf into the river.
He had feveral days before been viiibly diftraited in
his mind. Upon his bureau was found a (lip of paper,
on which were thefe words:
What Cato did, and Addifon approv’d,
Cannot be Wrong.
Befides the above works, he wrote a Tranflation of
Theophraftus’s Chara&ers. He was never married; but
left one natural daughter, who afterwards affumed hi«
name, and became an adtrefs in Drury-lane.
BUDOA, a maritime town of Dalmatia, with a bi-
(hop’s fee, fubjedt to theVenetians. It is feated between
the gulf of Cattaro and the city of Dulugno, on the
coaft of Albany ; and is an important fortrefs, where
the Venetians always keep a (trong garrifon. In 1667,
it fuffered greatly by an earthquake : and in 1686 was
befieged by Soliman baflia of Scutari; but general
Cornaro obliged him to raife the fiege. E. Long. 19.
22. N. Lat. 42. 12.
BUDRIO, a town of Italy, in the Bolognefe. The
adjacent fields produce large quantities of fine hemp,
which renders the town of more confequence than larger
places. E. Long. 11. 35. N. Lat. 44. 27.
BUDWEIS, a royal city of Bohemia, in Germany.
It is pretty large and well built, furrounded with ftrong
walls, fortified with a good rampart, and might be
made an important place. It was taken by the king of
Pruffia in 1744, but he did not keep it very long. E.
Long. 14. 19. N. Lat. 42. 15.
BUDZIAC tartary, lies on the rivers Neifler,
Bog, and Nieper; having Poland and Ruffia on the
north, Little Tartary on the eaft, the Black fea on the
fouth, and Beffarabia on the weft. The chief town is
Oczakow. It is fubjedt to Turky.
BUENA vista, one of the Cape de Verd iflands,
lying in N. Lat. 15. 56. It is alfo called Bonvijla,
and Bonnevue: but the firft is the true appellation, the
others being only abbreviations and corruptions of the
original name, which fignifies zgoodprofpeft, intimating
the beautiful appearance it makes to (hips at fea. This
ifland is reckoned near 20 leagues in circumference,
and is diftinguiffied on the north fide by a ridge of
white rocks that bound it. The coaft that ftretches eaft;
and north-weft is terminated with fundry banks to the
fea; but the interior part is chiefly mountainous. From
the northern point there is a large ridge of rocks pro-
jedling near a whole league into the fea, againft which
the waves break with incredible fury. Another point
of rocks ftretches into the fea on the fouthern point of
the ifland eaftward, a league and a half beyond that
point; and in that bay is the beft road for (hipping.
BUENOS ayres, a country of South America, be¬
longing to the Spaniards. This name, given from the
pleafantnefs of the climate^ is extended to all that coun¬
try
Blldo*
Buenos.
B U F
B U F [ x5
Ruenoj try lying between Tucuman on the call, Paraguay on
the north, and Terra Magellanica on the fouth, or to
;U ' the vertex of that triangular point of land which com-
pofes South America. The country is watered by the
great river La Plata ; firft difcovered in 1515 by Juan
Diaz de Solis, who with two of his attendants was
malfacred by the natives; and partly fubdued by Se-
baftian Gaboto, who gave the great river the appella¬
tion of La Plata, from the abundance of the precious
metals he procured from the inhabitants, imagining
them to be the produce of the country, though in fact
they were brought from Peru.—No country in the
world abounds more in homed cattle and horfes than
Buenos Ayres, where the greateft expence of a horfe
or cow is in the catching it, and they are frequently
to be had at the fmall price of two or three rials. In
fueh abundance are thefe ufeful animals, that the hide
alone is deemed of any value, as this conftitutes a main
article in the trade of the country. All rove wild in the
fields; but they are now become more difficult of ac-
cefs, the terrible havock made among them having
taught the cautious brutes to keep at a greater diftance.
All kinds of fifh are in the fame abundance ; the fruits
produced by every quarter of the globe grow up here
in the utmoft perfection ; and for the enjoyment of
life, and the falubrity of the air, a finer country cannot
be imagined. The principal cities are Buenos Ayres
the capital, Monte Video, Corienteo, and Santa Fe.
BuENOS-vfyw (Nueftra Sennora de), the capital of
the country called Buenos Ayres, in South America,
was founded in the year 1533;, under the direction
of Don Pedro de Mendoza, at that time governor. It
ftands on a point called Cape Blanco, on the fouth fide
of the Plata, fronting a fmall river, in S. Lat. 340.
34'. 38". according to the obfervations of Father Fe-
ville. The fituation is in a fine plain, rifing by a gentle
afcent from the river ; and truly paradifaical, whether
we regard the temperature of the climate, the fertility
of the foil, or that beautiful verdure which overfpreads
the whole face of the country, of which the inhabitants
have a profpe& as far as the eye can reach. The city
is very confiderable in extent, containing 3000 houfes,
inhabited by Spaniards and others of different com¬
plexions. The ftreets are ftraight, broad, and pretty
equal in the "heights and dimenfions of the buildings ;
one very handfome fquare adorns it, the front being a
caftle in which the governor holds his court, and pre-
fides over a garrifon of 3000 foldiers. Mod of the
buildings are of chalk or brick, except the cathedral,
a magnificent ftru&ure, compofed chiefly of ftone.
BUFALMACO (Boramico), an Italian painter;
the firft who put labels to the mouths of his figures,
with fentences; fince followed by bad mafters, but more
frequently in caricatura engravings. He died in 1340.
BUFF, in commerce, a fort of leather prepared from
the fkin of the buffalo ; which dreffed with oil, after the
manner of fhammy, makes what we cz\\ buff-Jkin. This
makes a very confiderable article in the French, Englifh,
and Dutch commerce at Conftantlnople, Smyrna, and
all along the coaft of Africa. The fltins of elks,
oxen, and other like animals, when prepared after the
fame manner as that of the buffalo, are likewife called
luffs.
Of buff-fkin, or buff-leather, are made a fort of coats
for the horfe ox gens d'arnies of France, bandaliers, belts,
'3 ]
pouches, and gloves. Buffalo
In France, there are feveral manufaftories defigned l!
for the dreffing of thofe forts of hides, particularly at Bugc^'
Corbeil, near Paris ; at Niort, at Lyons, at Rone, at
Etanepus, at Cone.
BUFFALO, in zoology. See Bos.
BUFFET was anciently a little apartment, feparated
from the reft of the room by (lender wooden columns,
for the difpofing of china, glafs-ware, foe.
It is now properly a large table in a dining-room^
called alfo ajide-board, for the plate, glaffes, bottles,
bafons, &c. to be placed on, as well for the fervice of
the table, as for magnificence. In houfes of perfons of
diftinction in France, the buffet is a detached room,
decorated with pi&ures relative to the fubject, with
fountains, citterns, and vafes. It is commonly faced
with marble or bronze.
BUFFOON, a droll or mimic, who diverts the pu¬
blic by his pleafantries and follies.
BUFONIA, toad-grass ; a genus of the mono-
gynia order, belonging to the diandria clafs of plants,
of which there is but one fpecies, viz. the tenuifolia, a
native of Britain.
BUG, or Bugg, in zoology, the Englifh name of
a fpecies of cimex. See Cimex.
Cheap, eajy, and clean mixture for effeflually defray¬
ing Buggs. Take of the highett rectified fpirit of wine,
iyjiz. lamp-fpirits) that will burn all away dry, and leave
not the leaft moifture behind it, half a pint; new di-
ftilled oil, or fpirit of turpentine, half a pint: mix them
together; and break into it, in fmall bits, half an ounce
of camphire, which will diffolve in it in a few minutes:
fhake them well together ; and with a piece of fpunge,
or a brufh dipt in fome of it, wet very well the bed or
furniture wherein thofe vermin harbour and breed, and
it will infallibly kill and deftroy both them and their
nits, although they fwarmever fo much. But then the
bed and furniture muft be well and thoroughly wet with
it (the duft upon them being firft brufhed and (hookoff),
by which means it will neither foil, ftain, nor in the
leaft hurt, the fineft filk or damafk bed that is. The
quantity here ordered of this mixture (that cofts but
about a fluffing) will rid any one bed whatever, tho’ it
fwarms with bugs. If any bugs fhould happen to ap¬
pear after once ufing it, it will only be for want of well
wetting the lacing, &c. of the bed, or the folding of the
linens or curtains near the rings, or the joints or holes
in and about the bed or head-board, wherein the bugs
and nits neftle and breed; and thewtheir being wetted
all again with more of the fame mixture, which dries in
as faft as you ufe it, pouring fome of it into the joints
and holes where the brufh or fpunge cannot reach, will
never fail abfolutely to deftroy them all. Some beds
that have much wood work can hardly be thoroughly
cleared without being firft taken down ; but others that
can be drawn out, or that you can get well behind, to
be done as it fhould be, may. The fmell this mixture
occafions will be all gone in two or three days ; which
yet is very wholefome, and to many people agreeable.
Remember always to {hake the mixture together very
well, whenever you ufe it, which muft be in the day¬
time, not by candle-light, left the fubtlety of the mix¬
ture fhould catch the flame as you are ufing it, and oc-
cafion damage.
BUGEY, a province of France, bounded on the eaft
by.
Buggers
f Levit.
*3, U-
BUG [ 1514 ] B U K
by Savoy, on the weft by Brefie, on the fouth by Dau-
phiny, and on the north by the territory of Gex and
the Tranche Compte. It is about 40 miles long, and
25 broad. Though it is a country full of hills and ri¬
vers, yet it is fertile in fotne places, the rivers abound
with trouts, and there are plenty of all forts of game.
The chief places are Bellty the capital, Seifel, St Ram¬
bert, Fort I’Eclufe, and Chateau-Neuf. .
BUGGERS, in church-hiftory, the fame with Bul¬
garians, a fed of heretics, which, among other er¬
rors, held, that men ought to believe no Scripture but
the New Teftament; that baptifm was not necefiary to
infants; that hulbands who converfed with their wives
could not be faved ; and that an oath was abfolutely
unlawful. The Buggers are mentioned by Matthew
Paris, in the reign of Henry III. under the name of
Bugares. They were ftrenuoufly refuted by Fr. Ro¬
bert, a Dominican, furnamed the Bugger, as having for¬
merly made profeffion of this herefy.
BUGGERER, a perfon who is guilty of the crime
of-buggery. See the next article.
BUGGERY, or Sodomy, is defined by Sir Ed¬
ward Coke to be a carnal copulation againft nature, ei¬
ther by a confufion of fpecies, that is to fay, either a
man or a woman with a brute beaft ; or fexes, as a man
with a man, or a man unnaturally with a woman. It
isfaid this fin againft God and nature was firft brought
into England by the Lombards. As to its punifhment,
the voice of nature and of reafon, and the exprefs law
:. of God f, determine it to be capital. Of this we have
a fignal inftance, long before the Jewifh difpenfation,
by the deftru&ion of two cities by tire from heaven ; fo
that this is an univerfal, not merely a provincial, pre¬
cept. Our ancient law, in fome meafure, imitated
this punilhment, by commanding fuch mifcreants to be
burnt to death ; though Fleta fays, they fhould be bu¬
ried alive ; either of which puniftiments was indifferent¬
ly ufed for this crime among the ancient Goths. But
now the genera] puniihment of all felonies is the fame,
namely, by hanging : and this offence (being in the
times of Popery only fubjeft to ecclefiaftical cenfures)
was made felony without benefit of clergy by ftatute
25 Hen. VIII. c. 6. revived and confirmed by 5 Eliz.
c. 17. And the rule of law herein is, that, if both
parties are arrived at the years of difcretion, agentes et
confentierites pari pcena pleciantur, “ both are liable to
the fame puniftiment.”
BUGIA, a province of the kingdom of Algiers in
Africa. It is almoft furrounded with mountains; and
is divided into three parts, Benijubar, Auraz, and La-
bez. Thefe mountains are peopled with the molt an¬
cient Arabs, Moors, or Saracens. The province is
very fertile in corn.
Bugia, by the Africans called a maritime
town of Africa, in the kingdom of Algiers, and once
the capital of the province of that name. It is fuppo-
fed to be the Saida: of Strabo, built by the Romans. It
hath a handfome port formed by a narrow neck of land
running into the fea; a great part of whofe promontory
was formerly faced with a wall of hewn ftone; where
was likewifean aqueduft,'which fupplied the port with
water, difcharging it into a capacious bafon ; all which
now lie in ruins. The city itfelf is built on the ruins
of a large one, at the foot of a high mountain that
looks towards the north-eaft j a great part of whofe
walls run up quite to the top of it } where there is aL Bug!©
fo a caftle that commands the whole town, befides two I! .
others at the bottom, built for a fecurity to the port. Buc an
The inhabitants drive a confiderable trade in plough-
flrares, mattocks, and other iron tools, which they
manufadure from the neighbouring mines. The town
is watered by a large river,, fuppofed to be the Nafava
of Ptolemy. The place is populous, and hath a confi¬
derable market for iron work, oil, and wax, which is car¬
ried on with great tranquillity; but is no fooner over
than the whole place is in an uproar, fo that the day
feldom concludes without fome flagrant inftance of bar¬
barity. E. Long. 4. N. Lat. 35. 30.
BUGIE, a town of Egypt, fituated on the weftern
fliore of the Red Sea almoft oppofite to Ziden, the port-
town to Mecca, and about too miles weft of it. E.
Long. 36. N. Lat. 22. 15.
BUGLE, in botany. SccAjuga.
BUGLOSS, in botany. See Anchusa.
Vipers Bugloss, in botany. See Echium.
BUILDING, a fabric ereded by art, either for
devotion, magnificence, or conveniency.
Building is alfo ufed for the art of conftruding and
raifing an edifice ; in which fenfe it comprehends as well
the expences as the invention and execution of the de-
%"•
As for the materials of buildings, they are either
ftone, as marble, free-ftone, brick for the walls, mortar,
&c. or of wood, as fir, cyprefs, cedars for pillars of up¬
right ufes, oak for fummers, beams, and crop-work, or
for joining and connedion. See Architecture.
Building of Ships. See Ship-building.
BUILTH, or Bealt, a town of South-Wales in
Brecknockihire, pleafantly feated on the river Wye,
over which there is a wooden bridge that leads into
Radnorftiire. W. Long. 3. 10. N. Lat. 52. 8.
BUIS, a territory of France, in Dauphiny. It is a
fmall mountainous country, but pretty fertile; and Buis
and Nions are the principal places.
BUKARI, a fmall well-built town of Hungarian
Dalmatia, fituated on. the Golfo di Bikeriza, in E.
Long. 20. 53. N. Lat. 45. 20.
BUKHAR1A, a general name for all that vaft trad
of land lying between Karazm and the great Kobi, or
fandy defart bordering on China. It derives its name of
Bukharia from the mogul word Bukhar, which figni-
fies a learned man ; it being formerly the cuftom for
thofe who wanted inftrudion in the languages and
fciences to go into Bukharia. Hence, this name ap¬
pears to have been given to it by the Moguls who un¬
der Jenghiz Khan conquered the country. It is nearly
the fame with that called by the Arabs Maivarabiahr,
which is little other than a tranflation of the word
Tranfoxana, the name formerly given to thefe pro¬
vinces.
This region is divided into Great and Little Buk¬
haria.
Great Bukharia, (which feems to comprehend the
Sogdiana and Baflriana of the ancient Greeks and
Romans with their dependencies), is fituated between
the 34th and 46th degrees of north latitude, and be¬
tween the 76th and 92d degrees of eaft longitude. It is
bounded on the north by the river Sir, which feparates it
from the dominions of the Eluths qx Kalmucks; the
kingdom of Kajhgar in Little Bukharia, on the eaft;
B U K [ iSis ] B U K
Bnkharia. by the dominions of the Great Mogul and Perfia on
‘ the fouth ; and by the country of Karazm on the weft:
being about 770 miles long from weft to eaft, and 730
miles broad from fouth to north. It is an exceeding
rich and fertile country ; the mountains abound with
the richeft mines ; the valleys are of an aftonifhing fer¬
tility in all forts of fruit and pulfe ; the fields are cover¬
ed with grafs the height of a man ; the rivers abound
with excellent fifti; and wood, which is fcarce over all
Grand Tartary, is here in great plenty. But all thefe
benefits are of little ufe to the Tartar inhabitants, who
are naturally fo lazy, that they would rather go rob
and kill their neighbours, than apply themfelves to im¬
prove the benefits which nature fo liberally offers them.
This country is divided into three large provinces, viz.
Bukharia proper, Samarcand, and Balk ; each of which
generally has its proper khan. The province of Buk¬
haria proper is the molt weftern of the three ; having
on the weft Karazm, on the north a defart called by the
Arabs G.aznah> on the eaft the province of Samar¬
cand, and on the fouth the river Amu. It may be a-
bout 390 miles long, and 320 broad. The towns are
Bokhara, Zam, Wardanfi, Karakul, Siunjbala, Karftii,
Zai^ui, Nerfem, Karmina, &c.
Little Bulhatia is fo called, not becaufe it is lefs in
dimenfions than the other, for in reality it is larger;
but becaufe it is inferior to it as to the number and
beauty of its cities, goodnefs of the foil, &c. It is fur-
grounded by defarts: it has on the weft, Great Bukha¬
ria; on the north, the country of the Kalmucks; on
the eaft, that of the Moguls fubjeft to China; on the
fouth, Thibet, and the north-weft corner of China. It
is fituated between the 93d and 118th degrees of eaft
longitude, and between 350. 30'. and 450 of north lati¬
tude ; being in length from eaft to weft about 850 miles,
and in breadth from north to fouth 580: but if its di¬
menfions be taken according to its femicircular courfe
from the fouth to the north-eaft, its length will be 1200
miles. It is fufficiently populous and fertile; but the
great elevation of its land, joined to the height of the
mountains which bound it in feveral parts, particularly
towards the fouth, renders'it much colder than from its
fltuatien might naturally be expe&ed. It is very rich
in mines of gold and filver; but the inhabitants reap-
little benefit by them, becaufe neither the Eluths nor
Kalmucks, who are mafters of the country, nor the
Bukhars, care to work in them. Neverthelefs, they
gather abundance of gold from the beds of the torrents
formed by the melting of the fnow in the fpring ; and
from hence comes all tha.t gold duft which the Bukhars
carry into India, China; and Siberia. Much mufk is
likewife found in this country; and all forts of precious
ftones, even diamonds; but the inhabitants have not
the art of either cutting or polifhing them.
The inhabitants both of Great and Little Bukharia,
are generally thofe people called Bukhars. They are
commonly fun-burned and black-haired; although fome
of them are very fair, handfome, and well made. They
do not want politenefs, and are addi&ed to commerce;
which they carry on with China, the Indies, Perfia, and
Ruffia: but thofe who deal with them will be fure of
being over-reached, if they do not take great care. The
habits of the men differ very little from thofe of the
Tartars. Their girdles are like thofe of the Poles.
The garments of the women differ in nothing from
thofe of the men, and are commonly quilted with cot- Bukharia*
ton. They wear bobs in their ears, 12 inches long;
part and twift their hair in treffes, which they lengthen
with black ribbands embroidered with gold or filver,,
and with great taffels of filk and filver, which hang
down to their heels; three other tufts of a fmaller fize
cover their breafts. Both fexes carry about with them
prayers written by their priefts, which they keep in a
fmall leathern purfe by way of relics. The girls, and
fome of the women, tinge their nails red with the juice of
an herb called by them kena; they dry and pulverize it;
then mixing it with powder-alum, expofe it in the air
for 24 hours before they ufe it, and the colour lafts a
long time. Both fexes wear clofe breeches, and boots
of Ruflia leather, very light, and without heels, or
leather foies; putting on gallpches, or high-heeled flip¬
pers like the Turks, when they go abroad. They wear
alfo the fame fort of bonnets and covering for the head j
only the women fet off theirs with trinkets, fmall pieces
of money, and Chinefe pearls. Wives are diftinguifhed
from maids by a long piece of linen worn under their
bonnets ; which, folding round the neck, they tie in a
knot behind, fo that one end of it hangs down to the
waift.
The Bukhar houfes are of ftone, and pretty good ;
but their moveables confift moftly of fome China trunks
plated with iron. Upon thefe, in the day-time, they
fpread the quilts they have made ufe of at night, and
cover them with a cotton carpet of various colours.
They have likewife a curtain fprigged with flowers and
various figures; alfo a fort of bedhead half a yard high,
and four yards long, which is hidden in the day-time
with a carpet. They are very neat about their viduals ;
which are dreffed in the mafter’s chamber by his flaves,
whom the Bukhars either take or buy from the Ruf¬
fians, Kalmucks, or other neighbours. For this pur-
pofe there are in the chamber, according to the large-
nefs of the family, feveral iron pots, fet in a kind of.
range near a chimney. Some have little ovens,- made,
like the reft of their walls, with a ftiff clay or bricks.
Their utenfils confift of fome plates and porringers
made of Capua wood or of china, and fome copper
veffels. A piece of coloured calico ferves them inftead
of a table-cloth and napkins. They ufe peither chairs
nor tables, knives nor forks; but fit crofs-legged on
the ground ; and the meat being ferved up, they pull
it to pieces with their fingers. Their fpoons refemble
our wooden ladles. Their ufual food is minced meats,,
of which they make pies of the form of a half¬
moon: thefe ferve for provifion when the Bukhars go
long journeys, efpecially in winter. They carry them
in a bag, having firft expofed them to.the froft; and
when boiled in water, they make very good broth. Tea
is their common drink, of which they have a black fort
prepared with milk, fait, and butter; eating bread
with it, when they have any.
As the Bukhars buy their wives, paying for them
more or lefs according to their handfomenefs; fo the
filreft way to be rich is to have many daughters. The
perfons to be married muft not fee or fpeak to each
other from the time of their contraft to the day of
marriage. This is celebrated with three days feafting,
as they do great annual feftivals. The evening before
the wedding, a company of young girls meet at the
bride’s houfe, and divert themfelves till midnight, play-
ing>
Bui
Bulb.
B U K [ 1516 ] B U L
Bukharia, jng, dancing, and finging. Next morning the guefts
affemtle, and help her to prepare for the ceremony.
Then, notice being given to the bridegroom, he ar¬
rives foon after, accompanied by ten or twelve of his
relations and friends. Thefe are followed by fome
playing on flutes, and by an Abus (a kind of priefl),
who flngs, while he beats two little timbrels. The
bridegroom then makes a horfe-race; which being end¬
ed, he diflributes the prizes, fix, eight, or twelve, in
number, according to his ability. They confift of da-
maflcs, fables, fox-(kins, calico, or the like. The
parties do not fee each other while the marriage cere¬
mony is performing, but anfwer at a diitance to the
queftions aflted by the priell. As foon as it is over, the
bridegroom returns home with his company; and after
dinner carries them to the bride’s houfe, and obtains
leave to (peak to her. This done, he goes back, and
returns again in the evening, when he finds her in bed ;
and, in prefence of all the women, lays himfelf down
by her in his deaths, but only for a moment. The
fame farce is afted for three days fucceflively; but the
third night he paffes with her entirely, and the next day
carries her home.
Although the prevailing religion throughout all
Little Bukharia is the Mahometan, yet all others en¬
joy a perfedt toleration. The Bukhars fay that God
firft communicated the koran to mankind by Mofes
and the prophets; that afterwards Mahomet explained,
and drew a moral from it, which they are obliged to
receive and pra&ife. They hold Chrift to be a prophet,
but have no notion of his fufferings. Yet they believe
in the refurre&ion, but cannot be perfuaded that any
mortal lhall be eternally damned: on the contrary, they
believe, that as the daemons led them into fin, fo the
punilhment will fall on them. They believe moreover,
that at the laft day every thing but God will be an¬
nihilated ; and, confequently, that all creatures, the
devils, angels, and Chrift himfelf, will die. Likewife,
that, after the refurredtion, all men, excepting a few of
the elect, will be purified or chaftifed by fire, every one
according to his fins, which will be weighed in the ba¬
lance. They fay there will be eight different paradifes
for the good ; and feven hells, where finners are to be
purified by fire: that thofe who will fuffer moft, are
liars, cheats, and others of that kind: that the eledt
who do not feel the fire will be chofert from the good;
viz. one out of too men, and one out of 1000 women;
which little troop will be carried into one of the para¬
difes, where they fiiall enjoy all manner of felicity, till
it fhall pleafe God to create a new world. It is a fin,
according to them, to fay, that God is in heaven.
God, fay they, is every where; and therefore it dero¬
gates from his omniprefence to fay that he is confined
to any particular place. They keep an annual faft of
30 days, from the middle of July to the middle of Au-
guft, during which time they tafte nothing all day; but
eat twice in the night, at fun-fet, and midnight: nor
do they drink any thing but tea, all ftrOng liquors be¬
ing forbidden. Whoever tranfgreffes thefe ordinances
is obliged to emancipate his moft valuable flave, or to
give an entertainment to 60 people: he is likewife to
receive 85 ftrokes on the back with a leathern (trap
called dura. The common people, however, do not
obferve this faft exadlly, and workmen are allowed to
eat in the day-time. The Bukhars fay prayers five
times a-day; before morning, towards noon, afternoon,
at fun-fet, and in the third hour of the night.
Jenghis Khan, who conquered both the Bukharias .
from the Arabs, left the empire of them to his fon Ja-
gatay Khan. He died in the year 1240, and left the
government to his fon Kara Kulaku, and of Little
Bukharia to another called Amul Khoja Khan. A long
fucceffion of khans is enumerated in each of thefe fa¬
milies, but their hiftory contains no interefting parti¬
culars. They are long fince extinft,and the Kalmuck
Tartars are mafters of the country.
BUL, in the ancient Hebrew chronology, the eighth
month of the ecclefiaftical, and the fecond of the civil,
year; it has fince been called Marjbevan, and anfwers
to our Oftober.
BULAC, a town of Egypt, fituated on the eaftern
Ihore of the river Nile, about two miles weft of Grand
Cairo, of which it is the port-town, and contains about
4000 families. It is a place of great trade, as all the
veffels going up and down the Nile make fome ftay
here. It is alfo at this place that they cut the banks
of the river every year, in order to fill their canals, and
overflow the neighbouring grounds, without which the
foil would produce neither grain nor herbage. E. Long.
320. N. Lat. 30°.
BULAFO, a mufical inftrument, confiding of fe-
veral pipes of wood tied together with thongs of lea¬
ther, fo as to form a fmall interftice between each pipe.
It is ufed by the negroes of Guinea.
BULARCHUS, a Greek painter; the firft who in¬
troduced (among the Greeks at leaft) different colours
in the fame pi&ure. He flourifhed 740 B. C.
BULB, in the anatomy of plants, a kind of large
bud, generally produced under the ground, upon or
near the root of certain herbaceous plants, hence deno¬
minated bulbous.
A bulb is defined by Linnasus to be a fpecies of hy-
bernaculum, produced upon the defcending caudex, or
root; confiding of ftipulse, petioli, the rudiments of
the former leaves, and fcales of bark f. tSee Hyber-
To elucidate this definition, it is proper to remark,
that every bud contains, in miniature or embryo, a
plant, in every refpedt fimilar to the parent plant upon
which it is feated *. Plants therefore are perpetuated * See the ar-
in the buds, as well as in the feeds; and the fpecies tic*e h’lanls.
may be renewed with equal efficacy in either way.
The tender rudiments of the future vegetable of
which the bud is compofed, are inclofed, and during
the feverities of winter defended from cold and other
external injuries, by a hard bark or rind, which gene¬
rally confifts of a number of fcales placed over each o-
ther like tiles, and faftened together by means of a te¬
nacious, refinous, and frequently odoriferous, fubftance.
Thus defended, the buds remain upon different parts of
the mother plant, till the enfuing fpring ; and are,
therefore, with great propriety, denominated by Lin¬
naeus the hybernaculu?n or winter-quarters of the future
vegetable.
With refpe& to their place, buds are fituated either
upon the Item and branches, or upon the roots: the
former are ftyled gemma, or buds properly fo called;
but as they fubfift feveral years by their roots, may be
furnifhed with the other fpecies of hybernaculum, called
bulbs, which, according to the definition, are feated
upon the defcending caudex of the root.
Again,
B U L [ 1517 ] B U L
Rulb. Again, trees which are perennial, with a woody and
durable ftem or trunk, have generally proper buds or
gemmae, but no bulbs.
In bulbous plants, as the tulip, onion, or lily, what
we generally call the root, is in fa& a bulb orhyberna-
culum, which inclofes and fecures the embryo or fu¬
ture (hoot.
At the lower part of this bulb may be obferved a
flelhy knob or tubercle, from whence proceed a num¬
ber of fibres or threads. This knob, with the fibres
attached to and hanging from it, is, properly fpeak-
ing, the true root; the upper part being only the
cradle, or nurfery of the future ftem, which after the
bulb has repaired a certain dumber of times, it perifhes;
but not till it has produced, at its fides, a number of
fmaller bulbs, or fuckers, for perpetuating the fpecies.
One part of Linnaeus’s definition (till remains ob-
fcure. The bulb, fays he, is compofed of the remains
or rudiments of the former leaves of the plant; e rudi-
mento foliorum prateritsrum.
It is eafy to comprehend that buds contain the ru¬
diments of the future leaves; but how can bulbs be faid
to contain the rudiments of leaves that, to all appear¬
ance, are already perilhed ? To explain this, let it be
obferved, that, in the opinion of very eminent botanifts,
the root, in a very great number of perennial herbs, is
annually renewed, or repaired out of t;he trunk or ftalk
itfelf; in which fenfe, only roots are properly faid to
defcend.
In the perennials alluded to, the bafis of the ftalk
continually, and by infenfible degrees, defcends below
the furface of the earth, and is thus changed into a true
root; which root, by the continuance of the faid mo¬
tion of the ftalk, alfo defcends; and thus, according to
the durablenefs of its fubftance, becomes a longer or
fhorter root; the elder, or lower part, rotting off in
proportion as the upper is generated, out of the ftalk.
Thus, in brownwort, the bafis of the ftalk finking down
by degrees till it is hid under the ground, becomes the
upper part of the root ; and continuing ftill to fink,
the next year becomes the lower part, and the follow¬
ing year rots away.
This is exa&ly what obtains in bulbous roots, as
well as in the far greater numbei*of other herbaceous
perennials, as arum, valerian, tanfy, famphire, prim-
rofe, woodforrel, iris, and others.
The immediate vifible caufe of this defcent is the
ftring-roots which this kind of trunks frequently puts
forth; which defcending themfelves diredtly into the
ground, ferve, like fo many ropes, for pulling the trunk
after them. Hence the tuberous roots of iris are fome-
times obferved to reafcend a little upon the rotting or
fading away of the ftring-roots which hang at them.
In bulbous roots, where the ftalk and former leaves
of the plant are funk below, and formed into what is
called the bulb, or wintering of the future vegetable,
the radicles, or fmall fibres that hang from the bulb,
are to be confidered as the root; that is, the part which
furnifties nouriftiment to the plant: the feveral rinds
and fhells whereof chiefly the bulb confifts, fucceflively
perift), and {brink up into fo many dry {kins; betwixt
which, and in their centre, are formed other leaves and
{hells, and thus the bulb is perpetuated.
What has been faid of the defcent of roots by the
finking of the ftalk, is further confirmed by the ap-
Von. II.
pearance of certain roots; as of valerian, plantago ma- Rulbocafta-
jor, and devil’s-bit, in which the lower part appears p
bitten or chopped off. In thefe the lower part rot- Bulgaria.
ting off as the upper defcends, the living remainder 
becomes (lumped, or feems bitten.
All bulbous roots, fays the learned Dr Grew in his
anatomy of plants, may be confidered as hermaphrodite
roots, or root and trunk both together: for the ra¬
dicles or firings only, are abfolute roots; the bulb ac¬
tually containing thofe parts which, fpringing up, make
the body or leaves of the plant; fo that it may be re¬
garded as a large bud under ground.
Bulbous roots are faid to be folid, when compofed
of one uniform lump of matter; tunicated, when form¬
ed of multitudes of coats furrounding one another;
fquamofe, when compofed of, or covered with, leffer
flakes; duplicate, when there are only two to each
plant; and aggregate, when there is fuch a congeries
of fuch roots to each plant.
BULBOCASTANUM, in botany. SccBunium.
BULBOCODIUM, mountain-saffron; a genus
of the monogynia order, belonging to the hexandria
clafs of plants; of which there are two fpecies, the al-
pinum and vernum. The firft fort grows naturally on
the Alps, and alfo on Snowdon in Wales. It hath a
fmall bulbous root, which fends forth a few long nar¬
row leaves fomewhat like thofe of faffron, but narrower.
In the middle of thefe the flower comes out, which
(lands on the top of the footftalk, growing eredl, and
is fhaped like thofe of the crocus, but fmaller; the foot¬
ftalk rifes about three inches high, and hath four or
five (hort narrow leaves placed alternately upon ft be¬
low the flower. This flowers in March, and the feeds
are ripe in May. The fecond is a native of Spain. It
hath a bulbous root ftiaped like thofe of the fnow-drop,
which fends out three or four fpear-fhaped concave
leaves, between which comes out the flower, {landing
on a very ftiort footftalk. The flowers appear about
the fame time with the laft; at firft they are of a pale
colour, but afterwards change to a whitifli p'urple.
Thefe plants may be propagated by off-fets.at the de¬
cay of the flower and leaf every fecond or third year;
alfo, by fowing the feed in pots in autumn, ftieltering
them in a frame from froft; and the plants will appear
in the fpring, which, at the decay of the leaves, may
be taken up for planting in the borders in Oiftober,
where they will flower the year following.
BULBOSE, or Bulbous. See Bulb.
BULEUT-dS, in Grecian antiquity, were magi-
ftrates anfwering to the decuriones among the Ro¬
mans. See Decurio.
BULGARIA, a fmall province of Turky in Eu¬
rope, bounded on the north by Wallachia, on the eaft
by the Black Sea, on the fouth by Romania and Ma¬
cedonia, and on the weft by Servia. It is very nar¬
row, but 325 miles long on the fide of the Danube,
from Servia till it falls into the Black fea. The inha¬
bitants are Chriftians; but extremely ignorant, info-
much that they feem to know nothing of Chriftianity
but baptifm and fading. It is divided into four fan-
giacates; Byden, Sardice, Nicopolis, and Siliftria. The
chief towns are of the fame names, except Sardice,
which is now called Sophia.
Bulgarian Language, the fame with the Sclavo¬
nic.
9 F BULIMY,
B U L [15;
Bulimy BULIMY, a difeafe in which the patient is affe&ed
I! with an infatiable and perpetual defire of eating; and,
u ' unlefs he is indulged, he often falls into fainting tits.
* See (the It is alfo called/awe/ canina, canine appetite f.
Index fub- BULITHUS, a ftone found either in the gall-blad-
^er’ or 'n t*le kidneys and bladder, of an ox. See Bos.
C ” " BULK of a Ship, the whole content in the hold for
the ftowage of goods.
BuLK-ifeW/ are partitions made athwart the thip
with boards, by which one part is divided from the o-
ther; as the great cabhin, gun room, bread-room,
and feveral other divifions. The bulk-head afore is the
partition between the fore-caftle and gratings in the
head.
BULL (Dr John), a celebrated mufician and com-
pofer, was born in Somerfetthire about the year 1563,
and, as it is faid, was of the Somerfet family. He was
educated under Blitheman. In 1586, he was admitted
at Oxford to the degree of bachelor of mufic,. having
pradtifed in that faculty 14 years ; and in 1592, was
created dodtor in the univerfity of Cambridge. In
1591, he was appointed organift of the queen’s chapel,
in the room of his mafter, Blitheman.
Bull was the firft Grefnam profeffor of mufic, and
was appointed to that ftation upon the fpecial recommen¬
dation of queen Elizabeth. However Ikilful he might
be in his profeffion, it feems he was not able to read
his ledlures in Latin; and therefore, by a fpecial pro-
vifion in the ordinances refpedting the Greiham profef-
fors, made anno 1597, it is declared, that becaufe Dr
Bull is recommended to the place of mufic-profefibr by
the qufcen’s moft excellent majefty, being not able to
fpeak Latin, his le&ures are permitted to be altogether
Englifh, fo long as he Ihall continue mufic-profeffor
there.
In the year 1601, he went abroad for the recovery
of his health, which at that time was declining ; and
during his abfence was permitted to fubftitute as his
deputy, a fon of William Bird, named Thomas. He
travelled incognito into France and Germany ; and
Wood takes occafion to relate a ftory of him while a-
broad, which the reader (hall have in his own words.
“ Dr Bull hearing of a famous mufician belonging
to a cathedral in St Omer’s, he applied himfelf, as a
novice, to him, to learn fomething of his faculty, and
to fee and admire his works. This mufician, after fome
difcourfe had paffed between them, conduced Bull to
a veftry or mufic-fchool joining to the cathedral, and
fhewed him a leffon or fong of 40 parts; and then made
a vaunting challenge to any perfon in the world to add
one part more to them, fuppofing it to be fo complete
and full, that it was impoflible for any mortal man to
correA or add to it. Bull thereupon, defiring the ufe
of pen, ink, and ruled paper, fuch as we call mufcal
faper, prayed the mufician to lock him up in the faid
fchool for two or three hours; which being done, not
without great difdain by the mufician, Bull, in that
time or lefs, added 40 more parts to the faid lefibn or
fong. The mufician thereupon being called in, he
viewed it, tried it, and retried it; at length he burft
out into a great extafy, and fwore by the great God,
that he that added thefe 40 parts muft either be the
devil or Dr Bull. Whereupon Bull making himfelf
known, the mufician fell down and adored him. Af¬
terwards continuing there and in thofe parts for a time.
8 ] B U L
he became fo much admired, that he was courted to Bull,
accept of any place of preferment fuitable to his profef- ‘
fion, either within the dominions of the emperor, the
king of France, or Spain ; but the tidings of thefe
tranfadiions coming to the Englifh court, queen Elifa-
beth commanded him home.” Fafi, anno 1586.
Dr Ward, who has given the life of Dr Bull, in his
lives of the Greftiam profeffors, relates, that upon the
deceafe of queen Elizabeth he became chief organift to
king James, and had the honour of entertaining his
majefty and prince Henry at Merchant Taylor’s hall
with his performance on the organ. The fame author
proceeds to relate, that in 1613, Bull quitted Eng¬
land, and went to refide in the Netherlands, where
he was admitted into the fervice of the archduke. He
fuggefts, as the reafon for Bull’s retirement, that the
fcitnce began to fink in the reign of king James; which
he infers from that want of court-patronage, which, it
feems, induced the mnficians of that day to dedicate
their works to one another. But furely Bull had none
of thefe reafons to complain of being (lighted that o-
thers had. He was in the fervice of the chapel, and at
the head of the prince’s muficiana; -and in the year 1604
his falary for the chapel-duty had been augmented. The
circumftances of his departure from England may be
colle&ed from the following entry now to be feen in the
cheque book: “ 1613, John Bull dodtor of mufic went
beyond feas without licence, and was admitted into the
archduke’s fervice, and entered into paie there about
Mich, and Peter Hopkins a bafefrom Paul’s was fworn
into his place the Z7th of December following. His
wages from Mich, unto the day of the fwearing of the
faid Peter Hopkins was difpofed of by the dearie of his
majefty’s chapel.” Wood fays, that Dr Bull died at
Hamburgh; others have faid at Lubeck.
The only works of Bull in print are lefibns in the
“ Parthenia, or the maiden-head of the firft muficthat
ever was printed for the virginals.” An anthem of his,
“ Deliver me, O God,” is to-be found in Bernard’s
collection of church-mufic. Dr Ward has given a long
lift of compofitions of Dr Bull in manufcript in the col-
le&ion of the late Dr Pepufch, by which it appears
that he was equally excellent in vocal and inftrumental
harmony. By fome of the leffons in the Parthenia it
feems that he was pofieffed of a power of execution on
the harplichord far beyond what is generally conceived
of the mafters of that time. As to his lefibns, they
were, in the eftimation of Dr Pepufch, not only for
the harmony and contrivance, but for air and modula¬
tion, fo excellent, that he fcrupled not to prefer them
to thofe of Couperin, Scarlatti, and others of the mo¬
dern compofers for the harpfichord.
Bull (George), bi(hop of St David’s, was born at
Wells, in 1634; and educated at Exeter college, in
Oxford. The firft benefice he enjoyed was that of St
George’s, near Briftol, whence he rofe fuccefiively to be
-re&or of Suddington in Gloucefterlhire, prebendary of
Gloucefter, archdeacon of Llandaff, and in 1705 bi-
(hop of St David’s. This, dignity he enjoyed about
four years, and died in 1709. During the ufurpation
of Cromwell, he adhered fteadily, though dill with
great prudence, to the forms of the church of England;
and in the reign of James II. preached very ftrenuoufly
againft the errors of Popery. He wrote, 1. A de¬
fence of the Nicene faith. 2. Apoftolical harmony.
3. Pri-
B U L [ 1519 ] B U L
3. Primitive apoftolical tradition ; and other works.
Bull, in zoology. See Bos.
Wild Bools. The wild bulls now fo numerous on
the continent of America, are faid to have fprung from
one bull and feven cows, which were carried thither by
fome of the firft conquerors. For the manner of hunt¬
ing thefe, fee Bucaneers.
Bull, in aftronomy. See Astronomy, n° 206.
Bull’s-jE/!?, among feamen, a fmall, obfcure, fub-
lime cloud, ruddy in the middle, that fometimes ap¬
pear to mariners, and is the immediate forerunner of a
great ftorm at fea.
'Qv^-Fighting, a fport or exercife much in vogue a-
mong the Spaniards andPortuguefe, confifting in a kind
of combat of a cavalier or torador againft a wild bull,,
either on foot or on horfeback, by riding at him with
a lance. The Spaniards have bull-fights, i. e. fealts
attended with (hews, in honour of St John, the Virgin
Mary, &c. This fport the Spaniards received from
the Moors, among whom it was celebrated with great
eclat. Some think that the Moors might have received
the cuftom from the Romans, and they from the Greeks.
Dr Plot is of opinion, that the T«ufoxa9avfi£.'v a-
mong the Theffalians, who firfl. inftituted this game,
and of whom Julius Caefar learned and brought it to
Rome, were the origin both of the Spanifti and Portu-
guefe bull-fighting, and of the Englifti bull-running.
This practice was prohibited by Pope Pius V. under
pain of excommunication incurred ipfo fatto. But fuc-
ceeding popes have granted feveral mitigations in be¬
half of the toradors.
V>v^\.-Runnirig, denotes a feudal cuftom obtaining
in the honour of Tutbury in Staffordfhire ; where, an¬
ciently, on the day of the affumption of our Lady, a
bull is turned loofe by the lord to the minftrels ; who,
if they can catch him before he paffes the river Dove,
are to have him for their own, or, in lieu thereof, to
receive each 40 pence ; in confideration of which cu¬
ftom they pay 20 pence yearly to the faid lord.
Bull-FVw^, in ornithology. See Loxia,
Bull-FVo^, in zoology. See Rana.
Bull-//<W, or ' Miller's-Thumb, in ichthyology.
See Cottus.
Bull, among ecclefiaftics, a written letter, dif-
patched, by order of the Pope, from the Roman chan¬
cery, and fealed with lead, being written on parch¬
ment, by which it is partly diftinguifhed from a brief:
fee the article Brief.—It is a kind of apoftolical re-
fcript, or edift; and is chiefly in ufe in matters of ju-
ftice or grace. If the former be the intention of the
bull, the lead is hung by a hempen chord ; if the lat¬
ter, by a filken thread. It is this pendent lead, or
feal, which is, properly fpeaking, the bull, and which
is impreffed on one fide with the heads of St Peter
and St Paul, and on the other with the name of the
Pope and the year of his pontificate. The bull is writ¬
ten in an old, round, Gothic letter, and is divided in¬
to five parts, the narrative of the fad, the conception,
the claufe, the date, and the falutation, in which the
Pope ftyles himfelffervus fervorurn, i. e. the fervant of
fervants. Thefe inttruments, befides the lead hanging
to them, have a crofs, with fome text of fcripture, or
religious motto, about it. Bulls are granted for the
confecration of bifliops, the promotion to benefices, and
the celebration of jubilees, &c.
Bull in ccctia Domini, a particular bull read every Bull
year, on the day of the Lord’s fupper, or Maundy l[
Thurfday, in the Pope’s prefence, containing excom- •
munications and anathemas againft heretics, and.all who
difturb or oppofe.the jurifdidion of the holy fee. Af¬
ter the reading of the bull, the Pope throws a burning
torch in the public place, to denote the thunder of this
anathema.
Golden Bull, an edid.or imperial conftitution, made
by the emperor Charles IV. reputed to be the magna
charta, or the fundamental law of the German empire.
It is called golden, becaufe it has a golden feal, in
the form of a pope’s bull, tied with yellow and red
cords of filk: upon one fide is the emperor reprefented
fitting on his throne, and on the other the capitol of
Rome. It is alfo called Caroline, on Charles IV.’s ac¬
count. Till the publication of the golden bull, the form
and ceremony of the eledlion of an emperor were du¬
bious and undetermined, and the number of the eledlors
not fixed. This folemn edidl regulated the funftions,
rights, privileges, and pre-eminences, of the ele&ors.
The original, which is in Latin, on vellum, is preferved
at Frankfort : this ordonnance, containing 30 articles
or chapters, was approved of by all the princes of the
empire, and remain {till in force.
Silver Bulls were not in fo frequent ufe; tho’ we do
not want inftances of them.
Leaden Bulls were fent by the emperors of Conftan-
tinople to defpots, patriarchs, and princes; and the
like were alfo ufed by the grandees of the Imperial
court, as well as by the kings of France, Sicily, &c.
and by biftiops, patriarchs, and popes. It is to be ob-
ferved, that the leaden bulls of thefe laft had, on one
fide, the name of the pope or bifttop infcribed. Poly-
dore Virgil makes Pope Stephen III. the firft who ufed
leaden bulls, about the year 772. But others find
inftances of them as early as Silvefter, Leo I. and
Gregory the Great. The latter popes, befide their
own names, ftrike the figures of St Peter and St Paul
on their bulls; a pra&ice firft introduced by Pope Paf-
chal II. But why, in thefe bulls, the figure of St Paul
is on the right, and that of St Peter on the left fide,
is a queftion which has occafioned many conje&ures
and djfputes.
Waxen Bulls are faid to have been firft brought
into England by the Normans. They were in fre¬
quent ufe among the Greek emperors, who thus fealed
letters to their wives, mothers, and fons. Of thefe
there were two forts, one red, and the other green.
BULLA, or dipper, in zoology, a genus belong¬
ing to the order of vermes teftacese. It is an animal of
the fnail-kind: the (hell confifts of one valve, convo¬
luted, and without any prickles; the aperture is nar-
rowifh, oblong, longitudinal, and entire at the bafe ;
the columella is fmooth and oblique. There are 23
fpecies ; four of them found in the Britifh feas ; the reft t See Plate
chiefly natives of the Afiatic and Atlantic oceans f.
BULLiE, in antiquity, a kind of ornaments much
in ufe among the ancient Romans. Mr Whittaker * * Hi/?^ of
is of opinion that they were originally formed of leather Manchefter,
among all ranks of people; and it is certain, that they 0* 'P'7S’
continued fo to the laft among the commonalty. He
alfo imagines, that at firft the bulla was intended as an
amulet rather than an ornament; as a proof of which
he tells us that the bullae were frequently impreffed with
9 F 2 the
B U L [ 1520 ] B U L
Bui!*, the figure of the fexual parts. It is univerfally aflerted
Bulleyn. critics, that the bullse were made hollow for the
reception of an amulet; but this Mr Whittaker con-
tradi&s from the figure of a golden one lately found at
Manchefter, which had no aperture whereby an amu¬
let could have been introduced.—Pliny refers the ori¬
ginal of the bulla to the elder Tarquin, who gave one
with the praetexta to his fon, becaufe at the age of 14
he had with his own hand killed an enemy ; and in i-
mitation of him it was afterwards affumed by other pa¬
tricians. Others affirm that the bulla was given by .
that king to the fons of all the patricians who had
born civil offices. Laftly, others allege that Ro¬
mulus firft introduced the bulla, and gave it to Tul-
lus Hoftilius, the firft child born of the rape of the
Sabines. — As to the form of the bull*, Mr Whit¬
taker informs us that they were originally made in the
ffiape of hearts ; but they did not always retain the
form of an heart, any more than they were always
made of leather. As the wealth of the ftate and the
riches of individuals increafed, the young patrician di-
ftinguilhed himfelf by a bulla of gold, while the com¬
mon people wore the amulet of their anceftors. The fi¬
gure of an heart then became fo generally round, fome
even having the impreffion of an heart upon them, that
there are not many of the original form to be found in
the cabinets of the curious. The form is naturally varied
from a complete circle, to that of a fegment; and this
was the fhape of the abovementioned bulla found at
Manchefter. When the youth arrived at 15 years of
age, they hung up their bull* about the necks of their
gods lares. We are further informed, that the bull*
were not only hung about the necks of young men, but
ofhorfes alfo. We may add, that bull* were fometimes
allowed to ftatues; whence the phrafe Jiatune bullatx.
Bull.*: was alfo the denomination given to divers o-
ther metalline ornaments made after the fame form; and
in this fenfe bullae feem to include all gold and filver or¬
naments of a roundilh form, whether worn on the ha¬
bits of men, the trappings of horfes, or the like. Such
were thofe decorations ufed by the ancients on their
doors and belts. The bull* of doors were a kind of
large-headed nails fattened on the doors of the rich, and
kept bright with great care. The doors of temples
were fometimes adorned with golden bull*. Mr Ban-
delot takes the bull* worn by foldiers on their belts to
be fomething more than mere ornaments. They feem
to have been confidered as prefervations from dangers
and difeafes, and even means of acquiring glory, and
other advantages. The like may perhaps be extended
to the bull* on doors, which were probably placed there
as a fecurity to them from being broken or violated.
Bull*: alfo denoted a table hung up in the jrublic
courts, to diftinguifti which days were fafti, and which
nefafti; anfwering in fome meafure to our kalendar.
BULLEYN (William), a learned phyfician and
botanift, was born in the iile of Ely, in the former part
of the reign of Henry VIII. and educated at Cam¬
bridge. Botany being his favourite ftudy, he travelled
through various parts of England, Scotland, and Ger¬
many, chiefly with an intention to improve his know¬
ledge in that fcience. In the reign of Edward VI. or
of queen Mary, Mr Bulleyn appears, from his re¬
marks on the natural productions of that country, to
have refided at Norwich, or in that neighbourhood, and
alfo to have fpent fome time at Bloxhall in Suffolk: Bulkyn
but he afterwards removed into the north, and fettledat II
Durham, where he praCtifed phyfic .with confiderable '
reputation and fuccefs. His great patron at this time
was Sir Thomas Hilton, knight, baron of Hilton,
who was governor of Tinmouth cattle in the reign of
Philip and Mary. In 1560, he came to London; and,
foon after his arrival, was accufed by William Hilton
of Bidick, of having murdered his brother Sir Thomas,
our author’s friend and patron. He was arraigned be¬
fore the duke of Norfolk, and honourably acquitted.
This Hilton afterwards hired fome villains to aflaffinate
the doCtor ; but this attempt proving ineffectual, he had
him arreftedon an aCtion for debt, and he remained for
a long time in prifon. During this confinement, Dr
Bulleyn compofed feveral of thofe works which raifed
his reputation as a medical writer. He died in January
1576, and was buried in St Giles’s Cripplegate, in the
fame grave with his brother the divine, who died 13
years before, and in which John Fox the martyrologift
was interred 11 years after. Dr Bulleyn appears from
his writings to have been well acquainted with the
works of the ancient Greek, Roman, and Arabian phy-
fiqians. According to the modern praCtice, his books,
were they generally known, would be of little ufe; but
as he was a man of genius and fertile imagination, they
are by no means barren of entertainment.' He wrote,
1. The government of health, 1559, 8V0. According
to Anthony Wood, it was firft printed in 1548 j but
the dedication to his patron, baron Hilton, is dated
1548, 1595, 12m0j. 2. A regimen againft the pleu-
rify, 8vo. London, 1562. 3. Bulleyn’s bulwark of de¬
fence againft all ficknes, forenes, and wounds, that dobe
daily affault mankinde, London printed by John King-
fton, 1562, folio. This includes, The government of
health. 4. A dialogue both pleafant and pietifull,
wherein is a goodlie regiment againft the fever pefti-
lence, with a oonfolation and comfort againft death,
London, 1564, 8V0. 1569, 8vo. Very fcarce. There
is a wooden print of the author prefixed to the firft edi¬
tion of hip Government of health ; alfo a fmall one en¬
graved by Stukeley in 1722.
BULLET, an iron or leaden ball or flrot, where¬
with fire arms are loaded. Bullets are call: in iron
moulds, confifting of two concave hemifpheres, with a
handle whereby to hold them ; and between them is a
hole, called the gate, at which to pour in the melted
metal. The chaps or hemifpheres of bullet-moulds are
firft punched, being blood-red hot, with a round-ended
punch, of the flrape and nearly of the fize of the in¬
tended bullets. To cleanfe the infides, they make ufe
of a bullet bore, which confifts of a fteel fhank, having
a globe at one end, wherewith to bore the infide of a
mould clean, and of the intended fize.
BULLIALDUS (Ifmael),an eminent aftronomer,
was born at Laon in the ifle of France in 1605. -^e
travelled in his youth for the fake of improvement; and
afterwards publiftied feveral works, among which are,
1. De natura lucis. 2. Philolaus. 3. ^Jlrommta phi-
lolaica, opus novum, in quo motus planctarum per novam
et veram hypothefm demonjlrantur. 4. djlronomia phi-
lolaicee fundamenta clarius explicata et ajferta adverfus
Zothi JVardi impugnationern. He alfo wrote a piece or
two upon Geometry and Arithmetic. In 1661, he paid
Hevelius a vifit at Dantzic, for the fake of feeing his
optical
BUN [ 1521 ] BUN
Bullinger optical and aftronomical apparatus. Afterwards he be-
„ II . came a prefbyter at Paris, and died there in 1694.
UliC ’ BULLINGER (Henry), born at Bremgarten in
Svvifferland in 1504, was an eminent Zuinglian mini-
fter, a great fupporter of the reformation, and em¬
ployed in many ecclefiaftical negotiations/ He compo-
fed many books, one againft Luther in particular. He
died in 1575.
BULLION, uncoined gold or filver in the mafs.
Thofe metals are called fo, either when fmelted from
the native ore, and not perfe&ly refined ; or when they
are perfe&ly refined, but melted down in bars or in-
ots, or in any unwrought body, of any degree of
nenefs.
When gold and filver are in their purity, they are
fo foft and flexible, that they cannot well be brought
into any falhion for ufe, without being firft reduced and
hardened with an alloy of fome other bafer metal.
To prevent thefe abufes which fome might be tempt¬
ed to commit in the making of fuch alloys, the legif-
lators of civilized countries have ordained, that there
fhall be no more than a certain proportion of a bafer
metal to a particular quantity of pure gold or filver, in
order to make them of the finenefs of what is called the
llandard gold or filver of fuch a country.
According to the laws of England, all forts of
wrought plate in general ought to be made to the le¬
gal ftandard; and the price of our ftandard gold and
filver is the common rule whereby to fet a value on
their bullion, whether the fame be ingots, bars, dull, or
foreign fpecie: whence it is eafy to conceive that the
value of bullion cannot be exaflly known, without be¬
ing firft efiayed, that the exa& quantity of pure metal
therein contained may be determined, and confequently
whether it be above or below the ftandard.
Silver and gold, whether coined or uncoined, (though
ufed for a common meafure of other things), are no lefs
a commodity, than wine, tobacco, or cloth ; and may,
in many cafes, be exported as much to the national ad¬
vantage as any other commodity.
See Bos. BULLOCK, the fame with an ox, or gelded bull*.
BULLY-tree, in botany. SeeChrysophyllum.
BULTER, a term ufed to denote the refufe of meal
after dreffing, or the cloth wherein it is dreffed, other-
wife called bulter-cloth.
BULWARK, in the ancient fortification. See Ram¬
part.
BUMICILLI, a religious fe£t of Mahometans in
Egypt and Barbary, who pretend to fight with devils,
and commonly appear in a fright and covered with
wounds and bruifes. About the full moon they coun¬
terfeit a combat in the prefence of all the people, which
lafts for two or three hours, and is performed with afla-
gaias, or javelins, till they fall down quite fpent; in a
little time, however, they recover their fpirits, get up,
and walk away.
BUNDLE, a colleftion of things wrapped up toge¬
ther. Of bafte-ropes, harnefs-plates, and glovers knives,
ten make a bundle; of Hamburg yarn, twenty Ikeans;
of bafl<et-rods, three feet about the band.
BUNEL (Peter), a native of Touloufe, was one of
the moft elegant writers of the Latin tongue in the 16th
century, but was ftill more confpicuous for the regula¬
rity of his manners. He did not feek either for riches
or lucrative employments; but, contented with the bare
neceflaries of life, applied himfelf wholly to the im¬
provement of his mind. He died at Turin in 1547,
aged 47 ; and has left behind him fome Latin epiftles,
which are written with the utmoft purity.. The magi-
ftrates of Touloufe have a bull of him in marble, pla¬
ced in their town-houfe. The moft correft edition of
his Letters is that of Henry Stephens in 1581.
BUNGAY, a market-town of Suffolk, fituated on
the river Wavenny, about 32 miles north-eaft of Bury.
E. Long. 1. 35. N. Lat. 52. 35.
BUNIAS, a genus of the filiquofa order, belonging
to the tetradynamia clafs of plants, for which there is
no Englilh name. There are three fpecies; all of them
annual plants, but none of them poffeffed of any re¬
markable property.
BUNIUM, pig-nut, or earth-nut; a genus of the
digynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of
plants ; of which there, are three fpecies. 1. The bul-
bocaftanum, with a globular root. This grows natu¬
rally in moift paftures in many parts of Britain. It
hath a tuberous folid root, which lies deep in the
ground. The leaves are finely cut, and lie near the
ground. The ftalk rifes a foot and an half high; is
round, channelled, and folid ; the lower part being na¬
ked ; but above, where it branches out, there is one
leaf placed below every branch. The flowers are white,
and lhaped like thofe of other umbelliferous plants ;
the feeds are fmall, oblong, and when ripe are channel¬
ed. The roots of this fort are frequently dug up, and
by fome people eaten raw. They have much refem-
blance in tafte to a chefnut, whence the plant obtains
the name of bulbocajlanum. 2. The creticum, with a tur¬
binated root, was difcovered by Dr Tournefort in Crete,
whence it took its name; but it grows naturally in
many other parts of the Levant. 3. The faxatile,.with
very narrow tripartite leaves. This Mr Miller received
from the Alps; it is a low plant, feldom rifing above
fix inches high.—All the fpecies delight to grow among
grafs, fo cannot be made to thrive long in a garden.
BUNT of a Sail, the middle part of it, formed de-
fignedly into a bag or cavity, that the fail may gather
more wind. It is ufed moftly in top-fails, becaufe
courfes are generally cut fquare, or with but fmall al¬
lowance for bunt or compafs. The bunt holds much
leeward wind; that is, it hangs much to leeward.
Bunt-Z/zw are fmall lines made fall to the bottom
of the fails, in the middle part of the bolt-rope, to a
cringle, and fo are reeved through a fmall block, feized
to the yard. Their ufe is to trice up the bunt of the
fail for the better furling it up.
BUNTING, in ornithology. See Emberiza.
BUNTINGFORD, a town of Hertfordfhire, with
a market on Mondays, and two fairs, on June 29th,
and November 30th, for pedlars ware. It is a good
thoroughfare town, but fmall, and is accounted only a
large hamlet. W. Long. o. 6. N. Lat. 51. 55.
BUNTZEL, or Buntzlau, a town of Silefia, in
the duchy of Jauer. The greateft part of the houfes are
built with ftone, and there were formerly rich mines in
the neighbourhood. It is in the common road to Leip-
fick; and their trade is earthen ware, of which they
make great quantities. E.Long. 15.50. N.Lat.51.12.
BUNYAN (John), author of the Pilgrim’s Pro-
grefs, was born at Elftow, near Bedford, in 1628. He
was the fon of a tinker; and, in the early part of his
Bungay
II
Bunyan.
B U O [ 1522 ] B U P
Buonoearli, life, was a great reprobate, and a foldier in the parlia-
Buoy. raent army: but being at length deeply ftruck with a
fenfe of his guilt, he laid afide his profligate courfes,
became remarkable for his fobriety, and applied himfelf
to obtain fome degree of learning. About the year
1655, he was admitted a member of a Baptift: congre¬
gation at Bedford, and was foon after chofen their
preacher: but, in 1660, being taken up, and tried for
prefuming to preach, he was cruelly fentenced to per¬
petual banifhment; and in the mean time committed
to jail, where neceffity obliged him to learn to make
long-tagged thread-laces for his fupport: to add to his
diftrefs, he had a wife and feveral children, among
whom was a daughter who was blind. In this unjuft
and cruel confinement he was detained twelve years and
a half, and during that time wrote many of his tra&s;
but he was at length difcharged, by the humane inter-
pofition of Dr Barlow. When king James’s declaration
for liberty of confeience was publifhed, he was chofen
pallor of a congregation at Bedford. He at length died
of the fever at London, on the 31st of Auguft 1688,
aged 60. He alfo wrote an allegory, called The Holy
War. His Pilgrim’s Progrefs has been tranflated into
moft European languages ; and his works have been
collected together, and printed in two volumes folio.
BUONOCARSI, or Pierino del Vaga. See Pie-
RINO.
BUOY, in fea affairs, a fort of clofe calk, or block
of wood, faftened by a rope to the anchor, to deter¬
mine the place where the anchor is fituated, that the
Ihip may not come too near it, to entangle her cable
about the ftock or the flukes of it.
Buoys are of various kinds; as.
Can Buoys : thcfe are in the form of a cone; and
of this conftruftion are all the buoys which are floated
over dangerous banks and lhallows, as a warning to
pafixng fhips, that they may avoid them. They are ex¬
tremely large, that they may be feen at a diftance; and
are faftened by ftrongchains to the anchors which arc funk
for this purpofe at fuch places. See Plate LXV. fig. 6.
Wk»-Buoys are lhaped like the middle frullum of
two cones, abutting upon one common bafe, being
calks, which are large in the middle, and tapering nearly
to a point at each end. Plate LXV. fig. 7.
Wooden Buoys are folid pieces of timber, fometimes
in the fhape of a cylinder, and fometimes in that of a
nun-buoy; they are furnilhed with one or two holes,
in which to fix a Ihort piece of rope, whofe two ends,
being fpliced together, make a fort of circle or ring
called the Jlrop.
Cable-'Qxjo'is, are common calks employed to buoy
up the cables in different places from rocky ground.
In the harbour of Alexandria, in Egypt, every Ihip is
moored with atleaft three cables, and has three or four
of thefe buoys on each cable for this purpofe.
Slings of the Buoy, the ropes which are faftened
about it, and by which it is hung: they are curioufly
fpliced round it, fomething refembling the braces of a
drum.
To fir earn the Buoy, is to let it fall from the fhip’s
fide into the water; which is always done before they
let go the anchor, that it may not be retarded by the
buoy-rope as it finks to the bottom.
BuoY-f?o^>(?, the rope which fallens the buoy to the
anchor; it Ihould be little more than equal in length
to the depth of the water where the anchor lies, as it Buoyant
is intended to float near, or immediately above, the bed |
of it, that the pilot may at all times know the fituation "
thereof. See Plate XXII. fig. 1. n° 3.; where h is the mUm’ ,
anchor, c the buoy-rope, and d the buoy floating on the
furface of the water. The buoy-rope is often extremely
ufeful otherwife, in drawing up the anchor when the
cable is broke. It Ihould always, therefore, be of fuffi-
cient flrength for this purpofe, or elfe the anchor may
be loft through negligence.
BUOYANT, fomething which,by its aptnefstofloat,
bears up other more ponderous and weighty things *. » See
Buoy of the Nore, is a buoy placed at the mouth of
the river Thames, to diredl mariners how to avoid a
dangerous fand.
BUPALUS, a celebrated fculptor, and native of the
illand of Chios, was fon, grandfon, and great-grandfon
of fculptors. He had a brother, named fithenis, of the
fame profefiion. They flourilhed in the 60th Olympiad j
and were cotemporary with Hipponax, a poet of an
ugly and defpicable figure. Our fculptors diverted
themfelves in reprefenting him under a ridiculous form.
But Hipponax wrote fo lharp a fatire againft them,
that they hanged themfelves, as fome fay. Pliny, how¬
ever, does not allow this; but fays, on the contrary,
that, after Hipponax had taken his revenge, they made
feveral fine llatues in feveral places; particularly a Diana
at Chios, which was placed very high, and appeared
with a frowning countenance to thofe that came in, and
with a pleafant one to thofe that went out. There were
feveral ftatues at Rome made by them; and they worked
only in the white marble of the ifle of Paros. Paufanias
mentions Bupalus as a good architedl as well as fculp¬
tor; but fays nothing of Athenis.
BUPHAGA, in ornithology, a genus belonging to
the order of picte. The beak is ftraight and quadran¬
gular ; the mandibles are gibbous, entire, and the
gibbofity is greater on the outfide. The feet are of
the ambulatory kind. The body is greyifti above, and
of a dirty yellow below; the tail is lhaped like a wedge.
There is but one fpecies, viz. the africana, a native of
Senegal. It frequently perches upon oxen, and picks
out the worms from their backs.
BUPHTHALMUM, ox-eye; a genus of the po-
lygamia fuperflua order, belonging to the fyngenefia
clafs of plants. There are ten fpecies; of which the
following are the moft remarkable.
Species. 1. The helianthoides, a native of North
America. This hath a perennial root, and an annual
llalk, which rifes fix or eight feet high, garnilhed at
each joint with two oblong heart-lhaped leaves, which
have three longitudinal veins, and the bafe on one fide
Ihorter than the other. The flowers come out at the
extremities of the branches, and are of a bright yellow
colour, refembling a fmall fun-flower. 2. The arbo-
refcens, rifes with feveral woody Hems to the height of
eight or ten feet, garnilhed with leaves very unequal
in fize ; fome are narrow and long, others are broad
and obtufe ; thefe are intermixed at the fame joint, and
often at the intermediate one; they are green, and
placed oppofite. The flowers are produced at the ends
of the branches ; they are of a pale yellow colour, and
have fcaly empalements.
Culture. All the fpecies may be propagated by
feeds j and thofe which do not, by parting their roots.
BUR
JBupleiirum or cuttings of their branches. Some of the fpecies are
l[ . tender, and require to be raifed on a hot-bed.
_ BUPLEURUM, hare’s-EAR, or thorough-wax;
a genus of the digynia order, belonging to the pentan-
dria clafs of plants. There are 17 fpecies, of which
only the following is remarkable, viz. the fruticofum,
or fhrubby Ethiopian hart wort. This rifes with a
ihrubby item, dividing into numerous branches, form¬
ing a buihy head five or fix feet high, adorned with
oblong, oval, entire leaves of a pale green Colour, pla-
1523 ] BUR
the town. It is 23 miles weft-north-weft of Banbury,
and 85 weft of London. W. Long. 1. 43. N. Lat.
51.4°.
BURG, a town of Lincolnfliire, feated in a marflt,
12 miles fouth-eaft of Bofton, and 127 north of Lon¬
don. E. Long. o. 5. N. Lat. 53. 12.
Burg, a town of the Dutch Netherlands, in Zut-
phen, feated on the old Kiel, 18 miles eaft of Nimc-
guen. E. Long. 6. 12. N. Lat. 52. o.
BuRG-Ctf/?/e, or Borough-CaJHe, a fortrefs on the
Burg
II
Burgh.
ced alternate, with yellow flowers in umbels at the ends edge of the county of Suffolk, three miles weft of Yai
of the branches, which appear in July and Auguft, and
are fometimes fucceeded by ripe feeds. It may be
propagated by cuttings.
BUl’RESTIS, in zoology, a genus of infe&s be¬
longing to the order of coleoptera. The feelers are
like briftles, and about the length of the breaft ; the
lead is half retraded into the thorax. There are
mouth, where the rivers Yare and Waveny meet. It
was formerly a delightful place ; but now only the
ruins of its walls remain, near which Roman coins are
often dug up.
BURGAGE, or Tenure in Burgage, is where the
king, or other perfon, is lord of an ancient borough,
in which the tenements are held by a rent certain. It
27 fpecies of this infed, moft of them natives of the is indeed only a kind of townfoccage; as common foc-
Indies. cage f, by which other lands are holden, is ufually of f See
BUQUOI, a town of Artois, in the French Nether- a rural nature. A borough is diftinguiihed from other cage-
lands, fituated on the confines of Picardy. E. Long, towns by the right of fending members to parliament ;
2. 40. N. Lat. 50. 12. and where the right of eledion is by burgage-tenure,
BUR, a broad ring cf iron, behind the place made that alone is a proof of the antiquity of the borough,
for the hand on the fpears ufed formerly in tilting; Tenure in burgage, therefore, or burgage-tenure, is
where houfes or lands which were formerly the feite of
houfes in an ancient borough, are held of fome lord in
common foccage, by a certain eftabliflied rent.
which bur was brought to reft, when the tilter charged
his fpear.
BURBAS, in commerce, a fmall coin at Algiers,
with the arms of the dey ftruck on both fides ; it is
worth half an afper.
BURCHAUSEN, a town of Germany, in the
Lower Bavaria, fituated on the river Saltz. E. Long.
13. 27. N. Lat. 48. 5.
BURDENj or Burdon, in mufic, the drone or
bafs, and the pipe or firing which plays it: hence that
part of a fong, that is repeated at the end of every
ftanza, is called the burden of it.—A chord which is
to be divided, to perform the intervals of mufic, when
open and undivided, is alfo called the burden.
Burden of a Ship is its contents, or number of tons
it will carry. The burden of a fliip may be determined
thus : Multiply the length of the keel, taken within
board, by the breadth of the fliip, within board, taken
from the midfhip-beam, from plank to plank; and mul¬
tiply the product by the depth of the hold, taken
from the plank below the keelfon, to the under part
of the upper deck plank ; and divide the laft product
by 94 : the quotient is the content of the tonnage re¬
quired. See Freight.
BURDOCK, in botany. See Xanthium.
BURELL, or Civita Burrella, a town of I-
taly in the kingdom of Naples, and in the Abruzzo
Citra, near the river Sangro. E. Long. 15. 5. N. Lat.
41. 56.
BUREN, a town of the United Provinces, in
Guelderland. It gives the title of count de Buren to
the prince of Orange. E. Long. 5. 22. N. Lat. 52. o.
Buren, a-town of Germany, in the circle of Weft-
phalia, and bifhopric of Paderborn. It is feated on
the river Alme, five miles fouth of Paderborn. E.
Long. 8. 25. N. Lat. 51. 35'.
BURFORD, a town of Oxfordfliire, feated on an
afeent on the river Windrufli, is a handfome place,
chiefly noted for the making of faddles. The Downs
near it, noted for horfe-races, are of great advantage to
And
thefe feem to have with flood the fliock of the Norman
encroachments principally on account of their infigni-
ficancy, which made it not worth while to compel them
to an alteration of tenure, as 100 of them put together
would fcarce have amounted to a knight’s fee. Be-
fides, the owners of them, being chiefly artificers, and
perfons engaged in trade, could not with any tolerable
propriety be put on fuch a military eftablifliment, as
the tenure in chivalry was. The free foccage, therefore,
in which thefe tenements are held, feems to be plainly
a remnant of Saxon liberty ; which may alfo account
for the great variety of cuftoms, affe&ing many of
thefe tenements fo held in ancient burgage ; the prin¬
cipal and moft remarkable of which is that called Bo¬
rough-Englijh. See the article BoRouGH-A«g'/j/^.
BURGDORF, a handfome and pretty large town
of Switzerland, in the canton of Beni, feated on an e-
minence. The river Emma is about a piftol’s fhot from
the town; and as it often changes its bed, it frequently
does a great deal of mifehief. It runs at the foot of
a rock of a prodigious height, and there is a ftone-
bridge over it. Near the town there is a fulphureous
fpring which fupplies their baths with water, which is
good againft palfies and difeafes of the nerves. E.
Long. 7. 35. N. Lat. 47. 6.
BURGESS, an inhabitant of a borough, or one who
poffeffes a tenement therein.
In other countries, burgefs and citizen are con¬
founded together ; but with us they are diftinguiftied.
The word is alfo applied to the magiftratesoffome towns.
Burgefs is now ordinarily ufed for the reprefentative
of a borough-town in parliament.
BURGGRAVE properly denotes the hereditary go¬
vernor of a caftle of fortified town, chiefly in Germany.
BURGH. See Borough.
Burgh-5«/(? fignifies a contribution towards the
building or repairing of caftles, or walls, for the de¬
fence
BUR [ 1524 J BUR
Burgh fence of a borough, or city.
II By the law of king Athelftan, the caflles and walls
Burglary. Qf towns were to be repaired, and burgh-bote levied
every year within a fortnight after rogation days. No
perfon whatever was exempt from thisfervice; the king
himfelf could not exempt a man from burgh-bote: yet,
in after times, exemptions appear to have been fre¬
quently granted ; iufomuch, that, according to Cowel,
the word burgh-bote came to be chiefly ufed to denote
not the fervice but the liberty or exemption from it.
Burgh-A/w/;? isproperlythebreakingopen aburgh,
houfe, inclofure, &c. and in the laws of Canute, c. 55.
fignifies a fine impofed upon a community of a town
for a breach of the .peace. According to Raftallus,
burgh-breche is, to be quit of trefpaffes committed a-
gaintt the peace in city or borough.
BURGHMASTER, among mariners. See Bar-
master.
BURGHMOTE, the court of a borough. By the
laws of king Edgar, the burghmote was to be held
thrice in the year; by thofe of Henry I. 12 times.
BURGLARY, or nocturnal house-breaking,
burgi latrocinium, which by the ancient Englifir law was
called hamefucken, as it is in Scotland to this day, has
always been looked upon as a very heinous offence: not
only becaufe of the abundant terror it carries with it,
but alfo as it is a forcible invafion and difturbance of
that right of habitation which every individual might
acquire even in a ftate of nature; an invafion, which,
in fuch a ftate, would be fure to be punifhed with
death, unlefs the affailant were ftronger. But, in civil
fociety, the laws come into the affiftance of the weaker
party: and, befides that they leave him this natural
right of killing the aggreffor if he can, they alfo pro¬
tect and avenge him in cafe the affailant is too power¬
ful. And the law has fo particular and tender a regard
to the immunity of a man’s houfe, that it ftyles it his
cajlle, and will never fuffer it to be violated with im¬
punity ; agreeing herein with the fentiments of ancient
Rome. For this reafon no outward doors can in gene¬
ral be broken open to execute any civil procefs ; tho’
* See the ar-^ cr*m‘nal caufes the public fafety fuperfedes the pri-
licie Arreft. vate *• Hence alfo in part arifes the animadverfion of
the law upon eaves-droppers, nufancers, and incendia¬
ries : and to this principle it muft be afligned, that a
man may affemble people together lawfully, (at leaft
if they do not exceed 11), without danger of raifing
a riot, rout, or unlawful affembly, in order to protedf
his houfe; which he is not permitted to do in any
other cafe.
The definition of a burglar, as given us by Sir Ed¬
ward Coke, is, “ he that by night breaketh and enter-
eth into a manfion houfe, with intent to commit a fe¬
lony.” In this definition there are four things to be
eonfidered j the time, the place, the manner, and the
intent.
J. The time muft be by night, and not by day; for
in the day-time there is no burglary; i. e. if there be
day-light or crepufculum enough, begun or left, to
difcern a man’s face withal. But this does not extend
to moonlight; for then many midnight burglaries would
go unpumftied: and befides, the malignity of the offence
does not confift fo much in its being done in the dark,
as at the dead of night; when all the creation, except
beafts of prey, are at reft j when fleep has difarmed the
owner, and rendered his caftle defencelefs. Burglary.
2. As to the place. It muft be, according to Sir  
Edward Coke’s definition, in a manfion-houfe : for no
diftant barn, warehoufe, or the like, are under the
fame privileges, nor looked upon as a man’s caftle of
defence; nor is a breaking open of houfes wherein no
man refides, and which for the time being are not
manfion-houfes, attended with the fame circumftances
of midnight terror. A houfe, however, wherein a man
fometimes refides, and which the owner hath left only
for a fliort feafon, animo revertendi, is the objeft of
burglary, though no one be in it at the time of the
fa& committed. And if the barn, liable, or ware¬
houfe, be parcel of the manfion-houfe, though not un¬
der the fame roof or contiguous, a burglary may be
committed therein; for the capital houfe protefts and
privileges all its branches and appurtenants, if within
the curtilage or homeftall. A chamber in a college,
or an inn of court, where each inhabitant hath a di-
ftinft property, is, to all other purpofes as well as this,
the manfion-houfe of the owner. So alfo is a room or '
lodging in any private houfe, the manfion for the time
being of the lodger ; if the owner doth not himfelf
dwell in the houfe, or if he and the lodger enter by dif¬
ferent outward doors. But if the owner himfelf lies in
the houfe, and hath but one outward door at which he
and his lodgers enter, fuch lodgers feem.only to be in¬
mates, and ail their apartments to be parcel of the one
dwelling-houfe of the owner.
3. As to the manner of committing burglary: there
muft be both a breaking and an entry to complete it.
But they need not be both done at once; for, if a hole
be broken one night, and the fame breakers enter the
next night through the fame, they are burglars. There
muft be an a&ual breaking ; as, at leaft, by breaking
or taking out the glafs of, orotherwife opening, a win¬
dow; picking a lock, or opening it with a key; nay,
by lifting up the latch of a door, or unloofing any other
faftening which the owner has provided. But if a per¬
fon leaves his doors or windows open, it is his own folly
and negligence; and if a man enters therein it is no
burglary; yet, if he afterwards unlocks an*inner or
chamber door, it is fo. But to come down a chimney
is held a burglarious entry; for that is as much clofed
as the nature of things will permit. So alfo, to knock
at a door, and, upon opening it, to rufti in with a felo¬
nious intent; or, under pretence of taking lodgings, to
fall upon the landlord and rob him ; or to procure a
conftable to gain admittance in order to fearch for trai¬
tors, and then to bind the conftable and rob the houfe;
all thefe entries have been adjudged burglarious, tho’
there was no a&ual breaking : for the law will not fuf¬
fer itfelf to be trifled with by fuch ev&fions, efpecially
under the cloke of legal procefs. As for the entry, any
the leaft degree of-it, with any part of the body, or
with an inftrument held in the hand, is fufficient: as,
to ftep over the threfhold, to put a hand or hook in at
a window to draw out goods, or a piftol to demand
one’s money, are all of them burglarious entries. The
entry may be before the breaking, as well as after; for
by ftatute 12 Anne, c. 7. if a perfon enters into the
dwelling houfe of another, without breaking in either
by day or by night, with an intent to commit felony,
or, being in fuch houfe, fhall commit any felony ; and
fhall in the night break out of the fame; this is declared
to
P.urgo-
niatter
Burgundy
B U Pv [ 1525 ] BUR
to be burglary.
4. As to the intent; it is clear that fuch breaking
and entry mult be with a felonious intent, otherwife it
• is only a trefpafs. And it is the fame, whether fuch
intention be actually carried into execution, or only de-
monftrated byfome attempt or overt ad, of which the
jury is to judge.
Burglary is a felony at common law, but within the
benefit of clergy. Burglary in any houfc belonging to
the plate-glafs company, with intent to fteal the flock
or utenhls, is by ftatute 13 Geo. III. c. 38. declared
to be fingle felony, and punifhed with tranfportation
feven years.
BURGOMASTER, the chief magiflrate of the
great towns in Flanders, Holland, and Germany. The
power and jurifdidion of the burgomafter is not the
fame in all places, every town having its particular cu-
lloms and regulations: at Amfterdam there are four
chofen by the voices of all thofe people in the fenate
who have either been burgomafters or echevins. Their
authority refembles that of our lord-mayor and aider-
men ; they difpofe of all under offices that fall in their
time, keep the key of the bank, and enjoy a falary but
of 500 guilders, all feafts, public entertainments, &c.
being defrayed out of the common treafury.
BURGOS, a city of Spain, the capital of Old Ca-
ftile, with an archbifhop’s fee, ereded in 1574. It is
furrounded with mountains, which render the air very
cold nine months in the year, and the other three ex-
ceffive hot. It is feated on the declivity of a hill, on
the top of which there is a ftrong caftle, and the lower
part of the town is watered by the river Alan^on. The
principal avenue to the city is by a handfome bridge
over this river, which leads to a beautiful gate, adorn¬
ed with the flatues of feveral kings of Spain. The
town is large and populous ; but the houfes are ill built,
and the ftreets are narrow and dirty, except fome few,
efpecially that which leads to the cathedral. There are
feveral fquares, adorned with fountains and Hatties.
The great fquare in the middle of the city is furround¬
ed with fine houfes, with piazzas to each. The cathe¬
dral church is a mafter-piece of Gothic archite&ure,
and one of the fined in all Spain. The church of the
Augudines is remarkable for its beautiful and rich cha¬
pel of the holy crucifix. There are feveral fine con¬
vents and nunneries; one of which lad contains 150
nuns, who mud all be of noble extra&ion. They have
likewife a royal hofpital, very richly endowed; and at
this place they fpeak the bed Cadilian, that is, the pu-
red Spanifh in the kingdom. W. Long. 4. 7. N. Lat.
42. 20.
BURGUNDY, a province or government of France.
It contains, befides the government of Burgundy, La
Brefie, La Bugy, and the didrift of Gex; having
Champagne on the north, Lyonnois on the fouth,
Tranche Comte on the ead, and Nivernois and Bour-
bonnois on the wed. Its length from north to fouth
is about 45 leagues, and its breadth from ead to wed
about 30. It is very fertile in corn, wine, fruit, and
tobacco; being watered by the Seine, the Dehune
•which falls into the Soane, the Brebince or Bourbince,
the Arman$on, thj? Oucke, and the Tille. There are
fome noted mineral fprings in it, with fubterraneous
lakes, and plenty of ochre. For a long time it had
dukes of its own, iubordinate to the crown of France;
VOL. II.
but at lad, Lew’s XI. upon the failure of the heirs Burial,
male, feized upon it, and annexed it to his crown. The
whole government lies within the jurifdiftion of the
parliament of Burgundy, except a fmall part that is fub-
jeft to that of Paris. The dates meet regularly every
three years, to raife the money required of them by the
court. The principal places are Dijon, Auxerre, Au-
tun, Bourbon, L’Ancy, &c.
BURIAL, the interment of a deceafed perfon.
The rites of burial are looked upon in all countries,
and at all times, as a debt fo facred, that fuch as ne-
glefted to difcharge it were thought accurfed: hence
the Romans called them jujla, and the Greeks
Jixaia, oma, words implying the inviolable obliga¬
tions which nature has laid upon the living to take
care of the obfequies of the dead. Nor are we to
wonder, that the ancient Greeks and Romans were ex¬
tremely felicitous about the interment of their deceafed
friends, fince they were drongly perfuaded, that their
fouls could not be admitted into the Elyfian fields till
their bodies were committed to the earth; and if it hap¬
pened that they never obtained the rites of burial, they
were excluded from the happy manfions for the term
of 100 years. For this reafon it was confidered as a
duty incumbent upon all travellers who fhould meet
with a dead body in their way, to cad dull or mould
upon it three times; and of thefe three handfuls, one
at lead was cad upon the head. The ancients likevvife
confidered it as a great misfortune if they were not laid
in the fepulchres of their fathers ; for which reafon,
fuch as died in foreign countries had ufually their allies
brought home, and interred with thofe of their ance-
dors. But notwithdanding their great care in the bu¬
rial of the dead, there were fome perfons whom they
thought unworthy of that lad office, and to whom
therefore, theyrefufed it: fuch were, 1. Public or pri¬
vate enemies. 2. Such as betrayed, or confpired againd
their country. 3. Tyrants, who were always looked
upon as enemies to their country. 4. Villains guilty
of facrilege. 5. Such as died in debt, whofe bodies be¬
longed to their creditors. And, 6. Some particular
offenders, who fuffered capital punilhment.
Of thofe who were allowed the rites of burial, fome
were didinguifiied by particular circumdances of dif-
grace attending their interment: thus perfons killed
by lightning were buried apart by themfelves, being
thought odious to the gods; thofe who waded their
patrimony, forfeited the right of being buried in the
fepulchres of their fathers; and thofe who were guilty
of felf-murder were privately depofited in the ground,
without the accudomed folemnities. Among the Jews,
the privilege of burial was denied only to felf-murder-
ers, who were thrown out to rot upon the ground. In
the Chridian church, though good men always defired
the privilege of interment, yet they were not, like the
heathens, fo concerned for their bodies, as to think it
any detriment to them, if either the barbarity of an
enemy, or fome other accident, deprived them of this
privilege. The primitive Chridian church denied the
more folemn rites of burial only to unbaptized perfons,
felf-murderers, and excommunicated perfons who con¬
tinued obdinate and impenitent, in a manifed contempt
of the church’s cenfures.
The place of burial among the Jews was never par¬
ticularly determined. We find they had graves in the
9 G town
BU R. [ 1526 ] BUR
Burick town and country, upon the highways, in gardens, and
II. upon mountains. Among the Greeks, the temples were
nurkut' made repofitories for the dead in the primitive ages;
yet the general cuftom in latter ages, with them, as
well as with the Romans and other heathen nations,
was to bury their dead without their cities, and chiefly
by the highways. Among the primitive Chriftians, bu¬
rying in cities was not allowed for the firfl: 300 years,
nor in churches for many ages after, the dead bodies
being firft depofited in the atrium or church-yard, and
porches and porticos of the church: hereditary bury-
ing-places were forbidden till the 12th century. As to
the time of burial, with all the ceremonies accompany¬
ing it, fee the article FuNERAL-R/Ve/.
BURICK, a town of Germany, in the circle of
Weftphalia, and duchy of Cleves, fubjeft to the king
of Pruflia. It was taken by the French in 1672, who
demolifhed the fortifications. It is agreeably feated on
the river Rhine, over againft Wefel, in E. Long. 6. 8.
N. Lat. 51. 38.
BURIDAN (John), a native of Bethune, in Artois,
was one of the mod celebrated philofophers of the 14th
century. He taught in the univerfity of Paris with
great reputation; and wrote commentaries on logic,
morality', and Ariftotle’s metaphyfics. Aventinus re¬
lates, that he was a difciple of Ockam; and that, be¬
ing expelled Paris by the power of the Realifts, which
was fuperior to that of the Nominalifts, he went into
Germany, where he founded the univerfity of Vienna.
From him came the proverb of the afs of Buridan, fo
famous in the fchools, Buridan fuppofed an hungry
afs fixed at an exadlly equal diftance between two bu-
fliels of oats ; or an afs, as much prefled by third as
hunger, between a bulhel of oats and a pail of water,
each of them afting equally on his fenfes. Having
made this fuppofition, he defired to know what the afs
would do? If he was anfwered that he would remain
immoveable, then he concluded he would die of hunger
between two bufliels of oats, or of both hunger and
thiril, with both corn and water w’ithin his reach. This
appeared abfurd, and brought the laughers on his fide;
but if it was replied, that the afs would not be fo ftu-
pid as to die of hunger or third in fuch a fituation,
Then (faid he), the afs has free will, or it is poflible
that of two equal weights one ftiould out-weigh the o-
ther ? Thefe two confequences appeared equally ab-.
furd; and thus Buridan, by this fophifm, perplexed
the philofophers, and his afs became famous in the
fchools.
BURKITT (William), a celebrated commentator
on the New Tedament, was born at Hitcham in North-
amptonfhire, July 25th 1650, and educated at Pem-
broke-hall, Cambridge. He entered young upon the
minidry, being ordained by bilhop Reynolds: and the
fird employment which he had was at Milden in Suf¬
folk, where he continued 21 years a condant preacher,
fird as a curate, and afterwards as redtor of that
church. In the year 1692, he had a call to the vicar¬
age of Dedham in Eflex, where he continued to the
time of his death, which happened in the latter end of
O&ober 1703. He was a pious and charitable man.
He made great colle&ions for the French Protedants
in the years 1687, &c< and by his great care, pains,
and charges, procured a worthy minider to go and
fettle in Carolina. Among other charities, by his lad
will and tedament, he bequeathed the houfe wherein
he lived, with the lands thereunto belonging, to be an
habitation for the ledturer that fliould be chofen from -
time to time, to read the ledlure at Dedham. Befides
his Commentary upon the New Teflament, written in
the fame plain, pradBcal, and affedfionate manner in
which he preached, he wrote a volume entitled The
poor man's help, ai:d rich man's guide.
BURLEIGH. See Cecil.
BURLESQUE, a fpecies of compofition, which,
though a great engine of ridicule, is not confined to
that fubjedt; for it is clearly didinguifliable-into bur-
lefque tbat excites laughter merely, and burlcfque that
excites derifion or ridicule. A grave fubjedt, in which
there is no impropriety, may be brought down by a
certain colouring fo as to be rifible, as in Virgil tra-
vedie; the author fird laughs at every turn, in order to
make his readers laugh. The Lutrin is a burlefque
poem of the other fort, laying hold of a low and trifling
incident to expofe the luxury, indolence, and conten¬
tious fpirit, of a fet of monks. Boileau, the author,
turns the fubjedt into ridicule, by drefling it in the he¬
roic dyle, and affedting to confider it as of the utmod
dignity and importance. Though ridicule is the poet’s
aim, he always carries a grave face, and never once be¬
trays a fmile. The oppofition between the fubjedl.and
the manner of handling it, is what produces the ridi¬
cule; and therefore, in a compofition of this kind, no
image profefledly ludicrous ought to have quarter, be-
caufe fuch images dedroy the contrad.
Though the burlefque that aims at ridicule, produces
its effedts by elevating the dyle far above the fubjedt;
yet the poet ought to confine himfelf to fuch images as
are lively, and readily apprehended. A drained eleva¬
tion, foaring above the ordinary reach of fancy, makes
not a pleafant impreffion. The mind is foon difguded
by being kept long on the flretch. Machinery may be
employed in a burlefque poem, fuch as the Lutrin, the
Difpenfary, or Hudibras, with more fuccafs and pro¬
priety than in any other (pecies of poetry. For bur-
lefque poems, though they aflume the air of hiflory,
give entertainment chiefly by their pleafant and ludi¬
crous pidlures: it is not the aim of fuch a poem to raile
fympathy ; and for that reafon, a drict imitation of na¬
ture is not neceflary. And hence, the more extrava¬
gant the machinery in a ludicrous poem, the more en¬
tertainment it affords.
BURLINGTON, a fea-port town in the ead riding
of Yorklhire, fituated on the German ocean, about 37
miles north-ead of York. E. Long. 10. and N. Lat.
54. 15. It gives the title of earl to a branch of the
noble family of Boyle.
Ne<w Burlington, the capital of New-Jerfey, in
North America; fituated in an ifland of Delawar river,
about 20 miles north of Philadelphia. W. Long. 74. o.
and N. Lat. 40. 40.
BURMAN (Francis), a Protedant minider, and
learned profeflbr of divinity at Utrecht, was born at
Leyden in 1628 ; and died on the to111' of November
1679, after having publilhed a courfe of divinity, and
feveral other works.
He is not to be confounded with Francis Burman,
his fon; or with Peter Burman, a laborious commen¬
tator on Phsedrus, Lucan, Petronius, and other pro¬
fane authors, who died in 1741.
Buileigh
II
Burman.
• BURN,
bur r 1.5
Bum, BURN, in Medicine and furgery, an injury received
Bumet. in any part of the body by fire. See Surgery, ^ ix. 20.
BURNET (Gilbert), bifhop of Salifbury in the lat¬
ter end of the 16th century, was born at Edinburgh,
in 1643, an anc‘ent family in the fhire of Aberdeen.
His father being bred to the law, was, at the reftora-
tion of king Charles II. appointed one of the lords of
feffion, with the title of lord Crimond, in reward for his
eonftant attachment to the royal party during the trou¬
bles of Great Britain. Our author, the youngeft fon
of his father, was inftrutted by him in the Latin tongue:
at ten years of age he was fent to continue his fludies
at Aberdeen, and was admitted M. A. before he was
14. His own inclination led him to the ftudy of the
civil and feudal law; and he ufed to fay, that it was
from this ftudy he had received more juft notions con¬
cerning the foundations of civil fociety and government,
than tHofe which fome divines maintain. About a year
after, he changed his mind, and began to apply to di¬
vinity, to the great fatisfa&ion of his father. He was
admitted preacher before he was 18; and Sir Alexander
Burnet, his coufin-german, offered him a benefice; but
he refufed to accept of it.
In 1663, about two years after the death of his fa¬
ther, he came into England; and after fix months ftay
at Oxford and Cambridge, returned to Scotland; which
he foon left again to make a tour for fome months in
1664, in Holland and France. At Amfterdam, by the
help of a Jewilh rabbi, he perfe&ed himfelf in the He¬
brew language ; and like wife became acquainted with
the leading men of the different perfuafions tolerated
in that country; as Calvinifts, Arminians, Lutherans,
Anabaptifts, Brownifts, Papifts, and Unitarians, a-
mongft each of which he ufed frequently to declare, he
met with men of fuch unfeigned piety and virtue, that
he became fixed in a ftrong principle of univerfal cha¬
rity, and an invincible abhorrence of all feverities on
account of religious diffenfions.
Upon his return from his travels, he was admitted
minifter of Salton ; in which ftation he ferved five years
in the moft exemplary manner. He drew up a memo¬
rial, in which he took notice of the principal errors in
the conduft of the Scots biftiops, which he obferved not
to be conformable to the primitive inftitution; and fent
a copy of it to feveral of them. This expofed him to
their refentments: but, to (hew he was not aftuated
with a fpirit of ambition, he led a retired courfe of
life for two years; which fo endangered his health, that
he was obliged to abate his exceffive application to
ftudy. In 1669, he-publiftied his “ Model! and free
conference between a conformift and non-conformift.”
He became acquainted with the duchefs of Hamilton,
who communicated to him all the papers belohging to
her father and her uncle; upon which he drew up the
“ Memoirs of the dukes of Hamilton.” The duke
of Lauderdale, hearing he was about this work, in¬
vited him to London, and introduced him to king
Charles II. He returned to Scotland, and married the
lady Margaret Kennedy, daughter of the earl of Caf-
filis; a lady of great piety and knowledge, highly e-
fteemed by the prelbyterians, to whofe fentiments (he
was ftrongly inclined. As there was fome difparity in
their ages, that it might remain pad difpute that this
match was wholly owing to inclination, and not to a-
varice or ambition, the day before their marriage our
27 1 BUR
author delivered the lady a deed, whereby he renounced Burnet.
all pretenfions to her fortune, wffich was very confider- 
able, and muft otherwife have fallen into his hands, (he
herfelf having no intention to fecure it. The fame year
he publiflied his “ Vindication of the authority, con-
ftitution, and laws of the church and date of Scot¬
land;” which at that junfture was looked upon as fo
great a fervice, that he was again offered a bifhopric,
and a promife of the next vacant archbifhopric ; but did
not accept of it, becaufe he could not approve of the
meafures of the court, the grand view of which he faw
to be the advancement of popery.
Mr Burnet’s intimacy with the duke of Hamilton
and Lauderdale occafioned him to be frequently fent
for by the king and the duke of York, who had conver-
fations with him in private. But Lauderdale conceiving
a refentment againft him on account of the freedom
whh which he fpoke to him, reprefented at laft to the
king, that Dr Burnet was engaged in an oppofition to
his meafures. Upon his return to London, he percei¬
ved that thefe fuggeftions had entirely thrown him out
of the king’s favour, though the duke of York treated
hirn with greater civility than ever, and diffuaded him
from going to Scotland. Upon this, he refigned his
profefforfhip at Glafgow, and (laid at London. About
this time the living at Cripple-gate being vacant, the
dean and chapter of St Paul’s (in whofe gift it was),
hearing of his circumftances, and the hardfiiips he had
undergone, fent him an offer of the benefice ; but as
he had been informed of their firft intention of confer¬
ring it on Dr Fowler, he generoufly declined it. In
1675, at the recommendation of lord Hollis, whom he
had known in France, ambaffador at that court, he was
by Sir Herbottle Grimftone, marter of the rolls, ap¬
pointed preacher of the chapel there, notwithftanding
the oppofition of the court. He was foon after chofen
a lefturer of St Clement’s, and became one of the
preachers that were moft followed in town. In 1697,
he publiftied his Hijlory of the reformation, for which he
had the thanks of both houfes of parliament. The firft
part of it was publilhed in 1679, and the fecond in
1681. Next year he publifiied an abridgement of thefe
two parts.
Mr Burnet about this time happened to be fent for
to a woman in ficknefs, who had been engaged in an
amour with the earl of Rochefter. The manner in
which he treated her during her illnefs, gave that lord
a great curiofityfor being acquainted with him. Where¬
upon, for a whole winter, he fpent one evening in a
week with Dr Burnet, who difcourfed with him upon
all thofe topics upon which fceptics and men of loofe
morals attack the Chriftian religion. The happy effeift
of thefe conferences occafioned the publication of his
account of the life and death of that earl. In 1682,
when the adminiftration was changed in favour of the
duke of York, being much reforted to by perfons of
all ranks and parties, in order to avoid returning vifits,
he built a laboratory, and went for above a year thro’
a courfe of chemical experiments. Not long after, he
refufed a living of 30b /. a-year, offered him by the earl
of Effex on the terms of his not redding there but in
London. When the inquiry concerning the Popifh plot
was on foot, he was frequently fent for and confulted
by king Charles with relation to the date of the nation.
His majefty offered him the biftiopric of Chichefter,
9 G 2 then
BUR [ 1528 ] BUR
Bnrket tlien vacant, if he would engage in his interefts; but
 1 he refufed to accept it on thefe terms. He preached
at the Rolls till 1684, when he was difmifled by or¬
der of the court. About this time he publilhed feveral
pieces.
On king James’s "cceffion to the throne, having ob¬
tained leave to go out of the kingdom, he firfl; went to
Paris, and lived in great retirement, till contra&ing
an acquaintance with brigadier Stouppe, a Proteftant
gentleman in the French fervice, he made a tour with
him into Italy. He met with an agreeable reception
at Rome. Pope Innocent II. hearing of our author’s
arrival, fent the captain of the Swifs guards to acquaint
him he would give him a private audience in bed, to a-
void the ceremony of killing his holinefs’s flipper. But
Dr Burnet excufed himfelf as well as he could. Some
difputes which our author had here concerning reli¬
gion, beginning to be taken notice of, made it proper
for him to quit the city ; which, upon an intimation
given him by prince Borghefe, he accordingly did.
He purfued his travels thro’ Switzerland and Ger¬
many. In 1688, he came to Utrecht, with an in¬
tention to fettle in fome of the feven provinces. There
he received an invitation from the prince and princefs
of Orange (to whom their party in England had re¬
commended him) to come to the Hague, which he ac¬
cepted. He was foon made acquainted with the fecret
of their counfels, and advifed the fitting out of a fleet
in Holland fufficient to fupport their defigns and en¬
courage their friends. This, and the Account of his
travels, in which he endeavoured to blend Popery and
tyranny together, and reprefent them as infeparable,
with fome papers refle&ing on the proceedings of Eng¬
land, that came out in Angle Iheets, and were difperfed
in feveral parts of England, mod of which Mr Burnet
owned himfclf the author of, alarmed king James ; and
were the occafion of his writing twice againlt him to
the princefs of.Orange, and infilling, by his ambafia-
dor, on his being forbid the court ; which after much
importunity was done, tho’ he continued to be trufted
and employed as before, the Dutch minifter confulting
him daily. To put an end to thefe frequent conferen¬
ces with the minifters, a profecution for high treafon
was fet on foot againft him both in England and Scot¬
land. But Burnet receiving the news thereof before it
arrived at the States, he avoided the ftorm, by peti¬
tioning for, and obtaining without any difficulty, a
bill of naturalization, in order to his intended marriage
with Mary Scot, a Dutch lady of confiderable fortune,
who, with the advantage of birth, had thofe of a fine
perfon and underftanding.
After his marriage with this lady, being legally un¬
der the prote&ion of Holland, when Mr Burnet found
king James plainly fubverting the conllitution, he o-
mitted no method to fupport and promote the defign
the Prince of Orange had formed of delivering Great
Britain, and came over with him in quality of chaplain.
He was foon advanced to the fee of Salilbury. He de¬
clared for moderate meafures with regard to the clergy
who fcrupled to take the oaths, and many were difplea-
fed with him for declaring for the toleration of non-
conformifts. His paftoral letter concerning the oaths
of allegiance and fupremacy to king William and queen
Mary, 1689, happening to touch upon the right of
conqueft, gave fuch offence to both boufes of parlia¬
ment, that it was ordered to be burnt by the hands of Burnet
the common executioner. In 1698 he loft his wife by H. |
the fmall-pox ; and, as he was almoft immediately af- lirn’nj’*
ter appointed preceptor to the duke of Gloucefter, in
whofe education he took great care, this employment,
and the tender age of his children, induced him the fame
year to fupply her lofs by a marriage with Mrs Berke-
ly, eldeft daughter of Sir Richard Blake, knight. In
1699he publifhed his f‘ Expofition of the 39 articles;”
which occafioned a reprefentation againft him in the
lower houfe of convocation in the year 1701; but he
was vindicated by the upper houfe. His fpeech in the
houfe of lords in 1704 againft the bill to prevent occa-
fional conformity was feverely attacked. He died in
1715, and was interred in the church of St James,
Clerkenwell, where he has a monument erected to him.
He formed a fcheme for augmenting the poor livings ;
which he prefled forward with fuch fuccefs, that it
ended in an a£t of parliament pafled in the 2d year of
queen Anne, “ for the augmentation of the livings
of the poor clergy.”
Burnet (Thomas), a polite and learned writer in
the end of the 17th century, was born in Scotland, but
educated in Cambridge under the tuition of Mr John
Tillotfon, afterwards archbifhop of Canterbury. In
the beginning of 1685, he was made mailer of Sutton’s
hofpital in London, after which he entered into holy
orders. During the reign of king James, he made a
noble (land in his poll as mailer of the charter-houfe a-
ainft the encroachments of that monarch, who would
ave impofed one Andrew Popham, a Papift, as a pen-
fionerupon the foundation of that houfe. In 1680 he
publilhed his Telluris theoria facra, fo univerfally ad¬
mired for the purity of the ftyle and beauty of the
fentiments, that king Charles gave encouragement ter
a tranflation of it into Englifli. This theory was how-
ver attacked by feveral writers. In 1692 he'pubh’lhed
his Archtzolog'uephilofophicx, dedicated to king William,
to whom he was clerk of the clofet. He died in 1715.
Since his death hath been publilhed, his book De Jla-
tu mortuorum et refurgentium, and his treatife De fide
et ofiiciis Chriftiarwrum.
Burnet, in botany. See Poterium and Sangui-
sorba.
BURNHAM, a market town, of Norfolk in Eng¬
land, fituated in E. Long. o. 50. N. Lat. 53. o.
BURNING, the afliion of fire on fome pabulum or
fuel, by which the minute parts thereof are put into
a violent motion, and fome of them affuming the nature
of fire themfelves, fly off in orbem, while the reft are
diffipated in form of vapour, or reduced to allies *. * See Ifni-
Extraordinary Cafes c/'Burning. We have inftancestl0n'
of perfons burnt by fire kindled within their own bo¬
dies. A woman at Paris, who ufed to drink brandy to
excefs, was one night reduced to alhes by a fire from
within, all but her head and the ends of her fingers.
Signora Corn. Zangari, or, as others call her, Corn.
Bandi, an aged lady, of an unblemilhed life, near Ce-
fena in Romagna, underwent the fame fate in March
1731. She had retired in the evening into her chamber
fomewhat indifpofed; and in the morning was found
in the middle of the room reduced to alhes, all except
her face, legs, ikull, and three fingers. The llockings
and Ihoes Ihe had on were not burnt in the lealt. The
allies were light; and, on preffing between the fingers,
vanilhed,
BUR
BUR [ 1529 ]
Burning, vanifaed, leaving behind a grofs ftinking moifture, with
“ which the floor was fmeared ; the walls and furniture
of the room being covered with a moift cineritious
foot, which had not only ftained the linen in the cherts,
but had penetrated into the clofet, as well as into the
room overhead, the walls of which were moiftened with
the fame vifcous humour.—We have various other re¬
lations of perfons burnt to death in this unaccountable
manner.
Sig. Mondini, Bianchini, and Maffei, have written
treatifes exprefs to account for the caufe of fo extraor¬
dinary an event: common fire it could not be, fince this
would likewife have burnt the bed and the room; befides
that it would have required many hours, and a vaft
quantity of fuel, to reduce a human body to afhes; and,
after all, a confiderable part of the bones would have
remained entire, as they were anciently found after the
fierceft funeral fires. Some attribute the efFeft to a mine
of fulphur under tbehoufe; others, to a miracle; while
others fufpeft that art or villainy had a hand in it. Aphi-
lofopher of Verona maintains, that fuch a conflagration
might have arifen from the inflammable matters where-
v/ith the human body naturally abounds. Sig. Bianchini
accounts for the conflagration of the lady above men¬
tioned, from her ufing a bath or lotion of camphorated
fpirit of wine when ftie found herfelf out of order.
Maffei fuppofes it owing to lightning, but to lightning
generated in her own body, agreeable to his do&rine,
which is. That lightning does not proceed from the
the clouds, but is'always produced in the place where
it is feen and its effedts perceived. We have had a late
attempt to eftabliih the opinion, that thefe deftroying
interna‘1 fires are caufed in the entrails of the body by
inflamed effluvia of the blood ; by juices and fermenta¬
tions in the ftomach; by the many combuftible matters
which abound in living bodies for the purpofes of life;
and, finally, by the fiery evaporations which exhale
from the fettlings of fpirit of wine, brandies, and other
hot liquors, in the tunica villofa of the ftomach and
other adipofe or fat membranes; within which thofe
fpirits engender a kind of camphor, which in the night¬
time, in fleep, by a full refpiration, are put in a ftronger
motion, and are more apt to be fet on fire. Others
afcribe the caufe of fuch perfons being fet on fire to
lightning ; and their burning fo entirely, to the greater
quantity of phofphorus and other combuftible matter
they contained.—For our own part, we can by no
means pretend to explain the caufe of fuch a phenome¬
non : but for the interefts of humanity we vvifh it could
be derived from fomething external to the human body;
for if, to the calamities of human life already known,
we fuperadd a fufpicion that we may unexpectedly and
without the leatt warning be confumed by an internal
fire, the thought is too dreadful to be borne.
Burning, or Brenning, in our old cuftoms, denotes
an infeftious difeafe, got in the ftews by converfing
with lewd women, and fuppofed to be the fame with
what we now call the venereal difeafe.
In a manufcript of the vocation of John Bale to the
bifhopric of Offory, written by himfelf, he fpeaks of
Dr Hugh Wefton, who was dean of Windfor in 1556,
but deprived by cardinal Pole for adultery, thus: “At
this day is leacherous Wefton, who is more praCtifed in
the arts of breech-burning, than all the whores of the
ftews. He not long ago brent a beggar of St Botolph’s
parifh.,> See Stews. JBurning^
Burning, in antiquity, a way of difpofing of the
dead much pradifed by the ancient Greeks and Ro¬
mans, and ftill retained by feveral nations in the
Eaft and Weft Indies. The antiquity of this cuftom
rifes as high as the Theban war, where we are told of
the great folemnity accompanying this ceremony at
the pyre of Menaeceus and Archemorus, who were co¬
temporary with Jair the eighth judge of Ifrael. Homer
abounds with funeral obfequies of this nature. In the
inward regions of Afia, the praftice was of very ancient
date, and the continuance long: for we are told, that,
in the reign of Julian, the king of Chionia burnt his
fon’s body, and depofited the afhes in a filver urn. Co¬
eval almoft with the firft inftances of this kind in the
eaft, was the praftice in the weftern parts of the world.
The Herulians, the Getes, and the Thracians, had all
along obferved it; and its antiquity was as great with
the Celtae, Sarmatians, and other neighbouring nations.
■The origin of this cuftom feems to have been out of
friendfhip to the deceafed: their afties were preferved
as we preferve a lock of hair, a ring, or a feal, which
had been the property of a deceafed friend.
Kings were burnt in cloth made of the alheftos ftone,
that their afttes might be preferved pure from any mix¬
ture with the fuel and other matters thrown on the fu¬
neral pile. The fame method is ftill obferved with the
princes of Tartary. Among the Greeks, the body was
placed on the top of a pile, on which were thrown di¬
vers animals, and even flaves and captives, befides un¬
guents and perfumes. In the funeral of Patroclus we
find a number of ftieep and oxen thrown in, then four
horfes, followed by two dogs, and laftly by 12 Trojan
prifoners. The like is mentioned by Virgil in the fune¬
rals of his Trojans; where, befides oxen, fwine, and all
manner of cattle, we find eight youths condemned to
the flames. The firft thing was the fat of the beafts
wherewith the body was covered, that it might con-
fume the fooner; it being reckoned great felicity to be
quickly reduced to afties. For the like reafon, where
numbers were to be burnt at the fame time, care was
taken to mix with the reft fome of humid conftitutions,
and therefore more eafily to be inflamed. Thus we are
affured by Plutarch and Macrobius, that for every ten
men it was cuftomary to put in one woman. Soldiers
ufuallyhad their arms burnt with them. The garments
worn by the living were alfo thrown on the pile, with
other ornaments and prefents; a piece of extravagance
which the Athenians carried to fo great a height, that
fome of their law-givers were forced to reftrain them,
by fevere penalties, from defrauding the living by their
liberality to the dead.—In fome cafes, burning was ex-
prefsly forbid among the Romans, and even looked up¬
on as the higheft impiety. Thus infants, who died be¬
fore the breeding of teeth, were intombed unburnt in
the ground, in a particular place fet apart for this pur-
pofe, called fuggrundarium. The like was pradifed with
regard to thofe who had been ftruck dead with light¬
ning, who were never to be burnt again. Some fay
that burning was denied to fuicides.—The manner of
burning among the Romans was not unlike that of the
Greeks: the corpfe, being brought out without the
city, was carried dire&ly to the place appointed for
burning it; which, if it joined to the fepulchre, was
called buftum; if feparate from it, ujlrina; and there
Cuming.
BUR t 1530 J BUR
laid on the rogus or pyra, a pile of wood prepared on
which to burn it, built in fhape of an altar, but of dif¬
ferent height according to the quality of the deceafed.
The wood ufed was commonly from fuch trees as con¬
tained mod pitch or rofin ; and if any other were ufed,
they fplit it for the more eafy catching fire : round the
pile they fet cyprefs trees, probably to hinder the
noifome fmell of the corpfe. The body was not placed
on the bare, pile, but on the couch or bed whereon it
lay. This done, the next of blood performed the cere¬
mony of lighting the pile; which they did with a torch,
turning their face all the while the other way, as if it
were done with reluftance. During the ceremony, de-
curfions and games were celebrated j after which came
the offileglum, or gathering of the bones and afhes ; al-
fo walhing and anointing them, and repofiting them
in urns.
Burning, among furgeons, denotes the application
of an aftual cautery, that is, a red-hot iron inlirument,
to the part affeded; otherwife denominated cauteriza-
tion.—The whole art of phyfic among the Japonefe
lies in the choice of places proper to be burnt; which _
are varied according to the difeafe. In the country of
the Mogul, the colic is cured by an iron ring applied
red-hot about the patient’s navel. Certain it is, that
fome very extraordinary cures have been performed ac¬
cidentally by burning. The following cafe is recorded
in the Memoirs of the academy of fciences by M. Hom-
berg. A woman of about 35 became fubjed to a head-
ach, which at times was fo violent, that it drove her out
of her fenfes, making her fotaetimes ftupid and foolilh,
at other times raving and furious. The feat of the pain
was in the forehead, and over the eyes, which were in¬
flamed, and looked violently red and fparkling ; and
the moft violent fits of it were attended with naufeas
and vomitings. In the times of the fits, file could take
no food; but, out of them, had a very good flomach,
Mr Homberg had in vain attempted her cure for three
years with all kinds of medicines: only opium fuc-
ceeded; and that but little, all its effed being only the
taking oft the pain for a few hours. The rednefs of her
eyes was always the fign of an approaching fit. One
night, feeling a fit coming on, {he went to lie down
upon the bed; but firft walked up to the glafs with
the capdle in her hand, to fee how her eyes looked : in
obferving this, the candle fet fire to her cap; and as
file was alone, her bead was terribly burnt before the
fire could be extinguifhed. Mr Homberg was fent for,
and ordered bleeding and proper drefiings: but it was
perceived, that the expeded fit this night never came
on ; the pain of the burning wore off by degrees; and
the patient found herfelf from that hour cured of the
head-ach, which had never returned in four years after,
which was the time when the account was communica¬
ted.—Another cafe, not lefs remarkable than the for¬
mer, was communicated to Mr Homberg by a pbyfieian
at Bruges. A woman, who for feveral years had her
legs and thighs fwelled in an extraordinary manner,
found fome relief from rubbing them before the fire
with brandy every morning and evening. One evening
the fire chanced to catch the brandy (he had rubbed
herfelf with, and flightly burnt her. She applied fome
brandy to her burn; and in the night all the water her
legs and thighs were fwelled with was entirely difchar-
ged by urine, and the fwelling did not again return.
Burninga convex glafs commonly fpherical,
which being expofed dire&ly to the fun, collets all
the rays falling thereon into a very fmall fpace called
the focus ; where wood, or any other combuftible mat¬
ter being put, will be fet on fire. The term burrtitig-
glafs is alfo ufed to denote thofe concave mirrors, whe¬
ther compofed of glafs quick-filvered, or of metalline
matters, which burn by refle&ion, condenfing the fun’s
rays into a focus fimilar to the former.
The ufe of burning-glaffes appears to have been very
ancient. Diodorus Siculus, Lucian, Dion, Zonaras,
Galen, Anthemius, Euftathius, Tzetzes, and others,
atteft, that by means of them Archimedes fet fire to
the Roman fleet at the fiege of Syracufe. Tzetzes is
fo particular in his account of this matter, that his de-
fcription fuggefted to Kircher the method by which it
was probably accomplifhed. That author fays, that
“ Archimedes fet fire to Marcellus’s navy, by means
of a burning-glafs compofed of fmall fquare mirrors,
moving every way upon hinges ; which, when placed
in the fun’s rays, dire&ed them upon the Roman fleet,
fo as to reduce it to afhes at the diftance-of a bow-fhot.”
A very particular teftimony we have alfo from Anthe¬
mius of Lydia, who takes pains to prove the poffibility
of fetting fire to a fleet, or any other combuflible body,
at fuch 3 diftanee.
That the ancients were^lfo acquainted with the ufe
of catoptric or refradling burning-glafles, appears
from a paffage in Ariftophanes’s comedy of the clouds,
which clearly treats of their effects! The author in¬
troduces Socrates as examining Strepfiades about the
method he had difcovered of getting clear of his. debts.
He replies, that “ he thought of making ufe of a burn-
ing-glafs which he had hitherto ufed in kindling his
fire;” “for, (fays he), fhould they bring a writ againfl
me, I’ll immediately place my glafs in the fun at fome
little diftance from it, and fet it on fire.” Pliny and
Ladtantius have alfo fpoken of glafles that burned by
refradtion. The former calls them balls or globes of
glafs or cryftal, which, expofed to the fun, trar.fmit a
heat fufficient to fet fire to cloth, or corrode away the
dead flefh of thofe patients who Hand in need of cau-
ftics ; and the latter, after Clemens Alexandrinus, takes
notice that fire may be kindled by interpofing glafles
filled with water between the fun and the objedt, fo as
to tranfmit the rays to it.
It feems difficult to conceive how they fhould know
fuch glafles would burn without knowing they would
magnify, which it is granted they did not, till towards
the clofe of the 13th century, when fpcdtacles were firft
thought on. For as to thofe pafiages in Plautus which
feem to intimate the knowledge of fpeftacles, M. de
la Hire obferves, they do not prove any fuch thing ;
and he folves this, by obferving, that their burning-
glafles being fpheres, either folid or full of water, their
foci would be one fourth of their diameter diftant from
them. If then their diameter were fuppofed half a foot,
which is the moft we can allow, an objedl muft be at
an inch and a half diftance to perceive it magnified;
thofe at greater diftances do not appear greater, but
only more confufed through the glafs than out of it.
It is no wonder, therefore, the magnifying property of
convex glafles was unknown, and the burning one
known. It is more wonderful there fhould be 300
. years between the invention of fpeftacles and tele-
fcopes.
Burning.
BUR
[ >53' 1 BUR
burning, fcopes.
Among the ancients, the burning mirrours of Ar¬
chimedes and Proclus are famous : the former we have
already taken notice of; by the other, the navy of
Vitelius belieging Byzantium, according to Zonaras,
was burnt to alhes.
Among the moderns, the moft remarkable burning
mirrours are thofe of Settala, of Villette, of Tfchirn-
haufen, and M. Buffon. Settala, canon of Padua,
made a parabolic mirror, which, accordingto Schot-
tus, birrnt pieces of wood at the diitance of 15 or 16
paces.
M.Tfchirnhaufen’s mirrourat lead equals the former,
both in bignefs and elfedl;. The following things are
noted of it in the> A ft a Eruditoruvi. 1. Green wood
takes fire inftantaneoufly, fo as a fii-ong wind cannot
extinguiih it. 2. Water boils immediately ; and eggs
in it are prefently edible. 3. A mixture of tin and
lead, three inches thick,, drops prefently ; and iron and
fieel-plate becomes red-hot prefently, and a little after
burns into holes. 4. Things not capable of melting,
as ftones, bricks, &c. become foon red-hot, like iron.
5. Slate becomes firft white, then a black glafs. 6. Tiles
are converted into a yellow glafs, and fliells into a
blackiih-yellow one. 7. A pumice done, emitted from a
volcano, melts in white glafs; and, 8. A piece of crucible
alfo vitrifies in eight minutes. 9. Jlones are foon turned
into an opaque glafs, and earth into a black one. The
breadth of this mirrour is near three Leipfic ells, its
focus two ells from it; it is made of copper, and its
fubftance is not above double the thicknefs of the back
of a knife.
Villette, a French artift of Lyons, made a large
mirrour, which was bought by Tavernier, and pre-
fented to the king of Perfia ; a ftcond, bought by the
king of Denmark ; a third prefented by the French
king to the royal academy ; a fourth has been in Eng¬
land, where it was publicly expofed. The effedb
hereof, as found by Dr Harris and Dr Defaguliers,
are, that a filver fixpence is melted in 7" and 4-, a king
George’s halfpenny in 16", and runs with a hole in 34.
Tin melts in 3", call-iron in 16", Hate m3"; a fof-
fil Ihell calcines in 7"; a piece of Pompey’s pillar at A-
lexandria vitrifies in the black part in 50", in the
white in 54" ; copper ore in 8" j bone calcines in 4",
vitrifies in 33. An emerald melts into a fubtlance like
a turquois ftone ; a diamond weighing four grains lofes
.jj. of its weight : the albedos vitrifies ; as all other bo¬
dies will do, if kept long enough in the focus; but
when once vitrified, the mirror can go no farther with
them. This mirror is 47 inches wide, and is ground
to a fphere of 76 inches radius; fo that its focus is a-
bout 38 inches from the vertex. Its fubllance is a com-
pofition of tin, copper, and tin-glafs.
Every lens, whether convex, plano-convex, or con¬
vexo-convex, colle&s the fun’s rays, difperfed over its
convexity, into a point by refradtion; and is there¬
fore a burning-glafs. The moll confiderable of this
kind is that made by M. de Tfchirnhaufen : the dia¬
meter of his lens’s are three and four feet, the focus at
the dillance of 12 feet, and its diameter an inch and a
half. To make the focus the more vivid, it is colledled
a fecond time by a fecond lens parallel to the firll, and
placed in that point where the diameter of the cone of
rays formed by the firll lens is equal to the diameter
of the fecond ; fo that it receives them all; and the Burning,
focus, from an inch and a half, is contradled into the
fpace of eight lines, and its force increafed proportion-
ably.
This glafs vitrifies tiles, Hates, pumice-llones, &c.
in a moment. It melts fulphur, pitch, and all rofins,
under water ; the afhes of vegetables, woods, and other
matters, are tranfmuted into glafs ; and every thing
applied to its focus, is either melted, turned into
a calx, or into fmoke. Tfchirnhaufen obferves, that
it fucceeds bell when the matter applied is laid on a hard
charcoal well burnt.
Sir Ifaac Newton prefented a burning-glafs to the
royal fociety, confiding of feven concave glalfes, fo
placed, as that all their foci join in one phyfical point.
Each glafs is about 11 inches and a half in diameter :
fix of them are placed round the feventh, to which they
are all contiguous; and they form a kind of fegment
of a fphere, whofe fubtenfe is about 34 inches and a
half, and the central glafs lies about an inch farther in
than the red. The common focus is about 22 inches
and a half didant, and about an inch in diameter.
This glafs vitrifies brick or tile in 1", and melts gold
in 30".
It would appear, however, that glafs quickfilvered
is a more proper material for burning-glades than me¬
tals ; for the effedls of that fpeculum wherewith Mr
Macquer melted the platina,‘feem to have been fupe-
rior to thofe above mentioned, though the mirror it-
felf was much fmaller. The diameter of this glafs was
only 22 inches, and its focal didance 28. Black flint,
when expofed to the focus, being powdered to prevent
its crackling and flying about, and fecured in a large
piece of charcoal, bubbled up, and ran into tranfparent
glafs in lefs than half a minute. Hefitan crucibles, and
glafs-houfe pots, vitrified completely in three or four
feconds. Forged iron, fmoked, boiled, and changed
into a vitrefcent fcoria as foon as it was expofed to the
focus. The gypfum of Montmartre, when the flat
fides of the plates or leaves of which it is compofed
were prefented to the glafs, did not (how the lead dif-
polition to melt ; but, on prefenting a tranfverfe fec-
tion of it, or the edges of the plates, it melted in an
indant, with a hiding noife* into a brownirti yellow
matter. Calcareous dones did not completely melt:
but there was detached from them, a circle more corn-
pad than the reit of the mafs, and of the fize of the
focus ; the feparation of which feemed to be occafioned
by the (hrinking of the matter which had begun to en¬
ter into fufion. The white calx of antimony commonly-
called diaphoretic antimony, melted better than the cal¬
careous dones, and changed into an opaque pretty
glody fubdance like white enamel. It was obferved,
that the whitenefs bf the calcareous dones and the an-
timonial calx was of great difadvantage to their fuflon,
by reafon of their rededing great part of the fun’s rays;
fo that the fubjed could not undergo the full adivlty
of the heat thrown upon it by the burning-glafs. The
cafe was the fame with metallic bodies, which melted
fo much the more difficultly as they were more white
and polilhed ; and this difference was fo remarkable*
that in the focus of this mirror, fo fufible a metal as
filver,. when its furface was polidied, did not melt at all.
Plate LXVI. fig. 3. reprefents Mr Buffon’s burn¬
ing mirror, which he with great reafon ftippofes to be
of
BUR [ 1532 ] BUR
Burning, of the fame nature with that of Archimedes. It con-
fifts of a number of fmall mirrors of glafs quickfilvered,
all of which are held together-by an iron frame. Each
of thefe fmall mirrors is alfo moveable by a contrivance
on the back part of the frame, that fo their refleftions
may all coincide in one point. By this means they are
capable of being accommodated to various heights of
the fun, and to different diftances. The adjufting them
in this manner takes up a confiderable time ; but after
they are fo adjufted, the focus wdll continue unaltered
for an hour or more.
Fig. 4. reprefents a contrivance of M. Buffon’s for
diminifhing the thicknefs of very large refra&ing lenfes.
He obferves, that in large lenfes of this kind, and
which are moft convenient for many purpofes, the
thicknefs of the glafs in the middle is fo great, as very
much to diminifh their force. For this reafon he pro-
pofes to form a burning-glafs of concentric circular
pieces of glafs, each refting upon the other, as repre-
fented in the figure. His method is to divide the con¬
vex arch of the lens into three equal parts. Thus, fup-
pofe the diameter to be 26 inches, and the thicknefs
in the middle to be three inches: By dividing the lens
into three concentric circles, and laying the one over
the other, the thicknefs of the middle-piece needs be
only one inch ; at the fame time that the lens will have
the fame convexity, and almoft the fame focal diftance,
as in the other cafe ; while the effedts of it muft be
much greater, on account of the greater thinnefs of the
glafs.
Burning Springs. Of thefe there are many in dif¬
ferent parts of the world ; particularly one in Dau-
phiny near Grenoble; another near Hermanftadt in
Tranfylvania ; a third at Chermay, a village, near
Switzerland ; a fourth in the canton of Friburg; and
a fifth not far from the city of Cracow in Poland.
There alfo is,-or was, a famous fpring of the fame
kind at Wigan in Lancafhire, which, upon the ap¬
proach of a lighted candle, would take fire and burn
like fpirit of wine for a whole day. But the mod re¬
markable one of this kind, or at leaft that of which we
have the moft particular defcription, was difcovered in
1711 at Biofely in Shropfhire. The following account
of this remarkable fpring w^as given by the reverend
Mr Mafon Woodwardian profeffor at Cambridge, dated
February 18th 1746. “ The well for four or five feet
deep is fix or feven feet wide ; within that is another
lefs hole of like depth dug in the clay, in the bottom
whereof is placed a cylindric earthen veflel, of about
four or five inches diameter at the mouth, having the
bottom taken off and the fides well fixed in the clay
rammed clofe about it. Within the pot is a brown
water thick as puddle, continually forced up with a
violent motion beyond that of boiling water, and a
rumbling hollow noife, rifing or falling by fits five or
fix inches ; but there was no appearance of any vapour
riling, which perhaps might have been vifible, had not
the fun fhone fo bright. “ Upon putting a candle
down at-the end of a flick, at about a quarter of a yard
diftance, it took fire, darting and flafhing after a very
violent manner for about.half a yard high, much in the
manner of fpirits in a lamp, but with great agitatoin,
It was faid, that a tea-kettle had been made to boil in
about nine minutes time, and that it had been left burn¬
ing for 48 hours without any fenfible diminution. It
was extinguifhed by putting a wet mop upon it; which Burning
muft be kept there for a little time, otherwife it would |junJWOO(j
not go out. Upon the removal of the mop there rifes  1
a fulphui'eous fmoke lafting about a minute, and yet the
water is very cold to the touch.” In 1755* this well
totally difappeared by the finking of a coal-pit in its
neighbourhood.’
The caufe of the inflammable property of fuch wa¬
ters, is with great probability fuppofed to be their
mixture with petroleum, which is one of the moft in-
flamable fubftances in nature, and has the property of
burning on the furface of water.
Burning of Colours, among painters. There are
feveral colours that require burning ; as,
Firft, lamp-black, which is a colour of fo greafy a
nature, that, except it is burnt, it will require a long
time to dry. The method of burning, or rather drying,
lamp-black, is as follows : Put it into a crucible over a
clear fire, letting it remain till it be red hot, or fo
near it that there is no manner of fmoke arifes from it.
Secondly, Umber, which if it be intended for co¬
lour for a horfe, or to be a fhadow for gold, then
burning fits it for both thefe purpofes. In order to
burn umber, you muft put it into the naked fire, in
large lumps, and not take it out till it is thoroughly
red hot; if you have a mind to be more curious, put
it into a crucible, and keep it over the fire till it be
red hot.
Ivory alfo m«ft be burnt to make black, thus : fill
two crucibles with fhavings of ivory, then clap their
two mouths together, and bind them faft with an iron
wire, and lute the joints clofe with clay, fait, and
horfe-dung, well beaten together ; then fet it over the
fire, covering it all over with coals: let it remain in
the fire, till you are fure that the matter inclofed is
thoroughly red hot: then take it out of the fire ; but
do not open the crucibles till they are perfe&ly cold;
for were they opened while hot, the matter would turn
to allies ; and fo it will be, if the joints are not luted
clofe.
BURNISHER, a round polilhed piece of fteel,
ferving to fmooth and give a luftre to metals.
Of thefe there are different kinds of different figures,
ftraight, crooked, &c. Half burnifhers are ufed to fol¬
der lilver, as well as to give a luftre f. fSeeSolder-
BURNISHING, the art of fmoothing orpolilhing <«£•
a metalline body, by a brilk rubbing of it with a bur-
nilher.
Book-binders burnilh the edges of their books, by
rubbing them with a dog’s tooth. Gold and filverare
bundlhed by rubbing them with a woolf’s tooth, or
by the bloody ftone, or by tripoli, a piece of white
wood, emery, and the like. Deer are faid to burnilh
their heads, by rubbing off a downy white Ikin from
their horns, againft a tree.
BURNLEY, a town of Lancalhire in England, fi-
tuated in W. Long. 2. 5. N. Lat. 53. 40.
BURNTISLAND. See Bruntisland.
BURNTWOOD, a town of Effex in England, fi-
tuated on a hill, in E. Long. o. 25. N. Lat. 51. 38.
BURR, the round knob of a horn next a deer's
head.
BURRE, Bourse, or Boree, a kind of dance com-
pofed of three fteps joined together in two motions,
begun with a crotchet rifing. The firft couplet con¬
tains
f r-
Place LXYI.
Sty.3. .i i r!i N'INi' - t/irnn'c/
//af/u/it.
htm^aAv.
J I 'KlsriXO ^ m'rwr
'?/i e/ei'a/rbtut.
^TeriNTTir.
l~ftTr/u'//iuj
j (JSr(h </
■Wi/fi/e' ///•//.
.BTHjLA vrl
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BUR [ 1533 ] BUR
Burr tains twice four meafures, the fecond twice eight. It
. II coniifts of a balance and coupee.
-U-'r°ug s' BURR-pump, or Bildge-JW/, differs from the
common pump, in having a ftaff 6, 7, or 8 feet long,
with a bar of wood, whereto the leather is nailed,
and this ferves inftead of a box. So two men, fland-
ing over the pump, thruft down this ftaff, to the mid¬
dle whereof is fattened a rope, for 6, 8, or 10 to hale
by, thus pulling it up and down.
BURROCK, a fmall wier or dam, where wheels
are laid in a river, for the taking of fifh.
BURROUGHS’S machine, invented by Mr Bur¬
roughs of Southwark ; and for which the fociety for
the encouragement of arts gave him a premium of 701.
PI. LXVI. This machine confitts of a cog-wheel A (fig. 5.),
T2 feet in diameter, carrying 72 cogs; which turn a
trundle-head B, one foot four inches in diameter, and
furnifhed with eight rounds ; and alfo an horizontal
fpur-wheel C, of 12 cogs, and one foot eight inches
in diameter. The trundle-head B turns a fpur-wheel
D of ten cogs, and two feet eight inches in diameter.
This fpur-wheel has two cranks, a b, in its (haft; one of
which a gives motion to a wooden frame, c, about 34
inches long, and 19 broad. On the under fide of this
frame are fattened by fcrews twelve pieces of polifhed
metal, each five inches and a half long, and three
broad, covered with leather; and underneath thefe po-
Jilhers, a glafs plate cemented in another frame is pla¬
ced on the bench d, and polifhed with tripoli by the
motion given to the upper frame by the crank a. The
nuts of the fcrews which fatten the poliihers to the up¬
per frame are not fcrewed clofe to the wood, in order
to give the frame room to play; by which contrivance
the perpendicular rife of the crank is avoided, and the
motion of the polilhers always parallel and equal. The
under frame may be moved by the hand in any direc¬
tion without flopping the machine ; by which means
the plate, when larger than the polifhing frame can
cover in its motion, will be equally polilhed in every
part.
The other crank b gives motion to two other po¬
lilhers marked n, o> which have an alternate motion by
the bending of the crank; they move upon the fame
plate, and have an equal number of polilhefs, as that al¬
ready defcribed.
The fame crank alfo gives motion to a contrivance
reprefented at e for polilhing fpe&acle-glafies. It con-
fifts of two fegments of the fame fphere ; one concave,
and the other convex. On the latter'the glaffes are ce¬
mented ; and polilhed by the former, which is moved
by the crank b. The convex fegment may be moved
round by the hand without (lopping the machine, fo
that all the glafles on its fuperficies will be equally
polilhed.
The other fpur-wheel C, by means of a crank in its
{haft, gives motion to another frame g, employed in
grinding the glafs plates. The rod b, extended from
the crank f to the frame £, is fattened to the latter by
means of a pivot, in order to admit of a rotatory mo ¬
tion, as well as that given it by the crank in a longitu¬
dinal direction. This rotatory motion is effected by
means of a rod of iron i, called a trigger, Iharp at the
extremity next the frame, where it touches the teeth of
nn horizontal fpur-wheel, or circular piece of wood,
fixed on the grinding-plate, while the other end is ex-
Von. II.
tended three feet two inches to the centre of motion. nutrows
But this contrivance, in which the merit of the ma- II -
chine principally confitts, will be much better conceived . l’r e'
from a fmall delineation of it by itfelf (fig. 6.), where
F is the crank marked / in fig. 5. and turned by the
fpur-wheel C in the fame figure. G is the trigger, three
feet two inches long. I, a roll fixed on the trigger for
the rod to Aide on. H, the horizontal fpur-wheel, ele¬
ven inches in diameter, fixed on the grinding-plate; the
teeth of which is touched by the trigger; but with a very
unequal force, as it will wholly depend upon the grind¬
ing plate’s being farther from, or nearer to, the centre
of motion of the trigger. By this Ample contrivance,
the grinding-plate has a very compound motion, never
moving cxadly in the fame trad, and therefore mutt
grind the plates equally in every part. Several attempts
have been made by others for producing the fame ef¬
fect : but without fuccefs ; the grinding-plate always
following the fame trad, and confequently the plates
were ground unequally.
BURROWS, holes in a warren, ferving as a covert
for rabbits, &c. A coney’s coming out of her burrow
is called bolting. To catch coneys, they fometimes lay
purfe-nets over the burrows, then put in a terrier clofe
muzzled, which making the creature bolt, (he is caught
in the net.
BURSA, or Prusa, in geography, the capital of
Bithinia in Afia Minor, fituated in a fine fruitful plain,
at the foot of mount Olympus, about 10O miles fouth
of Conftantinople. E. Long. 29. o. N. Lat. 40. 30.
BuRSA-/*q/?s!m, in botany. See Thlaspi.
Bursa, Burjfe, originally fignifies a purfe. In middle-
age writers it is more particularly ufed for a little col¬
lege or hall in an univerfity, for the refidence of ftu-
dents called burfales oxburfarii. In the French univer-
fities it ftill denotes a foundation for the giaintenance
of poor fcholars in their ftudies. The nomination to
burfes is in the hands of the patrons ^nd founders
thereof. The burfes of colleges are not benefices, but
mere places affigned to certain countries and perfons. A
burfe becomes vacant by the burfer’s being promoted
to a cure.
BURSAR, or Burser, [Burfarius), is ufed in
middle-age writers for a treafurer or calh-keeper. In
this fenfe we meet with burfars of colleges^ Conven¬
tual burfars were officers in monafteries, who were to
deliver up their account yearly on the day after Mi¬
chaelmas. The word is formed from the Latin bnrfa^
whence alfo the Englilh word purfe ; hence alfo the of¬
ficer, who in a college is called bur far, in a fhip is called
purfer.
Bursars, or Burfirs, (Burfarii), alfo denote thofe
to whom ftipends are paid out of a burfe or fund ap¬
pointed for that purpofe.
BURSARIA, the burfary, or exchequer of colle¬
giate and conventual bodies ; or the place of receiving,
paying, and accounting by the burfarii or burfers. -
BURSE, in matters of commerce, denotes a public
edifice in certain cities, for the meeting of merchants
to negociate bills, and confer on other matters relating
to money and trade. In this fenfe, burfe amounts to
the fame with what we otherwife call an exchange *. * See the
The firft place of this kind to which the name Burfe al ticle £x-
wasgiven, Guiechardin affures us, was at Bruges; and.
it took its denomination from an hotel adjoining to it,
9 H * built
litirfe
liurton.
t See Rup¬
ture,
BUR [ 1534 1 BUR
built by a lord of the family de la Bourfe, whofe arms,
which are three purfes, are (lill found on the crowning
over the portal of the houfe. Catel’s account is fome-
what different, viz. that the merchants of Bruges
bought a houfe or apartment to meet in, at which was
tire lign of the purfe. From this city the name was
afterwards transferred to the like places in others, as in
Antwerp, Amfterdam, Bergen in Norway, and Lon¬
don. This laft, anciently known by the name of the
common burfe of merchants, had the denomination lince
given it by queen Elizabeth, of the royal exchange.
The moft confiderable burfe is that of Amfterdam,
which is a large building, 230 feet long, and 130 broad,,
round which runs a periftyle 20 feet wide. The co¬
lumns of the periftyle, which are 46, are numbered, for
the conveniency of finding people. It will hold 4500
perfons.
In the times of the Romans there were public places
for the meeting of merchants in moft of the trading ci¬
ties of the empire: that built at Rome, in the 259th
year after its foundation, under the confulate of Appius
Claudius and Publius Servilius, was denominated the
college of merchants ; fome remains of it are ftill to be
feen, and are known by the modern Romans under
the name loggia. The Hans towns, after the example
of the Romans, gave the name of colleges to their burfes.
BURSTEN, denotes a perfon who has a rupture f.
BURTHEN of a Ship. See Burden.
BURTON upon Trent, a town of Staffordlhire,
in England. It had formerly a large abbey; and over
the river Trent it has now a famous bridge of free done,
about a quarter of a mile in length, fupported by 37
arches. It confifts chiefly of one long ftreet, which
runs from the place where the abbey flood to the bridge;
and has a good market for corn and provifions. Bur¬
ton ale is reckoned the beft of any brought to London.
E. Long. 1. 36. N. Lat. 52. 48.
Burton, a town of Lincolnihire in England, feated
on a hill near the river Trent. It is but a fmall place,
and fituated in W. Long. o. 30. N. Lat. 53. 40.
Burton, a town of Weftmoreland in England, feat¬
ed in a valley near a large hill called Farleton-knot-
hill. It is pretty well built, and lies on the great road
from Lancaftef to Carlifle. W. .Long. 2. 35. N. Lat.
54. 10.
Burton (Robert), known to the learned by the
name of Democritus junior, was younger brother to
William Burton who wrote “ The antiquities of Lei-
cefterfliire and born of an ancient family at Lindley,
in that county, upon the 8th of February 1576. He
was educated in grammatical learning in the free fchool
of Sutton Colfield in Warwickfhire ; in the year 1593
was fent to Brazen-nofe college in Oxford; and in
1599 was elefled ftudent of Chnft-church. In 1616, he
had the vicarage of St Thomas, in the weft fuburb of
Oxford, conferred upon him by the dean and canons of
Chrift-church, to the pariihioners of which, it is faid,
that he always gave the facrament in wafers; and
this, with the reftory of Segrave in Leicefterftiire, gi¬
ven him fome time after by George lord Berkeley, he
held to the day of his death, which happened in Ja¬
nuary 1639.
He was a man of general learning; a great philofo-
pher ; an exa& mathematician ; and (what makes the
peculiarity of his charadler) a very curious calculator
of nativities. He was extremely ftudious, and of a me- Eiutcm.
lancholy turn ; yet an agreeable companion, and very "~
humorous. The anatomy of melancholy, by Democritus
junior, as he calls himfelf, ftiews, that thefe different
qualities were mixed together in his compofition. This
book was printed firft in 4C°, afterwards in folio, in
1624, 1632, 1638, and 1652, to the great emolument
of the bookfeller, who, as Mr Wood tells us, got an
eftate by it. Some circumftances attending his death
occafioned ftrange fufpicions. He died in his chamber
at or very near the time which, it feems, he had fome
years before predicted from the calculation of his nati¬
vity ; and this exaftnefs made it whifpered about, that,
for the glory of aftrology, and rather than his calcula¬
tion fhould fail, he became indeed a felo de fe. This,
however, was generally diferedited; he was buried with
due folemnity in the cathedral of Chrift-church, and
had a fair monument eredted to his memory. He left
behind him a very choice collection of books. He be¬
queathed many to the Bodleian library; and 100/.
to Chrift-church, the intereft of which was to be laid
out yearly in books for their library.
Burton (John), D. D. a late worthy and learned
divine, was born in 1696, at Wembworth, in Devon-
Ihire, his father being redtor of that parifh ; and was
educated at Corpus Chrifti college, Oxford. In 1725,
being then pro-prodtor and mafter of the fchools, he
fpoke a Latin oration before the determining bachelor,
which is intitled “ Heli; or, An inftance of a magi-
ftrate’s erring through unfeafonable lenity written
and publifhed with a view to encourage the falutary ex-
ercife of academical difeipline ; and afterwards treated
the fame fubjedf ftill more fully in four Latin fermons
before the univerfity, and publiftted them with appen¬
dixes. He alfo introduced into the fchools, Locke,
and other eminent modern philofophers, as fuitable com¬
panions to Ariftotle ; and printed a double feries of phi-
lofophical queftions, for the ufe of the younger ftudents;
from which Mr Johufon of Magdalene college, Cam¬
bridge, took the hint of his larger work of the fame
kind, which has gone through feveral editions.
When the fettling of Georgia was in agitation, Dr
Bray, juftly revered for his inftitution of parochial li¬
braries, Dr Stephen Hales, Dr Berriman, and other
learned divines, intreated Mr Burton’s pious afisftance
in that undertaking. This he readily gave, by preach¬
ing before the fociety in 1732, and publifhing his fer-
mon, with an appendix on the ftate of that colony; and
he afterwards publiihed an account of the defigns of the
affociates of the late Dr Bray, with an account of their
proceedings.
About the fame time, on the death of Dr Edward
Littleton, he was prefented by Eton college to the vi¬
carage of Maple-Derham, in Oxfordfhire. Here a me¬
lancholy feene, which too often appears in the manfions
of the clergy, prefented itfelf to his view; a widow,
with three infant daughters, without a home, without
a fortune: from his compaffion arofe love, the confe-
quence of which was marriage ; for Mrs Littleton was
handfome, elegant, accomplifhed, ingenious, and had
great fweetnefs of temper. In 1760, he exchanged his
vicarage of Maple-Derham for the reftory of Worplef-
don in Surry. In his advanced age, finding his eyes
begin to fail him, he colle&ed and publifhed, in one
volume, all his fcattered pieces, under the title of Opuf
BUR
! Burton
II
Burying.
cuJa mifcellanea; and foon after died, February 11'
1771-
Burton, in the fea-language, a fmall tackle con¬
fiding of two fingle blocks, and may be made fall any
where at pleafure, for hoifting fmall things in and out.
BURY, is fometimes ufed to denote the hole or den
s ide*^6ar* ^ome amm3^ under ground f. In this fenfe we fay
ur~ the bury of a mole, a tortoife, or the like. The grillo-
talpa, or mole-cricket, digs itfelf a bury with its fore-
[ >535 1
BUS
A. Gellius, that the fiamen Didlis might not on any ac¬
count enter a place where there was a grave: the fe-
cond to prevent the air from being corrupted by the .
flench of putrefied bodies, and the buildings from be¬
ing endangered by the frequency of funeral fires.
Burying in churches was not allowed for the firft 300
years after Chrifl ; and the fame was feverely prohibi¬
ted by the Chriftian emperors for many ages afterwards.
The firft ftep towards it appears to have been the prac-
feet, which are made broad and ftrong for that pur- tice of eredting churches over the graves of fome mar-
pofe. Naturalifts fpeak of a kind of urchins in the tyrs in the country, and tranflating the relics of others
illand of Maraguan, which have two entries to their into churches in the city : the next was, allowing kings
buries, one towards the north, the other to the fouth, and emperors to be buried in the atrium or church-
which they open and fhut alternately as the wind hap- porch. In the 6th century, the people began to be ad-
pens to lie. mitted into the church-yards; and fome princes, foun-
Bury, in geography, a market-town of Lancalhire, ders, and bilhops, into the church. From that time
about 30 miles fouth-eaft of Lancafter. W. Long, the matter feems to have been left to the diferetion of
2. 20. N. Lat. 53. 36. the bilhop.
Bury (St Edmund’s), or St Edmunds Bury, the BUSBEC (Auger Gillen, lord of), a perfon illu-
county town of Suffolk, about 12 miles call of New- ftrious on account of his embaffies, was born at Corn-
market, and 70 north-eaft of London. E. Long. o. 45. mines, in the year 1522 ; and educated at the moft fa-
N. Lat. 52. 20.
BURYING, the fame with interment or Burial.
Burying Alive was the punilhment of a veftal who
had violated her vow of virginity. The unhappy
prieftefs was let down into a deep pit, with bread, wa¬
ter, milk, oil, a lamp burning, and a bed to lie on.
But this was only for Ihew ; for the moment Ihe was let
mous univerfities, at Louvain, at Paris, at Venice, at
Bologna, and at Padua. He was engaged in feveral
important employments and negotiations, and particu¬
larly was twice fent embaffador by the king of the Ro¬
mans to the emperor Soliman. He colledled inferip-
tions ; bought manuferipts ; fearched after rare plants;
inquired into the nature of animals ; and, in his fecond
down, they began to call in the earth upon her till the journey to Conftantinople, carried with him a painter,
See the ar-pit was filled up *. Some middle-age writers feem to
icle Vejlals. make burying alive, (defofto), the punilhment of a wo¬
man thief. Lord Bacon gives inftances of the refur-
redlion of perfons who have been buried alive. The fa¬
mous Duns Scotus is of the number; who, having been
feized with a catalepfis, was thought dead, and laid to
fleep among his fathers, but raifed again by his fervant
in whofe abfence he had been buried. Bartholin gives
an account of a woman, who, on recovering from an
apoplexy, could not be convinced but that (he was
dead, and folicited fo long and fo earneftiy to be bu-
that he might be able to communicate to the curious,
the figures, at leaft, of the plants and animals that
were not well known in the weft. He wrote a Dif-
courfe of the date of the Ottoman empire, and a Re¬
lation of his two journeys to Turky, which are much
efteemed. He died in 1592.
BUSBY (Dr Richard), fon of a gentleman in Weft-
minfter, was born at Lutton in Lincolnlhire, in 1606.
He paffed through the claffes in Weftminfter fchool, as
king’s fcholar; and completed his ftudies at Chrift-
church, Oxford. In 1640, be was appointed mailer
ried, that they were forced to comply; and performed of Weftminller fchool; and by his lliill and dilige 
the ceremonies, at leaft in appearance. The famous the difeharge of this important and laborious office, for
emperor Charles V. after his abdication, took it into the fpace of 55 years, bred up the greateft number of
his head to have his burial celebrated ■" ^ —A ~—   
1 his lifetime,
and affifted at it.
BuRYiNG-P/tfre. The ancients buried out of cities
and towns; an mage which we find equally among
Jews, Greeks, and Romans. Among the laft, bury-
eminent men in church and Hate that ever at one time
adorned any age or nation. He was extremely fevere
in his fchool; though he applauded wit in hisfcholars,
even when it refledled on himfelf. This great man, af¬
ter a long and healthy life purchafed by temperance,
Her abbey, where there is a fine monument eredled for
him, with a Latin infeription. He compofed feveral
books for the ufe of his fchool.
BUSH (Paul), the firft bilhop of Briftol, became a
ftudent in the univerfity of Oxford about the year 1513,
ing within the walls was exprefsly prohibited by a law died in 1695, ag£d 89; and was buried in Weftmin
of the 12 tables. The ufual places of interment were 11  *1  -- - £ ‘ -
in the fuburbs and fields, but efpecially by the way-
fides. We have inftances, however, of perfons buried
in the city ; but it was a favour allowed only to a few
of Angular merit in the commonwealth. Plutarch fays,
thofe who had triumphed were indulged in it. Be this and in 1518 took the degree of bachelor of arts. He
as it will, Val. Publicola, and C. Fabricius, are faid afterwards became a brother of the order called bon-
to have had tombs in the forum ; and Cicero adds Tu- boms; of which, after ftudying fome time among the
bertus to the number. Lycurgus allowed his Lacede- friars of St Aullin, (now Wadham college), he was
monians to bury their dead within the city and around ele&ed provincial. In that ftation he lived many years;
their temples, that the youth, being inured to fuch till at length king Henry VIII. being informed of
fpedlacles, might be the lefs terrified with the appre- his great knowledge in divinity and phyfic, made him
henfion of death. Two reafons are alleged why the an- his chaplain, and in 1542 appointed him to the new
cients buried out of cities : the firft, an opinion, that epifcopal fee of Briftol: but having in the reign of Ed-
the fight, touch, or even neighbourhood, of a corpfe ward VI. taken a wife, he was, on the acceffion of
defiled'a man, efpecially a prieft ; whence that rule in Mary, deprived of his dignity, and fpent the remainder
9 H 2 of
Bnfbec
TStifli.
Bufhel
BUS [ 1536 1 BUS
Bnfh. of his life in a private ftation at Briftol, where he died
   in the year 1558, aged 68, and was buried on the
north fide of the choir of the cathedral. Wood fays,
that while he was a ftudent at Oxford, he was num¬
bered among the celebrated poets of that univerfity;
and Pits gives him the charadler of a faithful catholic,
his wanUof chaftity notwithftanding. He wrote,
1. An exhortation to Margaret Burges, wife to John
Burges, clothier, of King’s-wood, in the county of
Wilts. Lond. printed in the reign of Edward VI. 8vo.
2. - Notes on the Pfalms. 3. Treatife in praife of the
crofs. 4. Anfwer to certain queries concerning the a-
bufes of the mafs. Records, 25. 5. Dialogues be¬
tween Chrift and the Virgin Mary. 6. Treatife of
falves and curing remedies. 7. A little treatife in
Englifh, called The extirpation of ignorancy, &c. in
verfe, Lond. by Pinfon, 4'°. 8. Carmina diverfa.
BUSH, a term ufed for feveral (hrubs of the fame
kind growing clofe together : thus we fay, a furze-bujh,
Iramble-bujh, Ike.
Bush is fometimes ufed, in a more general fenfe, for
any afiemblage of thick branches interwoven and mixed
together.
i?«r«/®g'-BusH, that bufh wherein the Lord appeared
to Mofes at the foot of mount Horeb, as he was feed¬
ing his father-in-law’s flocks.
As to the perfpn that appeared in the bulb, the text
fays, “ That the angel of the Lord appeared unto him
in a flame of fire, out,of the middle of thebufti but
whether it was a created angel, fpeaking in the perfon
of Godv orGod himfelf, or (as the moft received opi¬
nion is) the fon of God, has been matter of fome
controverfy among the learned. Thofe who fuppofe it
no more than an angel feem to imply that it would be
a diminution of the majefly of God, to appear upon e-
very occafion, efpecially when he has fuch a number of
celeftial minifters, who may do the bufinefs as well.
But confidering that God is prefent every where, the
notification of his prefence by fome outward fign in one
determinate place, (which is all we mean by his ap¬
pearance), is in our conception lefs laborious (if any¬
thing laborious could be conceived of God) than a de¬
legation of angels upon every turn from heaven, and
feems in the main to illuftrate rather than debafe the
glory of his nature and exiftence. But however this
be, it is plain that the angel here fpoken of was no crea¬
ted being, from the whole context, and efpecially from
his faying, “ I am the Lord God, the Jehovah,” &c.
fince this is not the language of angels, who are always
known to exprefs themfelves in fuch humble terms as
thefe, “ I am fent from God ; I am thy fellow-fer-
vant,” &c. It is a vain pretext to fay, that an angel,
as God’s ambaffador, may fpeak in God’s name and
perfon ; for what ambaflador of any prince ever yet
faid, “ I am the king ?” Since therefore no angel,'
without the guilt of blafphemy, could aflume thefe ti¬
tles ; and fince neither God the Father, nor the Holy
Ghoft, are ever called by the name of angel, i. e. “ mef-
fenger, or perfon fent,” whereas God the Son is called
by the prophet Malachi, (chap. iii. 1.), “ The angel
of the covenantit hence feems to follow, that this
angel of the Lord was God the Son, who might very
properly be called an angel, becaufe in the fulnefs of
time he w'as fent into the world in our flefli, as a mef-
fenger from God, and might therefore make thefe his
temporary apparitions, prefages, and forerunners, as it
were, of his more folemn miffion. II
BUSHEL, a meafure of capacity for dry things, as  !L_
grain, fruits, dry pulfe, &c. containing four pecks, or
eight gallons, or one eighth of a quarter.
A bufliel, by 12 Henry VII. c. 5. is to contain
eight gallons of wheat; the gallon eight pounds of
Troy-weight; the ounce 20 fterlihgs, and the fterling
32 grains or corns of wheat growing in the midft of
the ear.
At Paris, the bufhel is divided into two half-bufhels;
the half bufhel into two quarts ; the quart into two
half quarts ; the half quart into two litrons ; and the
litron into two half litrons. By a fentence of the pro-
voft of the merchants of Paris, the bufhel is to be eight
inches two lines and a half high, and ten inches in dia¬
meter ; the quart four inches nine lines high, and fix
inches nine lines wide ; the half quart four inches three
lines high, and five inches diameter; the litron three
inches and a half high, and three inches ten lines in dia¬
meter. Three bufhels make a mino^; fix, a mine; 12,
a feptier; and 144, a muid. In other parts of France
the bufh^l varies.
Oats are meafured in a double proportion to other
grains ; fo that 24 bufhels of oats make a feptier, and
288 a muid. The bufhel of oats is divided into four
picotins; the picotin into two half quarts, or four li¬
trons. Forfait, four bufhels make one minot, and fix
a feptier ; for coals, eight bufhels make one minot, 16
a mine, and 320 a muid ; for lime, three bufhels make
a minot, and 48 minots a muid.
BUSKIN, a kind of fhoe, fomewhat in manner of a
boot, and adapted to either foot,- and worn by either
fex. This part of drefs, covering both the foot and
mid-leg, was tied underneath the knee ; it was very
rich and fine, and principally ufed on the Rage by ac¬
tors in tragedy. It was of a quadrangular form ; and
the foie was fo thick, as that, by means thereof, men
of the ordinary ftature might be raifed to the pitch and
elevation of the heroes they perfonated. The colour
was generally purple on the liage: herein it was diflin-
guifhed from the fock, worn in comedy, that being on¬
ly a low common fhoe. The bufkin feems to have been
worn, not only by a&ors, but by girls, to raife their '
height ; travellers and hunters alfo made ufe of it, to
defend themfelves from the mire. In claflic authors,
we frequently find the bufkin ufed to fignify tragedy
itfelf, in regard it was a mark of tragedy on the flage.
It is alfo to be underftood for a lofty ftrain, or high
ftyle.
BUSS, in maritime affairs, a fmall fea-vefiel, ufed
by us and the Dutch in the herring-fifhery, commonly
from 48 to 60 tons burden, and fometimes more : a
bufs has two fmall fheds or cabins, one at the prow, and
the other at the ftern ; that at the prow ferves for a
kitchen. Every bufs has a mailer, an affiftant, a male,
and feamen in proportion to the veflel’s bignefs ; the
mailer commands in chief, and without his exprefs or¬
ders the nets cannot be cafl nor taken up ; the aflifl-
ant has the command after him ; and the mate next,
whofe bufinefs is to fee the feamen manage their rigging
in a proper manner, to mind thofe who draw in their
nets, and thofe who kill, gut, and cure the herrings, as
they are taken out of the fea : the feamen do general¬
ly engage for a whole voyage in the lump. The pro-
vifion
BUT
BUT [ 1537 ]
Bufly vlfion which they take on board the buffes, confift
ll commonly in biiket, oat-meal, and dried or fait fifh ;
illtc e1, the crew being content for the reft with what frefti firti
they catch. See Fisheries.
BUSSY. See Rabutin.
BUST, or Busto, in fciilpture, &c. a term ufed
for the figure or portrait of a perfon in relievo, (hew¬
ing only the head, (houlders, and ftomach, the arms
being lopped off: it is ufually placed on a pedeftal or
confole.
BUSTARD, in ornithology. See Otis.
BUSTUARII, in Roman antiquity, gladiators who
fought about the buftum or funeral pile of a perfon of
diftinftion, that the blood which was fpilt might ferve
as a facrifice to the infernal gods, and render them
more propitious to the manes of the deceafed. This cu-
ftom was introduced in the room of the more inhuman
one of facrificing captives at the buftum, or on the
tombs of warriors.
BUSTUARIJE moech/e, according to fome, wo¬
men that were hired to accompany the funeral and la¬
ment the lofs of the deceafed : but others are of opi¬
nion, that they were rather the more common profti-
tutes, that flood among the tombs, graves, and other
fuch lonely places.
BUSTUM, in antiquity, a pyramid or pile of wood,
upon which were anciently placed the-bodies of the de¬
ceafed, in order to be burnt. Some authors fay, that it
was properly called buftum after the burning, quajibene
uftum: that before the burning it was calledand
during the burning, rogus-
The buftum in the Campus Martius was encompaffed
round with white ftone and an iron rail,
BUTCHER, a perfon who (laughters cattle for the
ufe of the table, or who cuts up and retails the fame.
Among the ancient Romans, there were three kinds
of eftabliftied butchers, whofe office it was to furniffi
the city with the neceffary cattle, and to take care of
preparing and vending their flefli. The fuarii provided
hogs; the pecuarii or boarii, other cattle, efpecially
oxen ; and under thefe was a fubordinate clafs, whofe
office was to kill, called lanii, and carnifices. To ex-
_ ercife the office of butcher among the Jews with dex¬
terity, was of more reputation than to underftand the
liberal arts and fciences. They have a book concern¬
ing (hamble-conftitution ; and in cafe of any difficulty,
they apply to fome learned rabbi for advice : nor was
any allowed to praftife this art, without a licence in
form ; which gave the man, upon evidence of his abi¬
lities, a power to kill meat, and others to cat what he
killed; provided he carefully read every week for one
year, and every month the next year, and once a quar¬
ter during his life, the conftitution above mentioned.
We have fome very good laws for the better regulation
and preventing the abufes committed by butchers. A
butcher that fells fwune’s fle(h meafled, or dead of the
murrain, for the firft offence (hall be amerced ; for the
fecond, have the pillory; for the third, be imprifoned,
and make fine ; and for the fourth, abjure the towm.
Butchers not felling meat at reafonable prices, (hall for¬
feit double the value, leviable by warrant of twojuftices
of the peace. No butcher (hall kill any flelh in his
fcalding-houfe, or within the walls of London, on pain
to forfeit for every ox fo killed, 12 d, and for every o-
ther beaft, 8 d. to be divided betwixt the king and the
profecutor. Butdier
BuxcHER-i3zVi, in ornithology. See Lanius. 11
BurcHER-iJmuw, in botany. See Ruscus. -BHt fr-
BUTE, an ifiand lying to the weft of Scotland, be¬
ing feparated from Cowal, a diftrift of Argylefhire, on¬
ly by a narrow channel. In length it is about 18 miles ;
the broadeft part from eaft to weft is about five. Part
of it is rocky and barren ; but from the middle fouth-
wards, the ground is cultivated, and produces peafe,
oats, and barley. Here is a quarry of red ftone, which
the natives have ufed in building a fort and chapel in
the neighbourhood of Rothfay, which is a very ancient
royal burough, head town of the (hire of Bute and A-
ran; but very thinly peopled, and maintained chiefly
by the herring fifhery, with the profits of which all the
rents of this illand are chiefly paid. On the north fide
of Rothfay are the ruins of an ancient fort, with its
draw-bridge, chapel, and barracks. Here are likewife
the remains of fome Danilh towers. The natives are
healthy and induftrious, fpeak the Erfe and the dia¬
led of the Lowlands indifferently, and profefs the Pro-
teftant religion. The ifland is divided into two parifhes,
accommodated with four churches } and belongs chiefly
to the earl of Bute, who poffeffes an elegant feat near
Rothfay. This ifland, with that of Arran, the greater
and leffer Cumbray, and Irxk-niarnoc, form a county
under the name of Bute. This (hire and that of Caith-
nefs fend a member to parliament alternately. The
earl of Bute is admiral of the country, by commiffion
from his majefty; but no way dependent on the lord
high admiral of Scotland : fo that if any maritime cafe
occurs within this jurifdidion, (even crimes of as high
a nature as murder or piracy), his lordfliip, by virtue
of the powers as admiral, isfufficient judge, or he may
delegate his authority to any deputies. The name of
this ifie has by feveral authors, and in different pe¬
riods, been very differently written, as Bote, Both,
Bathe, Boot, but now generally Bute. Our ancient
writers fuppofe that it derived its name from a cell
ere&ed therein by St Brendan, an Irifti abbot who
flourifhed in the b'1' century, becaufe in his language
fuch a cell was called Both. It is, however, probabfe,,
that this name was of greater antiquity, iince we find
it denominated Botis by the anonymous geographer of
Ravenna. It was from very early times part of the pa¬
trimony of the Stewarts: large poffeffions in it were
granted to Sir John Stewart, fon of Robert II. by his
beloved miftrefs Elizabeth More; and it has continued
in that line to the prefent time.
_ BUTEO, in ornithology, the trivial name of a [pe¬
cks of Falco-
BUTLER (Charles), a native of Wycomb in the
county of Bucks, and a mafter of arts in Magdalen
college, Oxford, publifhed a book with this title, “ The
principles of mufik in finging and fetting; with the
two-fold ufe thereof, ecclefiafticall and civil.” Quarto,
London 1636. The author of this book was aperfon
of Angular learning and ingenuity, which he manifefted
in fundry other works enumerated by Wood in the
sdthen. Oxon. Among the reft is an Englifli grammar,
publifhed in 1633, m which he propofes a icheme of
regular orthography, and makes ufe of chara&ers, fome
borrowed from the Saxon, and others of his own in¬
vention, fo lingular, that we want types to exhibit
them: and of this imagined improvement he appears
to»
BUT [ 1538 ] BUT
Tutler. to have been fo fond, that all his tra&s are printed in ferving that he had a ftrong inclination to learning,
 — like manner with his grammar; the confequence where- after his being at a grammar-fchool, fent him to an a-
of has been an almoit general difguft to all that he has cademy in Gloucefterihire, in order to qualify him for
written. His “ Principles of mufic” is, however, a a diffenting minifter; and while there, he wrote fome
very learned, curious, and entertaining book; and, by remarks on Dr Clarke’s firft fermon at Boyle’s le&ure.
the help of the advertifement from the printer to the Afterwards, refolving to conform to the eftablifhed
reader, prefixed to it, explaining the powers of the fe- church, he ftudied at Oriel college, where he contrac-
veral charafters made ufe of by him, may be read to ted an intimate friendfhip with Mr Edward Talbot, fon
great advantage, and may be confidered as a judicious of the bifhop of Durham, and brother to the lord chan-
fupplement to Morley’s introduftion. cellor, who laid the foundation of his fubfequent ad-
Butlek. (Samuel), a celebrated poet of the laft cen- vancement. He was firft appointed preacher at the
tury, was the fon of a reputable Worcefterfliire farmer. Rolls, and reftor of Haughton and Stanhope, two rich
and born in 1612. He puffed fome time at Cambridge,  ' '
but was never matriculated in that univerfity. Return¬
ing to his native country, he lived fome years as clerk
to°a juftice of peace; where he found fufficient time to
benefices in the bilhopric of Durham. Pie quitted the
Rolls in 1726; and publifhed in 8vo a volume of fer-
mons, preached at that chapel. After this he con-
ftantlyrefided at Stanhope, in the regular difcharge of
tpply himfelf to hitlory, poetry, and painting. Being all the duties of his office, till the year 1733, when he
recommended to Elizabeth countefs of Kent, he enjoy¬
ed in her houfe, not only the ufe of all kinds of books,
but the converfation of the great Mr Selden, who of¬
ten employed Butler to write letters, and tranfiate for
him. He lived alfo fome time with Sir Samuel Luke,
a gentleman of an aqcient family in Bedfordlhire, and
a famous commander under Oliver Cromwell; and he
is fuppofed at this time to have wrote, or at leaft to
have planned, his celebratedand under that
charadter to have ridiculed the knight. The poem it-
felf furnifhes this key; where, in the firft canto, Hu-
dibras fays,
“ *Tis fung, there is a valiant tmmaluke
“ In foreign land yclep’d    ——
“ To whom we oft have been compar’d
“ For perfon, parts, addrefs, and beard.”
was called to attend the lord chancellor Talbot as his
chaplain, who gave him a prebend in the church of
Rochefter. In the year 1736,116 was appointed clerk
of the clofet to queen Caroline, whom he attended e-
very day, by her majefty’s fpecial command, from fe-
ven to nine in the evening. In 1738 he was appointed
to the bilhopric of Briftol; and not long afterwards to
the deanry of St Paul’s, London. He now refigned his
living of Stanhope. In the year 1746, he was made
clerk of the clofet to the king; and in 1750, was
tranflated to Durham. This rich perferment he en¬
joyed but a Ihort time; for he died at Bath June 16th,
1752. His corpfe was interred in the cathedral at
Briftol 5 where there is a monument, with an infcrip-
tion, erefted to his memory. He died a batchelor. His
deep learning and comprehenfive mind appear fufficient-
After the reftoration, Mr Butler was made fecretary ly in his writings, particularly in that excellent treatife
to the earl of Carbury, lord-prefident of Wales, who
appointed him fteward of Ludlow caftle, when the court
was rerived there. No one was a more generous friend
to him than the earl of Dorfet and Middlefex, to whom
intitled, The Analogy of religion, natural and revealed,
to the conjlitution and courfe of nature, publilhed in 8vo,
1736.
Butler, the name anciently given to an officer in
it was owing that the court tailed his Hudibras. He the court of France, being the fame as the grand echan-
had promifes of a good place from the earl of Claren¬
don, but they were never accomplilhed; though the
king was fo much pleafed with the poem, as often to
quote it pleafantly in converfation. It is indeed laid,
that Charles ordered him the fum of 3000/.: but the
fum being expreffed in figures, fomebody through whofe
hands the order palled, by cutting off a cipher, redu-
fon, or great cup-bearer of the prefent times.
Butler, in the common acceptation of the word,
is an officer in the houfes of princes and great men,
whofe principal bufinefs is to look after the wine, plate,
See.
BUTLERAGEof wine, is a duty of 2s. for every
ton of wine imported by merchants ftrangers; being a
ced it to 300/. which, though it paffed the offices with- compofition in lieu of the liberties and freedoms gr
out fees, proved not fufficient to pay what he then
owed; fo that Butler was not a Ihilling the better for
the king’s bounty. He died in 1680: and though he
met with many difappointments, was never reduced to
any thing like want, nor did he die in debt.—Mr Gran¬
ger obferves, that Butler “ Hands without rival in bur-
lefque poetry. His Hudibras (fays he) is, in its
kind, almoft as great an effort of genius, as the Para-
dife Loft itfelf. It abounds with uncommon learning,
new rhimes, and original thoughts. Its images are
truly and naturally ridiculous. There are many ftrokes
of temporary fatire, and fome chara&ers and allufions
which cannot be difeovered at this diftance of time.”
Butler (Jofeph), late bilhop of Durham, a prelate
diftinguilhed by his piety and learning, was the young-
eft fon of Mr Thomas Butler, a reputable Ihopkeeper
at Wantage, in Berklhire, where he was born in the
year 1692. His father, who was a prelbyterian, ob-
ed to them by king John and Edward I. by a charter
called chart a mercatoria.
Butlerage was originally the only cuftom that was
payable upon the importation of wines, and was taken
and received by virtue of the regal prerogative, for the
proper ufe of the crown. But for many years part, there
having been granted by parliament fubfidies to the
kings of England, and the duty of butlerage not repeal¬
ed, but confirmed, they have been pleafed to grant the
fame away to fome nobleman, who, by virtue of fuch
grant, is to enjoy the full benefit and advantage there¬
of, and may caufe the fame to be colle&ed in the fame
manner that the kings thcmfelves were formerly wont
to do.
BUTMENT. Butmentsof arches are the fame with
buttreffes. They anfwer to what the Romans call fub-
licas, the French culees and hutees.
Butments, or Abutments, of a bridge, denote the
two
BUT [ .539 ] BUT
Butomus two maffives at the end of a bridge, whereby the two thod of making well-tailed butter from the milk of
II extreme arches are fuftained and joined with the ihore cows fed on turnips. “ Let the bowls, either lead or-
i,utter' on either fide. wood, be kept conilantly clean, and well fcalded with
BUTOMUS, the Flowering-rush, or Water- boiling water before ufing. When the milk is brought
gladiole; a genus of the hexagynia order, belonging to into the dairy, to every eight quarts mix one quart of
the enneandria clafs of plants. Of this there is but one boiling water ; then put up the milk into the bowls to
fpecies, viz. the umbellatus. Of this there are two va- ftand for cream.”
rieties, the one with a white, the other with a rofe-co-
loured, flower. Tho’common plants, thefe are verypret-
ty, and are worth propagating in a garden where there
is conveniency for an artificial bog, or where there are
ponds of (landing water, as is many times the cafe.
Where thefe conveniencies are wanting, they may be
planted in cifterns, which fhould be kept filled with
water, with about a foot thicknefs of earth in the bot¬
tom ; and into this earth the foots ihould be planted,
or the feeds fown as foon as they are ripe.
BUTRINTO, a port-fown of Epirus, or Canina,
Butter is the fat, oily, and inflammable part of the
milk. This kind of oil is naturally diftributed through
all the fubftances of the milk in very fmall particles,
which are interpofed betwixt the cafeous and ferous
parts, amongft which it is fufpended by a flight adhe-
fion but without being diflblved. It is in the fame ftate
in which oil is, in emulfions: hence the fame white-
nefs of milk and emulfions; and hence, by reft, the
oily parts feparate from both thefe liquors to the fur-
face, and form a cream. See Emulsion.
When butter is in the ftate of cream, its proper oily
in Turky in Europe, fituated oppofite to the ifland of parts are not yet fufficiently united together to form
Corfu, at the entrance of the gulph of Venice.
Long. 20. 40. N. Lat. 39. 43.
BUTT, in commerce, a veffel or meafure of wine,
containing two hogfheads, or 126 gallons. See Pipe.
Butt, or Butt-ends, in the fea-ianguage, are the
fore-ends of all planks under water, as they rife, and
are joined one end to another.—Butt-ends in great (hips
are moft carefully bolted; for if any one of them ftiould
fpring or give way, the leak would be very dangerous
and difficult to flop.
Butts, the place where archers meet with their
bows and arrows to (hoot at a mark, which we call
(hooting at the butts.—Alfo butts are the fliort pieces
of land in arable ridges and furrows.
BUTTER, a fat unftuous fubftance, prepared from
milk by heating or churning.
It was late ere the Greeks appear to have had any
notion of butter; their poets make no mention of it,
and yet are frequently fpeaking of milk and cheefe.
The Romans ufed butter no otherwife than as a me¬
dicine, never as a food.
The ancient Chriftians of Egypt burnt butter in
-their lamps inffead of oil; and in the Roman churches,
it was anciently allowed, during Chriftmas time, to
burn butter inftead of oil, on account of the great con-
fumption of it otherwife.
For the making of butter, when it has been churned,
open the churn, and with both hands gather it well to¬
gether, take it out of the butter-milk, and lay it into a
very clean bowl, or earthen pan ; and if the butter be
defigned to be ufed fweet, fill the pan with clear water,
and work the butter in it to and fro, till it is brought
to a firm confiftence of itfelf, without any moifture.
When this has been done, it muft be fcotched and diced
over with the point of a knife, every way as thick as
poffible, in order to fetch out the fmalleft hair, mote,
bit of rag, ftrainer, or any thing that may have hap¬
pened to fall into it. Then fpread it thin in a bowl,
and work it well together, with fuch a quantity of fait
as you think fit, and make it up into difties, pounds,
half pounds, &c.
There are as many forts of butter, as there are dif¬
ferent milks of animals whereof to make it: That of Divers abufes are committed in the packing and falt-
the cow is moft in ufe. The northern people, how- ing of butter, to increafe its bulk and weight, againft
~ which we have a ftatute exprefs. Pots are frequently
an homogeneous mafs. They are ftill half feparated by
the interpofition of a pretty large quantity of ferous
and cafeous particles. The butter is completely formed
by preffing out thefe heterogeneous parts by means of
continued percuffion. It then becomes an uniform foft
mafs.
Frefh butter which has undergone no change, has
fcarcely any fmell; its tafte is mild and agreeable, it
melts with a weak heat, and none of its principles are
difengaged by the heat of boiling water. Thefe pro¬
perties prove that the oily part of butter is of the na¬
ture of the fat, fixed, and mild oils obtained from many
vegetable fubftances by expreffion. See Oils.—The
half fluid confiftence of butter, as of moft other con¬
crete oily matters, is thought to be owing to a con-
fiderable quantity of acid united with the oily part;
but this acid is fo well combined, that it is not fenfible
while the butter is frefli, and has undergone no change;
but when it grows old, and undergoes fome kind of
fermentation, then the acid is difengaged more and
more; and this is the caufe that butter, like oils of the
fame kind, becomes rancid by age.
Butter is conftantly ufed in food, from its agreeable
tafte; but to be wholefome, it muft be very frefh and
free from rancidity, and alfo not fried or burnt; other-
wife its acrid and even cauftic acid, being difengaged,
diforders digeftion, renders it difficult and painful,
exites acrid empyreumatic belchings, and introduces
much acrimony into the blood. Some perfons have
ftomachs fo delicate, that they are even affe&ed with
thefe inconveniences by frefli butter and milk. This
obfervation is alfo applicable to oil, fat, chocolate,
and in general to all oleaginous matters.
The trade in butter is very confiderable. Some com¬
pute 50,000 tons annually confumed in London. It
is chiefly made within 40 miles round the city. Fiftv
thoufand firkins are faid to be fent yearly from Cam¬
bridge and Suffolk alone; each firkin containing 56
pounds. Utoxeter in Staffordfhire is a market famous
for good butter, infomuch that the London merchants
have an eftablifhed fadlory there for butter. It is bought
by the pot, of a long cylindrical form, weighing 141b.
ever, make more ufe of it than others. In the Geor-
gical Effays, Vol. V. p. 209. we have the following me-
tprefs. Pots are frequently
laid with good butter for a little depth at the top, and
with,.
BUT [ 1540 ] BUT
Butter 'cvith bad at the bottom; fometimes the butter is fet in
^ II rolls, only touching at top, and Handing hollow at
riutton' .. bottom. To prevent thefe cheats, the fadtors ar U-
toxeter keep a furveyor, who, in cafe of fufpicion,
tries the pots with an iron inftrument called a butter-
bore, made like a cheefe-tafte, to be ftruck in obliquely
to the bottom.
iS/cwer o/" Butter. Natnralifts fpeak of fhowers
and dews of a butyraceous fubftance. In 1695, there-
fell in Ireland, during the winter and enfuing fpring,
a thick yellow dew, which had the medicinal properties
of butter.
Butter, among chemifts, a name given to feveral
preparations, on account of their confiftence refembling
•StzChem'- that of butter ; as butter of antimony*, &c.
jfry, n0ij8. Butter-5?^, in botany. See Tussilago.
BuTTER-7f//Yf, a kind of ferum that remains be¬
hind, after the butter is made.
BuTTER-YfV/, in botany. See Pinguicula.
BUTTERFLY, the Englifli name of a numerous
genus of infetls. See Papilio.
BuTTERFLY-SYe//, in natural hiftory. See Voluta.
Method of Preferving Butterflies. See Insects.
Edwards's Method ofmaking Pictures s/Butterflies. “ Take
Etijioryof- butterflies, or field-moths, either thofe catched abroad,
Vol or hich as are taken in caterpillars, and nurfed in the
p. ju.’ houfe till they be flies; clip oft' their wings very clofe
to their bodies, and lay them on clean paper, in the
form of a butterfly when flying ; then have ready pre¬
pared gum arabic that hath been fome time difiblved in
water, and is pretty thick; if you put a drop of ox¬
gall into a fpoonful of this, it will be better for the
ufe ; temper them well with your finger, and fpread a
little of it on a piece of thin white paper, big enough
to take both fides of your fly; when it begins to be
clammy under your finger, the paper is in proper order
to take the feathers from the wings of the fly; then
lay the gummed fide on the wings, and it will take
them up; then double your paper fo as to have all the
wings between the paper ; then lay it on a table, pref-
fing it clofe with your fingers ; and you may rub it
gently with fome fmooth hard thing ; then open the
paper and take out the wings, which will come forth
tranfparent: the down of the upper and under fide of
the wings, flicking to the gummed paper, form a juft
likenefs of both fides of the wings in their natural
fhapes and colours. The nicety of taking off flies de¬
pends on a juft degree of moifture of the gum’d paper :
for if it be too wet, all will be blotted and confufed ;
and if too dry, your paper will flick fo fall together,
that it will be torn in feparation. When you have o-
pened your gum’d papers, and they are dry, you muft
draw the bodies from the natural ones, and paint them
in water-colours : you muft take paper that will bear
ink very well for this ufe; for finking paper will fe-
parate with the reft, and fpoil all.”
BUTTER IS, in the menage, an inftrument of fteel,
fitted to a wooden handle, wherewith they pare the
foot, or cut off the hoof of a horfe.
BUTTOCK of a Ship, is that part of her which is
her breadth right aftern, from the tack upwards ; and
a (hip is faid to have a broad or a narrow buttock, ac¬
cording as flie is built broad or narrow at the tranfum.
BUTTON, an article in drefs, whofe form and ufe
are too well known to need defcription. They are
made of various materials, as mohair, filk, horfe-hair, Button,
metal, &c. ~
Method of making common Buttons. Common but¬
tons are generally made of mohair; fome indeed are
made of filk, and others of thread ; but the latter arc
of a very inferior fort. In order to make a button,
the mohair muft be previoufly wound on a bobbin 5
and the mould fixed to a board by means of a bodkin
thruft through the hole in the middle of it. This be¬
ing done, the workman wraps the mohair, round the
mould in three, four, or fix columns, according to the
button.
Horfe-hair Buttons. The moulds of thefe buttons
are covered with a kind of fluff compofed of filk and
hair; the warp being belladine filk, and the fhoot horfe-
hair. This fluff is wove with two felvedges, in the fame
manner and in the fame loom as ribbands. It is then
cut into fquare pieces proportional to the fize of the
button, wrapped round the moulds; and their felvedges
ftitched together, which form the under part of the
button.
Cleanfing of Buttons. A button is not finifhed
when it comes from the maker’s hands; the fuperfluous
hairs and hubs of filk muft be taken off, and the but¬
ton rendered gloffy and beautiful, before it can be fold.
This is done in the following manner. A quantity of
buttons are put into a kind of iron fieve, called by
workmen a fmgeing box. Then a little fpirit of wine
being poured into a kind of (hallow iron di(h, and fet
on fire, the workman moves and (hakes the fingeing
box, containing the buttons, brifldy over the flame of
the fpirit, by which the furperfluous hairs, hubs of filk,
&c. are burnt off, without damaging the buttons.
Great care, however, muft be taken that the buttons
in the fingeing box be kept continually in motion; for
if they are fuffered to reft over the flame, they will im¬
mediately burn. When all thefe loofe hairs, &c. are
burnt off by the flame of the fpirit, the buttons are ta¬
ken out of the fingeing box, and put, with a proper
quantity of the crumbs of bread, into a leather bag,
about three feet long, and of a conical (liape; the mouth
or fmaller end of which being tied up, the workman
takes one of the ends in one hand, and the other in the
other, and (hakes the hand brifldy with a particular
jerk. This operation cleanfes the buttons, renders them
very gloffy, and fit for fale.
Gold-t’wiji Buttons. The mould of thefe buttons
is firft covered in the fame manner with that of common
buttons. This being done, the whole is covered with
a thin plate of gold or filver, and then wrought over
of different forms, with purle and gimp. The former
is a kind of thread compofed of filk and gold-wire
twifted together; and the latter, capillary tubes of
gold or filver, about the tenth of an inch long. Thefe
are joined together by means of a fine needle, filled
with filk, thruft through their apertures, in the fame
manner as beads or bugles.
The manner of making Afe/rr/- B utto n s. The metal
with which the moulds are intended to be covered is
firft caft into fmall ingots, and then flatted into thin
plates or leaves, of the thicknefs intended, pt the flat¬
ting-mills; after which it is cut into fmall round pieces
proportionable to the fize of the mould they are intend¬
ed to cover, by means of proper punches on a block
of wood covered with a thick plate of lead. Each piece
BUT [ 1541 1 B U X
Button, of metal thus cut out of the plate Is reduced Into the
Bnttrefs. form of a button, by beating it fucceffively in feveral
cavities, or concave moulds, of a fpherical form, with
a convex puncheon of iron, always beginning with the
ihalloweft cavity or mould, and proceeding to the deep¬
er, till the plate has acquired the intended form: and
the better to manage fo thin a plate, they form ten,
twelve, and fometimes even twenty-four, to the cavities,
or concave moulds, at once ; often nealing the metal
during the operation, to make it more dudiile. This
plate is generally called by workmen, the cap of the
button.
The form being thus given to the plates, or caps,
they ftrike the intended impreffion on the convex fide,
by means of a fimilar iron puncheon, in a kind of mould
engraven en creux, either by the hammer, or the prefs
ufed in coining. The cavity or mould, wherein the
impreflion is to be made, is of a diameter and depth
fuitable to the fort of button intended to be ftruck in
it; each kind requiring a particular mould. Between
the puncheon and the plate is placed a thin piece of
lead, called by workmen a hob, which greatly contri¬
butes to the taking off all the ftrokes of the engraving;
the lead, by reafon of its foftnefs, eafily giving way to
the parts that have relievo, and as eafily infinuating it-
felf into the traces or indentures.
The plate thus prepared makes the cap or fitell of
the button. The lower part is formed of another plate,
in the fame manner, but much flatter, and without any
impreffion. To the laft or under plate is foldered a
fmall eye made of wire, by which the button is to be
faftened.
The two plates being thus finifhed, they are foldered
together with foft folder, and then turned in a lathe.
Generally indeed they ufe a wooden mould, inftead of
the under plate; and in order to fallen it, they pafs a
thread or gut acrofs, through the middle of the mould,
and fill the cavity between the mould and the cap with
cement, in order to render the button firm and folid;
for the cement entering all the cavities formed by the
relievo of the other fide, fuftains it, prevents its flat¬
tening, and preferves its boffe or defign.
Button, in the menage. Button of the reins of a
bridle, is a ring of leather, with the reins paffed thro’
it, which runs all along the length of the reins. To
put a horfe under the button, is when a horfe is flop¬
ped without a rider upon his back, the reins being laid
on his neck, and the button lowered fo far down that
the reins bring in the horfe’s head, and fix it to the true
pollure or carriage. It is not only the horfes which are
managed in the hand that muft be put under the but¬
ton; for the fame method muft be taken with fuch
horfes as are bred between two pillars, before they are
backed.
Button-/Too*/. See Conocarpus.
Button’s-^/, the name of the north part of Hud-
fon’s bay, in North America, whereby Sir Thomas
Button attempted to find out a north-weft paflage to
the Eaft Indies. It lies between 8o° and too0 weft
longitude, and between 6o° and 66° north latitude.
BUTTRESS, a kind of butment built archwife, or
a mafs of ftone or brick, ferving to prop or fupport the
fides of a building, wall, &c. on the outfide, where it is
either very high, or has any confiderable load to fuftain
on the other fide, as a bank of earth, See.—Buttreffes
Vol. II.
are ufed againft the angles of fleeples and other build- Butzaw,
ings of ftone, &c. on the outfide, and along the walls tjuxtQn'
of fuch buildings as have great and heavy roofs, which
would be fubjeiSl to thruft the walls out, unlefs very
thick, if no buttrefies were placed againft them. They
are alfo placed for a fupport and butment againft the
feet of fome arches, that are turned acrofs great halls
in old palaces, abbeys, &c.
BUTZAW, a town of lower Saxony, in Germany;
it (lands upon the river Varnow, on the road from
Schwerin to Roftock, lying in E. Long. 13. 12. N.
Lat. 54. 50.
BUXTON, a place in the peak of Derbyfhire, ce¬
lebrated for medicinal waters, the hotted in England,
next to Bath, lying in W. Long. o. 20. N. Lat. 53. 20.
It has been always believed by our antiquaries, that
the Romans were acquainted with thefe wells, and had
frequented them much, as there is a military way dill
vifible, called the Bath-gate, from Burgh to this place.
This was verified about 50 years ago, when Sir Thomas
Delves, of Cheftiire, in memory of a cure he received
here, caufed an arch to be ere&ed; in digging the
foundations for which, they came to the remains of a
folid and magnificent ftrudlure of Roman workman-
fhip; and in other places of the neighbourhood, very
capacious leaden veflels, and other utenfils, of Roman
workmanfhip, have been difeovered. Thefe waters have
always been reckoned inferior to thofe in Somerfetftiire;
but feem never to have been totally difufed. They are
mentioned by Leland, as well known 200 years ago;
but it is certain they were brought into greater credit
by Dr Jones in 1572, and by George earl of Shrewf-
bury, who erefted a building over the bath, then com-
pofed of nine fprings. This building was afterwards
pulled down, and a more commodious one ere&ed at
the expence of the earl of Devon (hire. In doing this,
however, the ancient regifter of cures drawn up by the
bath-warden, or phyfician attending the baths, and
fubferibed by the hands of the parties, was loft.
The warm waters of Buxton are, the bath, confift-
ing of nine fprings, as already mentioned, St Ann’s well,
and St Peter’s or Bingham well. St Ann’s well rifes
at- the diftance of fomewhat more than 32 yards north-
eaft from the bath. It is chiefly fupplied from a fpring
on the north fide, out of a rock of black limeftone or
baftard marble. It formerly rofe into a Hone bafon,
ffiut up within an ancient Roman brick wall, a yard
fquare within, a yard high on three fides, and open on
the fourth. But, in 1709, Sir Thomas Delves, as al¬
ready mentioned, eredled an arch over it which ftill
continues. It is 12 feet long, and as many broad, fet
round with {lone fteps on the infide. In the midft of this
dome the water now fprings up into a ftone bafon two
feet fquare. St Peter’s or Bingham well rifes about 20
yards fouth-eaft of St Ann’s. It is alfo called Leigh’s
'well, from a memorable cure received from it by a gen¬
tleman of that name. It rifes out of a black limeftone,
in a very dry ground; and is not fo warm as St Anne’s
well.
This water is alterant and not evacuant. The ufe of
it is to be begun by taking a pint in the forenoon; af¬
ter which, the quantity is to be gradually enlarged.
This water increafes the vital heat; and is ufeful in the
gout, rheumatifm, dry afthma, convulfive diforders, in-
digeftion, lofs of appetite, contractions of the tendons,
9 I &c.
13 U X [ 1542 ] B U X
Buxton. &c. Mr Percival informs usf, that the water of St
rz ZT Anne’s well contains calcareous earth, fofiile alkali, and
fea-falt, though in a very fmall proportion, a gallon
P- S3- of the water yielding only 23 or 24 grains of fediment.
It ftrikes a flight green with fyrup of violets, fuffers no
change from infufion of galls, from tire fixed vegetable
alkali, or from the mineral acids; it becomes milky
with the volatile alkali, and with faccharum faturni;
and lets fall a precipitate on the addition of a few drops
of a folution of fdver in the nitrous acid. The fpecific
gravity of this water is precifely equal to that of rain¬
water when their temperatures are the fame; but it
weighs four grains in a pint lighter when firft; taken
from the fpring, owing to the fuperior degree of
warmth it has at that time. The temperature of the
bath is about 82° of Fahreinheit; that of St Ann’s well,
as it is a fmaller body of water, and expofed to the
open air, is fomewhat lefs. The water is tranfparent,
fparkling, and highly grateful to the palate. From
feme experiments which he made upon himfelf, the
Doftor concludes, that the Buxton waters are of a very
heating quality, and fuggefts the following cautions
with regard to the ufe of them. Small quantities only
fhoutd be drunk at once, and frequently repeated; the
belly Ihould be kept foluble with lenitive ele&uary, or
any other mild purgative; and, at the beginning of the
courfe, the patient may be direfted to fuffer the water
to remain a few feconds in the glafs before he fwallows
it; for this fpring abounds with mephitic air, in which
its ftirmihis, and indeed its efficacy, refides, and which
is quickly diffipated by expofure to the air. From this
property the Du&or fuppofed that this water might be
* See Air, eafily converted into an ufeful chalybeate*; and, at bis
n° ja. defire, Mr Buxton an apothecary near the wells made
the following experiment. “ A quart bottle contain¬
ing two drachms of iron filings yvas filled, by immerfion,
with the water of St Ann’s well, corked and agitated
brifkly under the furface of the water. It was then fuf-
fered to remain in the well till the filings had fubfided,
when the water was carefully decanted into a half-pint
glafs. To this were added three drops of the tinflure
of galls, which immediately occafioned a deep purple
colour; and the tranfparency was quickly reftored by
a few drops of the acid of viti-iol, evident proofs that a
folution -of the iron was effefted in a few minutes. The
water alfo, without the galls, had a chalybeate tafte, and
left an agreeable aftringency upon the palate.”
This method of impregnating the Buxton water with
iron, mull increafe its tonic powers, and in many cafes
improve its virtues. It is a common praftice to join
the ufe of a chalybeate fpring in the neighbourhood of
■St Ann’s well, with that of the Buxton water. But the
fuperiority of this artificial mineral water muft be appa¬
rent, if we confider its agreeable warmth, volatility,
levity, and gratefulnefs to the palate. Buxton-bath is
frequently employed as a temperate cold bath. For, as
the heat of the water is 16 or 18 degrees below that of
the human body, a gentle fhock is produced on the firft
immerfion, the heart and arteries are made to contraft
more powerfully, and the whole fyftem is braced and
invigorated. But this falutary operation mu'ft be great¬
ly diminiffied, often, indeed, more than counterbalan¬
ced, by the relaxing vapours which copioufly exhale
from the bath to which the patients are expofed during
the time of dreffing and undreffing. June 12th 1772,
the mercury in Fahreinheit’s thermometer ftood, in the Buxton,
fhade, at 65°; but in the vault of the bath, quickly
rofe to 78°.
Buxton (Jedediah), a prodigy with refpeft to (kill
in numbers. His father, William Buxtonj was fchool-
mafter of the fame parilh, where he was born in 1704 ;
yet Jedediah’s education was fo much neglefled, that
he was never taught to write ; and with refpt£t to any
other knowledge but that of numbers, feemed always
as ignorant as a boy of ten years of age. How he
came firft to know the relative proportions of numbers,
and their progreffive denominations, he did not remem¬
ber ; but to this he applied the whole force of his mind,
and upon this his attention was conftantly fixed, fo that
he frequently took no cognizance of external obje&s,
and when he did it, it was only with refpeft to their
numbers. If any fpace of time was mentioned, he would
foon after fay it was fo many minutes ; and if any di-
ftance of way, he would affign the number of hair’s-
breadths, without any queftion being alked, or any cal¬
culation expected by the company. When he once un-
derftood a queftion, he began to work with amazing
facility, after his own method, without the ufe of a
pen, pencil, or chalk, or even underftanding the com¬
mon rules of arithmetic as taught in the fchools. A
gentleman alked him the following queftion : Suppofe
a field 423 yards long and 383 wide, what was the area ?
and in two minutes, by the gentleman’s watch, he an-
fwered, 162,009 yards. He then allied him how many
acres the above field meafured ? and in 11 minutes he
anfwered, 33 acres, I rood, 35 perches, 20 yards and
a quarter juft. The gentleman then obferved, that al¬
lowing the diftance between London and York to be 204
miles, he would know how many times a coach-wheel
turned round in that diftance, allowing the wheel’s cir¬
cumference to be fix yard's ? In thirteen minutes, he an¬
fwered 59,840 times. The next propofition was, In a
bin 346 inches long, 255 inches wide, and 94 inches
deep, how many gallons liquid meafure, and whatcom
would it hold ? The anfwer was, 3,454,464 folid
inches, or 1,768,568 half quarters of folid inches, ma¬
king 12,249,872 gallons liquid meafure, or 12,249
gallons, 3 quarts, and 34 and a half inches ; or it will
hold 191 quarters, 3 bulhels, 3 quarterns and a half
quartern, and 34 inches and a half remainder. Again,
fuppofe a canal was to be dug 426 feet long, 263 wide,
and 2 feet and a half deep, how many cubical yards of
earth are to be removed ? After paufing a quarter of an
hour, he anfwered, 10,373 yards 24 feet. He would
ftride over a piece of land or a field, and tell you the
contents of it almoft as exaft as if you had meafured it
by the chain. In this manner he meafured the whole
lordfhip of Elmton, of fome thoufand acres, belonging
to Sir John Rhodes, and brought him the contents, not
only in acres, roods, and perches, but even in fquare
inches. After this, for his own amufement, he reduced
them into fquare hair-breadths, computing 48 to each
fide of the inch. His memory was fo great, that while
refolving a queftion, he could leave off, and refume the
operation again where he left off the next morning, or at
a week, a month, or at feveral months, and proceed
regularly till it was completed. His memory would
doubtlefs have been equally retentive with refpedl to
other objects, if he had attended to other objefts with
equal diligence; but his perpetual application to figures
pre-
Buxton,
Buxtorf.
B U X [ 1543 ] BUY
prevented the fmaileft acquifition of any other know¬
ledge, He was fometimes alked, on his return from
church, whether he remembered the text, or any part
of the fermon, but it never appeared that he brought a-
way one fentence; his mind, upon a clofer examination,
being found to have been bulled, even during divine fer-
vice, in its favourite operation, either dividing fome
time, or fome fpace, into the fmalleft known parts, or
refolvtng fome queftion that had been given him as a
teit of his abilities.
This extraordinary perfon living in laborious pover¬
ty, his life was uniform and obfcure. Time, with re-
fpect to him, changed nothing but his age; nor did the
feafons varyjtis employment, except that in winter he
ufed a flail, and in fummer a ling-hook. In the year
1754, he came to London, where he was introduced
to the royal fociety, who, in order to prove his abili¬
ties, allied him feveral queltions in arithmetic, and he
gave them fuch fatisfadlion, that they difmifled him
with a handfome gratuity. In this vifit to the metro¬
polis the only objedl of his curiolity, except figures,
was his defire to fee the king and royal family; but
they being juft removed to Kenfington, Jedediah was
difappointed. During his refidence in London, he
was taken to fee King Richard III. performed at
Drury-lane playhoufe ; and it was expefted, either
that the novelty and the fplendor of the Ihew would
have fixed him in aftonifhment, or kept his imagina¬
tion in a continual hurry, or that his palfions would,
in fome degree, have been touched by the power of ac¬
tion, if he had not perfe£Uy underftood the dialogue.
But Jedediah’s mind was employed in the playhoufe,
juft as it was employed in every other place. During
the dance, he fixed his attention upon the number of
fteps; he declared, after a fine piece of mulic, that the
innumerable founds produced by the inftruments had
perplexed him beyond meafure; and he attended even
to Mr Garrick, only to count the words that he ut¬
tered, in which he faid he perfedlly fucceeded. Jede¬
diah returned to the place of his birth, where, if his en¬
joyments were few, his wilhes did not feem to be more.
He applied to bis labour, by which he fubfifted with
cheerfulnefs; he regretted nothing that he left behind
him in London ; and it continued to be his opinion, that
a flice of rufty bacon afforded the moft delicious repaft.
BUXTORF (John), a learned profeffor of Hebrew
at Bafil, who, in the 17th century, acquired the higheft
reputation for his knowledge of the Hebrew and Chal¬
dee languages. He died of the plague at Bafil, in 1629,
aged 65. His principal works are, x. A fmall but ex¬
cellent Hebrew grammar 5 the beft edition of which is
that of Leyden in 1701, revifed by Leufden. 2. A
treafure of the Hebrew grammar. 3. An Hebrew con¬
cordance, and feveral Hebrew lexicons. 4. InJUtutio
epiftolaris Hebraic a. 5. De abbreviaturis Hebreeorum,
ilc.
Buxtorf (John), the fon of the former, and a learn¬
ed profeffor of the oriental languages at Bafil, diftin-
guiftied himfelf, like his father, by his knowledge of
the Hebrew language, and his rabbinical learning. He
died at Bafil in 1664, aged 65 years. His principal
works are, 1. His tranflation of the More Nevochim,
and the Cozri. 2. A Chaldee and Syriac lexicon.
An anticritic againft Cappel. 4. A treatife on the
ebrew points and accents, againft the fame Cappel.
BUXUS, the box-tree ; a genus of the tetrandria
order, belonging to the moncecia clafs of plants.
Species. 1. The arborefcens, with oval leaves. 2. The
anguftifolia, or narrow-leaved box. Thefe two forts
grow in great plenty upon Boxhill near Dorking in
Surry in England. Here were formerly large trees of
that kind; but now they are much fewer in number.
There are two or three varieties of the firft fort which
are propagated in gardens; one with yellow, and the
other with white ftriped leaves. Another hath the
tips of the leaves only marked with yellow, and is
called tipped box. 3. The fuffruticofa, dwarf or Dutch
box, commonly ufed for bordering of flower-beds.
Culture. The two firft forts may be railed from
feeds ; and may be alfo propagated by cuttings, which
are to be planted in the autumn in a fhady border. The
beft feafon for removing thefe trees is in October;
though, if care be ufed to take them up with a good
ball of earth, they may be tranfplanted almoft at any
time except the middle of fummer. The dwarf box is
increafed by parting the roots, or planting the flips ;
but as it makes fo great an increafe of itfelf, and fo
eafily parts, it is hardly worth while to plant the flips
that have no roots.
Ufes. The tree or large box is proper to intermix
in clumps of evergreens, &c. where it adds to the va¬
riety of fuoh plantations: they are a very great orna¬
ment to cold and barren foils where few other things
will grow. The dwarf kind of box is ufed for bordering
flower-beds, or other purpofes of that nature; and
for this it far excels any other plant, being fubjefl: to
no injuries from cold or heat. It is of long duration ;
is eafily kept handfome; and, by the firmnefs of its
rooting, keeps the mould in the borders from wafhing
into the gravel walks more effe&ually than any plant
whatever.— Boxwood is extremely hard and fmooth,
and therefore well adapted to the ufe of the turner.
Combs, mathematical inftruments, knife-handles, and
button-moulds, are made of it. It may properly enough
be fubftituted in default of ebony, the yellow alburnum
of which it perfedly refembles. In the Ephemerides
of the curious there is the following account of the ef¬
ficacy of boxwood in making hair grow. “ A young
woman of Gunberg in Lower Silefia, having had a
malignant dyfentery which occafioned the falling off
of all her hair, was advifed by a perfon, fome time af¬
ter her recovery, (as her hair was not likely to grow
again of itfelf, her head being then as bare as the
hand), to wafh it all over with a decoftion of boxwood;
which (he readily did, without the addition of any other
drug. Flair of a chefnut colour grew on her head, as (he
was told it would do; but having ufed no precaution to
fecure her neck and face from the lotion, they became
covered with red hair to fuch a degree, that (he feemed
little different from an ape or a monkey.” Thisdecodtion
has been recommended by fome as a powerful fudorific,
preferable even to guiaacum; but the tafte readily difco-
vers that it wants the qualities of that wood. Neither
the wood nor the leaves of the box-tree at prefent are
ufed for any other medicinal purpofe than the diftilla-
tion of an empyreumatic oil; and an oil of nearly
the fame quality is obtained from almoft every other
wood.
BUYS, a town of Dauphiny in France, fituated on
the borders of Provence. E. Long. 5. 20. N. Lat.
9 I 2 44.
b y n
[ >544 ] B Y R
Buzancois 44. 25.
II BUZANCOIS, a fmall town of Berry in France,
-- yng‘ fituated on the borders of Tourain, in E. Long. 1. 29.
N. Lat. 46. 38.
BUZBACH, a town of Germany, in Wefteravia and
the county of Holmes, on the confines of Hanan. E.
Long. io. 51. N. Lat. 50. 22.
BUZET, a fmall town of France, in Languedoc,
feated on the river Tome, in E. Long. 1. 45. N. Lat.
43’ 47-
BUZZARD, in ornithology, the name of feveral
fpecies of the hawk kind. See Falco.
BYCHOW, a fmall town of Lithuania in Poland,
fituated on the river Nieper, in E. Long. 30. 2. N. Lat.
53. 57.
BY-laws, are laws made obiter, or by the by; fuch
as orders and conftitutions of corporations for the go¬
verning of their members, of court-leets, and courts
baron ; commoners, or inhabitants in vills, &c. made
by common aflent, for the good of thofe that made
them, in particular cafes whereunto the public law doth
not extend; fo-that they bind farther than the common
or ftatute law : guilds and fraternities of trades by
letters patent of incorporation, may likewife make by¬
laws for the better regulation of trade among them-
felves or with others. In Scotland thefe laws are called
laws of birlanv, or burlaw; which are made by neigh¬
bours elected by common confent in the birlaw-courts,
wherein knowledge is taken of complaints betwixt
neighbour and neighbour; which men fo chofen are
judges and arbitrators, and ftyled birlaw-7?icn. And
birlaws, according to Skene, are leges rujlicorum, laws
made by hufbandmen, or townfhips, concerning neigh¬
bourhood among them. — All by-laws are to be reafon-
able, and for the common benefit, not private advantage
of particular perfons, and muft be agreeable to the
public laws in being.
BYNG (George), lord vifcount Torrington, was
the fon of John Byng, Efq; and was born in 1663.
At the age of 15, he went volunteer to fea with the
king’s warrant. His early engagement in this courfe of
life gave him little opportunity of acquiring learning or
cultivating the polite arts; but by his abilities and a£i-
vity as a naval commander he furniihed abundant matter
for the pens of others. After beingTeveral times advan¬
ced, he was in 1702 raifed to the command of theNaf-
fau, a third rate, and was at the taking and burning the
French fleet at Vigo; and the next year he was made
rear-admiral of the red. In 1704, he ferved in the grand
fleet fent into the Mediterranean under Sir Cloudefly
Shovel, as rear-admiral of the red; and it was he who
commanded the fquadron that attacked, cannonaded,
and reduced Gibraltar. He was in the battle of Mala¬
ga, which followed foon after; and for his behaviour
in that aftion queen Anne conferred on him the honour
of knighthood. In 1705, in about two months time,
he took 12 of the enemies larged privateers, with the
Thetis, a French man of war of 44 guns ; and alfo fe¬
veral merchant-(hips, mod of them richly laden. The
number of men taken on board was 2070, and of guns
334. In 1718, he was made admiral and commander
in chief of the fleet; and was fent with a fquadron into
the Mediterranean for the prote&ion of Italy, accord¬
ing to the obligation England was under by treaty a-
gaind the invafion of the Spaniards; who had the year
before furprifed Sardinia, and had this year landed an Byng
army in Sicily. In this expedition he difpatched cap- II
tain Walton in the Canterbury, with five more fhips, in ^rom*
purfuit of fix Spanidi men of war, with galleys, fire-
fliips, bomb-veflels, and dore-fliips, who feparated from
the main fleet, and flood in for the Sicilian ihore. The
captain’s laconic epidle on this occafion is worthy of
notice; which (hewed that fighting was his talent as
well as his admiral’s, and not writing.
“ Sir,
“ We have taken and deflroyed all the Spanifh (hips
“ and veflels which were upon the coafl, as per margin.
Canterbury, off Syracufe, “ I am, &c.
Augud 16th, 1718. G. Walton.”
From the account referred to, it appeared that he
had taken four Spanidi men of war, with a bomb-vef-
fel and a fliip laden with ai ms; and burned four, with
a fire-diip and bomb-veflel. The king made the admiral
an handfome prefent, and fent him plenipotentiary
powers to negociate with the princes and dates of Italy
as there fliould be occafion. He procured the emperor’s
troops free accefs into the fortrefles that dill held out
in Sicily^failed afterwards to Malta, and brought out
the Sicilian gallies, and a (hip belonging to the Turky
company. Soon after he received a gracious letter from
the emperor Charles VI. written with his own hand,
accompanied with a pidlure of his imperial majedy,
fet round with very large diamonds, as a mark of the
grateful fenfe he had of his fervices. It was entirely
owing to his advice and afliflance, that the Germans
retook the city of Medina in 1719, and dedroyed the
fliips that lay in the bafon ; which completed the ruin
of the naval power of Spain. The Spaniards being
much diflrefled, offered to quit Sicily ; but the admiral
declared, that the troops fhould never be fuffered
to quit the ifland till the king of Spain had acceded
to the quadruple alliance. And to his conduct it
was entirely owing that Sicily was fubdued, and
his Catholic majefly forced to accept the terms pre-
fcribed him by the quadruple alliance. After per¬
forming fo many fignal fervices, the king received him
with the mod gracious expreflions of favour and fatis-
fa&ion ; made him rear-admiral of England and trea-
furer of the navy, one of his mod honourable privy-
council, baron Byng of Southill in the county of
Bedford, vifcount Torrington in Devonfhire, and
one of the knights companions of the Bath upon the
revival of that order. In 1727, George II. on his ac-
ceflion to the crown, placed him at the head of his na¬
val affairs, as firff lord commiflioner of the admiralty ;
in which high flation he died January 15th 1733, in
the 70th year of his age, and was buried at Southill in
Bedfordfhire.
Byng (the honourable George), efq. the unhappy
fon of the former, was bred to fea, and rofe to the rank
of admiral of the blue. He gave many proofs of cou¬
rage ; but was at lad (hot, upon a dubious fentence
for negledf of duty, in 1757. See Britain, n° 428.
BYRLAW or Burlaw•Zrrwj- in Scotland. See
By-laws.
BYROM (John), an ingenious poet of Mancheder,
born in 1691. His fir A poetical effay appeared in the
Spectator, n° 603, beginning, “ My time, O ye mufes,
was happily fpent.” which, with two humorous letters,
on dreams, are to be found in the eighth volume. He
was
B Y Z [ 1545 ] B Y Z
Byrrhus was admitted a member of the royal fociety in 1724; before the Argonauts came into thofe feas, and fettled Byzantium
II. and having originally entertained thoughts of pradtifing
Byzantium. pj1yf1C} to which the title of dottor is incident, that was
the appellation by which he was always known : but
reducing himfelf to narrow circumftances by a precipi¬
tate marriage, hefupported himfelf by teaching a new
method of "writing (hort-hand, of his own invention ;
until an eftate devolved to him by the death of an el¬
der brother. He was a man of lively wit; of which,
whenever a favourable opportunity tempted him to in¬
dulge it, he gave many humorous fpecimens. He died in
1763; and a colledtion of his Mifcellaneous poems was
printed at Manchefter, in 2 vols 8T0. 1773.
BYRRHUS, in zoology, a genus of infedls be¬
longing to the order of coleoptera. The feelers are
clavated, pretty folid, and a little comprefled. There
are five fpecies, all of which are to be found on parti¬
cular plants; and principally diftinguithed from one a-
nother by the colour and figure of the elytra, or cru-
ftaceous wing- cafes.
BYSSUS, in botany, a genus of molfes belonging
to the cryptogamia algae. The charadter is taken from
this circumftance, that they are covered with a fimple
capillary filament or down, refembling foftduft. There
are 15 fpecies, all natives of Britain, growing upon rot¬
ten wood, old walls, &C.
Byssus, or Byjfum, a fine thready matter produced
in India, Egypt, and about Elis in Achaia, of which
the richeft apparel was anciently made, efpecially that
wore by the priells both Jewish and Egyptian. Some
interpreters render the Greek £u<r<r@-, which occurs both
in the Old and New Teftament, by fine linen. But
other verfions, as Calvin’s, and the Spanifh printed at
Venice in 1556, explain the word by filk; and yet
byffus mu ft have been different from our Silk, as appears
from a multitude of ancient writers, and particularly
from Jul. Pollux. M. Simon, who renders the word by
fine linen, adds a note to explain it; viz. “ that there was
a fine kind of linen very dear, which the great lords a-
lone wore in this country as well as in Egypt.” This
account agrees perfectly well with that given by Hefy-
chius, as well as what is obferved by Bochart, that the
byffus was a finer kind of linen, which was frequently dyed
of a purple colour. Some authors will have the bySTus to
be the fame with our cotton ; others take it for the li-
numajbejlinum; and others for the lock or bunch of Silky
hair found adhering to the pinna marina, by which it
fallens itfelf to the neighbouring bodies. Authors
ufuallydiftinguifh two forts of byfi'us; that of Elis; and
that of Judaea, which was the fineft. Of this latter
were the prieftly ornaments made. Bonfrerius notes,
that there muft have been two forts of byffus, one finer
than ordinary, by reafon there are two Hebrew words
ufed in Scripture to denote byffus, one of which is al¬
ways ufed in fpeaking of the habit of the prielts, and the
other of that of the Levites.
BYZANTIUM, an ancient city of Thrace, fitu-
ated on the Bofphorus. It was founded, according
to Eufebius, about the 30th Olympiad, while Tul-
lus Hoftilius reigned in Rome. But, according to
Diodorus Siculus, the foundations of this metropolis
were laid in the time of the Argonauts, by one Byfas,
who then reigned in the neighbouring country, and
from whom the city was caWnd. Byzantium. This By-
fas, according to Euftathius, arrived in Thrace a little
there with a colony of Megarenfes. Velleius Patercu¬
lus afcribes the founding of Byzantium to the Milefians,
and Ammianus MarcelHnus to the inhabitants of At¬
tica. Some ancient medals of Byzantium which have
reached our times, bear the name and head of Byfas,
with the prow of a ftu’p on the reverfe. The year after
the deftruftion of Jerufalem by Titus, Byzantium was
reduced to the form of a Roman province. In the year
193 this city took part with Niger againft Severus. It
was ftrongly garrifoned by Niger, as being a place of
the utmoft importance. It was foon after invefted by
Severus; and as he was univerfally hated on account of
his cruelty, the inhabitants defended themfelves with
the greateft refolution. They had been fupplied with
a great number of warlike machines, moft of them in¬
vented and built by Perifcus a native of Nicaea, and
the greateft engineer of his age. For a long time they
baffled all the attempts of the affailants, killed great
numbers of them, crufhed fuch as approached the walls
with large ftones ; and when ftones began to fail, they
ufed the ftatues of their gods and heroes. At laft they
were obliged to fubmit, through famine, after having
been reduced to the neceffity of devouring one another.
The conqueror put all the magiftrates and foldiers to
the fvvord ; but fpared the engineer Perifcus. Before
this fiege, Byzantium was the greateft, moft populous,
and wealthieft city of Thrace. It was furrounded by
walls of an extraordinary height and breadth; and de¬
fended by a great number of towers, feven of which
were built with fuch art, that the lead noife heard in
one of them was immediately conveyed to all the reft.
Severus, however, no fooner became mafter of it, than
he commanded it to be laid in aflies. The inhabitants
were ftripped of all their effeds, publicly fold for flaves,
and the walls levelled with the ground. But by the
chronicle of Alexandria we are informed, that foon af¬
ter this terrible cataftrophe, Severus himfelf caufed a
great part of the city to be rebuilt, calling it Antonina,
from his fon Caracalla, who affumed the furname of
Antoninus. In 262, the tyrant Gallienus wreaked his
fury on the inhabitants of Byzantium. He intended
to befiege it; but on his arrival, defpaired of being able
to make himfelf mafter of fuch a ftrong place. He was
admitted the next day, however, into the city; and with¬
out any regard to the terms he had agreed to, caufed
the foldiers and all the inhabitants to be put to the
fword. Trebellius Pollio fays, that not a fingle per-
fon was left alive. What the reafon was for fuch an
extraordinary maffacre, we are no where informed. In
the wars between the emperors Licinius and Maximin,
the city of Byzantium was obliged to fubmit to the
latter, but was foon after recovered by Licinius. In
the year 323, it was taken from Licinius byConftan-
tine the Great, who, in 330, enlarged and beautified
it, with a defign to make it the fecond, if not the firflr
city in the Roman empire. He began with extending
the walls of the ancient city from fea to fea ; and while
fome of the workmen were bufied in rearing them, o-
thers were employed in raifing within them a great
number of {lately buildings, and among others a palace
no way inferior in magnificence and extent to that of
Rome. He built a capitol and amphitheatre, made a
circus maximus, feveral forums, porticoes, and public
baths. He divided the whole city into 14 regions, and
granted
BUY [ 1546 ] B Z G
Ikiunt'um. granted the Inhabitants many privileges andinwaunlties,
'"■—■— Jjy this means Byzantium became one of the mod flou-
yifhing and populous, cities of the empire. Vad num¬
bers of people flocked thither from Pontus, Thrace, and
Afia> Coniiantine having by a law, enafted this year
(330), decreed, that fuch as had lands in thofe coun¬
tries (hould not be at liberty to difpofe of them, nor
even leave them to their proper heirs at their death, un-
lefs they had an houfe in his new city. But however
defirous the emperor was that his city {hould he filled
with people, he did not care that it {hould he inhabi¬
ted by any but Chriftians. He therefore caufed all the
idols to be pulled down, and all their churches confe-
crated to the true God. He built befides an incredible
number of churches, and caufed crofies to be ere&edin
all the fquares and public places, Jvloft of the build*
ings being finifhed, it was folemnly dedicated to the
Virgin Mary, according to Cedrenus, but, according
to Liufebius, to the God of martyr?. Atuhe fame time
Byzantium was equalled to Rome, The fame rights, Bzov
immunities, and privileges, were granted to its inhabi- ~™
tams as to thofe of the metropolis, pie eftabliflied a
fenateand other magiftrates, with a power and autho¬
rity equal to thofe of Old Rome. He took up his re-
fidence in the new city; and changed its name to Con¬
stantinople, which it has ever fince retained.
BZOVIUS (Abraham), one of the moft celebrated
writers in the X7th century, with refpeft to the aito-
nifliing number of pieces compofed by him. .His chief
work is the continuation of Baronius’s annals. He was
a native of Poland, and a Dominican friar. Upon hia
coming to Rome, he was received with open arms by the
Pope, and had an apartment affigned him in the Vati¬
can. He merited that reception, for he has imitated
Baronins to admiration in his defign of making all
things confpire to the defpotic power and glory of the
papal fee. He died in {637, aged 70.
END OF T H E
SECOND VOLUME.
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Directions for placing the Plates in this Volume.
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4th XLII.
5th XLII.
6th XLII.
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XLV.
XLVI.
XL VII.
XLVIII.
XLIX.
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2d L.
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73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
Plate LII.
LIII.
LIV.
LV.
LVI.
LVII.
LVIU.
LIX.
LX.
LXI.
LX 11.
LXIII.
LXIV.
LXV.
LX VI.
To face page 850
968
1198
1218
1280
1292
I294
1296
1298
1392
*532
AT. B. Errata, Omissions, See. noticed and fupplied in the APPENDIX.